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CncpclopeUta Untaumca
OR, A
DICTIONARY
OF
ARTS, SCIENCES, AND MISCELLANEOUS
LITERATURE;
ENLARGED AND IMPROVED.
THE FIFTH EDITION.
JRtWtrateo UJitf) nearly stir fjunOceti CngcaWngs.
VOL. XIII.
INDOCTI DISCANT; AMENT MEMINISSE PERITI.
EDINBURGH :
Printed at the Encyclopaedia Press,
FOR ARCHIBALD CONSTABLE AND COMPANY, AND THOMSON BONAR, EDINBURGH:
GALE, CURTIS, AND FENNER, LONDON ; AND THOMAS WILSON
AND SONS, YORK.
1815.
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Encyclopedia Britannica.
MAT
'Material,
Btfaterial-
ifts.
MATERIAL, denotes fomething compofed of
matter. In which fenfe the word Hands
oppofed to immaterial See Matter and Meta¬
physics.
1 LRIALISTS, a feft in the ancient church,
compofed of perfons who, being prepoffeffed with that
maxim in the ancient philofophy, Ex nihilo nihiljit.
Out of nothing nothing can arife,” had recourfe to an
internal matter, on which they fuppofed God wrought
in the creation ; inftead of admitting God alone as the
foie caufe of the exiftence of all tilings. Tertullian vi-
M A T
goroufly oppofes the dodrine of the materialifls in his Material-
treatife againft Hermogenes, who was one of their ifts-
number.
Materialists is alfo a name given to thofe who
maintain that the foul of man is material $ or that the
principle of perception and thought is not a fubftance
diftinft from the body, but the refult of corporeal orga¬
nization : See Metaphysics. There are others, call¬
ed by this name, who have maintained that there is
nothing but matter in the univerfe j and that the Deity
himfelf is material. See Spinoza.
MATHEMATICS.
Definition TV/fA I HEMATICS is divided into two kinds,
e mathe- ancj mixed. In pure mathematics magnitude is
confidered in the abftraH $ and as they are founded on
the. fimpleft notions of quantity, the conclulions to
which they lead have the fame evidence and certainty
as the elementary principles from which thefe conclu¬
lions are deduced. I his branch of mathematics com¬
prehends, i. Arithmetic, which treats of the properties
of numbers. 2. Geometry, which treats of extcnfion as
endowed with three dimenfions, length, breadth, and
thicknefs, without confidering the phyfical qualities
infeparable from bodies in their natural ftate. 3. Al¬
gebra, fometimes called univerfal arithmetic, which
compares together all kinds of quantities, whatever be
their value. 4. 1 he direB and inverfe method of F/ux-
ions, (called on the continent, the differential and inte-'
gral calculi f which confider magnitudes as divided in¬
to two kinds, eonftant and variable, the variable magni¬
tudes being generated by motion ; and which deter¬
mines the value of quantities from the velocities of the
motions with which they are generated. Mixed Mathe¬
matics is the application of pure mathematics to certain
elfablithed phylical principles, and comprehends all the
phyfico-mathematical fciences, namely, 1. Mechanics ;
2. Hydrodynamics; 3. Optics; 4. Afronomy; 5. A-
coufics ; 6. EleBricity ; and, *]. Magnetifm. The hi-
Hoiy of thefe various branches of fcience having been
given at full length, we {hall at prefent direft the at¬
tention of the reader to the origin and progrefs of pure
mathematics.
2. In attempting to difcovcr the origin of arithmetic
Vol. XIII. Part I.
and geometry, it would be a fruitlefs talk to conduct
the reader into thofe ages of fable which preceded the
records of authentic hiftory. Our means of informa¬
tion upon this fubjeft are extremely limited and im-
perfeft j and it would but ill accord with the dignity
of a fcience whofe principles and conclufions are alike
irrefiftible, to found its hiftory upon conjecture and
fable. But notwithftanding this obfcurity in which The fci-
the early hiftory of the fciences is enveloped, one thing ences origl-
appears certain, that arithmetic and geometry, and fomenatec^
of the phyfical fciences, had made confiderable progrefs
in Egypt, when the myfteries and the theology of that
favoured kingdom were tranfplamed into Greece. It
is highly probable that much natural and moral know¬
ledge was taught in the Eleufinian and Dionyfian my¬
fteries, which the Greeks borrowed from the Egyptians,
and that feveral of the Grecian philofophers were in¬
duced by this circumftance to travel into Egypt, in
fearch of thofe higher degrees of knowledge, which an
acquaintance with the Egyptian myfteries had taught
them to anticipate. We accordingly find Thales and a C. 640.
Pythagoras fucceflively under the tuition of the Egyp- A. C. 590.
tian pricfts, and returning into Greece loaded with the
intellectual treafures of Egypt. By the eftablilhment
of the Ionian fchool at Miletus, Thales inftruCled his Difcove^
countrymen in the knowledge which he had received, of Thales,
and gave birth to that fpirit of inveftigation and dif-
covery with which his followers were infpired. He
taught them the method of afcertaining the height of
the pyramids of Memphis by the length of their
fhadows •, and there is reafon to believe that he was the
A firft
MATHEMATICS.
firft wlio employed tKe circumference of a circle for the
menluration of angles. That he was the author of
greater difcoveries, which have been either loft or a-
fcribed to others, there can be little doubt j but thefe
are the only fails in the hiftory of Thales which time
has fpared.
Difcoveries 3. The fcience of arithmetic was one of the chief
of Pythago-branches of the Pythagorean difcipline. Pythagoras
-as' attached feveral myfterious virtues to certain combina¬
tions of numbers. He fwore by four, which he regard¬
ed as the chief of numbers. In the number three he
fuppofed many wonderful properties to exift } and he
regarded a knowledge of arithmetic as the chief good.
But of all Pythagoras’s difcoveries in arithmetic, none
have reached our times but his multiplication table. In
geometry, however, the philofopher of Samos feems to
have been more fuccefsful. The difcovery of the ce¬
lebrated propofition which forms the 47th of the firft.
book of Euclid’s Elements, that in every right-angled
triangle the fquare of the fide fubtending the right
angle is equal to the fum of the fquares of the other
two Tides, has immortalized his name j and whether we
confider the inherent beauty of the propofition, or the
extent of its application in the mathematical fciences,
we cannot fail to clafs it among the moft important
truths in geometry. From this propofition its author
concluded that the diagonal of a fquare is incommen-
fuiate to its fide $ and thus gave occafion to the dif¬
covery of feveral general properties of other incom-
menfurate lines and numbers.
4. In the time which elapfed between the birth of Py¬
thagoras and the deftrudlion of the Alexandrian fchool,
the mathematical fciences were cultivated with great ar¬
dour and fuccefs. Many of the elementary propolitions of
geometry were difcovered during this period ; but hi¬
ftory does not enable us to refer each difcovery to its
proper author. The method of letting fall a perpendi¬
cular upon a right line from a given point (Euclid, B. I.
prop, xi.) ;—of dividing an angle into two equal parts,
(Euclid, B. I. prop, ix.) *, and of making an angle equal
to a given angle, (Euclid B. I. prop, xxiii.) were in-
Difcovcries vented by Oenopidus of Chios. About the fame time
»f Oenopi- Zenodorus, feme of whofe writings have been preferved
dus andZe-ky Theon in his commentary on Ptolemy, demonftrated,
r.o orus. 0pp0fitj0n to t]ie 0plnion then entertained, that ifo-
perimetrical figures have equal areas. Coeval with this
difcovery was the theory of regular bodies, for which
we are indebted to the Pythagorean fchool.
The cele- 5. About this time the celebrated problem of the du¬
brated pro- plication of the cube began to occupy the attention of
blem of thethe Greek geometers. In this problem it was required
of the^ube to conftruCt a cube whofe folid content fliould be
propofed double that of a given cube ; and the afliftance of no
and invefti-other inftrument but the rule and compafies was to be
gated. employed. The origin of this problem has been a-
fcribed by tradition to a demand of one of the Grecian
deities.. The Athenians having offered fome affront to
Apollo, were affli&ed with a dreadful peftilence 5 and
upon confulting the oracle at Delos, received for an-
fwer, Double the altar of Apollo. The altar alluded to
happened to be cubical; and the problem, fuppofed to
be of divine origin, was inveftigated with ardour by the
Greek geometers, though it afterwards baffled all their
acutenefs. The folution of this difficulty was attempt-
A. C. 450. ed by Hippocrates of Chios. He difcovered, that if
3
two mean proportionals could be found between the
fide of the given cube, and the double of that fide, the
firft of thefe proportionals would be the fide of the
cube fought. In order to effedl this, Plato invented an
inftrument compofed of two rules, one of which moved
in grooves cut in twro arms at right angles to the
other, fo as always to continue parallel with it j but as
this method was mechanical, and likewife fuppofed the
defcription of a curve of the third order, it did not fa-
tisfy the ancient geometers. The dodlrine of conic Conic-fec-
fedlions, which was at this time introduced into geo-tions difco-
metry by Plato, and which was fo widely extended as vered by
to receive the name of the higher geometry, was fuccefs-^ q'
fully employed in the problem of doubling the cube.
Menechmus found that the two mean proportionals men¬
tioned by Hippocrates, might be confidered as the ordi¬
nates of two conic fedlions, which being conftrudled ac¬
cording to the conditions of the problem, would interfedl
one another in two points proper for the folution of the
problem. The queftion having affumed this form, gave
rife to the theory of geometrical loci, of which fo many
important applications have been made. In doubling
the cube, therefore, we have only to employ the inftru-
ments which have been invented for defcribing the
conic feel ions by one continued motion. It was after¬
wards found, that inftead of employing two conic fec-
tions, the problem could be folved by the interfedlion of
the circle of the parabola. Succeeding geometers em¬
ployed other curves for this purpofe, fuch as the con- A., C. 2 So.
choid of Nicomedes and the ciffoid of Diodes, &c. A.. C. 460.
An ingenious method of finding the two mean propor¬
tionals, without the aid of the conic feftions, was after- A. D. 400.
W'ards given by Pappus in his mathematical colledlions.
6. Another celebrated problem, to trifefl an angle, The trifec-
was agitated in the fchool of Plato. It was found that this b011 °f an
problem depended upon principles analogous to thofe of an^e'
the duplication of the cube, and that it could be con-
ftruded either by the interfedion of two conic fedions,
or by the interfedion of a circle with a parabola.
Without the aid of the conic fedions, it was reduced to
this fimple propofition :—To draw a line to a femicircle
from a given point, which line fhall cut its circumfer¬
ence, and the prolongation of the diameter that form*
its bafe, fo that the part of the line comprehended be¬
tween the two points of interfedion fhall be equal to
the radius. From this propofition feveral eafy conftruc-
tions may be derived. Dinoftratus of the Platonic
fchool, and the cotemporary of Menechmus, invented a
curve by which the preceding problem might be folved.
It had the advantage alfo of giving the multiplication of
an angle, and the quadrature of the circle, from which
it derived the name of quadratrix.
7. While Hippocrates of Chios was paving the way for Hippe-
the method of doubling the cube, which was afterwards crates’s
given by Pappus, he diftinguifhed himfelf by the qua-
drature of the lunulae of the circle ; and had from this
circumftance the honour of being the firft who found a
curvilineal area equal to a fpace bounded by right lines.
He w7as likewife the author of Elements of Geometry,
a work, which, though highly approved of by his co¬
temporaries, has fhared the fame fate with fome of the
moft valuable produdions of antiquity.
8. After the conic fedions had been introduced into
geometry by Plato, they received many important ad¬
ditions from Euxodus, Menechmus, and Arifteus. The
latter
3
MATHEMATICS.
A. C. 380. latter of tliefe philofopliers wrote five books on conic fec-
tions, which, unfortunately for fcience, have not reached
A. C. 300. our
Elements of g. About this time appeared Euclid’s Elements of
Eudul. Geometry, a work which has been employed for 2000
years in teaching the principles of mathematics, and
which is ftill reckoned the moll complete work upon the
fubjeft. Peter Ramus has aferibed to Theon both the pro-
pofitions and the demondrations in Euclid. It has been
the opinion of others that the proportions belong to
Euclid, and the demonftrations to Theon, while others
have given to Euclid the honour of both. It fee ms moll
probable, however, that Euclid merely colleded and ar¬
ranged the geometrical knowledge of the ancients, and
that he fupplied many new proportions in order to form
that chain of reafoning which runs through his ele¬
ments. This great work of the Greek geometer con-
lifts of ftfteen books : the eleven ftrft books contain the
elements of pure geometry, and the reft contain the
general theory of ratios, and the leading properties of
commenfurate and incommenfurate numbers.
Dlfcoveries 10- Archimedes, the greateft geometer among the an-
Archi- cients, flourifhed about half a century after Euclid,
inetles. pje was the ftrft who found the ratio between the dia-
A. C. J50. meter 0f a circle and its circumference 5 and, by a me¬
thod of approximation, he determined this ratio to be as
7 to 22. This refult was obtained by taking an arithmeti¬
cal mean between the perimeters of the inferibed and
circumfcribed polygon, and is fufficiently accurate for
every pra&ical purpofe. Many attempts have ftnee
been made to aflign the precife ratio of the circumfer¬
ence of a circle to its diameter *, but in the prefent ftate
of geometry this problem does not feem to admit of a
folution. The limits of this article will not permit us
to enlarge upon the difeoveries of the philofopher of
Syracufe. We can only ftate, that he difeovered the
fuperftcies of a fphere to be equal to the convex furface
of the circumfcribed cylinder, or to the area of four of
its great circles, and that the folidity of the fphere is
to that of the cylinder as 3 to 2. He difeovered that
the folidity of the paraboloid is one half that of the cir¬
cumfcribed cylinder, and that the area of the parabola
is two thirds that of the eircumfcribed re&angle *, and
he was the ftrft who pointed out the method of drawing
tangents and forming fpirals. Thefe difeoveries are
contained in his works on the dimenfton of the circle,
on the fphere and cylinder, on conoids and fpheroids,
and on fpiral lines. Archimedes was fo fond of his
difeovery of the proportion between the folidity of the
fphere and that of the cylinder, that he ordered to be
placed upon his tomb a fphere inferibed in a cylinder,
and likewife the numbers which exprefs the ratio of
thefe folids.
Hifcoveries u. While geometry was thus advancing with fuch
. AP0ll°- rapid fteps, Apollonius Pergaeus, fo called from being
A^C 20c b°rn at Perga in Pamphylia, followed in the fteps of
Archimedes, and Avidely extended the boundaries of
the fcience. In addition to feveral mathematical works,
which are now loft, Apollonius wrote a treatife on the
theory of the conic fettions, which contains all their
properties with relation to their axes, their diameters,
and their tangents. He demonftrated the celebrated
theorem, that the parallelogram deferibed about the
two conjugate diameters of an ellipfe or hyperbola is
equal to the rectangle deferibed round the two axes,
and that the fum or difference of the fquares of the two
conjugate diameters are equal to the fum or difference
of the fquares of the two axes. In his fifth book he de¬
termines the greateft and the leaft lines that can be
drawn to the circumferences of the conic fe&ions from
a given point, whether this point is fituated in or out
of the axis. This work, which contains every where
the deepeft marks of an inventive genius, procured for
its author the appellation of the Great Geo?neter.
12. There is fome reafon to believe, that the Egyp-Mcnelaus
tians were a little acquainted with plane trigonometry 5
and there can be no doubt that it was known to the
Greeks. Spherical trigonometry, Avhich is a more difficult a. D. 55.
part of geometry, does not feem to have made any pro-
grefs till the time of Menelaus, an excellent geometri¬
cian and aftronomer. In his work on fpherical triangles,
he gives the method of conftrufting them, and of refolv-
ing moft of the cafes wffiich were neceffary in the an¬
cient aftronomy. An introduction to fpherical trigonome- Theodo-
try had already been given to the world by Theodofius'ftus s ^IC"
in his Treatife on Spherics, where he examines the ^ ‘c
relative properties of different circles formed by cutting
a fphere in all directions.
13. Though the Greeks had made great progrefs in Progrefs of
the fcience of geometry, they do not feem to haveanabfts-
hitherto conftdered quantity in its general or abftraCt
ftate. In the writings of Plato wTe can difeover fome-
thing like traces of geometrical analyfis; and in the
feventh propofitien of Archimedes’s work on the fphere
and the cylinder, thefe traces are more diftinftly mark¬
ed. He reafons about unknown magnitudes as if they
were known, and he finally arrives at an analogy, which,
■when put into the language of algebra, gives an equa¬
tion of the third degree, which leads to the folution of
the problem.
14. It was referved, however, for Diophantus to lay The analy-
the foundation of the modem analyfis, by his invention
of the analyfis of indeterminate problems •, for the me- probiems
thod which he employed in the refolution of thefe pro- invented by
blems has a ftriking analogy to the prefent mode of re- Diophan-
folving equations of the iff and 2d degrees. He was^s-
likewife the author of thirteen books on arithmetic, fe- ‘ •’^c‘
veral of which are now loft. The works of Diophantus
were honoured with a commentary by the beautiful and
learned Hypatia, the daughter of Theon. The fame a. D. 410.
fanaticifm which led to the murder of this aceompliftied
female was probably the caufe that her works have not
defeended to pofterity.
15. Near the end of the fourth century of the Chriftian Mathema-
era, Pappus of Alexandria publiffied his mathematical c<^ec*
collections, a work which, befides many new propofi-
tions of his own, contains the moft valuable productions
of ancient geometry. Out of the eight books of which 400*
this work confifted, two have been lofty the reft are oc¬
cupied with queftions in geometry, aftronomy, and me¬
chanics.
16. Diodes, whom we have already had occafion to Difcovene*
mention as the inventor of the ciffoid, difeovered the folu- o!~ •^^oc^cs»
tion of a problem propofed by Archimedes, viz. to cut
a fphere by a plane in a given ratio. The folution of
Diodes has been conveyed to us by Eutocius, who
wrote commentaries on fome of the works of Archi¬
medes and Apollonius, A. D. 5 20. About the time
A 2 of
4 MATHEMATICS.
and Sere- of Diodes flour idled Serenus, wlio wrote two books on
I1US> the cylinder and cone, which have been publilhed at
the end of Halley’s edition of Apollonius.
Labours of 17. Geometry was likewife indebted to Proclus, the
Proelus. head of the Platonic fchool at Athens, not only for his pa-
- .D. 500. tronage of men of fcience, but his commentary on the
firlt book of Euclid. Mathematics were alfo cultivated
by Marinus, the author of the Introduction to Euclid’s
Data ",—by Ilidorus of Miletus, who was a difciple of
Proclus, and by Hero the younger, whofe work, en¬
titled Geodefia, contains the method of determining the
area of a triangle from its three lides.
Deftrudlion I^* ^^ile the mathematical fciences were thus flou-
of Liic a- rilhing in Greece, and were fo fuccefsfully cultivated by
Icxandrian the philofophers of the Alexandrian fchool, their very
library. exiitence was threatened by one of thofe great revolu¬
tions with which the world has been convulfed. The
dreadful ravages which were committed by the fuccef-
fors of Mahomet in Egypt, Perfia, and Syria, the de-
ftru&ion of the Alexandrian library by the caliph
Omar, and the difperfion of a number of thofe illuftrious
men who had Hocked to Alexandria as the cultivators
of fcience, gave a deadly blow to the progress of geo-
Revival of metry. When the fanaticifm of the Mahometan reli-
faence. gion, however, had fubfided, and the termination of
war had turned the minds of the Arabs to the purfuits
of peace, the arts and fciences engaged their affeftion,
and they began to kindle thofe very intellectual lights
which they had fo afliduoufly endeavoured to extinguilh.
The works of the Greek geometers were ftudied with
care ; and the arts and fciences reviving under the auf-
pices of the Arabs, were communicated in a more ad¬
vanced condition to the other nations of the world.
19. The fyflem of arithmetical notation at prefent a-
dopted in every civilised country, had its origin among
A. D. 960. the Arabs. Their fyftem of arithmetic was made known
to Europe by the famous Gerbert, afterwards Pope Syl-
vefter II. who travelled into Spain when it was under
the dominion of that nation.
20. The invention of algebra has been afcribed to the
Arabs by Cardan and Wallis, from the circumftance of
their ufing the words fquare, cube, quadrato-quadra-
tum, &c. inflead of the 2d, 3d, 4th, &c. powers as
employed by Diophantus. But whatever truth there
may be in this fuppofition, it appears that they were
able to refolve cubic, and even biquadratic equations,
as there is in the Leyden library, an Arabic MS. en¬
titled “ The Algebra of Cubic Equations, or the Solu¬
tion of Solid Problems.”
Progrefs of 21. The various works of the Greek geometers were
the Arabs tranflated by the Arabs, and it is through the medium
in geomc- 0p an Arabic verfion, that the Hfth and lixth books of
Apollonius have defcended to our times. Mahomet Ben
Mufa, the author of a work on Plane, and Spherical
Figures, and Geber Ben Aphla, who wrote a commen¬
tary on Plato, gave a new form to the plane and fpheri-
cal trigonometry of the ancients. By reducing the
theory of triangles to a few propofitions, and by fubfti-
tuting, inftead of the chords of double arcs, the fines of
the arcs themfelves, they fimplified this important branch
of geometry, and contributed greatly to the abridge¬
ment of aftronomical calculation. A treatife on the
art of furveying was likewife Avritten by Mahomet of
Bagdad.
22. After the deftrucHon of the Alexandrian fchool
1
founded by Lagus, one of the fucceffors of Alexander,
the difperfed Greeks continued for a while to cultivate
their favourite fciences, and exhibited fome marks of
that genius which had infpired their forefathers. The Mofcho-
magic fquares were invented by Mofchopulos, a difco- Pulos’s di£-
very more remarkable for its ingenuity than for itscoveryof
praftical ufe. The fame fubject was afterwards treated
by Cornelius Agnppa in his work on occult philofo- 4
phy ; by Bachet de Meziriac, a learned algebraift,
about the beginning of the 17th century, and in later
times by Frenicle de Beffi, M. Poignard of Bruflels, De
la Hire, and Sauveur,
23. The fcience of pure mathematics advanced with a Ai£ebraini
doubtful pace during the 13th, 14th, and 15th centu-troduced
ries. I he algebra of the Arabians was introduced in- ‘nt0 Italy
to Italy by Leonard of Pifa, who, in the courfe of his by Leonar!!
commercial fpeculations in the call, had confiderable
intercourfe with the Arabs. A work on the Plani- ’ *
fphere, and ten books on arithmetic, were Avritten by
Jordanus Nemorarius. The Elements of Euclid were A D. 1230.
tranflated by Campanus of Novara. A work on alge-A. d! 125c.*
bra, entitled Sutnma de Arithmetica, Geometria, Proper-
tione et Proportiona/itate, was publifhed by Lucas Pac-
cioli; and about the fame time appeared Regiomonta¬
nus’s treatife on trigonometry, which contains the me¬
thod of refolving fpherical triangles in general, when a. D. 140/,
the three angles or three fides are knoivn.
24. During the 16th century, algebra and geometry
advanced with rapidity, and received many new difeo-
veries from the Italian philofophers. The formula for A.D. 150-.
the folution of equations of the third degree was dif-A.d! 1535*
covered by Scipio Ferrei profeffor of mathematics at
Bologna, and perhaps by Nicholas Tartalea of Brefcia;
and equations of the fourth order were refolved by
LeAvis Ferrari, the difciple of Hieronymus Cardan of
Bononia. This laft mathematician publifhed nine books
of arithmetic in 1539 > and in I545 he added a tenth,
containing the do&rine of cubic equations which he
had received in fecrefiy from Tartalea, but Avhich he
had fo improved as to render them in fome meafure his
own. The common rule for folving cubic equations
flill goes by the name of Cardan’s Rule.
25. The irreducible cafe in cubic equations was fuccefs- Difcoverlte
fully illuftrated by Raphael Bombelli of Bologna. He of Bombell
has fiioAvn in his algebra, Avhat Avas then confidered as ah-
paradox, that the parts of the formula which reprefents ■A" ^ I57^*
each root in the irreducible cafe, form, Avhen taken toge¬
ther, a real refult; but the paradox vanifhed Avhen it
was feen from the demonftration of Bombelli that the
imaginary quantities contained in the tAVo numbers of
the formula neceffarily deftroyed each other by their
oppofite figns. About this time Maurolycus, a Sici-Labours of
lian mathematician, difeovered the method of fumming Mauroly-
up feveral feriefes of numbers, fuch as the feries 1, 2,tus*
3, 4, &c.; 1, 4, 9, 16, &c. and the feries of trian-^j^
gular numbers, x, 3, 6, 10, 15, 21, &c. 57P*
26. The fcience of analyfis is under great obligations Djfcover;cs
to Francis Vieta, a native of France. He introduced otViltT^
the prefent mode of notation, called literal, by employ-Born 1540.
ing the letters of the alphabet to reprefent indefiniteDied
given quantities ; and we are alfo indebted to him for
the method of transforming one equation into another,
Avhofe roots are greater or lefs than thofe of the origi¬
nal equation by a given quantity j for the method of
multiplying or dividing their roots by any given num¬
ber,
MAT HE
her', of depriving equations of the fecond term, and of
freeing them from fra&ional coefficients. The method
which he has given for refolving equations of the third
and fourth degree is alfo new and ingenious, and his
mode of obtaining an approximate folution of equations
of every order is entitled to ftill higher praife. We
are alfo indebted to Vieta for the theory of angular
fe&ions, the objeft of which is to find the general ex-
preffions of the chords or fines for a feries of arcs that
are multiples of each other.
Logarithms 27. While analyfis was making fuch progrefs on the
invented by continent, Baron Napier of Merchifton in Scotland was
Baron !N a- krjncrinnr to perfeftion his illuftrious difcovery of the lo-
Born 1550. garithms, a fet of artificial numbers, by which the moft
Died 1617. tedious operations in multiplication and divifion may be
performed merely by addition and fubtraftion. This
difcovery was publiffied at Edinburgh in 1614 in his
work entitled Logarithmorum Canonis Defcriptio, feu
Arithmetica Supputationum Mirabilis Abbreviatio. It
is well known that there is fuch a correfpondence be¬
tween every arithmetical and geometrical progreffion,
viz. q’ i’ \ that any terms of
L 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, J ^
the geometrical progreffion may be multiplied or divided
by merely adding or fubtrafting the correfponding
terms of the arithmetical progreffion ; thus the produft
of four and eight may be found by taking the fum of
the correfponding terms in the arithmetical progreffion,
viz. 2 and 3, for their fum 5 points out 32 as the pro
dud of 4 and 8. The numbers o, I, 2, 3, &c. are
therefore the logarithms of 1, 2, 4, 8, &c. The
choice of the two progreffions being altogether arbi¬
trary, Baron Napier took the arithmetical progreffion
which we have given above, and made the term o cor-
refpond with the unit of the geometrical progreffion,,
which he regulated in fuch a manner that when its
terms are reprefented by the abfciffge of an equilateral
hyperbola in which the firft abfcifs and the firft ordi¬
nate are each equal to 1, the logarithms are reprefent-
Sfables of ed by the hyperbolic fpaces. In confequence, however,
logarithms cf t^e inconvenience of this geometrical progreffion,
by Mr ^ Baron Napier, after confulting upon the fubjeft with
Briggs. Henry Briggs of Greffiam College, fubftituted the de¬
cuple progreffion 1, 10, ico, 1000, of which o, 1, 2,
3, 4, &c. are the logarithms. Nothing now remained
but to conftruft tables of logarithms, by finding the lo¬
garithms of the intermediate numbers between the terms
A.D. 1618. of the decuple progreffion. Napier, however, died be¬
fore he was able to calculate thefe tables; but his lofs
was in fome meafure fupplied by Mr Briggs, who applied
himfelf with zeal to this arduous talk, and publiffied in
1618 a table of the logarithms of all numbers from 1 to
1000. In 1624 he publiffied another table containing
the logarithms from 1000 to 20,000, and from 90,000
to 100,000. The defefts in Briggs’s tables were filled
up by his friends Gellibrand and Hadrian Vlacq, who
alfo publiffied new tables containing the logarithms of
fines, tangents, &c. for 90 degrees.
ofHaT"65 2^’ ^ur*n£ t^ie time when Napier and Briggs were
BornT-6o honour to their country by completing the fyllem
Died 1621! °f logarithms, algebra was making great progrefs in
the hands of our countryman Harriot. His Artis ana¬
lytic te Praxis, which appeared in 1620, contains along
with the difcoveries of its author, a complete view of
the Hate of algebra. He fimplified the nutation by
MAT ICS. 5
fubllituting fmall letters inftead of the capitals introdu¬
ced by Vieta ; and he was the firft who ffiowed that
every equation beyond the firft degree may be confider-
ed as produced by the multiplication of as many limple
equations as there are units in the exponent of the high-
eft power of the unknown quantity. From this he de¬
duced the relation which exifts between the roots of
any equation, and the coefficients of the terms of which
it confifts.
29. About the fame time, a foreign author named Fer- Fernel firft
nel, phyfician to King Henry II. of France, had theS:vesThe
merit of being the firft who gave the meafure of the J^earth0*
earth. By reckoning the number of turns made by a
coach wheel from Amiens to Paris, till the altitude of
the pole ftar was increafed one degree, he eftimated the
length of a degree of the meridian to be 56,746 toifes,
which is wonderfully near the truth. He alfo wrote a
work on mathematics, entitled De Proportionibus.—
About this time it was ffiown by Peter Metius, a German jy[ctiuS
mathematician, that if the diameter of a circle be 113, finds
its circumference will be 355. This refult, fo very near more cor-
the truth, and expreffed in fo few figures, has preferved J?um1"
the name of its author. dkmSer
30. The next author, whofe labours claim our atten-and circum-
tion, is the illuftrious Defcartes. We do not allude to ference of a
thofe wild and ingenious fpeculations by which this phi- circle*
lofopher endeavoured to explain the celeftial phenome- Difcoveries
na ; but to thefe great difcoveries with which he en- Defcartes
riched the kindred fciences of algebra and geometry.
He introduced the prefent method of marking the powers Died 165c.
of any quantity by numerical exponents. He firft ex¬
plained the ufe of negative roots in equations, and ffiow¬
ed that they are as real and ufeful as pofitive roots, the
only difference between them being founded on the dif¬
ferent manner in which the correfponding quantities are
confidered. He pointed out the method of finding the
number of pofitive and negative roots in any equation
where the roots are real; and developed the method
of indeterminates which Vieta had obfcurely hinted
at.
31. Though Regiomontanus, Tartalea, and Bombelli,
had refolved feveral geometrical problems by means of
alegbra, yet the general method of applying geometry
to algebra was firft given by Vieta. It is to Defcartes,IIe extends
however, that we are indebted for the beautiful and ex- tPe aPp^ca-
tenfive ufe which he made of his difcovery. His me• to "
thod of reprefenting the nature of curve lines by equa- geometry,
tions, and of arranging them in different orders accord¬
ing to the equations which diflinguiffied them, opened
a vaft. field of inquiry to fubfequent mathematicians;
and his methods of conftruifting curves of double cur¬
vature, and of drawing tangents to curve lines, have
contributed much to the progrefs of geometry. The '
in ‘crfe method of tangents, which it was referved for the
fluxionary calculus to bring to perfection, originated at
this time in a problem which Florimundus de Beaune
propofed to Defcartes. It was required to conftruft a A. D. 1647.
curve in which the ratio of the ordinate and fubtangent
ffiould be the fame as that of a given line to the por¬
tion of the ordinate included between the curve and a
line inclined at a given angle. The curve was con-
ftrufted by Defcartes, and feveral of its properties de¬
tected, but he was unable to accompliffi the complete A. D. 16;I
folution of the problem. Thefe difcoveries of Defcartes
were ftiidied and improved by his fucceffors, among
whom
6
Difeovei'ics
of Pafcal.
Born 1623.
Died 166%.
Difcoveries
of Fermat.
Born 1590.
Died 1663.
Cavaleri’s
method of
indivifibles.
The fame
fubjedf dif-
cuffed by
Roberval.
1634.
MATHEMATICS.
whom we may number the celebrated Hudde, who
publifhed in Schooten’s commentary on the geometry of
Defcartes, an excellent method of determining if an
equation of any order contains feveral equal roots, and
of difeovering the roots which it container
3 2. The celebrated Pafcal, who was equally diftinguiih-
ed by his literary and his fcientific acquirements, extend¬
ed the boundaries of analyfis by the invention of his arith¬
metical triangle. By means of arbitrary numbers pla¬
ced at the vertex of the triangle, he forms all the figur-
ate numbers in fucceilion, and determines the ratio be¬
tween the numbers of any two cafes, and the various
fums refulting from the addition of all the numbers of
one rank taken in any poffible direction. This in¬
genious invention gave rife to the calculation of proba¬
bilities in the theory of games of chance, and formed
the foundation of an excellent treatife of Huygens, en¬
titled De Ratiociniis in Ludo Alex, publifhed in 1657.
33. Several curious properties of numbers were at the
fame time difeovered by Fermat at Touloufe. In the
theory of prime numbers, particularly, which had firit
been confidered by Eratollhenes, Fermat made great
difcoveries; and in the doftrine of indeterminate pro¬
blems, he feems to have been deeply verfed, having re-
publifhed the arithmetic of Diophantus, and enriched it
with many valuable notes of his own. He invented
the method of difeovering the maxima and minima of
variable quantities, which ferves to determine the tan¬
gents of geometrical curves, and paved the way for the
invention of the fluxionary calculus.
34. Another ftep towards the difeovery of fluxions
was at this time made by Cavaleri in his geometry of
indivifibles. In this work, which was publifhed in 1635,
its author fuppofes every plane furface to confift of an
infinite number of planes; and he lays it down as an
axiom, that thefe infinite fums of lines and furfaces have
the fame ratio when compared with the unit in each
cafe as the fuperficies and folids to be meafured. This
ingenious method was employed by Cavaleri in the
quadrature of the conic feclions, and in the curvature of
folids generated by their revolution ; and in order to
prove the accuracy of his theory, he deduced the fame
refults from different principles.
35. Problems of a fimilar kind had been folved by
Fermat and Defcartes, and now occupied the attention
of Roberval. The latter of thefe mathematicians began
his inveftigation of this fubjeft about a year before the
publication of Cavaleri’s work, and the methods which
both of them employed were fo far the fame as to be
founded on the principles of indivifibles. In the mode,
however, which Roberval adopted, planes and folids
were confidered as compofed of an infinite number of
redflangles, whofe altitudes and the thicknefs of their
fe&ions were infinitely fmall.—By means of this method,
Roberval determined the area of the cycloid, the cen¬
tre of gravity of this area, and the folids formed by its
revolution on its axis and bafe. He alfo invented a
general method for tangents, fimilar in metaphyfical
principles to that of fluxions, and applicable both to
mechanical and geometrical curves. By means of this,
he determined the tangents of the cycloid ; but there
were fome curves which refifted its application. Con-
fidering every curve to be generated by the motion of a
point, Roberval regarded this point as afled upon at
-every inflance with two velocities afeertained from the
nature of the curve. He conftru&ed a parallelogram
having its lides in the fame ratio as the two velocities j
and he affumes as a principle, that the diredlion of the
tangent muff fall on the diagonal, the pofition of which
being afeertained, gives the pofition of the tangent.
36. In 1644, folutions of the cycloidal problems for-La|30lirs 0f
merly refolved by Roberval were publiihed by Torricelli Torricelli,
as invented by himfelf. The demonftrations of Roberval l644*
had been tranfmitted to Galileo the preceptor of Torri¬
celli, and had alfo been publiflied in 1637 in Merfen-
nus’s Univerfal Harmony. The Italian philofopher was
confequently accufed of plagiarifm by Roberval, and
the charge fo deeply a fleeted his mind as to bring him
prematurely to the grave. It is obvious, however,
from the demonftrations of Torricelli, that he had never
feen thofe of Roberval, and that he was far from merit¬
ing that cruel accufation which deprived fcience of one
of its brighteft ornaments.
37. The cycloid having attrafled the notice of geo-Fartherdif-
meters from the number and Angularity of its properties,covt r'es
the celebrated Pafcal propofed to them a variety of new ^ '
problems relative to this curve, and offered prizes for
their folution. Thefe problems required the area of any
cycloidal fegment, the centre of gravity of that fegment,
the folids, and the centres of gravity of the folids, which
are generated either by a whole revolution, a half or a
quarter of a revolution of this fegment round an abfeiffa
or an ordinate. The refolution of thefe problems was
attempted by Huygens, Sluze, Sir Chriftopher Wren,
Fermat, and Roberval. Sluze difeovered an ingenious
method of finding the area of the curve. Huygens
fquared the fegment comprifed between the vertex, and
as far as a fourth of the diameter of the generating
circle 5 and Sir Chriftopher Wren afeertained the length
of the cycloidal arc included between the vertex and
the ordinate, the centre of gravity of this arc, and the
furfaces of the folids generated during its revolution.
Thefe attempts were not confidered by their authors as
folutions of Pafcal’s problems, and therefore they did
not lay claim to his prize. Our countryman Wallis,
however, and Lallouere a Jefuit, gave in a folution of
all the problems, and thought themfelves entitled to
the proffered reward. In the methods employed by
thefe mathematicians, Pafcal detetled feveral fources
of error; and it rvas referved for that great genius to
furniflr a complete folution of his own problems. Ex¬
tending his inveftigations to curtate and prolate cycloids,
he proved that the length of thefe curves depends on
the reftification of the ellipfe, and afligned in each cafe
the axis of the ellipfe. From this method he deduced
this curious theorem, that if two cycloids, the one curtate
and the other prolate, be fuch, that the bafe of the one
is equal to the circumference of the circle by which the
other is generated, the length of thefe two cycloids will
be equal.
38. While thefe difcoveries were making on the con-Lahpurs o[
tinent, the friends of fcience in Britain wrere aftively Wallis,
employed in promoting its advancement. In 1655,1655.
Wallis publifhed his Arithnetica Infinitorum, a work of
great genius. He attempted to determine by the fum-
mation of infinite feries, the quadrature of curves, andl682>
the curvature of folids, fubjetfts Avhich were afterwards
inveftigated in a different manner by Ifhmael Bullial-
dus. By Wallis’s method, curves were fquared when
their ordinates are expreffed by one term, and when
their
7
MATHEMATICS.
their ordinates were complex quantities raifed to en¬
tire and po-fitive powers, thefe ordinates were refolved
into feries, of which each term is a monomial. Wallis
attempted to extend his theory to curves whofe ordi¬
nates were complex and radical, by attempting to in¬
terpolate the feries of the farmer kind with a new fe¬
ries •, but he was unfuccefsful.
Difcoveries It was left to Newton to remove thisdifficulty. He
•f Newton. f()jvcc[ the problem in a more dire£l and fitriple manner
by the aid of his new formula for expanding into an in¬
finite feries any power of a binomial, whether its exponent
wus pofitive or negative, an integer or a fraftion. Al¬
gebra is alfo indebted to this illuftrious mathematician for
a fimple and extenfive method of refolving an equation
into com men fur able faftors 5 for a method of fumming up
the powers of the roots of an equation, of extra£ting the
roots of quantities partly commenfurable, and partly in-
commenfurable, and of finding by approximation the
roots of literal and numerical equations of all orders.
Lord 4°- About this time, William Lord Brouncker, in at-
Brouncker tempting to demonftrate an expreflion of Wallis on the
difeovers magnitude of the circle, difeovered the theory of con-
continued (_jnUCd fractions. When an irreducible fraction is ex-
BornTfoo. Puffed by numbers too great and complicated to be
Died 16S4. eafily employed by the analyft, the method of Lord
Brouncker enables us to fubftitute an exprefiion much
more fimple and nearly equivalent. This theory,
which enables us to find a very accurate relation be¬
tween the diameter and circumference of the circle,
* Opera was empl°ye(i by Huygens * in the calculation of his
Pojhuma, planetary automaton, for reprefenting the motions of
tom. ii./ub the folar fyftem, and was enlarged and improved by
finem. other celebrated geometers. Lord Brouncker had like-
wife the merit of difeovering an infinite feries to repre-
fent the area of the hyperbola. The fame difeovery
was made by Nicholas Mercator, who publithed it in
his Logarithmotechma in 1668.
41. The fubjeft of infinite feries received confiderable
JamesGre- addition from Mr James Gregory. He was the firft who
g0ry> gave the tangent and fecant in terms of the arc, and,
inverfely, the arc in terms of the tangent and fecant.
He conftru&ed feries for finding direftly the logarithm
of the tangent and fecant from the value of the arc, and
the logarithm of the arc from that of the tangent and
fecant; and he applied this theory of infinite feries to the
reftification of the ellipfis and hyperbola.
Labours of 42. The differential triangle invented by the learned
Dr Barrow. Dr Barrow, for drawing tangents to curves, may be re¬
garded as another contribution towards the invention of
fluxions. This triangle has for its fides the element of
the curve and thofe of the abfeifs and ordinate, and
thofe fides are treated as quantities infinitely fmall.
Theory of 43* The do&rine of evolutes had been (lightly touched
evolutesdif-upon by Apollonius. It remained, however, for the
covered by illuftrious Huygens to bring it to perfection. His
Huygens, theory of evolutes is contained in his Horologium Ofcil-
latorium, publifhed in 1673, and may be regarded as
one of the fineft difeoveries in geometry. When any
curve is given, Huygens has pointed out the method of
conftructing a fecond curve, by drawing a feries of per¬
pendiculars to the firft, which are tangents to the fe¬
cond •, and of finding the firft curve from the fecond.
From this principle he deduces feveral theorems on the
rectification of curves $ and that remarkable property
of the cycloid, in which an equal and fimilar cycloid is
produced by evolution.
44. In contemplating the progrefs of analyfis from Hiftory of
the beginning of the 17th century, to the invention of the difcove-
fluxions, we cannot fail to perceive the principles of
that calculus gradually unfolding themfelves to view.
The human mind feemed to advance with rapidity to¬
wards that great difeovery 5 and it is by no means un¬
likely that it would foon have arrived at the do&rine of
fluxions, even if the fuperior genius of Newton had not
accelerated its progrefs. In Cavalerius’s Geometna In~
divijibilium, we perceive the germ of the infinitefimal
calculus j and the method of Roberval for finding the
tangents of curves, bears a ftriking analogy to the me-
taphyfics of the fluxionary calculus. It wras the glory
of Newton, however, to invent and illuftrate the me¬
thod of fluxions •, and the obfeure hints which he re¬
ceived from preceding mathematicians, do not in the
leaft detrail from the merit of our illuftrious country¬
man.
45. On the claims of Leibnitz as a fecond inventor General re¬
ef fluxions, and the illiberal violence with which they marks on
have been urged by foreign mathematicians, we would
wilh to fpeak with delicacy and moderation. Who that 24ewton
can appreciate the difeoveries of that celebrated mathe- arid Leib-
matician, or is acquainted with that penetrating genius nitz.
which threw light on every department of human
knowledge, would willingly ftain his memory with an
ungracious imputation ? The accufation of plagiarifm
is one of thofe charges which it is difficult either to
fubftantiate or repel, and when direfted againft a great
man, ought never, without the cleareft evidence, to be
wantonly preferred or willingly received. If charitable
fentiments are ever to be entertained towards others,—
to what clafs of beings ffiould they be more cheerfully
extended than to thofe' who have been the ornaments of
human nature ? If fociety has agreed to regard as fa-
cred the failings and excentricities of genius,—w'hen.
ought that reverence to be more ftrongly excited than
when we are paffing judgment on its mightieft efforts ?
Inquiries into the motives and aftions of the learned
ought never to be wantonly indulged. When the ho¬
nour of our country, or the charadler of an individual,
requires fuch an inveftigation, a regard to truth, and
a contempt of national prejudice,' ftiould guide the in¬
quiry.—We ftiould proceed with delicacy and forbear¬
ance.—We ftiould tread lightly even on the affies of
genius. It is not uncommon to witnefs the indulgence
of malicious pleafure, in detradling from the merits of a
diftinguiffied charadler. The affailant raifes himfelf
for a while to the level of his enemy, and acquires 1
glory by his fall. But let him remember that the lau¬
rels thus won cannot flourifti long. The fame public
opinion which conferred them will tear them from his
brow, and confign the accufer to that infamy from
which, the brighteft abilities rvill be infuffieient to raife
him. The confequences of fuch conduct have been
feen in the fall of Torricelli. It was the charges of
plagiarifm, preferred by Roberval, that hurried this,
young and aceompliffied philbfopher to an early
grave.
46. We have been led into thefe obfervations by ftudy-
ing the difpute between the followers of Newton and
Leibnitz. The claims of the Britifh, as well as thofe of
the
MATHEMATIC S.
^the foreign matliematicians, have undoubtedly been too
high 5 and victory rather than truth feems to have been
the object of conteit. Even the name of Newton has
not efcaped from ferious imputations. The immenlity
of the flake for which the different parties contended,
may perhaps juftity the commencement of the difpute j
and the brilliancy of the talents that were called into
action, may leave us no caufe to regret its continuance :
But nothing can reconcile us to thole perfonal animofi-
ties in which the good fenfe and temper of philofophy
are loft, and that violence of literary warfare where fei-
ence can gain nothing in the combat.—In giving an
account, therefore, of that interefting difpute, we fhall
merely give a brief view of the fadts that relate to the
difeovery of the higher calculus, and make a few ob-
fervations on the conclufions to which they lead.
Newton 47- ^he year 1669, a paper of Sir Ifaac Newton’s,
publifhes entitled De analyst per equationes numero terminorum in-
tainh* the ^”^’ WaS commun‘cated by Dr Barrow to Mr Col-
principles of ^ns’ one t^e fecretaries of the Royal Society. In
fluxions. this paper the author points out a new method of fquar-
ing curves, both when the expreflion of the ordinate is
a rational quantity, and when it contains complex ra¬
dicals, by evolving the expreffion of the ordinate into an
infinite number of fimple terms by means of the bino¬
mial theorem. In a letter from Newton to Collins,
dated December 10. 1672, there is contained a method
of drawing tangents to curve lines, wdthout being ob-
ftrudted by radicals j and in both thefe works, an ac¬
count of which was circulated on the continent by the
fecretaries of the Royal Society, the principles of the
fluxional calculus are plainly exhibited •, and it is the
opinion of all the difputants, tffiat thofe works at leaft
prove, that Newton mult have been acquainted with
the method of fluxions when he compofed them.
48. Leibnitz came to London in 1673, and though
there is no diredt evidence that he faw Newton’s paper
De Analyst per Equationes, &c. yet it is certain that he
had feen Sir Ifaac’s letter to Collins of 1672 $ and it is
highly improbable that fuch a man as Leibnitz fhould
have been ignorant of a paper of Newton’s which had
been four years in the poffeflion of the public, and
which contained difeuflions at that time intei’efting to
every mathematician.
Correfpond- 49. A letter from Newton to Oldenburg, one of the
tweenLeib-^ecretarieS t^ie ^°ya^ Society, dated Odtober 24.
nitz and I676, was communicated to Leibnitz. This letter
Oldenburg, contains feveral theorems without the demonftrations,
which are founded on the method of fluxions, and
merely ftates that they refult from the folution of a
general problem. The enunciation of this problem he
exprefles in a cypher, the meaning of which was, An
equation containing any number of flowing quantities
being given, to find the fluxions, and inverfely. In re¬
ply to this communication, Leibnitz tranfmitted a let¬
ter to Oldenburg, dated June 2J. 1677, where he ex¬
plains the nature of the differential calculus, and af¬
firms, that he had long employed it for drawing tan¬
gents to curve lines.
50. The correfpondence between Leibnitz and Ol¬
denburg having been broken off by the death of the
©f th'^ diffc lafter> Leibnitz publifhed in the A ft a Erudit. Lipf for
rcmialcai- Oftober 1684, the principles of the new analyfis, under
cuius, the title of Nova Mcthodus pro maximis et minimis,
itemque tangentibus, qiue nec fraftas, nec irrationales
Xeibnitz
pubiifhes
quantitates moratur, et Jingulare pro illis calculus. This
paper contains the method of differencing fimple, frac¬
tional, and radical quantities, and the application of
the calculus to the folution of lome phyfical and geo¬
metrical problems. In 1685, he likewiie publilfied two
fmall pamphlets on the quadrature of curves, contain¬
ing the principles of the Calculus Summatorius, or tho
Inverfe Method of Fluxions ; and in 1686 there appear¬
ed another tra£t by the fame author, On the Recondite
Geometry, and the Analysis of Indivijibles and Inf nites,
containing the fundamental rule of the integral cal¬
culus.
jr. Towards the clofe of the year 1686, Sir IfaacNewtos
Newton gave to the world his illuftrious work entitled pubiifhes
Phtlofophice Naturahs Principia Mathematica. Some lis Pno-
of the moil difficult problems in this work are founded C1^ia*
on the fluxional calculus; and it is allowed by Boflut,
one of the defenders of Leibnitz, “ that mathematicians
did Newton the juftice to acknowledge, that at the pe¬
riod when his Principia was publifhed, he was matter
of the method of fluxions to a high degree, at leaft with
refpect to that part which concerns the quadrature of
curves.” The claim of Leibnitz, as a feparate inventor
of the differential calculus, is evidently allowed by
Newton himfelf, when he obferves, that Leibnitz had
communicated to him a method fimilar to his own for
drawing tangents, &c. and differing from it only in tho
enunciation and notation.
52. About this time, it became faftuonable among Lepin;tz
geometers to perplex each other by the propofal of new propofes
i and difficult problems, a practice which powerfully the pro-
contributed to the progrefs of mathematics. The dif klem of tho
pute in which Leibnitz was engaged with the Carte-1t^^™nou*
fians refpe6ting the meafure of active forces, which the *
former fuppofed to be as the fimple velocity, while the
latter afferted, that they were as the fquare of the velo¬
city, led him to propofe the problem of the ifochronous
curve, or “ to find the curve which a heavy body muff
deferi be equally, in order to approach or recede from
a horizontal plane in equal times.” This curve was which is
found by Huygens to be the fecond cubic parabola j folved by
but he gave only its properties and conftruftion w ithout Huygens in
the demonftrations. The fame folution, along with the l687*
demonftration, was given by Leibnitz in 1689, who,
at the fame time, propofed to geometers to find the
paracentric ifochronal curve, or the curve in which a
body would equally approach or recede from a given
point in equal times.
53. It was at this time that the two brothers, James James Ber-
and John Bernouilli, began to difplay thofe talents from nouilli alfo
which the phyfical and mathematical fciences received *tntls t^ie
r , • r • , t L • zr ilochronotts
luch immenie improvements. James was born in 1054,tuive
and died in 17055 and John, who was his pupil, was
born in 1667, and lived to the advanced age of 68
years. In 1690, James Bernouilli gave the fame folu¬
tion of the ifochronous curve that had been given by
Huygens and Leibnitz 5 and propofed the celebrated
problem of the catenary curve, which had formerly
perplexed the ingenuity of Galileo. In two memoirs, '69t*
publiflied in 1691, he determined, by means of the in-s^l,t10" °*
verfe method of fluxions, the tangents of the parabolic of t£e tatfc_
fpiral, the logarithmic fpiral, and the loxodromic curve, narian
and likewife the quadratures of their areas. curve, and
54. The problem of the catenary curve having occupied 0l^er analo-
the attention of geometers, was refolved by Huygens,
Leibnitz,
MATHE
Leibnitz, and .Tolin Eernouilli. In tliefe folutions,
however, the gravity of the catenary curve was fuppo-
fed to be uniform j but James Bernouilli extended the
filiation to cafes where the weight of the curve varies
_ -   6 - vctiici
from one point to another, according to a given law.
From this problem he was alfo conduced to the deter¬
mination of the curvature of a bended bow, and that of
an elaftic bar fixed at one extremity, and loaded at the
other with a given weight. In the hopes of contribut¬
ing to the progrefs of navigation, the fame mathemati¬
cian confidered the form of a fail fwoln with the wind.
\Vhen the wind after ftriking the fail, is not prevented
from efcaping, the curvature of the fail is that of the
common catenarian curve; but when the fail is fuppo-
fed perfedtly flexible, and filled with a fluid preffing
downwards on itfelf, as water preffes on the fides of a
veffd, the curve which it forms is one of thofe denomi¬
nated hntearia:, which is exprefled by the fame equation
as the common elaftic curve, where the extenfions are
reckoned proportional to the forces applied at each point.
“-The fame problem was folved in the Journal des
Sfavans for 1692, by John Bernouilli; but there is
fatisfaftory evidence that it was chiefly borrowed from
his brother James.
James Ber- ^ ^ a^en^on °f James Bernouilli was now direc-
nouilli. ’ ted to t,ie theory of curves produced by the revolution of
1601 006 Curv? uPon another. He confiders one curve rolling
upon a given curve, equal to the firft, and immoveable,
He determines the evolute and the cauftic of the epicy¬
cloid, defcribed by a point of the moving circle, and he
deduces from it other two curves, denominated the anti-
evolute and pericaujlic. He found alfo that the loga¬
rithmic fpiral was its own evolute, cauftic, antievolute,
and pericauftic; and that an analogous property belonoed
to the cycloid. G
i69i. _ 56* About this time Viviani, an Italian geometer
diftinguifhed as the reftorer of Arifteus’s conic feaions’
Problem of required the folution of the following problem, that
v iviam there exifted a temple of a hemifpherical form, pierced
"with four equal windows, with fuch fkill that the re¬
mainder of the hemifphere might be perfedly fquared.
With the aid of the new analyfis, Leibnitz and James
Bernouilli immediately found a folution, while that of
Viviani was founded on the ancient geometry. He
proved that the problem might be folved, by placing
parallel to the bafe of the hemifphere, two right cylin¬
ders, the axes of which fliould pafs through the centres
of two radii, forming a diameter of the circle of the bafe
and piercing the dome each way.
Tfchirn- 57. Prior to fome of thefe difeuflions, the curves call-
taufen on ed caujlic,zn& fometimes Tfchirnhaufenian, were difeo-
vered by Tfchirnhaufen. Thefe curves are formed by
the crofting of the rays of light, when reflefted from a
curved furface, or refraaed through a lens fo as not to
James Bcr- meet in a Angle point. With the aftiftance of the com-
3stoattheraOn1ge0T^’ * k.lnrrdiaukn difeovered, that they are
Tamcfub- e<l . tu ftraight lines when they are formed by geo-
left, metrical curves, and found out feveral other curious
properties. By the aid of the higher calculus, James
tSpj. Bernoulli! extended thefe refearches, and added greatly
md folves ^ie theory of caufties produced by refraflion.
he pro^ 58. The problem of the paracentric ifochronal curve.
!ar aentric" tr<.>PO ed,rby I^9< WaS foIved by James
fochrenal B®rn(H1,lb, who took for ordinates parallel ftraight lines,
kurve. and for abfciflac the chords of an infinite number of
Vol. XIII. Part I.
fclved.
curves.
M A T IC S. ,
concentric circles defcribed about the given point. In
this way he obtained a feparate equation, conitrufted at
firft by the reftification of the elaftic curve, and after-
wards by the redfifieation of an algebraic curve. The
fame problem was folved by John Bernouilli and Leib¬
nitz.
59. In 1694, a branch of the new analyfis, called the The expo-
exponential calculus, was invented feparately by Johnncmial c;tl-
Bernouilli and Leibnitz. It conlifts in differencing and Cldus ^n'
integrating exponential quantities or powers with varia- Ldbnlx7
ble exponents. . To Leibnitz, the priority in point of and John
invention certainly belongs; but John Bernouilli was Bernouilli.
the firft who publiftied the rules and ufes of the cal¬
culus.
60. The marquis PHofpital, who, in 169 5, had folved The'Mar-
the problem about the curve of equilibration in draw-f’Hof-
bridges, and ftiewn it to be an epicycloid, publiftied in Hu.b'
the following year his Analyfis of Infinites for the
detjlanding of curve lines. In this celebrated work, infinites,
the differential calculus, or the diredt method of fluxions,
was fully explained and illuftrated ; and as the know¬
ledge of the higher geometry had been hitherto con¬
fined to a few, it was now deftined to enlighten the dif¬
ferent nations of Europe.
61. 1 he methods which were employed by Defcartes, Newton
Fermat, &c. for finding the maxima and minima of ^n<JlS th®
quantities, yielded in point of fimplicity and generality fol’a ofleaft
to that which was derived from the dodrine of fluxions.reflitimce-
Another clafs of problems, however, of the fame kind,
but more complicated, from their requiring the inverfe
method of fluxions, began now to exercife the ingenuity
of mathematicians. A problem of this clafs for finding
the folid of leaft refiftance, was folved by Newton in
the 34th propofition of the 2d book of his Principia.
After haying determined the truncated right cone,
which being moved in a fluid by the fmalleft bafe
(which is unknown), experiences the leaft refiftance, he
gave without any demonftration the ratio from which
might be derived the differential equation of the curve
that generates by a revolution of its axis the folid of
leaft refiftance. A general folution, however, was
ftill wanting, till the attention of geometers was di-
reffed to the fubjedft by John Bernouilli, who propo-
fed, in 1697, the celebrated problem of the Brachy-
Jlochronon, or the curve along the concave fide of
which if a heavy body defeend," it will pafs in the leaft
time poflible from one point to another, the two points
not being in the fame vertical line. This problem was
refolved by Leibnitz, Newton, the marquis de THotpi-
tal, and James Bernouilli, who demonftrated that the
curve of quickeft defeent is a cycloid reverfed. This
refult will appear at firft furprifing, when we confider
a line to be the ftiorteft diftance between two points;
but the furprife will ceafe when we refled, that in a
concave curve lying between the two given points the
moving body defeends at firft in a more vertical direc¬
tion, and therefore acquires a greater velocity than
when it rolls down an inclined plane. This addition to
its velocity, confequently, at the commencement of its
path may balance the increafe of fpace through which Dl’ft,nte be-
it has to move. ^ tween
Janies and
62. At the clofe of this difeuftion, commenced that ce- joh^Ver-
lebrated difpute about ifoperimetrieal problems, between noullli on
James and John Bernouilli, in which the qualities of lt0Pen'me-
the head were more confpicuous than thofe of thetric?lfi*
. B heart.§UreS'
*
io
MATHEMATICS.
heart. Thefe illuftrious cliara&ers, connefted by the
ftrongeft ties of affinity, were, at the commencement of
their diftinguiffied career, united by the warmed affec-
John was initiated by his elder brother into the
tion.
Janies to
John Ber
nouilli.
mathematical fciences 5 and a generous emulation, foft
ened by friendffiip in the one, and gratitude in the
other, continued for fome years to direft their ftudies,
and accelerate their progrefs. There are few men,
however, who can fupport at the fame time the charac¬
ter of a rival and a friend. The fuccefv of the one
party is apt to awaken the envy of the other, and fuc-
cefs itfelf is often the parent of prefumption.. A foun¬
dation is thus laid for future diffenfion ; and it is a me¬
lancholy fa61 in the hiltory of learning, that the mod
ardent frienddiips have been facrificed on the altar of li¬
terary ambition. Such was the cafe between the two
X(S9-. Bernouillis. As foon as John was fettled as profeffior
of mathematics at Groningen, all friendly intercourfe
between the two brothers was at an end. Regarding
John as the aggreifor, and provoked at the ingratitude
which he exhibited, his brother James challenged him
Problems byname to folve the following problems : I. ‘‘ lo find,
propofed by among all the ifoperimetrical curves bet ween given li-
T “ mits, fuch a curve, that, condru&ing a fecond curve,
the ordinates of which diall be the fun&ions of the or¬
dinates or arcs of the former, the area of the fecond
curve diall be a maximum or a minimum.—2. “ To
find among all the cycloids which a heavy body may
defcribe in its defcent from a point to a line, the pofi-
tion of which is given, that cycloid which is defcribed
in the lead poffible time.”—A prize of 50 florins was
promifed to John Bernouilli, if, within three months,
he engaged to folve thefe problems, and publifli within
a year legitimate folutir is of them.
63. In a ffiort time John Bernouilli produced his folu-
tion and demanded the prize. He fucceeded in conflruc-
ting the problem of fwifted defcent; but his folution of
the other problem wras radically defective. This failure
mortified that vanity with which he gloried in his ap¬
parent fuccefs. He acknowledged the miflake in his
folution, and, with the fame imperious tone, tranfmit-
ted a new refult, and redemanded the prize. This
new folution, which was dill defedlive, drew down the
wit and ridicule of James Bernouilli, which, his bro¬
ther attempted to repel by a torrent of coarfe invec-
tive.
3700. 64. Leibnitz, New-ton, and the marquis THofpital,
being appointed arbiters in this difpute, James Bernouilli
publiffied, in 1700, the formulae of the ifoperimetrical
problem, without any demondration ; and John tranf-
mitted his folution to the French academy in February
1701, on condition that it ftiould not be opened till
his brother’s demondrations were publidied. In confe-
quence of this, James Bernouilli publiflied his folution
in May 1701, in the Acia Eruditorum, under the fol¬
lowing title, Analysis magni Problematis Ifoperimetrici,
and gained great honour from the fkill which it dif-
played. For five years John Bernouilli was filent upon
the fubieft ; but his brother dying in 1705, he publifli¬
ed his folution in the Memoirs of the Academy for
1706. About 13 years afterwards, John Bernouilli
having perceived the fource of his error, confe-Ted his
miflake, and publiftied a new folution, not very differ¬
ent from that of his t-other, in the Memoirs of the
Academy for 1718.
65. In the problem relative toThe cyeloid of Iwifteii
defcent, John Bernouilli obtained a refult fimilar to that
of his brother, by a very ingenious method, which ex-John Ber-
tended the bounds of the new analyfis. In his invefti-
gations he employed the fynchronous curve, or that
which cuts a feries of fimilar curves placed in fimilar probiem.
politions, fo that the arcs of the latter included between
a given point and the fynchronous curve, ffiall be de- 1704,
fcribed by a heavy body in equal times. He demon-
flrated, that of all the cycloids thus interfe6led, that
which is cut perpendicularly is defcribed in lefs time
than any other terminating equally at the fynchronous
curve. But being unable to give a general folution of
the problem, he applied to Leibnitz, who ealily refolyed
it, and at that time invented the method of differencing
de curva in curvam.
66. About a month after the death of the marquis de
I’Hofpital, John Bernouilli declared himfelf the author
of a rule given by the marquis in his x\nalyfis of Infinites,
for finding the value of a fra6fion, whole numerator
and denominator fliould vaniffi at the fame inftant, when
the variable quantity that enters into it has a certain
given value. The defence made by the marquis’s
friends only induced John Bernouilli to make greater
demands, till he claimed as his own the mod important
parts of the Analyfis of Infinites : But it docs not ap¬
pear, from an examination of the fubje6i, that there is
any foundation for his claims.
67. Towards the clofe of 1704, Sir Ifaac Newton pub¬
liflied, at the end of his Optics, his Enumeratio linea- Labours ,3?
rum tertue or dims ^ and his treatife Ee ^uadratura Cur- Newton.
varum. The fird of thefe papers difplays great abili-^^
ty •, but is founded only on the common algebra, and '
the doefrine of feries which Newton had brought to
fuch perfe£Hon. His treatife, De Quadratura Curvu-
rum, contains the refolution of fluxional forpiSulaj,
with one variable quantity which leads to the qua¬
drature of curves. By means of certain feries he ob¬
tains the refolution of feveral complicated formulae, by
referring them to fuch as are more Ample 5 and thele le-
ries being interrupted in particular cafes, give the flu¬
ents in finite terms. From this feveral intereding pro-
pofitions are deduced, among which is the method of
refolving rational fraaions. In 1711 Newton publifti¬
ed his Method of Fluxions. The objea of this work is1?11-*
to determine, by Ample algebra, the linear coefficients
of an equation that fatisfies as many conditions as there
are coefficients, and to condrua a curve of the parabo¬
lic kind paffing through any number of given points.
Hence arifes a fimple method of finding the approxi¬
mate quadrature of curves, in which a Certain number
of. ordinates are determinable. It has been the opinion
of fome able mathematicians, that this treatife contains
the firft principles of the integral calculus with finite
differences, afterwards invented by Dr Laylor. A
pod humous work of Newton’s, entitled Fhe Method ofl12>6.
Fluxions, and of Infinite Scries, was publiflied by Dr
Pemberton about nine years after the death of its au¬
thor •, but it does not contain any new invefligations
which accelerated the progrefs of the new analyfis.
68. The mathematical fciences were at this time hi-jjabours 0f
debted to the labours of Manfredi, Parent, and Saurin.Manfredi,
The former of thefe geometers publiflied a very able Parent, and
work, De Confiruclione Equationum differentialium primi
gradus. To Parent we are indebted for the problem by 1
II
MATHEMATICS.
which we obtain the ratio between the velocity of the
power, and the weight for finding the maximum effect
of machines j but his reputation was much injured by
the obfcurity of his writings. Saurin was celebrated for
his theoretical and practical knowledge of watchmaking,
and was the firft who elucidated the theory of tangents
to the multiple points of curves.
Account of 69. While the feienee of analyfis was thus advancing
the difpute Tvhh rapidity, the difpute between Newton and Leib-
betwcen n^z began to be agitated among the mathematicians of
ev on jrurope. Thefe illuftrious rivals feemed to have been
hitherto contented with fharing the honour of having in¬
vented the iluxional calculus. But as foon as the prio¬
rity of invention was attributed to Newton, the friends
of Leibnitz came forward with eagernefs to fupport the
claims of their mafter.
70. In a fmall work on the curve of fwiftefl dcfcent,
and the folid of leafl refiftance, publithed in 1699, Ni-
and Leib¬
nitz.
Facio de
Duillier
Newton.
Leibnitz
defends
himfelf.
thcTdil'nite c^<)^as Facio de Duillier, an eminent Genoefe, attribu-
iiAvour of ted to Newton the firfi: invention of Fluxions, and hint¬
ed, that Leibnitz, as the fecond inventor, had borrow¬
ed from the Englifh philofopher. Exafperated at this
improper infinuation, Leibnitz came forward in his own
defence, and appeals to the admiffion of Newton in his
Principiu, that neither had borrowed from the other.
He expreffed his conviction, that Facio de Duillier was
not authorifed by Sir Ifaac, to prefer fuch a charge,
and threw himfelf upon the teftimony and candour of
the Englifh geometer.
71. The difcuffion relied in this fituation for feveral
years, till our celebrated countryman, Dr Keill, infti-
Dr Keill
makes the
fame charge gate(j by an attack upon Newton in the Leipfic Jour
Leibnitz.
1708.
nal, repeated the fame charge againft Leibnitz. The
Ge/man philofopher made the fame reply as he did to
his former opponent, and treated Dr Keill as a young
man incapable of judging upon the fubjeft. In 1711,
Dr Keill addrefled a letter to Sir Hans Sloane, feere-
tary to the Royal Society, and accufed Leibnitz of ha¬
ving adopted the differential notation, in order to have
it believed, that he did not borrow his calculus from the
writings of Newton.
7 2. Leibnitz w7as with reafon irritated at this accufation,
and called upon the Royal Society to interfere in his
behalf. A committee of that learned body was accord¬
ingly appointed to invcftigate the fubjedl, and their re¬
port was publifhed in 1712, under the title of Com.ier-
cium Epijfolicum de Anah/Ji promota. In this report the
committee maintain that Leibnitz was not the firfi: in¬
ventor, and abfolve Dr Keill from all blame in giving the
priority of invention to Newton. They were cautious,
and report" however, in Hating their opinion upon that part of the
charge in which Leibnitz was accufed of plagiarifm.
John Bcr- 73. In anfwer to the arguments advanced in the Com-
nouilli re- mercium Ep//?^//l7/w,.TohnBernouilji, the particular friend
plies to 0f Leibnitz, publifhed a letter, in which he has the af-
givw/bfthe durance to ftate, that the method of fluxions did not
Commer- precede the differential calculus, but that it might have
cium F.pif- taken its rife from it. The reafon which he afligns
for this flrange affertion is, that the differential calcu¬
lus was publifh’ed before Newton had introduced an
uniform algorithm into the method of fluxions. But it
may as well be maintained that Newton did not dif-
cover the theory of univerfal gravitation, becaufe the
attractive force of mountains and of fmaller portions of
t'jir.
Leibnitz
appeals to
the Royal
Society,
1712.
Who rp
point a
committee
to examine
tolicum.
matter was not afeertained till the time of Maikelyne
and Cavendifh. The principles of fluxions are allowed
to have been difeovered before thofe of the differential
calculus, and yet the former originated from the latter,
becaufe the fluxional notation was not given at the fame
time !
74. Notwithftanding the ridiculous affertion of John Remarkt o»
Bernouilli, it has been admitted by all the foreign ma- ^VLntro'
thematicians that Newton was the firil inventor of the
method of fluxions. The point at iffue therefore is
merely this :—did Leibnitz fee any of the w-ritings of
Newton that contained the principles of fluxions before
he publilhed in 1684 his Nova Methodus pro maximis et
minimis? The friends of Leibnitz have adduced fom©
prefumptive proofs that he had never feen the treatife
of Newton, de Ana/yji, nor the letter to Collins, in
both of which the principles of the new calculus were
to be found; and in order to ftrengthen their argument,
they have not fcrupled to alfert, that the writings al¬
ready mentioned contained but a vague and obfeure
indication of the method of fluxions, and that Leibnitz
might have perufed them without having difeovered it.
This fubfidiary argument, however, rells upon the opi¬
nion of individuals ; and the only way of repelling it is
to give the opinion of an impartial judge. M. Montu-
cla, the celebrated hiltorian of the mathematics, who
being a Frenchman, cannot be fufpected of partiality
to the Englifh, has admitted that Newton in his trea¬
tife de Analijji “ has difclofed in a very concife and
obfeure manner his principles of fluxions,” and “ that
the fufpicion of Leibnitz having feen this work is not
deftitute of probability, for Leibnitz admitted, that in
his interview with Collins he had feen a part of the
epiftolary correfpondence between Newton and that
gentleman.” It is evident therefore that Leibnitz had
opportunities of being acquainted with the doftrine of
fluxions, before he had thought of the differential cal¬
culus ; and as he was in London, where Newton’s trea¬
tife was publifhed, and in company with the very men
to whom the new analyfis had been communicated, it is
very likely that he then acquired fome knowledge of the
fubje£l. In favour of Leibnitz, however, it is but juf-
tice to fay, that the tranfition from the method of tan¬
gents by Dr Barrow to the differential calculus is fo
Ample, that Leibnitz might very eafily have perceived
it ; and that the notation of his analyfis, the numerous
applications which he made of it, and the perfeflion to
which he carried the integral calculus, are coniiderable
proofs that he was innocent of the charge which the
Englifh have attempted to fix upon his memory.
7 In T708, Remond de Montmort publifhed a cu-Works on
rious work, entitled the Analyfis of Games of Chance, doc-
in which the common algebra was applied to the com-1
putation of probabilities, and the eftimation of chances,
Though this work did not contain any great difeovery,
yet it gave extent to the theory of feries, and admir¬
ably illuftrated the dodlrine of combinations. The
fame fubjedl was afterwards difeuffed by M. de Moivre,
a French proteftant refiding in England, in a fmall
treatife entitled Menfura Sortis, in which are given the r
elements of the theory of recurrent feries, and fome very
ingenious applications of it. Another edition was pub-
liffed in Englifti in 1738, under the title of the Dodlrine
of Chances.
® 2
A
MATHEMATICS.
projl'fa to ,, ' r Ayl0tt t!me bofor,e h!s deft1'’ Leibnitz propofed to
the Englifli * le ■t‘ngntn geometers the celebrated problem of ortho-
the pro- gonaJ trajectories, which was to find the curve that cuts
blem of a feries of given curves at a conftant angle, or at an
an£le varying according to a given law. This pro-
cs' blem was put into the bands of Sir Ifaac Newton when
he returned to dinner greatly fatigued, and he brought
it to an equation before he went to reft. Leibnitz
being recently dead, John Bernouilli aflumed his place,
and maintained, that nothing was eafier than to bring
the problem to an equation, and that the folution of the
problem was not complete till the differential equation
of the trajeftory was refolved. Nicholas Bernouilli,
the fon of John refolved the particular cafe in which the
interfeCted curves are hyperbolas with the fame centre
and the fame vertex. James Hermann and Nicholas
Bernouilli, the nephew of John, treated the fubjedt by
more general methods, which applied to the cafes in
which the interfered curves were geometrical. The
moft complete folution, however, was given by Dr
Taylor in the Philofophical TranfaCtions for 1717,
though it was not fufficiently general, and could not
apply to feme cafes capable of refolution. This defedl
was fupplied by John Bernouilli, who in the Leipfic
TranfaCHons for 1718, publifhed a very fimple folution,
embracing all the geometrical curves, and a great num¬
ber of the mechanical ones.
77. During thefe difeuftions, feveral difficult problems
on the integration of rational fradions were propofed by
Dr Taylor, and folved by John Bernouilli. This fub-
jed, however, had been firft difeufied by Roger Cotes,
profeffor of mathematics at Cambridge, who died in
17x0. In his pofthumous work entitled Hannonia
Menfurarum, publiffied in 1716, he gave general and
convenient formulae for the integration of rational frac-
Cotes, born t;ons . ancj we are indebted to this young geometer for
his method of eftimating errors in mixed mathematics,
for his remarks on the differential method of Newton,
and for his celebrated theorem for refolving certain equa¬
tions.
78. In X715, Dr Taylor publifhed his learned work
invents the entitled MetJiodus incrementorum direct a et inverfa. In
calculus of t^s work ^ doftor gives the name of increments or
finite dif- decrements of variable quantities to the differences,
ferecces. whether finite or infinitely fmall, of two confecutive
-terms in a feries formed after a given law. When the
differences are infinitely fmall, their calculus belongs to
fluxions •, but when they are finite, the method of find¬
ing their relation to the quantities by which they are
produced forms a new calculus, called the integral cal¬
culus of finite differences. In confequence of this
work, Dr Taylor was attacked anonymoufly by John
Bernouilli, who laviffied upon the Englilh geometer
all that dull abufe, and angry ridicule, which he had
formerly heaped upon his brother.
Problem of 79. The problem of reciprocal trajectories was at this
reciprocal time propofed by the Bernouillis. This problem re-
trajedlories. qU;rect the curves which, being conftru6ted in two op-
1716 pofite directions in one axis, given^in polition, and then
moving parallel to one another with unequal velocities,
Itefolved ffiould perpetually interfe£t each other at a given angle,
by Euler, was long difeuffed between John Bernouilli and an
died 178?’ anonymous writer, who proved to be Dr Pemberton.
1717.
1718.
Integration
of rational
fractions.
I7I9*
Labours of
Eoger
Cotes,
1676.
Dr Taylor
1728.
It was by an elegant folution of this problem that
the celebrated Euler began to be diftinguiftied among
mathematicians. He was the pupil of John Berncuilli,
and continued through the whole of his life, the friend
and rival of his fon Daniel. The great object of his
labours was to extend the boundaries of analyfis ; and
before he had reached his 21 ft year, he publiihed a new
and general method of refolving differential equations
of the fecund order, fubjecled to certain conditions.
80. The common algebra had been applied by Leibnitz Labours of
and John Bernouilli to determine ares of the parabola, C°unt laS"
the difference of which is an algebraic quantity, ima-11^
gining that fuch problems in the cafe of the ellipfe and
hyperbola refifted the application of the new analyfis.
The Count de Fagnani, however, applied the integral
calculus to the arcs of the ellipfis and hyperbola, and
had the honour of explaining this new branch of geo¬
metry.
81. In the various problems depending on the analyfis Problem of
of infinites, the great difficulty is to refolve the differen- c;°unt Ric-
tial equation to which the problems are reduced. Countcatu
James Riceati having been puzzled with a differential 1725..
equation of the firft order, with two variable quantities,
propofed it to mathematicians in the Leipfic A6ls for
1725. This queftion baffled the Ikill of the moft cele¬
brated analyfts, w'ho were merely able to point out a
number of cafes in which the indeterminate can be fe-
parated, and the equation refolved by the quadrature of
curves.
82. Another problem fuggefted by that of Viviani was Problem of
propofed in 1718 by Erneft von Offenburg. It was re-Offcnburg.
quired to pierce a hemifpherical vault with any number
of elliptical windows, fo that their circumferences
ffiould be expreffed by algebraic quantities ;—or in
other words, to determine on the furface of a fphere,
curves algebraically re&ifiable. In a paper on the rec¬
tification of fpherical epicycloids, Herman * imagined * reterf-
that thefe curves were algebraically re&ifiable, and burgh J
therefore fatisfied the queftion of Offenburg • but John Tranfac-
Bernouilli (Mem. Acad. Par. 1732) demonftrated, that*™^.
as the re&ification of thefe curves depended on the qua- 1 ‘
drature of the hyperbola, they were only redlifiable in Refolved by
certain cafes, and gave the general method of determin-•,ohl1 ?er-
ing the curves that are algebraically re&ifiable on the n-°ulili-
furface of a fphere.
83. The fame fubjett was alfo difeuffed by Nicole and Labours of
Clairaut, (Mem. Acad. 1734). The latter of thefe Clairaut.
mathematicians had already acquired fame by bis Re-
cherches fur les Courbes a double Cour bur e, publiflied
in 1730, before he was 2x years of age ; but his repu¬
tation was extended by a method of finding curves
whofe property confifts in a certain relation between
thefe branches expreffed by a given equation. In this
refearch, Clairaut pointed out a fpecies of paradox in the
integral calculus, which led to the celebrated theory of
particular integrals which was afterwards fully illuftrat-
ed by Euler and other geometers.
84. The celebrated problem of ifochronous curves be-Problem of
gan at this time to be reagilated among mathematicians, ifochronous
The objeft of this problem is to find fuch a curve that acurves*
heavy body defeending along its concavity fiiall always
reach the loweft point in the fame time, from what¬
ever point of the curve it begins to defeend. Huygens
had already ffiewn that the cycloid was the ifochronous
curve in vacuo. Newton had demonftrated the fame
curve to be ifochronous when the defeending body ex¬
periences from the air a reliftance proportional to its ve¬
locity j
M ATHE
* Mcmoirs-'mcXty ; and Euler * and John Bernouilli f, had fepa-
oj Peterf ra|;eiy found the ifcchronous curve when the relittance
was as ^1C ^luare °f the velocity. Thefe three cafes,
^Mem. aud even a fourth in which the refiftance was as the
Par. 1730. fquare of the velocity added to the produid of the velo¬
city by a conftant coefficient^ were all refolved by Fon-
Solved by taine, by means of an ingenious and original method ;
Fontaine, and it is very remarkable that the ifochronous curve
is the fame in the third and fourth cafes.—The method
of Fontaine was illuflrated by Euler, who folved a fifth
cafe, including all the other four, when the refiftance is
compofed of three terms, the fquare of the velocity, the
produft of the velocity by a given coefficient, and a
conftant quantity. He found alfo an expreffion of the
time which the body employs to defeend through any
arc of the curve.
Algebra of 85. The application of analytical formulae to the phy-
fines and fico-mathematical fciences was much facilitated by the
sofmes. algebra of fines and cofines with which Frederick
Chriftian Mayer, and Euler, enriched geometry. By
the combination of arcs, fines, and cofines, formuke are
obtained which frequently yield to the method of refo-
lution, and enable us to folve a number of problems
which the ordinary ufe of arcs, fines, and cofines, would
render tedious and complicated.
Improve- 86. About this time a great difeovery in the theory
ment in theGf differential equations of the firft order tvas made fe-
ofdiffers Paral;cty hy Euler, Fontaine, and Clairaut. Hitherto
tial equa- geometers had no direct method of afeertaining if any
tions. differential equation were refolvable in the ftate in
which it was prefented, or if it required feme prepara¬
tion prior to its refolution. For every differential equa¬
tion a particular method was employed, and their refo¬
lution was often effefted by a kind of tentative procefs,
which difplayed the ingenuity of its author, without be¬
ing applicable to other equations. The conditions un¬
der which differential equations of the firft order are re-
folvable were difeovered by the three mathematicians
whom we have mentioned. Euler made the difeovery
in 1736, but did not publiftx it till 1740. Fontaine
and Clairaut lighted upon it in 1739. Euler after¬
wards extended the difeovery to equations of higher
orders.
Difeovery 87. The firft traces of the integral calculus with pat-
of tho inte-tial differences appeared in a paper of Euler’s in the
j^u- Peterlburgh '1'ranfactions for 17345 but d’Alembert,
partial dif- ^"ls work Sur les Vents, has given clearer notions of
fcrcnces. it, and was the firft who employed it in folution of the
problem of vibrating cords propofed by Dr Taylor, and
inveftigated by Euler and Daniel Bernouilli. The ob-
jedt of this calculus is to find a fundlion of fcveral vari¬
able quantities, when we have the relation of the coef¬
ficients which affedf the differentials of the variable
quantities of which this fundlion is compofed. Euler
exhibited it in various points of view, and (hewed its
application to a number of pbyfical problems 5 and he
| Peterf- afterwards, in his paper entitled Invfiigatio FunBio-
Tranfac- num cx ^ata ^Werent^a^um conditioned., completely ex-
tions, 1762. plained the nature, and gave the algorithm of the cal¬
culus.
d'Tefof " ^ie analyfis of infinites was making fuch ra-
fliixions Progrefs on the continent, it was attacked in England
attacked by the celebrated Dr Berkeley, biftiop of Cloyne, in a
by Dr work rafted ihe \nalijjl. or a difeourfe addre/fed to an In-
Berkcley, jijei Mathematician, wherein it is examined whether the
i734*
•A
MAT ICS.
objeEl, principles, and inferences of the modern analyfis,
are more di/linffly conceived than Religious Myjleries
and Points of Faith. In this work the ciodlor .admits
the truth of the conclulions, but maintains that the
principles of fluxions are not founded upon reafpning
ftridlly logical and conclufive. 'i his attack called forth
Robins and Maclaurin. The former proven that the
principles of fluxions were confident with the ftricteft
rcafoning-, while M aclaurin, in his Treatife of Fluxions,
gave a fynthetical demonftration of the principles of the
calculus after the manner of the ancient geometricians,
and eftablifties it with fuch clearnefs and fatisfaclion
that no intelligent man could' refufe his affent. The
differential calculus had been attacked at an earlier
period by Nieuwentiet and Rol/e, but the weapons
wielded by thefe adverfaries were contemptible when
compared with the ingenuity of Dr Berkeley.
89. Notwithftanding this attack upon the principles of Works of
the new analyfis, the fcience of geometry made rapid thorn as
advances in England in the hands of Thomas Simplon, :^1InPlon•
Landen, and Waring. In 174Q, Mr Simpfon publiffi-1740.
ed his Treatife on Fluxions, which, befides many origi¬
nal refearches, contains a convenient method of refolv-
ing differential equations by approximation, and various
means of haftening the convergency of flowly conver¬
ging feries. We are indebted to the fame geometer for
feveral general theorems for fumming different feries,
whether they are fufceptible of an abfolute or an ap¬
proximate fummation. His Mathematical Differtations, I743.!>
publifhed in 1743, his Efihijs on feveral Subjects in
Mathematics, publiihed in 1740, and his Sclell Exer-
cifes for Toung Proficients in the Mathematics, publifh¬
ed in 1752, contain ingenious and original rel’earches
which contributed to the progrefs of geometry.
90. In \res> Mathematical Lucubrations, publiflied in The refidu-
1755, Mr Landen has given feveral ingenious theoremsal analyfis
for the fummation of feries 5 and the Philofophieal Tranf- invcnted
a61 ions for 1775 contain ,his curious difeovery of the jjK,q'^enj
re6Iification of a hyperbolic arc, by means of two arcs of 1777.
an ellipfis, which w;as afterwards, more fimply demon-
ftrated by Legendre. His invention of a new calculus,
called the ref dual analysis ,2.\\di in fome rcfpe6!s fubfi-
diary to the method of fluxions, has immortalized his
name. It was announced and explained in a fmall
pamphlet publiflied in 1715, entitled a Difeourfe con*
cerning the Rcfidual Analysis.
91. The progrefs of geometry in England was acce- La])0urs Gj
lerated by the labours of Mr Edward Waring, proteffor Warning,
of mathematics at Cambridge. His two Works entitled Phil. Tranf
Meditationes An a lytic ce, publifhed in 1769, and Medita- 17s4» anc*
tiones Algebraicce, and his papers in the Philofophical
Tranfadlions on the fummation of forces, are filled with
original and profound refearches into various branches of
the common algebra, and the higher analyfis.
92. It was from the genius of Lagrange, however,.Difcoveri(j3
that the higher calculus has received the moft brilliant c-r La-
improvements. This great man was born in Piedmont, granges
He afterwards removed to Berlin, and hence to Paris,
where he ftill refides. In addition to many improvements
upon the integral analyfis, he has enriched geometry with
a new calculus called \\w method of variations. The object jjjs
of this calculus is, when there is given an expreffion orof varia-
funftion of two or more variable quantities whole relation tions.
is expreffed by a certain law, to find what this function
becomes when that law fuffers any variation infinitely
ffliall.
14
MATHEMATICS.
Hts theory
of analyti¬
cal func¬
tions.
Labours of
La Place.
* Tom. 6.7.
Works of
Coufin, La¬
croix, Bof-
fut, and
Legendre.
Agnefi’s
analytical
inftitutions.
17S4.
Mafcheroni
on the
circle.
fmall, occafioncd by the variation of one or more of the
terms which exprefs it. This calculus is as much fu-
perior to the integral calculus, as the integral calculus
is above the common algebra. It is the only means
by which we can refolve an immenfe number of prob¬
lems dc maximis et minimis, and is neceffary for the fo-
lution of the moft interefting problems in mechanics.
His theory of analytical functions is one of the moft
brilliant fpecimens of human genius. In the Memoirs
of Berlin for 1772 he had touched upon this intereft-
ing fubjeft, but the theory was completely developed
in 1797 in his work entitled Theorie des fonEtions ana-
hjtiques, contenant les principes du calcul differentiei,
degagees de toute conjideration d'itfniments petits, ou
evanouifj'ements, ou des limites, ou des fluxions ; et re-
duit a I'anahjfe algebrique des quantiles flmes. In a great
number of memoirs which are to be found in the Me¬
moirs of the Academy of Paris, in thofe of the Acade¬
my of Berlin, and in thofe of the French Academy, La¬
grange has thrown light on every branch both of the
common algebra and the new analyfis.
93. The new geometry has likewife been much indebt¬
ed to the celebrated Laplace. His various papers in the
Memoires des Spavans Etrangers *, and the Memoirs of
the French Academy, have added greatly to the higher
calculi, while his application of analyfis to the celefti'al
phenomena, as exhibited in the Mechanique Celefle, and
his various difeoveries in phyfical aftronomy, entitle him
to a high rank among the promoters of fcience.
94. Among the celebrated French mathematicians of
the laft and prefent century, we cannot omit the names
of Coufin, Lacroix, and Boffut} all of whom have writ¬
ten large works on the differential and integral calculi,
and illuftrated the new analyfis by their difeoveries.
The Elemens de Geometric by Legendre is one of the
beft and moft original works upon elementary geometry,
and his papers in the Memoirs of the Academy contain
feveral improvements upon the new analyfis.
95. In Italy the mathematical fciences were deftined
to be improved and explained by a celebrated female.
Donna Maria Gaetana Agnefi was profeffor of mathe¬
matics in the univerfity of Bologna, and publilhed a
learned work entitled Analytical Inflitutions, contain¬
ing tire common analyfis, and the differential and in¬
tegral calculi. It has been tranflated into Englifh by
Profeffor Colfon, and was publiihed at the expence of
Baron Maferes. A few years ago feveral curious pro¬
perties of the circle have been difeovered by Mafche¬
roni, another Italian mathematician, who has publiihed
them in his interefting work fur le Geometric du Cam¬
pus.
96. In England the mathematical fciences have beenEnglifli
fuccefsfully cultivated by Emerfon, Baron Maferes, Dr matiioma.
M. Young, Dr Hutton, Profeffor Vince, and Profeffor UciaijS‘
Robertfon of Oxford. The Doctrine of Fluxions by -merfon.
Emerfon, and his Method of Increments, are good in¬
troductions to the higher geometry. The Scriptures
Logarithmici of Baron Maferes } his TraBs on the Re- Baron M*«
folution of Equations ; his Principles of Life Annuities, fews.
and his other mathematical papers, do the higheft ho¬
nour to his talents as a mathematician 5 while his zeal
for the promotion of the mathematical fciences, and his
generous attention to thofe who cultivate them, entitle
him to the noble appellation of the friend and patron of
genius. Dr Matthew Young, bilhop of Clonfert, has Dr M.
given a fynthetical demonftration of Newton’s rule for Young,
the quadrature of fimple curves j and has written on
the extraction of cubic and other roots. Dr Hutton Dr Huttost
and Dr Vince have each publifhed feveral elementary an[l Dr
treatifes on mathematics, and have invented ingeni-Vince’
ous methods for the fummation of feries. Mr Robert- Mr Robert,
fon of Oxford is the author of an excellent treatife onlou-
conic feCtions.
97. The ancient geometry was afliduoufly cultivated Scottifii
in Scotland by Dr Robert Simpfon and Dr Matthew
Stewart. Dr Simpfon’s edition of Euclid and his treatife
on conic feCtions have been much admired. The 2V’cC?.r Pr SimP-
Phyfical and Mathematical of Dr Matthew Stewart,lon‘
and his Propofltiones Geometricce more veterum demon-
flratce, contain fine fpecimens of mathematical genius. In Dr M.
the prefent day the names of Profeffor Playfair and Pro- Stewart,
feffor Leflie of the univerfity of Edinburgh, Mr Wal¬
lace and Mr Ivory now of the Royal Military College
at Great Marlow, are well known to mathematicians.
Mr Playfair’s Elements of Geometry, and his papers on Mr Play-
the Arithmetic of Impoflible Quantities and on Porfms, are tUr‘
proofs of his great talents as a mathematician and a phi-
lofopher. Mr Leflie, well known for his great difeo- Mr Leflie,
veries on heat, has found a very fimple principle, capable
of extenfive application, by which the complicated ex-
preflions in the folution of indeterminate problems may
be eafily refolved. Mr Wallace’s papers on GeometricalMr Wal-
Porifms in the 4th vol. of the Edinburgh TranfaCtions,,ace-
difplay much genius 5 and Mr Ivory’s Treatifes in the Mr Ivory,
laft vol. of Baron Maferes’s Scriptures Logarithmici, and
his paper on A New Series for the ReBiflcation of the
Ellipfls, Edin. Tranf. vol. 4th. entitle him to a high
rank among modern mathematicians.
I Mathema¬
tical,
Matiock.
mat
MATHEMATICAL, any thing belonging to the
fcience of mathematics.
MATHEMATICAL Inflruments, fuch inftruments as
are ufually employed by mathematicians, as compaffes,
feales, quadrants, &c.
Machine for dividing MATHEMAT1CAL Inflruments.
See R a v s den’s Machine.
MATLOCK, a town or village of Derbylhire, near
%
MAT
Wickfwmrth, fituated on the very edge of the Der- Matlock,
•went 5 noted for its bath, the water of which is milk--y—
warm } and remarkable for the huge rocks in its envi¬
rons, particularly thofe called the Torr, which is 140
yards liigh. It is an extenfive ftraggling village, built
in a very romantic ftyle, on the fteep fide of a moun¬
tain, and containing, in 18cI, above 2000 inhabitants.
Near the bath are feveral fmall houfes, whofe fituation
MAT [i
k is on the little natural horizontal parts of the mountain,
a few yards above the road, and in fome places the roofs
of fome almoft touch the floors of others. There are ex¬
cellent accommodations for company who refort to the
bath 5 and the poorer inhabitants are fupported by the
fale of petrifaftions, cryftals, &c. and notwithftanding
the rock-inefs of the foil, the cliffs produce an immenfe
number of trees, whofe foliage adds greatly to the beau¬
ty of the place.
MATRASS, Cucurbit, or Bolthead, among
chemifls. See Chemistry, Explanation of Plates.
MATRICARIA, Feverfew 5 a genus of plants,
belonging to the fyngenefia clafs j and in the natural
method ranking under the 49th order, Compojitce. See
Botany Index.
M ATRICE, or Matrix. See Matrix.
Matrice, or matrix, in Dyeing, is applied to the
five Ample colours, whence all the reft: are derived or
compofed. Thefe are, the black, white, blue, red, and
yellow or root colour.
Matrice, or matrices, ufed by the letter-founders,
are thofe little pieces of copper or brafs, at one end
whereof are engraven, dentwife, or en creux, the feve-
ral charafters ufed in the compoling of books. Each
charafter, virgula, and even each point in a difcourfe,
has its feveraf matrix ; and of confequence its feveral
puncheon to ftrike it. They are the engravers on me¬
tal that cut or grave the matrices.
When types are to be caft, the matrice is fattened
to the end of a mould, fo difpofed, as that when the
metal is poured on it, it may fall into the creux or ca¬
vity of the matrice, and take the figure and impreflion
thereof. See Letter FOUNDER T.
Matrices, ufed in coining, are pieces of fteel in
form of dies, whereon are engraven the feveral figures,
arms, charadlers, legends, &c. wherewith the fpecies
art; to be ftamped. The engraving is performed with
feveral puncheons, which being formed in relievo, or
prominent, when ftruck on the metal, make an indent¬
ed impreflion, which the French call en creux.
MATRICULA, a regifter kept of the admiflion
of officers and perfons entered into any body or fociety
whereof a lift is made. Hence thofe who are admitted
into our univerfities are faid to be matriculated. A-
mong ecclefiaftical authors, we find mention made of
two kinds of matricule ) the one containing a lift of
the ecclefiaftics, called matricula clericorum : the other
of the poor fubfifted at the expence of the church, call¬
ed matricula pauperum.
Matricula was alfo applied to a kind of alms-
houfe, where the poor were provided for. It had cer¬
tain revenues appropriated to it, and was ufually built
near the church, whence the name was alfo frequently
given to the church itfelf.
MATRIMONY. See Marriage.
MATRIX, in Anatomy, the womb, or that part of
the female of any kind, wherein the foetus is conceived
and nouriflied till the time of its delivery. See Ana¬
tomy, N0 108.
Matrix is alfo applied to places proper for the ge¬
neration of vegetables, minerals, and metals. Thus
the earth is the matrix wherein feeds fprout ; and
marcafites are by many confidered as the matrices of
metals.
The matrix of ores is the earthy and ftony fubftan-
5 ] MAT
ces in which thefe metallic matters are enveloped : Matrix
thefe are various, as lime and heavy fpar, quartz,
fluors, 8tc. _ y—
MATRON, an elderly married woman.
Jury of Matrons. When a widow feigns herfelf
with child in order to exclude the next heir, and a
fuppofititious birth is fufpe&ed to be intended, then,.,
upon the writ de ventre infpiciendo, a jury of women
is to be impannelled to try the queftion whether the
woman is with child or not- So, if a woman is
convidted of a capital offence, and, being condemned
to fuffer death, pleads in ftay of execution, that Ihe
is pregnant, a jury of matrons is impannelled to in¬
quire into the truth of the allegation and, if they
find it true, the convict is refpited till after her deli¬
very.
MATRON A, in Ancient Geography, a river fepa-
rating Gallia Celtica from the Belgica (Cefar). Now
the Marne j which, rifing in Champagne near Langres,
runs north-weft, and then weft, and pafling by Meaux
falls into the Seine at Charenton, two leagues to the
eaft of Paris.
MATRONALIA, a Roman feftival inftituted by
Romulus, and celebrated on the kalends of March, in
honour of Mars. It was kept by matrons in particular,
and bachelors were entirely excluded from any Ihare in
the folemnity. The men during this feaft fent prefents
to the women, for which a return was made by them at
the Saturnalia : And the women gave the fame indul¬
gence to their fervants now which the men gave to
theirs at the feaft of Saturn, ferring them at table, and
treating them as fuperiors.
MATROSSES, are foldiers in the train of artil¬
lery, who are next to the gunners, and aflift them in
loading, firing, and fpunging the great guns. They
carry firelocks, and march along with the ftore wag¬
gons, both as a guard, and to give their afliftance in
cafe a waggon fhould break down.
MATSYS, Quintin, painter of hiftory and por¬
traits, Avas born at Antwerp in 1460, and for feveral
years folloAved the trade of a blackfmith or farrier, at
leaft till he was in his 20th year. Authors vary in their
accounts of the caufe of his quitting his firft occupa¬
tion, and attaching himfelf to the art of painting.
Some affirm, that the firft unfolding of his genius Avas
occafioned by the fight of a print Avhich accidentally
Avas fiioAvn to him by a friend Avho came to pay him a
vifit Avhile he Avas in a declining ftate of health from
the labour of his former employment, and that by his
copying the print Avith fome degree of fuccefs, be Avas
animated Avith a defire to learn the art of painting.
Others fay, he fell in love Avith a young Avoman of
great beauty, the daughter of a painter, and they al¬
lege that love alone wrought the miracle, as he could
have no profpeft of obtaining her except by a diftin-
guiftted merit in the profeffion of painting : for which
reafon he applied himfelf with inceffant labour to ftudy
and praftife the art, till he became fo eminent as to
be entitled to demand her in marriage, and he fueceed-
ed. Whatever truth may be in either of thefe ac¬
counts, it is certain that he appeared to have an un¬
common genius ; his manner Avas Angular, not refem-
bling the manner of any other matter •, and his pidures
Tvere ftrongly coloured and carefully finiflied, but yet
they are fomewhat dry and hard. By many compe¬
tent
Matfys
, II
Matthew.
MAT
C i
tent judges it was believed, when they obferved the
ftrength of ex predion in feme of his compofitions, that
if he had Ifudied in Italy to acquire fome knowledge of
the antiques and the great mafters of the Roman fchoel,
he would have proved one of the moil eminent painters
Oi the Low Countries. But he only imitated ordinary
life j and feemed more inclined, or at lead more quali¬
fied, to imitate the defers than the beauties of nature.
Some hiiforical compofitions of this matter deferve cotn-
xnendation ; particularly a Defcent from the Crofs,
which is in the cathedral at Antwerp ; and it is juttly
admired for the fpirit, Ikill, and delicacy of the whole.
But the moft remarkable and bed known pi£ture of
Matfys, is that ol the Two Mifers in the gallery at
Windfor. He died in 1529.
M A R I, in a drip, is a name given to rope-yarn,
junk, &c. beat dat and interwoven uled in order to
preferve the yards from galling or rubbing, in hoidine-
or lowering them.
MATTER, in common language, is a word of the
lame import with body, and denotes that which is tan¬
gible, vifible, and extended ; but among philofophers it
fignifies that fubdance of which all bodies are compo-
fed ; and in this fenfe it is fynonymous with the word
Element.
It is only by the fenfes that we have any communi¬
cation with the external world ^ but the immediate ob¬
jects of fenfe, philofophers have in general agreed to
term qualities, which they conceive as inhering in
fomething which is called their fuhjeB or fuhjlratwn.
It is this fubdratum of fenfible qualities which, in the
language of. philofophy, is denominated matter; fo
that matter is not that which we immediately fee - or
handle, but the concealed' fubjeSl or fupport of vifible
and tangible qualities. What the moderns term quali¬
ties, was by Aridotle and his followers called form;
but fo far as the two do&rines are intelligible, there ap¬
pears to be no effential difference between them. From
the moderns we learn, that body confids of matter and
qualities ; and the Peripatetics taught the fame thing,
when they faid that body is compofed of matter and
form.
How philofophers were led to analyze body into mat¬
ter and form, or, to ufe modern language, into matter
and qualities} what kind of exidence they attribute to
each } and whether matter mud be conceived as felf- •
exident or created—are quedions which fiiall be confi-
dered afterwards (See Metaphysics). It is fufficient
here to have defined the term.
. MATTHEW, or Gofpel of St MATTHEW, a cano¬
nical book of the New Tedament.
St MATTHEW wrote his gofpel in Judea, at the re-
qued of thofe he had converted ; and it is thought he
began in the year 41, eight years after Chrid’s refur-
retf-ion. It was written, according to the teilimony of
all the ancients, in the Hebrew or Syriac language ;
but the Greek verfion, which now paffes for the origi¬
nal, is as old as the apodolical times.
6V Matthew the Evany elf's Day, a fedival of the
Chridian church, obferved on September 21 d.
St MATTHEW, the fon of Alpbeus, was alfo called
Levi. He was of a Jewifh original, as both his names
difeover, and probably Galilean. Before his call to
the apodolate, he was a publican or toll-gatherer to
tbe Romans j an office of bad repute among the
6 ] . MAT
Jews, on account of the covetoufnefs and exaflion of Matthew,
thofe who managed it $ St Matthew’s office particular-
ly confiding in gathering the cudoms of all merchan- ' 
dile that came by the lea of Galilee, and the tribute
that paffengers were to pay who went by water. And
here it was that Matthew fat at the receipt of cudoms,
when our Saviour called him to be a difciple. It is
probable, that, living at Capernaum, the place of
Chrid s ufual xefidencc, he might have fome know¬
ledge of him before he was called. Matthew imme¬
diately expreffed his fatisfa&ion in being called to this
high dignity, by entertaining our Saviour and his dif-
ciples at a great dinner at his own houfe, whither he
invited all his friends, efpecially thofe of his own pro-
feffion, hoping, probably, that they might be influenced
by the company and converfation* of Chrid. St Mat¬
thew continued with the red of the apodles till after
our Lord’s afeenfion. For the fird eight years after¬
wards, he preached in Judea. Then he betook himfelf
to propagating the gofpel among the Gentiles, and
chofe Ethiopia as the feene of his apodolical minidry •
where it is faid he differed martyrdom, but by what
kind of death is altogether uncertain. It is pretended,
but . without any foundation, that Hyrtacus, king of
Ethiopia, defiring to marry Iphigenia, the daughter
of his brother and predeceffor iEglippus, and the apof-
tle having reprefented to him that he could not law¬
fully. do it, the enraged prince ordered his head im¬
mediately to be cut off. Baronins tells us, the body
of St Matthew was tranfported from Ethiopia to Bi-
thynia, and from thence was carried to Salernum in the
kingdom of Naples in the year 954, where it was found
in 1080, and where Duke Robert built a church bear¬
ing his name.
St MATTHEW, a town of Spain, in the kingdom of
Arragon, feated in a pleafant plain, and in a very fer-
tive country watered with many fprings. W. Long,
o. 15. N. Lat. 40. 22.
Matthew of Paris. See Paris.
MATTHEW of Wefminfer, a Benedictine monk and
accompliflied fcholar, who wrote a hiftory from the
beginning of the world to the end of the reign of Ed¬
ward I. under the title of Flores Hi/loriarum; which
was aftenvards continued by other hands. He died in
I3^°*
St MATTHIAS, an apoffle, was chofen inftead
of Judas. He preached in Judea and part of Ethi¬
opia, and fuffered martyrdom. See the A&s of the
Apojlles, chap. i. There w'as a gofpel publiffied un¬
der Matthias’s name, but reje&ed as fpurious ; as
likewife fome traditions, which met with the fame
fate.
St Matthias's Day, a feftival of the Chriftian
church, obferved on the 24th of February. St Mat¬
thias was an apoftle of Jefus Chrift, but not of the
number of the twelve chofen by Chrift himfelf. He
obtained this high honour upon a vacancy made in
the college of the apoftles by the treafon and death
of Judas Ifcariot. The choice fell on Matthias by
lot ; his competitor being Jofeph called Barfabas, and
furnamed Jufiis. Matthias was qualified for the
apoftlefhip, by having been a conftant attendant upon
our Saviour all the time of his miniftry. He was,
probably, one of the 70 difciples. After our Lord’s
refurredlion, he preached the gofpel firft in Judea.
Afterwards
M A T
[ I? 1
M A U
Maty.
.Matthias Afterwards it is probable he travelled eaflwards, his
relidcnee being principally near the irruption of the
river Apfarus and the liaven Hyfi'us. The barbarous
people treated him with great rudenefs and inhumani¬
ty •, and, after many labours and fufferings in convert¬
ing great numbers to Chriitianity, he obtained the
crown of martyrdom ; but by what kind ot death, is
uncertain.—T hey pretend to thow the relics of St Mat¬
thias at Rome; and the famous abbey of St Mat¬
thias near Treves boalts of the fame advantage : but
doubtlefs both without any foundation. There was a
gofpel afcribed to St Matthias 5 but it was univerfally
rejected as fpurious.
MATTlACAi, Aqu^, or Mattiaci Foktes, in
Ancient Geography, now Wifbaden, oppofite to Mentz,
in Weteravia. E. Long. 8. N. Lat. 50. 6.
MATTIACUM, or Mattium, in Ancient Geogra¬
phy, a town of the Mattiaci, a branch of the Catti in
Germany. Now Marpurg in Hefl’e. E. Long. 8. 40.
N. Lat. 50. 40.
MATTINS, the firft canonical hour, or the firft
part of the daily fervice in the Romifh church.
MATTHIOLUS, Peter Andrew, an eminent
phyfician in the 16th century, born at Sienna, was well
fkilled in the Greek and Latin tongues. Fie wrote
learned commentaries on Diofcorides, and other works
which are efteemed and died in 1577.
MxTTURANTS, in Pharmacy, medicines which
promote the fuppuration of tumors.
MATY, Matthew, M. D. an eminent phyfician
and polite writer, was born in Holland in the year
1718. He was the fon of a clergyman, and was ori¬
ginally intended for the church ; but in confequence
of fome mortifications his father met with from the
fynod, on account of the peculiar fentiments he en¬
tertained about the dodlrine of the Trinity, turned
his thoughts to phyfic. He took his degree of M. D.
at Leyden; and in 1740 came to fettle in England,
his father having determined to quit Holland for ever.
In order to make himfelf known, he began in 1749 to
publifli in French an account of the productions of the
Englifh prefs, printed at the Hague under the name of
the Journal Britannique. This journal, which conti¬
nues to hold its rank amongft the befi; of thofe which
have appeared fince the time of Bayle, anfwered the
chief end he intended by it, and introduced him to
the acquaintance of fome of the molt refpectable lite¬
rary characters of the country he had made his own.
It was to their aCtive and uninterrupted friendfhip he
owed the places he afterwards poffefled. In 1758 he
was chofen fellow, and in 1765, on the refignation of
Dr Birch, who died a few months after, and had made
him his executor, fecretary to the Royal Society. He
had been appointed one of the under librarians of the
Britifii mufeum at its firft inflitution in 1753, an<^ ^e'
came principal librarian at the death of Dr Knight in
1772. Ufeful in all thefe fituations, he promifed to be
eminently fo in the laft, when he was feized with a
languifhing diforder, which in 1776 put an end to a
life which had been uniformly devoted to the purfuit
of fcience and the offices of humanity. He was an
early and aClive advocate for inoculation ; and when
there was a doubt entertained that one might have the
fmallpox this way a fecond time, tried it upon him-
lelf unknown to his family. He was a member of
Vol. XIII. Part I.
the medical club (with the Drs Parlous, Templeman, Maty,
Fothefgill, Watfon and others), which met every
fortnight in St Paul’s Churchyard. He was twice v
married, viz. the firft time to Mrs Elizabeth Boifra-
gon ; and the fecond to Mrs Mary Deners. Pie kit
a fon and three daughters. He had nearly finilhed
the Memoirs of the earl of Chefterfield ; which were
completed by his fon-in law Mr Juftamond, and pre¬
fixed to that nobleman’s Mifeellaneous Works, 1777,
2 vols. qto.
Maty, Paul Henry, M. A. F. R. S. fon of the
former, was born in 1745, and was educated at Weft-
minfter and Trinity college, Cambridge, and had their
travelling fellowlhip for three years. He was afterwards
chaplain to Lord Stormont at Paris, and foon after va¬
cated his next fellowlhip by marrying one of the three
daughters of Jofeph Clerk, Efq. and filler of Captain
Charles Clerk (who fucceeded to the command on the
death of Captain Cook). On his father’s death in i 776,
he was appointed to the office of one of the under libra¬
rians of the Britifti Mufeum, and was afterwards prefer¬
red to a fuperior department, having the care of the
antiquities, for which he was eminently qualified. In
1776 he alfo-fucceeded his father in the office of
fecretary to the Royal Society. On the difputes re-
fpedling the reinftatement of Dr Hutton in the depart¬
ment of fecretary for foreign correfpondence in 1784,
Mr Maty took a warm and diftinguilhed part, and re-
ligned the office of fecretary ; after which he under¬
took to affift gentlemen or ladies in perfedling then-
knowledge of the Greek, Latin, French, and Italian
dallies. Mr Maty was a thinking confcientious man ;
and having conceived fome doubts about the articles
he had lubferibed in early life, he never could be pre¬
vailed upon to place himfelf in the way of ecclefiaflicai
preferment, though his connexions were amongft thofe
who could have ferved him effentially in this point;
and foon after his father’s death he withdrew himfelf
from miniftering in the eftabliihed church, his reafons
for which he publilhed in the 47th volume of the Gent.
Magazine, p, 466. His whole life was thenceforv'ards
taken up in literary purfuits. He received look from
the duke of Marlborough, with a copy of that beauti¬
ful work, the Gemmee Marlburienfes, of which only 100
copies were worked off for prefents ; and of which
Mr Maty wrote the French account, as Mr Bryant did,
the Latin. In January 1782 he fet on foot a Review
of publications, principally foreign, which he carried
on, with great credit to himfelf and fatisfa&ion to the
public, for near five years, when he was obliged to
difeontinue it from ill health. He had long laboured
under an afthmatic complaint, which at times made
great ravages in his conftitution, and at laft put a pe¬
riod to his life in Jan. 1787, at the age of 42 ; leaving
behind him one fon.—Mr Maty was eminently ac¬
quainted with ancient and modern literature, and parti¬
cularly converfant in critical refearches. The purity
and probity of his nature were unqueftionable; and his
humanity was as exquifite as it would have been exten-
five, had it been feconded by his fortune.
MAUBEUGE, a town of the Netherlands, in Hai-
nault, with an illuftrious abbey of canoneffes, who
muft be noble both by the father and mother’s fide.
This place was ceded to France in 1678 ; and fortified
after the manner of Vauban. In September 1793, the
C Auftrianl
M A U [
MauWe Auftrians formed the blockade of this place, but were
Maupertuis.^n/en ^1(,m t*ie^r Poillion in the following month. It
feated on the river bambre, in E. Long. 4. 2. N.
Lat. 50. 16.
LLlUCAUCO, Macaco, or JUafa, a genus of
quadrupeds belonging to the order Primates. See Mam¬
malia Index.
MAVIS, a fpecies of turdus. See Ornithology
Index.
MAUNCH, in Heraldry, the figure of an ancient
■seat lleeve, born in many gentlemen’s efcutcheons.
MAUNDY THURSDAY, is the Thurfday in paf-
fion week 5 which was called Maunduy or Mandate
Thurfday, from the command which our Saviour gave
his apoilles to commemorate him in the Lord’s fupper,
which he this day inftituted 5 or from the new com¬
mandment which he gave them to love one another
after he had walked their feet as a token of his love
lo them.
MAUPERTUIS, Peter Louis Morceau de, a
celebrated French academician, was born at St Malo
in 1698 ; and w'as there privately educated till he arriv¬
ed at his 16th year, when he was placed under the ce¬
lebrated profeffor of philofophy M. le Blond, in the
college of La Marche, at Paris He foon difcovered a
paffion for mathematical ftudies, and particularly for
geometry. He like wife praftifed inftrumental mufic
in his early years with great fuccefs, but fixed on no
profeffion till he rvas 20, when he entered into the ar¬
my. He firll ferved in the Grey mufqueteers ; but in
the year 1 y 20, his father purchafed for him a company
of cavalry in the regiment of La Rocheguyon. He re¬
mained but five years in the army, during which time
he pui lued his mathematical lludies with great vigour j
and it was foon remarked by M. Freret and other aca¬
demicians, that nothing but geometry could fatisfy
his a£Hve foul and unbounded thirft for knowledge.
In the year 1723, he was received into the Royal
Academy ol Sciences, and read his firft performance,
which was a memoir upon the conftruftion and form
ff mufical inftruments, November 15. 1724. During
the firll years of his admifiion, he did not wholly con¬
fine his attention to mathematics ; he dipt into natu¬
ral philofophy, and difcovered great knowledge and
dexterity in obfervations and experiments upon animals.
If the cuftom of travelling into remote climates, like
the fages of antiquity, in order to be initiated into
the learned myfteries of thofe times, had dill fubfided,
no one would have conformed to it with greater eager-
nefs than M. de Maupertuis. His fird gratification
of this paffion was to vifit the country which had
ven birth to Newton : and during his refidence at
ondon he became as jealous an admirer and fol¬
lower of that philofopher as any one of his own
countrymen. His next excurfion was to Bafil in
Switzerland, where he formed a friendlhip with the fa¬
mous John Bernouilli and his family, which continued
to his death. At his return to Paris, he applied him-
felf to his favourite dudies with greater zeal than ever:
-—And how well he fulfilled the duties of an academi¬
cian, may be gathered by running over the memoirs of
the academy from the year 1724 to 1736 5 where it ap¬
pears that he was neither idle nor occupied by objetfs
»f fmall importance. Fhe mod fublime quedions in
geomstry and the relative feiences received from his
» a.z
8 ] M A U
hands that eregance, clearnefs, and precifion, fo re¬
markable in all his writings. In the year 1736, he
was fent by the king of France to the polar circle’, to
meafure a degree, in order to afcertain the figure of
the earth, accompanied by Mefl'rs Clairault, Camus
Le Monnier, 1’Abbe Outhier, and Celfius the cele¬
brated profeffor of adronomy at Upfal. This didinc-
tion rendered him fo famous, that at his return he was
admitted a member of almod every academy in Eu¬
rope.
In .the year 1740 Maupertuis had an invitation from
the king of Pruflia to go to Berlin 5 which was too
flattering to be refufed- His rank among men of let¬
ters had not wholly effaced his love for his firfl pro¬
feffion, namely, that ol arms. He followed his Pruf-
fi?n majefly into the field, and was a witnefs of the
difpofitions and operations that preceded the battle of
Molwitz ; but was deprived of the glory of being pre-
fent, when viftory declared in favour of his royal pa¬
tron, by a lingular kind of adventure. His horfe, dur¬
ing the heat of the aftion, running away with him,
he fell into the hands of the enemy 5 and w'as at firft
but roughly treated by the Auflrian foldiers, to whom
he could not make himfelf known for want of lan¬
guage j but being carried prifoner to Vienna, he re¬
ceived fuch honours from their Imperial majefties as
were never effaced from his memory. From Vienna
he returned to Berlin ; but as the reform of the aca¬
demy which the king of Pruffia then meditated was
not yet mature, he went again to Paris, where his af¬
fairs called him, and was chofen in 1742 diredlor of
the Academy of Sciences. In 1743 he was received in¬
to the French academy ; which was the firft in ft an ce
of the fame perfon being a member of both the aca¬
demies at Paris at the fame time. M. de Maupertuis
again affumed the foldier at the liege of Fribourg, and
was pitched upon by Marihal Cogny and the Count
d’Argenfon to carry the news to the French king of
the furrender of that citadel.
He returned to Berlin in the year 1744, when ti
marriage was negotiated and brought about by the
good offices of the queen-mother, between our author
and Mademoifelle de Borck, a lady of great beauty and
merit, and nearly related to M. de Borck, at that time
minifter of ftate. This determined him to fettle at
Berlin, as he was extremely attached to his new fpoufe,
and regarded this alliance as the molt fortunate cir-
cumftance of his life.
In the year 1746, M. de Maupertuis was declared
by his Pi-uffian majelly prefiderit of the Royal Academy
of Sciences at Berlin, and foon after by the fame prince
was honoured with the order of Merit : However, all
thefe accumulated honours and advantages, fo far from
leffening his ardour for the fciences, feemed to furnilh
new allurements to labour and application. Not a day
paffed but he produced fome new projeil or effay for
the advancement of knowledge. Nor did he confine
himfelf to mathematical ftudies only : -metaphyfics,
chemiftry, botany, polite literature, all fliared his at¬
tention, and contributed to his fame. At the fame
time, he had, it feems, a ftrange inquietude of fpi-
rit, with a morofe temper, which rendered him
miferable amidft honours and pleafures.— Such a
temperament did not promife a very pacific life,
and he was engaged in fevctal quarrels. He had
A
lyTaupcrtuis'
M A U [
a quarrel with Koenig the profeffor of philofophy at
F'-aneker, and another more terrible with Voltaire.
Maupertub had inferted into the volume of Memoirs
of the Academy of Berlin for 1746, a difcourfe upon
the laws of motion ; which Koenig was not content
with attacking, but attributed to Leibnitz. Mauper-
tuis, ftung with the imputation of plagiarifm, engaged
the academy of Berlin to call upon him for his proof 5
which Koenig failing to produce, he was ftruck out of
the academy, of which he was a member. Several
pamphlets were the confequence of this j and Voltaire,
lor fome reafon or other, engaged againft Maupertuis.
We fay, for fome reafon or other j becaufe Maupertuis
and Voltaire were apparently upon the moll amicable
terms •, and the latter refpe&ed the former as his mailer
in the mathematics. Voltaire, however, exerted all
his wit and fatire againil him ; and on the whole was
fo much tranfported beyond what was thought right,
that he found it expedient in 1753 to quit the court of
Pruflia.
Our philofopher’s conflitution had long been con-
fiderably impaired by the great fatigues of various kinds
in w'hich his aftive mind had involved him } though
from the amazing hardihips he had undergone in his
northern expedition, molt of his future bodily fuffer-
ings may be traced. The intenfe Iharpnefs of the air
could only be fupported by means of ftrong liquors,
which ferved to increafe his diforder, and bring on a
fpitting of blood, which began at leaft 12 years before
he died. Yet ftill his mind feemed to enjoy the
greateft vigour; for the beft of his writings were pro¬
duced, and moft fublime ideas developed, during the
time of his confinement by ficknefs, when he was un¬
able to occupy his prefidial chair at the academy. He
took feveral journeys to St Malo, during the laft years
of his life, for the recovery of his health : And though
he always received benefit by breathing his native air,
yet ftill, upon his return to Berlin, his diforder like-
wife returned with greater violence.—His lafl: journey
into France was undertaken in the year 1757 j when
he was obliged, foon after his arrival there, to quit
his favourite retreat at St Malo, on account of the
danger and confufion which that town was thrown into
by the arrival of the Engliih in its neighbourhood.
From thence he went to Bourdeaux, hoping there to
meet with a neutral {hip to carry him to Hamburgh,
in his way back to Berlin •, but being difappointed in
that hope, he went to Thouloufe, where he remained
feven months. He had then thoughts of going to Italy,
in hopes a milder climate would reftore him to health :
but finding himfelf grow vrorfe, he rather inclined to¬
wards Germany, and went to Neufchatel, where for
three months he enjoyed the converfation of Lord
Marifchal, with whom he had formerly been much
connected. At length he arrived at Bafil, Odlober
16. 1758, where he was received by his friend Ber¬
noulli and his family with the utmofl: tendernefs and
affe&ion. He at firft found himfelf much better here
than he had been at Neufchatel : but this amendment
was of fhort duration 5 for as the winter approached,
his diforder returned, accompanied by new and more
alarming fymptoms. He languilhed here many months,
during which he was attended by M. de la Condamine j
and died in 17 qq.
He wrote in French, 1. The figure of the earth de-
19 ] M A U
termined, 2. The meafure ot a degree of the meridian.
3. A difcourfe on the parallax of the moon. 4. A dif¬
courfe on the figure of the ftars. 5. The elements of
geography. 6. Nautical aftronomy. 7. Elements cf
aftronomy. 8. A phyfical dilfertation on a white inha¬
bitant of Africa. 9. An effay on cofmography. 10. Re¬
flexions on the origin of languages. 11. An efiay on
moral philofophy. 12. A letter on the progrch <1 the
fciences. . 13. An eflav on the formation of bodies.
14. An eulogium on M. de Montelquieu. 15. Let¬
ters, and other works.
MAUR, St, was a celebrated difciple of St Bene-
diX. If avc can believe a life of St Maur afcribed to
Fauftus his companion, he tvas fent by BentdiX on a
million to France. But this life is confidered as apo¬
cryphal. In rejeXing it, however, as well as the cir-
cumftanc.es of the million, we muft beware of denying
the miflion itfelf. It is certain that it Avas believed in
France as early as the 9th century •, and notAvithftand-
ing the filence of Bede, Gregory of Tours, and others,
there are feveral documents Avhich prove this, or at
leaft render it extremely probable. A celebrated fo-
ciety of BenediXines, took the name of St Maur in
the beginning of the laft century, and received the
fanXion of Pope Gregory XV. in 1621. This fo-
ciety was early diftinguifhed by the virtue and the
knoAvledge of its members, and it ftill fupports the
charaXer. There are, perhaps, feAver eminent men in
it than formerly ; but this may be afcribed to the levi¬
ty of the age, and partly to the little encouragement
for the refearches of learned men. The chief perfons
of ingenuity Avhich this fociety has produced are, the
Fathers Menard, d’Acheri, Mabillon, Ruinart, Ger¬
main, Lami, Montfaucon, Martin, Vaiflette, le Nourri,
Martianay, Martenne, Mafluet, &c. &c. See L’Hif-
toire Litteraire de la Congregation de St Maur, publilb-
ed at Paris under the title of BruJJels, in qto, 1770, by
Dom. Tallin.
MAUR ICE AU, Francis, a French furgeon, who
applied himfelf Avith great fuccefs and reputation to the
theory and praXice of his art for feveral years at Paris.
Afterrvards he confined himfelf to the diforders of preg¬
nant and lying-in-Avomen, and Avas at the head of all
the operators in this way. His Obfervations fur la
groffejfe and fur Caccouchement des femmes, fur leurs
maladies, et celles des enfans nouveaux, 1694, in 410, is
reckoned an excellent Avork, and has been tranflated
into feveral languages, German, Flemifli, Italian, Eng-
lifh : and the author himfelf tranflated it into Latin.
It is illuftrated Avith cuts. He publifhed another piece
or tAvo, by Avay of fupplement, on the fame fubjeX 3 and
died at Paris in 1709.
MAURICE, St, commander of the Theban le¬
gion, Avas a Chriftian, together Avith the officers and
foldiers of that legion, amounting to 6600 men.-—
This legion received its name from the city Thebes
in Egypt, Avhere it was raifed. It Avas fent by Dio-
clefian to check the Bagaudse, Avho had excited fome
difturbances in Gaul. Maurice having carried his
troops over the Alps, the emperor Maximinian com¬
manded him to employ his utmoft exertions to extir¬
pate Chriftianity. This propofal Avas received Avith
horror both by the commander and by the foldiers.
The emperor, enraged at their oppofition, command¬
ed the legion to be decimated 3 and w hen they ftill
C 2 declared
Maupertuis
II.
Maurice.
M A U
declared that they would fooner die than do any thing
prejudicial to the Chrhtian faith, every tenth man of
thofe who remained was put to death. Their perfe-
verance excited the emperor to ftill greater cruelty j
for when he faw that nothing could make them
relinquifh their religion, he commanded his troops
to furround them, and cut them to pieces. Mau¬
rice, the commander of thefe Chriitian heroes, and
Exuperus and Candidus, officers of the legion, who
had chiefly infligated the foldiers to this noble re-
fiftance, fignalized themfelves by their patience and
their attachment to the doctrines of the Chriitian re¬
ligion. They were maffacred, it is believed, at A-
gaune, in Chablais, the 22d of September 286.—
Notwithfianding many proofs which fupport this tranf-
aftion, Dubordier, Hettinger, Moyle, Burnet, and
Mofheim, are difpofed to deny the fa£i. It is de¬
fended, on the other hand, by Hickes an Englifh
writer, and by Dom Jofeph de Lille a Benedidtine
monk de la congregation de Saint Vnnnes. in a work of
his, entitled Defence de la Vente du Marti/) e de la Le¬
gion Thebenne, 1737. In defence of the fame faCi, the
reader may eonfult Hijloria de S. Mauritie, by P. Rof-
fignole a Jefuit, and the Acta San&orum for the month
of September. The martyrdom of this legion, written
by St Eucherius bifhop of Lyons, was tranfmitted to
pofterity in a very imperfeft manner by Surius. P. Chif-
flet a Jefuit, difeovered, and gave to the public, an ex-
a& copy of this work. Don Ruinart maintains, that it
has every mark of authenticity. St Maurice is the pa¬
tron of a celebrated order in the king of Sardinia’s do¬
minions, created by Emanuel Philibert duke of Savoy,
to reward military merit, and approved bv Gregory
XIII. in 1572. The commander of the Theban le¬
gion muft not be confounded with another St Maurice,
mentioned by Theodoret, who futfered martyrdom at
Apamea in Syria.
Maurice, (Mauritius Tiberius'), was born at Ara-
biffus in Cappadocia, A. D. 539. He was defeend-
ed from an ancient and honourable Roman family.—
After he had filled feveral offices in the court of Tibe¬
rius Conftandne, he obtained the command of his ar¬
mies againft the Perfians. His gallantry was fo con-
fpicuous that the emperor gave him his daughter
Conftantina in marriage, and inveffed him rvith the
purple the 13th Auguft 582. The Perfians ftill
continued to make inroads on the Roman territo¬
ries, and Maurice fent Philippicus, his brother-in-law,
againft them. This general condudted the war with
various fuccefs. At firfl he gained feveral fplendid
vi&ories, but he did not continue to have a decided
fuperiority. As there was a great ufe for foldiers in
thefe unfortunate times, the emperor iffued a man¬
date in $92, fbrbidding any foldier to become a monk
till he had accomplifhed the term of his military fer-
vice. Maurice acquired much glory in reftoring Chof-
roes II. king of Perfia, to the throne, after he had
been depofed by his fubjedts. The empire was in his
reign haraffed by the frequent inroads of the Arabian
tribes. He purebafed peace from them, by granting
them a penfion nearly equal to 100,000 crowns •, but
thefe barbarians took frequent opportunities to renew
the war. In different engagements the Romans de-
ifroyed 50,000, and took 17,000 prifoners. 7'hefe
were reifored, on condition that the king of the Abarx
M a u
fhould return all the Roman captives in his dominions.
Regardlefs of his promife, he demanded a raniom of
10,000 crowns. Maurice, full of indignation, refufed
the fum : and the barbarian, equally enraged, put the
captives to the fword. W hile the emperor, to revenge
this cruelty, was making preparations againft the A-
ban, Phocas, who from the rank of centurion had
attained the higheft military preferment, affumed the
purple, and was declared emperor. He purfued Mau¬
rice to Chalceden, took him prifoner, and condemned
him to die. The five Ions of this unfortunate prince
were maflacred before his eyes, and Maurice, humbling
himfelf under the hand of God, wTas heard to ex¬
claim, Thou art juf, 0 Lord, and thy judgments are
’without partiality. He was beheaded on the 26th No¬
vember 602, in the 63d year of his age and 20th of
his reign. Many writers have eftimated the charac¬
ter of this prince by his misfortunes inftead of his
adfions. They believed him guilty without evidence,
and condemned him without reafon. It cannot be de¬
nied, however, that he allowed Italy to be haraffed ;
but he was a father to the reft of the empire. He re-
ftored the military difeipline, humbled the pride of his
enemies, fupported the Chriltian religion by his laws,,
and piety by his example. He loved the fciences, and
was the patron of learned men.
Maurice, eledlor of Saxony, fon of Henry le
Pieux, was born A. D. 1521. He was early remark¬
able for his courage, and during his whole life he vras
engaged in warlike purfuits. He ferved under the
emperor Charles V. in the campaign of 1544 againft
France •, and in the year following againft the league
of Smalkalde j with which, although a Proteftant, he
would have no manner of connexion. The emperor,
as a reward for his fervices, in the year 1547, made
him eledfor of Saxony, having deprived his coufin
John Frederick of that electorate. Ambition had
led him to fecond the views of Charles, in the hope of
being eleCtor, and ambition again detached him from
that prince. In 151:1 he entered into a league agamfl;
the emperor, together with the eleftor of Branden-
burgh, the Count Palatine, the duke of Wirtem-
burg, and many other princes. This league, encou¬
raged by the young and enterprifing Henry II. of
France, was more dangerous than that of Smalkalde.
The pretext for the aflbeiation was the deliverance of
the landgrave of Hefle, w hom the emperor kept pri¬
foner. Maurice and the confederates marched, ia
1552, to the defiles of Tyrol, and put to flight the
Imperial troops w'ho guarded them. The emperor
and his brother Firdinand narrowly efcaped, and fled
from the conquerors in great diforder. Charles hav¬
ing retired into Paffau, where he had collefted an
army, brought the princes of the league to terms of
accommodation. By the famous peace of Paffau,
which was finally ratified the 12th of Auguft 1552,
the emperor granted an amnefty without exception to
all thofe who had carried arms againft him from the
year 1546. The Proteftants not only obtained the
free exercife of their religion, but they rvere admit¬
ted into the imperiaEchamher, from svhieh they had
been excluded fince the victory of Mulberg.—Mau¬
rice foon after united himfelf with the emperor againft
the margrave of Brandenburg, who laid ivafte the
German provinces. He engaged him in 1553, g“in~
ed
1 20 1
Mat
M A U [2
Maurice, cd the battle of Siverfhaufen, and died of the wounds
1 jie jiacl received in the engagement two days after.
He was one of the greateft proteftors of the Luther¬
ans in Germany, and a prince equally brave and po¬
litic. After he had profited by the fpoils of John
Frederick, the chief of the Proteftants, he became
himfelf the leader of the party, and by thefe means
maintained the balance of power againft the emperor in
Germany.
Maurice de NaJJhu, prince of Orange, fucceeded
to the government of the Low Countries after the
death of his father William, who was killed in 1584
by the fanatic Gerard. The young prince was then
only eighteen years of age, but his courage and abi¬
lities were above his years. He was appointed cap¬
tain general of the United Provinces, and he reared
that edifice of liberty of which his father had laid the
foundation. Breda fubmitted to him in 1590', Zut-
phen, Deventer, Hulft, Nimeguen, in 1591. He
gained feveral important advantages in 1592, and in
the year following he made himfelf mafter of Gertru-
denburg. When he had performed thefe fplendid
fervices, he returned to the Low Countries by the way
of Zealand. His fleet was attacked by a dreadful
tempeft, in which he loft forty veffels, and he him¬
felf had very nearly periflied. His death would have
been confidered by the Hollanders as a much greater
calamity than the lofs of their Veffels. They watched
over his fafety with exceeding care. In 1594, one of
his guards was accufed of an intention to take away his
life ; and it was generally believed that he was bribed
to this fervice by the enemies of the republic. He
fell a facrifice at Bruges, either to his own fanaticifm
or to the jealous anxiety of the friends of Maurice.
The prince of Orange, increafing in reputation, de¬
feated the troops of the archduke Albert in I597> an(^
drove the Spaniards entirely out of Holland. In 1600
he was obliged to raife the fiege of Dunkirk } but he
took ample vengeance on Albert, whom he again de¬
feated in a pitched battle near Nieuport. Before the
a£Hon, this great general fent back the fhips which
had brought his troops into Flanders : Mij brethren
(faid he to his armv), we rnuji conquer the enemy or
drink up the waters of the fea. Determine for yourfehes ;
I have determined 1 (hall either conquer by your bravery,
or I (hall never furvive the difyrace of being conquered by
men in every refpici our inferiors. This fpeech elevated
the foldiers to the higheft pitch of enthufiafm, and the
victory was complete. Rhinberg, Grave, and F.clufe,
cities in Flanders, fubmitted to the conqueror the fol¬
lowing year. Maurice, however, not only laboured
for the commonwealth, but alfo for himfelf. He co¬
veted the fovereignty of Holland, and was oppofed in
the profecution of his defign by the penfioner Barne
veldt. The zeal and activity of this wife republican
coft him his life. He was an Arminian ; and at this
time Maurice defended Gomar againft Arminius.—
Taking advantage of the general odium under ivhich
the Arminians lay, he found means to get Barneveldt
condemned in 1619. His death, wholly owing to
the cruel ambition of the prince of Orange, made a
deep impreflion on the minds of the Hollanders. The
truce with Spain being expired, Spinola laid fiege to
Breda in 16 24, and in fix months, by the proper di¬
rection of his great talents, though with great ilaugh-
]• M A U
ter of his troops, he took the place. The prince oi Maurice,
Orange, unfuccefsful in every attempt to raife the iv~aur't"J1t‘t,'’
fiege, died of vexation in 1625, aKec* 55 years, with
the reputation of the greateft warrior of his time.—
“ The life of this ftadtholder (fays the abbe Ray-
nal) Avas almoft an uninterrupted feries of battles,
of fieges, and of victories. Of moderate abilities in
every thing elfe, he (hone confpicuous in his military
capacity. His camp was the ichool of Europe j and
thofe who received their military education in his ar¬
mies augmented, perhaps, the glory of their mafter.—
Like Montecuculi, he difeovered inimitable Ikiil in
his marches and encampments ; like Vauban, he pof-
feffed the talent of fortifying places, and of rendering
them impregnable j like Eugene, the addrefs of find¬
ing fubliftence for great armies in countries barren by
nature, or ravaged by Avar j like Vendome, the happy
talent of calling forth, in the moment they became
neceffary, greater exertions from his foldiers than could
reafonably be expeCted 5 like Conde, that infallible
quicknefs of eye Avhich decides the fortune of battles j
like Charles XII. the art of rendering his troops al¬
moft invincible to cold, hunger, and fatigue 5 like
Turenne, the fecret of making war Avith the leaft pof-
fible expence of human blood.” The Chevalier Folard
maintains, that Maurice Avas the greateft commander
of infantry fince the time of the Romans. He ftudied
the military art of the ancients, and applied their rules
with great exaftnefs in the various occurrences of war.
He not only took advantage of the inventions of others,
but he enriched the fcience of Avar with feveral im¬
provements. Telefcopes Avere firft ufed by him for
a military purpofe $ and, befides a kind of gallery in
condufting a fiege, and the plan of blockading a
ftrong place, Avhieh Avere of his iiwention, he greatly
improved the Avhole art by his method of pulhing an
attack with great vigour, and of defending, for the
greateft length of time, and in the beft manner^ a
place befieged. In ftiort, the many ufeful things
Avhich he praftifed or invented, placed him in the
higheft rank among men of a military charafter. On
one occafion, a lady of quality alked him, Who was
the firjl general of the age? Spinola (replied he) is the
fecond. It Avas his conftant pra&ice, during fleep, to
have two guards placed by his bedfide, not only to de¬
fend him in cafe of danger, but to awake him if there
fliould be the leaft occafion. The Avar betAvixt Spain
and Holland was never carried on Avith greater keen-
nefs and animofity than during his adminiftration.—
The Grand Signior, hearing of the vaft torrents of
blood ftied in this conteft, thought that a great em¬
pire muft depend on the decifion. J he object of fo
manv battles was pointed out to him on a map, and
he faid coldly, If it were my bujinefs, I would fend my
pioneers, and order them to cafl this little corner of earth
into the fea. Maurice, like many great men, Avas im¬
patient under contradiftion, and too much devoted to
Avomen. He was fucceeded by Frederick Henry his
brother.
MAURITANIA, an ancient kingdom of Africa,
bounded on the weft by the Atlantic ocean, on the
fouth by Getulia or Libya Interior, and on the north
by the Mediterranean \ comprehending the greater
part of the kingdoms of Fez and Morocco.— Its an¬
cient limits are not exa&ly mentioned by any hiftprian j
neither
M A U [2
Mauritania, neither can they now be afcertained by any modern ob-
””"'v fervations, tliele kingdoms being but little known to
Europeans.
This country was originally inhabited by a people
called Mauri, concerning the etymology of which name
authors are not agreed. It is probable, however, that
this country, or at leall a great part of it, was firft
called Phut, iince it appears from Pliny, Ptolemy, and
St Jerome, that a river and territory not far from Mount
Atlas went by that name. From the Jerufalem Tar-
gum it likewife appears, that part of the Mauri may
be deemed the offspring of Lud the fon of Mifraim,
lince his defendants, mentioned Genefis x. are there
called 'NU-no, Mauri, or Mauritani. It is certain,
that this region, as well as the others to the eaftward
of it, had many colonies planted in it by the Phoeni¬
cians. Procopius tells us, that in his time two pillars
of white Hone were to be feen there, with the follow¬
ing infcription in the Phoenician language and charac¬
ter upon them : “ We are the Canaanites, that fled
from Jojhua the fon of Nun, that notorious robber.”
Ibnu Rachic, or Ibnu Raquig, an African Avriter cited
by Leo, together rvith Evagrius and Nicephorus Cal-
liltus, affert the fame thing.
. The Mauritanians, according to Ptolemy, Avere di¬
vided into feveral cantons or tribes. The Metagonitce
were feated near the itraits of Hercules, now thofe
of Gibraltar. The Saccojii, or Cocojii, occupied the
coaft of the Iberian fea. Under thefe tAvo petty na¬
tions the Majtces, Verues, and Verbicce or Vervicce,
were fettled. The Salifce or Salinfce, Avere fituated
lower, toAvards the ocean; and, ftill more to the
fouth, the Vo/ubiham. The Maurenjii and Herpiditani
poffeffed the eaflern part of this country, Avhich Avas
terminated by the Mulucha. The Angaucani, or
Jangacaucani, NeSiiberes, Zagrenjii, Baniubee, and Va¬
cant*, extended themfelves from the fouthern foot
of Ptolemy’s Atlas Minor to his Atlas Major. Pliny
mentions the Baniurcc, Avhom Father Hardouin takes
to be Ptolemy’s Baniubae *, and Mela the Atlantes,
Avhom he reprefents as poffeffed of the Aveftern parts of
this diftridt.
The earlieft prince of Mauritania mentioned in
hiftory is Neptune *, and next to him Avere Atlas and
Antaeus his tAvo fons, both famous in the Grecian
fables on account of their Avars with Hercules. An¬
taeus, in his contention Avith that hero, feems to have
behaved Avith great bravery and refolution. Having
received large reinforcements of Libyan troops, he
cut off great numbers of Hercules’s men. But that
celebrated commander, having at laft intercepted a
ftrong body of Libyans fent to the relief of Antceus,
gave him a total overthrow, wherein both he and the
belt part of his forces were put to the fword. This
deciiive action put Hercules in poffeffion of Libya
and Mauritania, and confequently of the riches of all
thefe kingdoms. Hence came the fable, that Her¬
cules, finding Antseus, a giant of an enormous fize
with Avhom he was engaged in Angle combat, to re¬
ceive freih ftrength as often as he touched his mother
earth Arhen thrown upon her, at laft lifted him up in
the air and fqueezed him to death. Hence likeAvife
may be deduced the fable intimating that Hercules
took the globe from Atlas upon his orvn (boulders,
overcame the dragon that guarded the orchards of the
] m a u
Hefperides, and made liimfelt mailer of all the oold- Mlumtma
en inut there. Bocbart thinks that the fable alluded ' v—*
chiefly to naval engagements, wherein Hercules, for
the moft part, was vi&orious j thougli Animus from
time to time received fuccours by fea. But at laft
Hercules, coming up Avith one of his fquadrons which
had a ftrong reinforcement on board, made himfelf
mailer of it, and thus rendered Antaeus incapable for
the future of making head againft him. The fame
author likewife infinuates, that the notion of Antaeus’s
gigantic ftature prevailing for fo many centuries a-
mongft the Tingitanians, pointed out the fize of th®
veffels of which his fleets and fquadrons Avere com-
pofed. As for the golden apples fo frequently men¬
tioned by the old mythologifts, they were the trea¬
sures that fell into Hercules’s hands upon the defeat
of Antaeus; the Greeks giving the oriental word
hxn- riches, the fignification affixed to their oivn term
p.YiXct, apples.
With regard to the age in which Atlas and An¬
taeus lived, the moft probable fuppofition feems to be
that of Sir Ifaac NeAvton. According to that illufi-
trious. author, Ammon the father of' Sefac Avas the
firft king of Libya, or that vaft tradt extending from
the borders of Egypt to the Atlantic ocean ; the con-
queft of Avhich country Avas effedfed by Sefac in his
father’s lifetime. Neptune afterwards excited the Li¬
byans to a rebellion againft Sefac, and Acav him ; and
then invaded Egypt under the command of Atlas or
Antfeus, the fon of Neptune, Sefac’s brother and ad¬
miral. Not long after, Hercules, the general of The-
bais and Ethiopia for the gods or great men of Egypt,
reduced a fecond time the Avhole continent of Libya,
having overthroAvn and flain Antaeus near a town in
Thebais, from that event called Antcea or Antceopolis :
this, we fay, is the notion advanced by Sir Ifaac NeAv¬
ton, who endeavours to prove, that the firft redudtion
of Libya, by Sefac, happened a little above a thou-
fand years before the birth of Chrift, as the laft, by
Hercules, did fome few years after. Noav, though
we do not pretend to adopt every particular circum-
ftance of Sir Ifaac NeAvton’s fyftem, yet Ave cannot
forbear obferving, that it appears undeniably plain
from Scripture, that neither the weftern extremity of
Libya, nor even the other parts of that region, could
poffibly have been fo Avell peopled before the time of
David or Solomon, as to have fent a numerous army
to invade Egypt. For Egypt and Phoenicia, from
avhence the greateft part of the anceftors of the Li¬
byans came, and Avhich Avere much nearer the place
from whence the firft difperfion of mankind Avas made,
could not themfelves have been greatly overftoeked
with inhabitants any confiderable time before the reign
of Saul. And that fuch an invafion happened in the
reign of Neptune, or at leaf! of his fon Antseus, has
been moft fully evinced by this moft excellent chrono-
logcr.
from the defeat of Antfeus, nothing remarkable
occurs in the hiftory of Mauritania till the times of the
Romans, who at laft brought the whole kingdom
under their jurifdiftion; for which fee the article
Rome. . I. With regard to the cuftoms, &c. of this
people, it wmuld feem, from what Hyginus infinuates,
that they fought only with clubs, till one Belus, the
fon of Neptune, as that author calls him, taught
them
M A U [ 23 ] M A U
Mauritania, them the ufe of the fword. Sir Ifaac Newton makes
—Y—-J this Belus to have been the fame perfon with Sefoftris
king of Egypt, who overran a great part of the then
known world. 2. All perfons of diitindlion in Mau¬
ritania went richly attired, wearing much gold and
lilver in their clothes. They took great pains in cleanl-
ing their teeth, and curled their hair in a curious and
elegant manner. They combed their beards, which
were very long, and always had their nails pared ex¬
tremely clofe. When they walked out in any num¬
bers, they never touched one another, for fear of dif-
eoncerting the curls into which their hair had been
formed. 3. The Mauritanian infantry, in time of ac¬
tion, ufed Ihields made of elephants ikins, being clad
in thofe of lions, leopards, and bears, which they
kept on both night and day. 4. The cavalry of this
nation was armed with broad Ihort lances, and carried
targets or bucklers, made likewife of the Ikins of -wild
beafts. They ufed no faddles. Their horfes were
fmall and fwift, had wooden collars about their necks,
and were fo much under the command of their riders,
that they would follow them like dogs. The habit of
thefe horfemen was not much dift'erent from that of
the foot above mentioned, they conftantly wearing a
large tunic of the fkins of wild beads. The Phutad,
of whom the Mauritanians were a branch, were emi¬
nent for their Ihields, and the excellent ufe they made
of them, as we learn from Homer, Xenophon, Hero¬
dotus, and Scripture. Nay, Herodotus feems to inti¬
mate, that the Ihield and helmet came from them to
the Greeks. 5. Notwithftanding the fertility of their
foil, the poorer fort of the Mauritanians never took
care to manure the ground, being ftrangers to the art
of hufbandry ; but roved about the country in a wild
lavage manner, like the ancient Scythians or Arabes
Scenitae. They had tents, or mapalia, fo extremely
fmall, that they could fcarce breathe in them. Their
food was corn, herbage, &c. which they frequently
did eat green, without any manner of preparation, be¬
ing deftitute of wine, oil, and all the elegancies as
well as many neceffaries of life. Their habit was the
fame both in fummer and winter, eonliiling chiefly of
an old tattered, though thick garment, and over it a
coarfe rough tunic 5 which anfwered probably to that
of their neighbours the Numidians. Mod of them lay
every night upon the bare ground; though fome of
them drewed their garments thereon, not unlike the
prefent African Kabyles and Arabs, who, according
to Dr Shaw, ufe their hykes for a bed and covering in
the night. 6. If the mod approved reading of Ho¬
race may be admitted, the Mauritanians diot poifoned
arrows } which clearly intimates, that they had fome
dull in the art of preparing poiibns, and were excellent
dartmen. This lad obfervation is countenanced by
Herodian and iElian, who entirely come into it, affirm¬
ing them to have been in fuch continual danger of be¬
ing devoured by wild beads, that they durd not dir
out of their tents or mapalia without their darts. Such
perpetual exercife mud render them exceedingly fkil-
ful in hurling that weapon. 7. The Mauritanians fa-
crificed human viftims to their deities, as the Phoenici¬
ans, Carthaginians, &c. did.
The country people were extremely rude and bar¬
barous \ but thofe inhabiting cities mud undoubtedly
have had at lead fomc fmattering in the literature of the
feveral nations they deduced their origin from. That Mauritania
the Mauritanians had fome knowledge in naval affairs, II. .
feems probable, not only from the intercourfe they
had with the Phoenicians and Carthaginians, as well
as the fituation of their country j but likewife from
Orpheus, or Onomacritus, who afferts them to have
made a fettlement at the entrance into Colchis, to which
place they came by fea. Magic, forcery, divination,
&c. they appear to have applied themfelves to in very
early times. Cicero and Pliny fay, that Atlas was the
inventor of adrology, and the dottrine of the fphere,
i. e. he fird introduced them into Mauritania. This,
according to Diodorus Siculus, gave rife to the fable
of Atlas’s bearing the heavens upon his fhoulders. The
fame author relates, that Atlas indruefed Hercules in
the doctrine of the fphere and adrology, or rather
adronomy, who afterwards brought thofe fciences into
Greece.
MAURITIA, the Ginkgo, or Maidenhair Tree;
a genus of plants belonging to the natural order of
palmae. See Botany Index.
MAURITIUS, or Maurice, an ifland of Africa,
about 400 miles ead of Madagafcar, lying in the la¬
titude of 20 and 21 degrees fouth. It is about 150
miles in circumference. In the beginning of the 16th
century it wras difeovered by the Portuguefe, who
knowing that Pliny and other ancient writers had
mentioned the ifland of Cerne in thefe feas, took it
for granted that this mud be it j and accordingly we
find it dyled Cerne or Sirnc, in their maps : but, not-
withftanding this, they did not think fit to fettle it $
and indeed their force was fo fmall, in comparifon of
the vad dominions they grafped, that it was very ex-
eufable. However, according to their laudable cu-
dom, they put fome hogs, goats, and other cattle, up¬
on it, that in cafe any of their fliips either going to
the Indies or returning to Portugal Ihould be obliged
to touch there, they might meet with refrelhments.
The Dutch, in the fecond voyage they made to the
Ead Indies under their admiral James Cornelius Van-
neck, came together with five fliips on the 13th of
September 1368 j anchored in a commodious port, to
which they gave the name of Warwick Haven ; and
gave a very good account of the place in their jour¬
nals. Captain Samuel Caltleton, in the Pearl, an
Englilh Ead India fliip, arrived there on the 27th of
March 16125 and taking it to be an ifland undifeover-
ed before, beffowed upon it the name of England's Fo-
reft, though others of his crew called it Pearl IJland;
and in the account of their voyage, written by John
Tatton the in alter of the Ihip, celebrated it as a place
very convenient for Hupping, either outward or home¬
ward bound, to refrefli at. This they femetimes ac¬
cordingly did, and brought fome cargoes of ebony,
and rich wood from thence, but without fixing any /
fettlement. ,
At length, in 1638, the Dutch feated themfelves
here : and it is highly remarkable, that at the very
time they were employed in making their fird fettle¬
ment, the French fent a veffel to take poffeflion of it,
who found the Dutch beforehand with them, and re¬
filled the afliftance of an Englilh Indiaman, wooding
and watering in another port of the ifland, who very
frankly offered it, to drive the Dutch from their half-
fettled pods. They continued for fome time in quiet;
poffeflion
M A U [ 24. ]
Mauritius, pofleflion of the places they fortified in this illand, to defence
v which they gave the name of Mauritius, in honour of
Prince Maurice their ftadthdder. But having en¬
gaged the French, who were fettled on Madagafcar,
to fteal 50 of the natives, and fell them for Haves,
for the improvement of the Dutch fettlements here,
this proved the ruin of both colonies 5 for the negroes
furprifed and maffacred the French in Madagafcar j
and the Haves in Mauritius fled into the centre of the
ifland } from whence they fo much and fo inceflantly
molefted thofe who had been formerly their mailers,
that they chofe to quit a country where they could no
longer remain , in any tolerable degree of fafety. The
Fail India Company, however, from motives of con-
veniency, and a very imperfect notion of its value, dif-
approved this meafure, and therefore ordered it to be
refettled j which was accordingly done, and three forts
erefted at the principal havens. Things now went on
fomewhat better than they did before •, but they were
Hill very much difturbed by the revolted negroes in
the heart of the ifle, whom they could never fubdue.
One principal ufe that the company made of this
place, was to fend thither ftate prifoners, who, as
they were not men of the bell morals, quickly cor¬
rupted the reft of the inhabitants, and rendered them
fuch a race of outrageous fmugglers, the fituation of
the place concurring with their bad difpofition, that,
after various ineffe£lual attempts made to reform them,
orders were at length given to abandon Mauritius a
fecond time, which, after fome delays, were put in
execution in the year 1710.
Two years after this, the French took pofleffion of
it, and named it the ijie de France. This name has
obtained among themlelves, but the Europeans in ge¬
neral continue to call it Mauritius. It lies in S.
Lat. 20. 15. E. Long. 6. 15. The inconveniences
arifing from the want of a port at the ifland of Bour¬
bon, induced the French to take pofleflion of Mauri¬
tius, it having two very good harbours, to fortify which
no expence has been fpared. That on the north-weft
is called Port Louis, that on the fouth-eaft fide of the
ifland is called Port Bourbon. The trade-wind from
the fouth-eaft in thefe latitudes blows all the year
round, excepting for a few days at the fummer fol-
ftice, when it is interrupted by hard gales and hurri¬
canes from the north. The eafe with which this wind
enables {hips to enter the port of Bourbon, caufed the
French, when they firft took pofleflion of this fpot, to
efteem it the beft port in the ifland *, but experience
pointing out to them, that the fame wind often ren¬
dered the paffage out of the harbour fo difficult, that a
fhip was fometimes obliged to wait a confiderable time
before the weather admitted of her putting to fea, this
harbour is in a great meafure abandoned, and the prin¬
cipal town and feat of government is now fixed at Port
Louis, which is nearly in the middle of the north fide
of the ifland, and its entrance is through a channel
formed by two ftioals, which advance about two miles
.into the fea. When a ftiip arrives oppofite to this
channel, the fouth-eaft wind hinders her from entering
the port under fail, and the muft either warp in with
cables or be towed in with boats. The neceflity of this
operation, joined to the extreme narrownefs of the
channel, which does not admit of two (hips abreaft of
each other entering at the fame time, is one of the beft
M A U
the harbour has againft an attack by fea ; for, Mauritius,j
from thefe obftacles, an enemy would find it a matter
of the greateft difficulty to force the port 5 and in ad¬
dition to this natural ftrength, they have built two forts
and as many batteries, which are mounted with heavy
cannon, and entirely command the approach to the
harbour, fliould ffiips prefume to force an entry under
fail. This port is capable of containing 100 fail of
ftiips, and is well provided with every requifite for
repairing and even building of {hips. This port has
proved of the greateft advantage to France in the fe-
veral wars which have been carried on between Great
Britain and her j and has proved of great utility to the
French Eaft India Company’s commerce •, for here
their ffiips and crews were fure to meet with all necef-
fary refreffiment after a long voyage. The port of
Bourbon is alfo fortified j and an army landed here
would find it an extremely difficult talk to pafs the
mountains to the different parts of the ifland. There
are feveral places between the north-eaft extremity and
Port Louis where boats may land, but all thefe are de¬
fended by batteries ; and the country behind them is
a continued thicket: The reft of the coaft is inaccefli-
ble. In the north-eaftern quarter is a plain extending
about 10 miles from eaft to weft, and in fome places
five miles inland from the northern coaft. All the
reft of the ifland is full of high and fteep mountains,
lying fo near to one another, and the intervals between
them fo narrow, that, inftead of valleys, they rather
refemble the beds of torrents j and thefe are choked
with huge fragments of rocks which have fallen from
the fteep fides of the impending mountains. On the
fummits of the mountains ice is frequently to be found,
and they are covered with forefts of ebony and other
large trees. The ground they ffiade produces herbage,
Ihrubs, and plants of various forts, from the common
grafs to the ftrongeft thorn, and that in fuch profufion,
that they form a thicket fo clofely interwoven, that
no progrefs can be made but by means of a hatchet.
Notwithftanding thefe difficulties, plantations have been
formed on thefe mountains, and very confiderable pro¬
grefs has been made in the plains; but the productions,
although moftly of the fame kind, are not only in lefr
quantity, but of an inferior quality to thofe produced at
Bourbon ifland.
In a courfe of years, however, the fettlement coft fo
much, and was eonfidered in every light worth fo little,
that it had been more than once under deliberation,
whether, after the example of the Dutch, they fliould
not leave it again to its old negro inhabitants; which
fooner or later in all likelihood would have been its
fate, if, in 1735, the famous M. de la Bourdonnais had
not been fent thither with the title of governor-gene¬
ral of the French iflands.
He found this ifle in the worft ftate poffible, thinly
inhabited by a fet of lazy people, who equally hated
induftry and peace, and who were continually flatter¬
ing this man to his face, and belying him wherever
and as far as they durft. He gave himfelf no trouble
about this, having once found the means to make him¬
felf obeyed ; he faw the vaft importance of the ifland ;
he conceived that it might be fettled to great advan¬
tage ; and, without fo much as expecting the thanks
of thofe for whom he laboured, he began to execute
tills great defign. His firft ftep was to bring over
black
M A U
r 25 ]
MAX
Mauritius, black boys from Madagafcar, whom he carefully trained
— y.—, 1 Up in good principles, and in continual exercife •, by
which he rendered them fo good foldiers, that he very
quickly obliged the Marones, or wild negroes, either to
fubmit or to quit the illand : he taught the planters to
cultivate their lands to advantage •, he, by an aqueduft,
brought frefli water to the fea fide; and whereas they
had not fo much as a boat at his coming thither, he
made a very fine dock, where he not only built Hoops
and large veflels, but even a (hip of the burden of 500
tons. However incredible it may feem, yet it is cer¬
tainly fatt, that in the fpace of five years he converted
this country into a paradife, that had been a mere
wildernefs for 5000 ; and this in fpite of the inhabitants,
and of the company, who being originally prejudiced
by them, behaved ill to him at his return. He foon
made the cardinal de Fleury, however, fenfible of the
true ftate of things; and compelled the company to
acknowledge, though they did not reward, his ferviees.
He afterwards returned into the Indies, and perfedfed
the work he had begun, and to him it is owing that
the ille of France was rendered one of the fineit and
moll important fpots upon the globe. Here no coffee
is raifed ; but by the indefatigable induftry of M. de
Bourdonnais, fugar, indigo, pepper, and cotton (which
are not at Bourbon), came to be cultivated with
fuccefs. Since the departure of that moll excellent
governor, the plantations have been neglected, and
are fallen off; but if a proper fpirit of activity was
raifed among the inhabitants, they might foon be made
to refume their fiourifhing appearance. Mines of iron
have been difeovered in the mountains near the great
plain, in the north-eaft part of the ifland ; and thefe
mountains affording in great abundance the neceffary
fuel, forges have been eredted : but the iron produced
is of a very inferior quality, it being brittle, and only
fit for making cannon-balls and bomb-fhells. Black
cattle, fheep, and goats, are preserved with difficulty ;
the firll generally die before they have been a year
in the illand, and this' occafions frequent importations
of them from Madagafcar and other parts. Common
domeftic poultry breed in great plenty; and, with filh and
turtle, furnilh a great part of the food of the European
inhabitants.
The approach to the illand is extremely dangerous,
it being furrounded with ledges of rocks, and many
of them covered by the fea. The ffiore abounds with
coral and ffiells. This illand is faid to contain 60 ri¬
vers : fome are confiderable Itreams, and molt of them
have their fources from lakes, of which there are feve-
ral in the middle part of the ifland. The rivers afford
plenty of various kinds of filh, particularly eels. Thefe
are of an enormous fize, fome having been found that
were fix feet long, and fix inches in circumference,
and fo extremely voracious, that it is dangerous to
bathe in thofe parts of the river where they lie, as
they will feize a man without fear, and have ftrength
fuffieient to keep him under water till, he is drowned.
Here is a great variety of birds, and bats as large as
a young kitten: the inhabitants efteem them a deli¬
cate morfel. The air is both hot and moift, but not
unwholefome. 'The place abounds with in feeds, which
are very troublefome ; but there are no ferpents. It
has been difeovered, that off Port Louis the fouth-
VOL. XIII. Part I.
call wind generally blows with leal! ftrength about Mauritius
funrife; and it alfo happens, on four or five days,
intervals, in the courfe of a month, that early in the , ~ \
morning the wind ceafes in the northern part of the
iftand for an hour or two, when a breeze rifes, although
but faintly, from the north-weft ; during which, a ihip
ftationed at the entrance of the channel to avail herfelf
of this breeze, may enter the harbour and attack the
forts.
This iftand, during the period of the French revo¬
lution, did not entirely efcape from the ftorm which
then agitated the parent country. In the year i/99»
a conspiracy was formed, and broke out, for the pur-
pofe of refilling the government which had been efta-
blilhed under the authority of the republic. It was,
however, foon fuppreffed by the adfivity of the munici¬
pality and governor-general, fupported by the majority
of the inhabitants, and order and tranquillity were again
re ft or cd.
The population of this iftand in 1799 amounted to
65,000, viz. 55,000 flaves, and 10,000 .whites and
mulattoes. The following is a ftate of the produce of
this ifland in 1800 : viz, coffee, 6000 bales, of 100 lbs,
French ; indigo, 300,0Oolbs. from 2S. to 8s. per lb.;
cotton, 2000 bales, of 250 lbs.; raw fugar, 20,000,000
lbs.; cloves, 20,000 lbs. The iftand of Mauritius, as
w-ell as the other French iflands in the Indian ocean,
were taken by the Britifti in 1811.
MAURUA, one of the Society iflands in the South
fea. It is a fmall iftand, entirely furrounded with a
ridge of rocks, and without any harbour for ftiipping.
It is inhabited; and its productions are the fame with
thofe of the neighbouring iflands. A high round hill
rifes in the middle of it, which may be feen at the
diftance of 10 or 12 leagues. W. Long. 152. 32,
S. Lat. :6. 25.
MAUSOLEUM, a magnificent tomb or fepulehral
monument. The word is derived from Maufolus king
of Caria, to whom Artemifia his widow ereCted a moft
ftately monument, efteemed one of the vronders of the
world, and called it, from his own name, Mavfoleum.
St MAWES, a town of Cornwall, in England,
feated on the eaft fide of Falmouth haven, in W. Long.
4. 56. N. Lat. 50. 6. Though but a hamlet of the
parifti of St Juft, two miles off, without a minifter,
or either church, chapel, or meeting-houfe, it has fent
members to parliament ever fince 1562, who are re¬
turned by its mayor or portreve. It confifts but of
one ftreet, under a hill, and fronting the fea, and its
inhabitants fubftft purely by fitiling. K. Henry VIII.
built a caftle here, oppofite to Pendennis, for the better
fecurity of Falmouth haven. It has a governor, a deputy,
and two gunners, with a platform of guns. Here is a
fair the Friday after St Luke’s day.
MAXENTTUS, Marcus Aurelius Valerius, a
fon of the emperor Maximianus Hercules, was, by the
voluntary abdication of Dioclefian, and of his father,
raifed to the empire A. D. 306. He afterwards in¬
cited his father to reaffmne his imperial authority;
and in a perfidious manner deftroyed Severus, who
had delivered himfelf into his hands, and relied upon
his honour for the fafety of his life. His viefories
and fucceffes were impeded by Galerius Maximianus,
who oppofed him with a powerful force. The defeat
D and
MAX [2
Maxcntius and voluntary death of Galerius foon reftored peace
Maximus tw Maxentius pafled into Africa, where
v——y / he rendered himfelf odious by his cruelty and oppref-
lion. He foon after returned to Rome, and was in¬
formed that Conftantine was come to dethrone him.
He gave his adverfary battle near Rome, and, after
he had loft the victory, he fled back to the city. The
bridge over which he croiTed the Tiber was in a de¬
cayed fituation, and he fell into the river, and was
drowned, A. D. 312. The cowardice and luxuries of
Maxentius were as confpicuous as his cruelties. He
oppreiied his fubjedts with heavy taxes, to gratify the
cravings of his pleafores, or the avarice of his fa¬
vourites. He was debauched in. his manners, and nei¬
ther virtue nor innocence w'ere fafe whenever he was
inclined to voluptuous purfuits. His body wTas de¬
formed and unwieldy. To vilit a pleafure ground, or
to exercife himfclf under a marble portico, or walk
on a ftiady terrace, was to him a Herculean labour,
which required the greateft exertions of ftrength and
refolution.
MAXILLA, the Jaw. See Anatomy, N°2o~
26.
MAXIM,, an eftabliftied propofttion or principle ; in
which fenfe it denotes much the fame with axiom.
Mz^XIMILIAN I. emperor of Germany, figna-
lized himfelf againft the French while he was king of
the Romans, and after he w7as emperor entered into
the army of Henry VIII. of England as a volunteer
againft that nation : lie was a protedlor of learned
men, and aboliftied an iniquitous tribunal, ftyled Ju¬
dicium occultum Wejlphalice ; he compofed fome poems,
and the memoirs of his own life. He died in 1 cio,
aged 60.
MAXIMUM, in Mathematics, denotes the greateft
quantity attainable in any given cafe.
If a quantity conceived to be generated by motion
increafes or decreafes till it arrives at a certain magni¬
tude or pofition, and then, on the contrary, growrs
greater or leflcr, and it be required to determine the
faid magnitude or pofition, the queftion is called a pro¬
blem de maximis et minimis.
MAXIMUS, a celebrated Cynic philofopher, and
magician, of Ephefus. He inftrucfted the emperor
Julian in magic j and, according to the opinion of
fome hiftorians, it was in the converfation and com¬
pany of Maximus that the apoftafy of Julian originat¬
ed. The emperor not only vifited the philofopher,
but he even fubmitted his writings to his infpetftion
and cenfure. Maximus refufed to live in the court of
Julian ; and the emperor, not diflatisfied with the re-
fufal, appointed him high pontiff in the province of
Lydia, an office which he difcharged with the great¬
eft moderation and juftice. When Julian went into the
eaft, the philofopher promifed him fuccefs, and even
faid that his conquefts would be more numerous and
extcnfive than thofe of the fon of Philip. He perfuad-
ed his imperial pupil, that, according to the dodlrine of
metempfychofis, his body was animated by the foul
which once animated the hero whofe greatnefs and vic¬
tories he was going to eclipfe. After the death of
Julian, Maximus was almoft facrificed to the fury of
the foldiers 5 but the interpofition of his friends faved
his life, and he retired to Conftantinople. He was
foon after accufed of magical pradtices, before the em-
6 ] MAY
peror Valens, and beheaded at Ephefus, A. D. 366. Maximw
He wrote fome philofophical and rhetorical treatifes, H
fome of which were dedicated to Julian. They are all MaJr*
now loft. t —-y—■ .H
Maximis of Tyre, a Platonic philofopher, wrent
to Rome in 146, and acquired fuch reputation there,
that the emperor Marcus Aurelius became his foholar"
and gave him frequent proofs of his efteem. T his phi¬
lofopher is thought to have lived till the reign of the
emperor Commodus. There are ftill extant 41 of his
differtations j a good edition of which was printed by
Daniel Heinfius, in 1624, in Greek and Latin, with
notes.
Maximus Marius. See Marius.
MAT , the fiftn month in the year, reckoning from
our firft, or January ; and the third, counting the
year to begin with March, as the Romans anciently
did. It was called Maius by Romulus, in refpedt to
the fenators and nobles of his city, who were named
majores ; as the following month was called Junius, in
honour of the youth of Rome, in honorem junior urn,
who ferved him in the war j though fome will have it
to have been thus called xrom Main, the mother of Mer-
cury, to whom they offered facrifice on the firft day of
it 5 and Papius derives it from Madius, eo quod tunc ter¬
ra madeat. In this month the fun enters Gemini, and
the plants of the earth in general begin to flower.—
T he month of May lias ever been efteemed favour¬
able to love $ and yet the ancients, as well as many
of the moderns, look on it as an unhappy month
for marriage. I he original reafon may perhaps be re¬
ferred to the feaft of the Lemures, which was held in
it. Ovid alludes to this in the fifth of his Fafti, when
he fays,
Nec viduez tcedis eadem, nec virginis apta
Tempora ; qiue nupjit, non diuturna fuit ;
Hac quoque de caufaff te proverbia tangunt,
Menfe malum Maio nubere vulgus ait.
MAT-dew. See Dew.
MAT-duke, a fpecies of cherry. See Prunus, Bo¬
tany Index.
.May, IJle of, a fmall ifland at the mouth of the
frith of Forth, in Scotland, about a mile and a half
in circumference, and feven miles from the coaft of
Fife, almoft oppofite to the rock called the Bafs. It
formerly belonged to the priory of Pittenweem ; and
wras dedicated to St Adrian, fuppofed to have been
martyred in this place by the Danes ; and hither, in
times of Popiflr fuperftition, barren women ufed to
come and worflnp at his flirine, in hopes of being
cured of their fterility. Here is a tow7er and light-
houfe built by Mr Cunningham of Barns, to v’hom
King Charles I. granted the ifland in fee, wdth power
to exaft twopence per ton from every ffiip that paffes,
for the maintenance of a lighthoufe. In the middle
of it there is a frelh-water fpring, and a fmall lake 
The foil produces pafturage for 100 flieep and 20
black cattle. On the weft fide the fteep rocks render
it inacceffible ; but to the eaft there are four landing
places and good riding. It was here that the French
fquadron, having the chevalier de St George on board,
anchored in the year 1708, when the vigilance of
Sir George Byng obliged him to relinquiffi his de-
fign, and bear away for Dunkirk. The fhores all
round
MAY
I 27 1
MAY
Mav*
Mayernc.
round the ifland abound with fifti, and the cliffs with
water fowl.
( May, Thomas, an eminent Englifh poet and hifto-
rian in the 17th century, was born of an ancient but
decayed family in Suffex, educated at Cambridge, and
afterwards removed to London, where he contracted a
friendfhip with feveral eminent perfons, and particu¬
larly with Endymion Porter, Efq, one of the gentle¬
men of the bedchamber to King Charles I. While he
refided at court, he wrote the five plays now extant
under his name. In 1622, he publifhed a trantlation
of Virgil’s Georgies, with annotations j and in 1635
a poem on King Edward III. and a tranflation of Lu-
■can’s Pharfalia *, which poem he continued -down to
the death of Julius Caefar, both in Latin and Englifh
verfe. Upon the breaking out of the civil wars he
adhered to the parliament; and in 1647, he publifh¬
ed, “ The hiftory of the parliament of England,
which began November the third, MDCXL. With
a fhort and accelfary view of fome precedent years.”
In 1649, he pablifhed, Hijiorus Parliamenli Anglue
Bi'cviarium, in three parts ; which he afterwards tranf-
lated into Englifh. He wrote the Hiftory of Hen¬
ry II. in Englifh verfe. He died in 1642. He went
■well to reft over night, after a cheerful bottle as ufual,
and died in his fleep before morning: upon which
his death was imputed to his tying his nightcap too
clofe under his fat cheeks and chin, which caufed
his fuffocation ; but the facetious Andrew Marvel
has written a poem of 1C0 lines, to make him a
martyr of Bacchus, and die by the force of good
wine. He was interred near Camden in Weftminfter
Abbey ; which caufed Dr Fuller to fay, that “ if he
were a biafled and partial writer, yet he lieth buried
near a good and true hiftorian indeed.” Soon after
the reiteration, his body, with thofe of feveral others,
was dug up, and buried in a pit in St Margaret’s
churchyard ; and his monument, which was erefted by
the appointment of parliament, w'as taken down and
thrown afide.
MAYER, Tobias, one of the greateft aftronomers
■and mechanics the 18th century produced, was born at
Mafpach, in the duchy of Wirtemberg 1723. He
taught himfelf mathematics, and at the age of four¬
teen defigned machines and inftruments with the great-
eft dexterity and juftnefs. Thefe purfuits did not hin¬
der him from cultivating the belles lettres. He ac¬
quired the Latin tongue, and wrote it with elegance.
In 1750, the univerfity of Gottingen chofe him for
their mathematical profeflbr ; and every year of his
fhort life was thenceforward marked with fome confi-
derable difeoveries in geometry and aftronomy. He
publifhed feveral works in this way, which are all rec¬
koned excellent ; and fome are inferted in the feeond
volume of the Memoirs of the univerfity of Got¬
tingen.” His labours feem to have exhaufted him; for
he died worn out in 1762.
MAYERNE, Sir Theodore de, baron of Aul-
bone, was the fon of Lewis de Mayerne, the celebrated
author of the General Hiftory of Spain, and of the
Monarchic arijlo-democratique, dedicated to the ftates-
general. He was born in 1 C73, and had for his god¬
father Theodore Beza. He ftudied phyfic at Mont¬
pelier, and was made phylician in ordinary to Hen¬
ry IV. who promifed to do great things for him, pro¬
vided he would change his religion. James I. of Eng¬
land invited him over, and made him firft phyfi-
cian to himfelf and his queen, in which office he fer-
ved the whole royal family to the time of his death in
1655. His works were printed at London in 1700,
and make a large folio, divided into two books ; the
firft containing his Confilia, EpiJIoU, ct Ohfervationes ;
the fecond his Pharmacopoeia variaque medicamentorum
formulce.
MAYHEM. See Maim.
MAYNE, Jasper, an eminent Engliffi poet and
divine in the 17th century, who was bred at Oxford,
and entered into holy orders. While his majefty re-
fided at Oxford, he w-as one of the divines appointed
to preach before him. Fie publiihed in 1647 a
piece entitled OXAOMAXIA, or The people's war ex¬
amined according to the principles of reafon and ferip-
ture, by Jafper Mayne. In 1648 he was deprived of
his ftudentftiip at Chrift church, and two livings he
had ; but wras reftored with the king, who made him
his chaplain and archdeacon of Chichefter ; all which
he held till he died. Dr Mayne was held in very
high efteem both for his natural parts and his acquired
accompli(liments. He was an orthodox preacher,
and a man of fevere virtue and exemplary behaviour ;
yet of a ready and facetious wit, and a very Angu¬
lar turn of humour. From fome ftories that are related
of him, he feems to have borne fome degree of re-
femblance in his manner to the celebrated Dr Swift ;
but if he did not poffefs thofe very brilliant parts
that diftinguiftied the Dean, he probably was lefs
fubjecl - to that capricious and thofe unaccountable
whimfies which at times fo greatly eclipfed the abi¬
lities of the latter. Yet there is one anecdote re¬
lated of him, which, although it reflecls no great ho¬
nour on his memory, as it feems to carry fome degree
of cruelty with it, yet it is a ftrong mark of his re-
femblance to the Dean, and a proof that his propen-
fity for drollery and joke did not quit him even in
his lateft moments. The ftory is this : The Doflor
had an old fervant, wrho had lived with him fome years,
to whom he had bequeathed an old trunk, in which
he told him he would find fomething that would make
him drink after his death. The fervant, full of ex¬
pectation that his mafter, under this familiar expref-
fion, had left him fomewhat that would be a reward
for the affiduity of his part fervices, as fcon as decency
would permit, flew to the trunk ; when, behold, to his
great difappointment, the boafted legacy proved to be
a red herring. The doctor, however, bequeathed many
legacies by will to pious ufes ; particularly 50 pounds
towards the rebuilding of St Paul’s cathedral, and 200
pounds to be diftributed to the poor of the parifties
of Caffington and Pyrton, near Wattington, of both
which places he had been vicar. In his younger years
he had an attachment to poetry ; and wrote two plays,
the latter of which may be feen in the tenth volume
of Dodftey’s Collection, viz. 1. Amorous war, a tragi¬
comedy. 2. The city-match, a comedy. He publifhed
a poem upon the naval victory by the duke of York
over the Dutch, printed in 1665. He alfo tranflated
into Englifh -from the Greek, part of Lucian’s Dia¬
logues.
D 2
Mryerria
iVa-. ne.
MAYNOOTH,
may [28
Mayr.ooth MAYNOOTH, or Manooth a poft town in the
Vi. o. coualy ni Kildare, and province of JLeiniter, in Ire-
>""" *' land; 12 njlies from Idublin. Xhough not very
large, it is regularly laid out, and conlills of good
houles. Here is a charter fchool, which wras opened
27th July 17 $9.
MAYN WARING, Arthur, an eminent political
wliter in the beginning of the 18th century, Raid fe-
veral years at Oxford, and then went to Chelhire, where
he lived feme time with his uncle Mr Francis Chol-
mondeley, a very honefl gentleihan, but extremely
averfe to the government of King William III. to
whom he refufed. the oaths. Here he profecuted his
lludies in polite literature with great vigour 5 and com¬
ing up to London, applied to the Rudy of the law.
Fie was hitherto very zealous in anti-revolutional prin¬
ciples, and wrote feveral pieces in favour of King
James II. j but upon being introduced to the duke of
Somerfet and the earls of Dorfet and Burlington, be¬
gan to entertain very different notions in politfes. ’ His
father left him an eflate of near 800I. a-year, but fo
encumbered, that the intereR money amounted to al-
nioR as much as the revenue. Upon the concluRon of
the peace he went to Paris, where he became acquaint¬
ed with Mr Boileau. After his return he was made
one of the commiflioners of the cufloms, in which poR
he diflinguiflied himfelf by his fkill and induflry. He
was a member .of the Kit-cat club, and w^as looked
upon as one of the chief fupports of it by his pleaf-
entry and wit. In the beginning of Queen Anne’s
reign, the lord treafurer Godolphin engaged Mr Donne
to quit the office of auditor of the impreRs, and made
Maynwaring a prefent of a patent for that office worth
about 2000I. a-year in a time of bufinefs. He had a
confiderable Riare in the Medley, and was author of fe¬
veral other pieces. The Examiner, his antagonifl in
politics, allowed that he wrote with tolerable fpirit,
and in a maffierly Ryle. Sir Richard Steele dedicated
the firfl volume of the Tatler to him.
MAYO, one of the Cape de Verd iflands, lying in
the Atlantic ocean, near 300 miles from Cape Verd in
Africa, about 17 miles in circumference. The foil in
general is very barren, and water fcarce ; however, they
have fome corn, yams, potatoes, and plantains, with
plenty of beeves, goats, and affes. What trees there
are, grow on the fides of the hills, and they have fome
figs and water melons. The fea round about the ifland
abounds with fiffi. The chief commodity is fait, with
which many Engliffi ffiips are loaded in the fummer
time. The principal town is Pinofa, inhabited by ne¬
groes, who fpeak the Portuguefe language, and are
Rout, lufly, and fleffiy. They are not above 200 in
number, and many of them go quite naked. W. Long.
23. 5. N. Lat. 15. 10.
Mayo, a county of Ireland, in the province of Con¬
naught, having Sligo and the fea on the north, Rof-
common on the fouth, Leitrim and Rofcommon on
the eafl, and the Atlantic ocean on the wefl. It
contains 724,640 Irifii plantation acres, 68 pariffies,
and 140,000 inhabitants. It gives title of earl to
the family of Bourke. This county takes its name
from an ancient city, built in 664 ; the ruins of the
cathedral, and fome traces of the Rone v,Tills which en-
compaffed the city, yet remain on the plains of Mayo.
It was a univerfity, founded for the education of fuch
4
]
MAY
of the Saxon youths as were converted to the Chriftiafi
faith : it was fituated a little to the fouth of Lough
Conn 5 and is to this day frequently called Mayo of the
Saxons, being celebrated for giving education to Al¬
fred the Great, king of England. As this town has
gone to decay, Balinroke is reckoned the chief town.
1 he county by the fea is mountainous j but inland has
good paflures, lakes, and rivers. It is about 6 2 miles
long, and 32 broad. CaRlebar is the afiizes town. 
Mayo was iormerly a bilhop’s fee, which is now united
to Tuam.
hlAY OR, the chief magifirate of a city or town
chofen annually out of the aldermen. The word, an¬
ciently wrote meyr, comes from the Britifii mirct, i. e.
cujiodire, or from the old Englifli mater, viz. pote/ias,
and not from the Latin major. King Richard I. in
1189, change^ the bailiff of London into a mayor,
and from that example King John made the bailiff of
King’s Lynn a mayor anno 1204: Though the fa¬
mous city of Norwich obtained not this title for its
chief magiflrates till the feventh year of King Hen¬
ry V. anno 1419; fince which there are few towns
of note but have had a mayor appointed for govern¬
ment.
Mayors of corporations are juflices of peace pro
tempore, and they are mentioned in feveral flatutes j
but no perfon fliall bear any office of magifiracy con¬
cerning the government of any town, corporation, &c.
who hath not received the facrament according to the
church of England within one year before his elec¬
tion, and who Riall not take the oaths of fuprcmaey,
&c.
If any perfon intrudes into the office of mayor, a
quo warranto lies againR him, upon which he fliall
not only be oufled, but fined. And no mayor, or
perfon holding an annual office in a corporation for
one year, is to be elected into the lame office for the
next 5 in this cafe, perfons obffru&ing the choice of a
fucceffor are lubject to 100I. penalty. Where the
mayor of a corporation is not chofen on the day ap¬
pointed by charter, the next officer in place fliall the
day after hold a court and deft one j and if there be
a default or omiffion that way, the eleftors may be
compelled to choofe a mayor, by a writ of mandamus
out of the king’s bench. Mayors, or other magiflrates
of a corporation, who ffiall voluntarily abfent them-
felves on the day of cleft ion, are liable to be imprifon-
ed, and difqualificd Irom holding any office in the cor¬
poration.
Mayor's Courts. To the lord mayor and city of
London belong feveral courts of judicature. The
higheft and molt ancient is that called the hujlings, de-
flined to fecure the laws, rights, franchifes, and cufloms
of the city. The fecond is a court of requejf, or of
confcience ; of which before. The third is the court of
the lord mayor and aldermen, where alfo the flieriffs
fit j to which may be added two courts of flieriffs, and
the court of the city orphans, whereof the lord may¬
or and aldermen have the cuflody. Alfo the court
of common council, which is a court or afl’embly,
wherein are made all by-lavrs which bind the citizens
of London. It confiRs, like the parliament, of two
houfes : an upper, confifling of the lord mayor and
aldermen ; and a lower, of a number of common
council men, chofe by the feveral wards as reprefen-
tatives
Mayo,
Mayor.
Mayer
I!
Mazan'ne.
M A Z
tstivcs of tliG body of the citizens,
common council are made laws for the advancement of
, trade, and committees yearly appointed, &c. But adds
made by them are to have the aiTcnt of the lord mayor
and aldermen, by flat, 11 Geo. 1. Alfo the chamberlain’s
court, where every thing relating to the rents and re¬
venues of the city, as alfo the affairs of fervants, &c.
are tranfaded. Laftly, To the lord mayor belong the
courts of coroner and of efeheator } another court for
the confervation of the river Thames ; another of gaol-
delivery, held ufually eight times a year, at the Old
Bailey, for the trial of criminals, whereof the lord
mayor is himfelf the chief judge. h here are other
courts called wardmotes or meetings of the wards 5 and
courts of halymote or affemblies of the feveral guilds
and fraternities.
MAZA, among the Athenians, was a fort of cake
made of flour boiled with water and oil, and fet as
the common fare, before fuch as were entertained at
the public expence in the common hall or Prytaneurn.
MAZ AG AN, a ftrong place of Africa in the king¬
dom of Morocco, and on the frontiers of the province
of Duguela. It was fortified by the Portuguefe, and
befieged by the king of Morocco with 200,000 men
in 1 1562, but to no purpofe. It is fituated near the fea.
W. Long. 8. 1 v N. Lat 3^. 12.
MAZARA. an ancient town of Sicily, and capi¬
tal of a confiderable valley of the fame name, which is
very fertile, and watered with feveral rivers. The
town is a bi(hop’s fee, and has a good harbour is
feated on the fea coaft, in E. Long. 12. 30. N. Lat.
37. 53.
MAZARINE, Julius, a famous cardinal and
prime miniffer of France, was born at Pxfcina in the
province of Abruzzo, in Naples, in 1602. ALer
having finifhed his Undies in Italy and Spain, he en¬
tered into the (ervice of Cardinal Sachetts, and became
well (killed in politics, and in the interefts of the
princes at war in Italy, by which paeans he was
enabled to bring affairs to an accommodation, and the
peace of Queiras was (hortly concluded. Cardinal
Richlieu being taken with his conduct, did from
thenceforward highly efteem him j as did alfo Cardinal
Antonio, and Louis XIII. who procured him a car¬
dinal’s hat in 1641. Richlieu made him one of the
executors of his will; and during the minority of
Louis XIV. he had the charge of aftairs. At laft
he became the envy of the nobility, which occafioned
a civil war 5 whereupon Mazarine was forced to re¬
tire, a price was fet on his head, and his library fold.
Notwjthftanding, he afterwards returned to the court
in more glory than ever ; concluded a peace with Spain,
and a marriage treaty betwixt the king and the in¬
fanta. This treaty of peace paffes for the mafter-
piece of Cardinal de Mazarine’s politics, and procured
him the French king’s mod intimate confidence : but
at laft his continual application to bufinefs threw him
into a difeafe, of which he died at Vinciennes in
j66i.—Cardinal Mazarine was of a mild and affable
temper. One of his greateft talents was his knowing
mankind, and his being able to adapt himfelf, and to
affume a ebaraffer conformable to the circum(lances
of affairs. He poffeffed at one and the fame time the
bifhopric of Metz, and the abbeys of St Arnauld,
St Clement, and St Vincent, in the fame city } that of
[ 29 } M E A
In the court of St Dennis, Clugny, and Viaor, of Marfeilles; of St
Michel at Soifl'ons, and a great number ot others.
Fie founded Mazarine college at Paris •, which is alfo i.
called the college of the four nations. There has been
publilhed a colleftion of his letters, the moil copi¬
ous edition of which is that of 1745* 2 vo's' duc3~
decimo.
MAZZUOLI. See Parmigiano.
MEAD, a wholefome, agreeable liquor, prepared
with honey and water.
One of the bell methods of preparing mead is as fol¬
lows : Into twelve gallons of water put the whites of
fix eggs } mixing thefe well together, and to the mix¬
ture adding twenty pounds of honey. Let the liquor
boil an hour, and when boiled, add cinnamon, ginger,
cloves, mace, and rofemary. As foon as it is cold,
put a fpoonful of yeft to it, and turn it up, keep¬
ing the veffel filled as it works \ when it has done
working, Hop it up clofej and, when fine, bottle it off
for ufe. -
Thorley fays, that mead not inferior to the bed of
foreign wines may be made in the following manner :
Put three pounds of the fined honey to one gallon of
water, and two lemon peels to each gallon j boil it
half an hour, well feummed ; then put in, while boilirtg,
lemon peel: work it with yeft ; then put it in your
veffel with the peel, to Hand five or fix months, and bot¬
tle it off for ufe. If it is to be kept for feveral years,
put four pounds to a gallon of water.
The author of the Dictionary of Chemiftry diredls
to choofe the whited, pureft, and bed tafted honey,
and to put it into a kettle with more than its weight
of water : a part of this liquor muft be evaporated by
boiling, and the liquor feummed, till its confiftence is
fuch, that a frefti egg (hall be fupported on its furface
without finking more than half its thicknefs into the
liquor ; then the liquor is to be drained, and poured
through a funnel into a barrel; this barrel, which
ought to be nearly full, muft be expofed to a heat as
equable as poffxble, from 20 to 27 or 28 degrees of
Mr Reaumur’s thermometer, taking care that the bung-
hole be (lightly covered, but not clofed. The pheno¬
mena of the fpirituous fermentation will appear in this
liquor, and ivill fubfift during two or three months,
according to the degree of heat ■, after which they will
diminifti and ceafe. During this fermentation, the
barrel muft be filled up occafionally with more of the
fame kind of liquor of honey, feme of which ought
to be kept apart, on purpofe to replace the liquor which
flows out of the barrel in froth. When the fermenta¬
tion ceafes, and the liquor has become very vinous,
the barrel is then to be put into a cellar, and well
clofed •, a year afterwards the mead will be fit to be put
into bottles.
Mead is a liquor of very ancient ufe in Britain. See-
Feast.
Mead, Dr Richard, a celebrated Englifh phyfi-
cian, was born at Stepney near London, where his
father, the Reverend Mr Matthew Mead, had been
one of the two minifters of that parifh ; but in 1662
was ejedled for nonconformity, but continued to
preach at Stepney till his death. As Mr Mead had
a handfome fortune, he beftowed a liberal education
upon 13 children, of whom Richard was the eleventh j
and for that purpofe kept a private tutor in his houfe,
■who.-
RIazarine->
II ,
Mead.
' Mead.
M E A [ 30
■who tauglit him the Latin tongue. At 16 years of ^
age luchard was fent to Utrecht, where he ftudied
three years under the famous Gra;vius; and then
choofing the profeflion of phytic, he went to Leyden
-where he attended the leftures of the famous Pitcairn
on the theory and practice of medicine, and Her¬
man's. botanical courfes. Having alfo fpent three
years m theie ftudies, he went with his brother and
two other gentlemen to vifit Italy, and at Padua took
his degree of doftor of philofophy and phyfic in
1695. Afterwards he fpent.feme time at Naples and
at Rome ; and returning home the next year, fettled
at Stepney, where he married, and praaifed’phylic
w nh a fuccefs that laid the foundation of his future
greatnefs.
In 1703, Dr Mead having communicated to the
Royal Society an analyfis of Dr Bonomo’s difcoveries
relating to the cutaneous worms that generate the
itch, which, they .inferted in the Philofophical Tranf-
aaions; this, with his account of poifons, procured
him a place in the Royal Society, of which Sir Ifaac
Newton was then prefident. The fame year he was
elected phyfician of St Thomas’s hofpital, and was
alfo employed by the furgeons to read anatomical lec¬
tures in their hall, which obliged him to remove into
the city. In 1707 his Paduan diploma for do&or of
phyfic was confirmed by the univerfity of Oxford ;
and being patronized by Dr Radcliffe, on the death
of that famous phyfician he fucceeded him in his houfe
at Bloomfbury-fquare, and in the greateft part of his
bufmefs. In 1727 he was made phyfician to Kino-
George II. whom he had alfo ferved in that capacity
while he was prince of Wales ; and he had afterwards
the pleafure of feeing his two fons-in-law, Dr Nichols
and Dr Wilmot, his coadjutors in that eminent Ra¬
tion.
. Dr Mead was not more to be admired for the qua¬
lities of the head than he was to be loved for thofe of
his. heart. Though he was himfelf a hearty wLig, yet,
uninfluenced by party principles, he was a friend to all
men of merit, by whatever denomination they might
happen to be diltingftifhed. T. hus he was intimate
with Garth, with Arbuthnot, and with Freind j and
long kept up a conflant correfpondence with the great
Boerhaave, who had been his fellow Undent at Ley¬
den : they communicated to each other their obferva-
tions and projefts, and never loved each other the lefs
for being of different fentiments. In the mean time,
intent as Dr Mead was on the duties of his profeflion,
be had a greatnefs of mind that extended itfelf to all
kinds of literature, which he fpared neither pains nor
money to promote. He caufed the beautiful and fplen-
did edition of Thuanus’s hiftory to be publilhed in
1713, in feven volumes folio: and by his interpofition
and afliduity, Mr Sutton’s invention of drawing foul
air from (hips and other clofe places was carried into
execution, and all the fhips in his majeftv’s navy pro¬
vided with this uieful machine. Nothing pleafed him
more than to call hidden talents into light; to give
encouragement to the greateff projefts, and to' fee
them ^executed under his own eye. During almoft half
a century he was at the head" of his bufinefs, which
brought him one year above feven thoufand pounds,
and for feveral years between five and fix thoufand 5
yet clergymen, and in general all men of learning,
5
1 M E A
were welcome to his advice. His library confifled
of. I0>°0° volumes, of which his Latin, Greek, and
oriental manuferipts, made no inconfiderable part. He .
had a. gallery for his pidures and antiquities, which
colt him great fums. His reputation, not only as a
phyfician but as a fcholar, was fo univerfally efta-
bhlhed, that he correfponded with all the principal li¬
terati in Europe : even the king of Naples fent to de¬
fire a complete colledion of his works 5 and in return
made him a prefent of the two firft volumes of Signior
Rajardi, which may be confidered as an introduction
to the collection of the antiquities of Herculaneum.
At the fame time that prince invited him to his pa¬
lace, that he might have an opportunity of Ihowing
him thofe valuable monuments of antiquity 5 and no¬
thing but his great age prevented his undertaking a
journey fo fuited to his tafte. No foreigner of learn¬
ing ever came to London without being introduced to
Dr Mead ; and on thefe occafions his table was always
open, and the magnificence of princes was united with
the pleafures of philofophers. It was principally to
him that the feveral counties of England and our co¬
lonies abroad applied for the choice of their phyfi-
cians, and he was likewife confulted by foreion phy-
fieians from Ruflia, Pruflia, Denmark, &c. He wrote,
befides the above works, 1. A Treatife on the Scurvy!
2. De variolis et morbillis dijfertatio. 3. Medic a facra :
five de Morbis infgnioribus, qui in Bib His memorantur,
Comment anus. 4. Monita et Preecepta medico. A.
Difcourfe concerning peftilential contagion, and the
methods to be ufed to prevent it. The works he
wrote, and publifhed in Latin were tranflated into
Englifh, under the Doftor’s infpeaion, by Thomas
Stack, M. D. and F. R. S. This great phyfician,
naturalift, and antiquarian, died on the 16th "of Fe¬
bruary 1754.
MEADOW, in its general fignification, means
pafture or grafs lands, annually mown for hay : but it
is more particularly applied to lands that are fo low
as. to be. too moift for cattle to graze upon them in
winter without fpoiling the fward. For the manage¬
ment and watering of meadows, fee Agriculture
P- 435-
MEAL, the flour of grain. The meal or flour of
Britain is the fineft and whitefl in the world. The
I rench is ufually browner, and the German browner
than that. Our flour keeps well with us j but in carry¬
ing abroad it often contraCIs damp, and becomes bad.
All flour is fubjeCI to breed worms ; thefe are white ia
the white flour, and brown in that which is brown j
they are therefore not always diflinguifliable to the eye :
but when the flour feels damp, and fmells rank and
mu fly, it may be conjeftured that they are there in
great abundance.
The colour and the weight are the two things
which denote the value of meal or flour ; the whiter
and the heavier it is, other things being alike, the
better it always is. Pliny mentions thefe two eha-
radters as the marks of good flour j and tells us, that
Italy in his time produced the fineft in the world.
Phis country indeed was famous before his time for
this produce j and the Greeks have celebrated it 5 and
Sophocles in particular fays, that no flour is fo white
or fo good as that of Italy. The* corn of this coun- •>-
try has, however, loft much of its reputation fince that
time ;
Mead
I!
Meal.
M E A [ 3i ] M E A
liJead. time j and the reafon of this feems to be, that the
—* ' whole country being full of fulphur, alum, vitriol,
m ircafttes, and bitumens, the air may have in time af¬
fected them fo far as to make them diifufe themfelves
through the earth, and render it lefs fit for vegetation y
and the taking fire of fome of thefe inflammable mi¬
nerals,. as has fometimes happened, is alone fudicient to
alter the nature of all the land about the places where
they are.
The flour of Britain, though it pleafes by its white-
nefs, yet wants fome of the other qualities valuable
in Hour the bread that is made of it is brittle and
does not hold together, but after keeping a few days
becomes hard and dry as if made of chalk, and is full
of cracks in all parts ; and this muft be a great difad-
vantage in it when intended for the fervice of an army,
or the like occafions, where there is no baking eeery
day, but the bread of one making muft neceflarily be
kept a long time.
The flour of Picardy is very like that of Britain ;
and after it has been kept fome time, is found improper
for making into pafte or dough. The French are
forced either to ufe it immediately on the grinding, or
elfc to mix it with an equal quantity of the flour of
Brittany, which is coarfer, but more undtuous and fat¬
ty •, but neither of thefe kinds of flour keep well.
The flour of almofl any country will do for the
home confumption of the place, as it may be always
frefh ground } but the great care to be ufed in {elect¬
ing it, is in order to the fending it abroad, or furnifh-
ing (hips for their own ufe. The faline humidity of
the fea air rufts metals, and fouls every thing on board,
if great care be not taken in the preferving them. This
alfo makes the flour damp and mouldy, and is often
the occafion of its breeding infedts, and being wholly
fpoiled.
The flour of fome places is conflantly found to keep
better at fea than that of others ; and when that is
once found out, the whole caution needs only be to
carry the flour of thofe places. Thus the French find
that the flour of Poitou, Normandy, and Guienne, all
bear the fea carriage extremely well; and they make
a confiderable advantage by carrying them to their A-
merican colonies.
The choice of flour for exportation being thus made,
the next care is to preferve it in the fhips ; the keep¬
ing it dry is the grand confideration in regard to this ;
the barrels in which it is put up ought to be made of
dry and well feafoned oak, and not to be larger than
to hold two hundred weight at the mofL If the wood
of the barrels have any fap remaining in it, it will moi-
flen and fpoil the flour 5 and no wood is fo proper
as oak for this purpofe, or for making the bins and
other veffels for keeping flour in at home, fince when
once well dried and feafoned it will not contrail hu¬
midity afterwards. The beech wood, of which fome
make their bins for flour, is never thoroughly dry, but
always retains fome fap. The fir will give the flour a
tafle of turpentine and the afli is always fubjeil to be
eaten by worms. The oak is preferable, becaufe of its
being free from thefe faults ; and when the feveral
kinds of wood have been examined in a proper manner,
there may be others found as fit, or poflibly more fo,
than this for the purpofe. The great teft is their hav¬
ing more or lefs fap. See Flour and Wood.
MEAN, in general, denotes the middle between
two extremes : thus we fay the mean diftance, mean
proportion, &c. ,
MEAN, Arithmetical, is half the fum of the two ex¬
tremes, as 4 is the arithmetical mean between 2 and
6 5 for =4.
Mean
MeF.fi.ire.
MEAN, Geometrical, is the fquare root of the rect¬
angle, or product of the twro extremes : thus,
Vi X9=V9 =3-
To find two mean proportionals between two ex¬
tremes : multiply each extreme by the fquare of the
other, then extract the cube root out of each produCt,
and the two roots will be the mean proportionals re¬
quired.
Required twro proportionals between 2 and 16,.
2 X 2 >< 16=64, and 3vC 64=4. Again,
3 ^2 X ibl=:3\/512 = 8. 4 and 8 therefore are the
twro proportionals, fought.
MEARNSSHIRE, a county of Scotland. See Kin¬
cardineshire.
MEASLES, a cutaneous difeafe attended ivith a
fever, in which there is an appearance of eruptions
that do not tend to a fuppuration. See PvIedicine..
Index.
MEASURE of an angle, is an arch deferibed from,
the vertex in any place between, its legs. Hence,
angles are diftinguifhed by. the ratio of the arches, de¬
feribed from the vertex beteveen the legs to the peri¬
pheries. Angles then are diftinguifhed by thofe arches ;
and the arches are diftinguifhed by their ratio to the
periphery. Thus an angle is faid to be fo many degrees
as there are in the faid arch.
MEASURE of a folid, is a cube whofe fide is an inch,
a foot, or a yard, or any other determinate length. In
geometry it is a cubic perch, divided into cubic feet,
digits, &c.
MEASURE of velocity, in Mechanics, is the fpace paf-
fed over by a moving body in a given time. To mea-
fure a velocity, therefore, the fpace muft be divided into
as many equal parts as the time is conceived to be di¬
vided into ; the quantity of fpace anfwering to fuch a
part of time is the meafure of the. velocity.
Measure, in Geometry, denotes any quantity afTum-
ed as one, or unity, to which the ratio of the other ho¬
mogeneous or fimilar quantities is expreffed.
Measure, in a legal and commercial fenfe, denotes
a certain quantity or proportion of any thing bought,
fold, valued, or the like.
It is neceflary, for the. convenience of commerce,
that an uniformity fhquld be obferved in weights and
meafures, and regulated by proper ftandards. A foot-.
rule may be ufed as a ftandard for meafures of length,
a bufhel for meafures of capacity, and a pound for
weights. There Ihould be only one authentic ftan¬
dard of each kind, formed of the. moft durable ma¬
terials, and kept with all poflible. care. A fufheient
number of copies, exaflly correfponding to the prin-.
cipal ftandard, may be diftributed for adjufting the
weights and meafures that are made for common ■
ufe. There are feveral ftandards of this kind both in
England
M E A [32
England and Scotland. See the article WEIGHTS and
Meafures.
II any one of the ftandards above mentioned be
juftly preferved, it will ferve as a foundation for the
others, by which they may be corrected if inaccurate,
or reftored if entirely loft. For inftance, if we have a
ftandard foot, wre can eafily obtain an inch, and can
make a box which fliall contain a cubical inch, and
may ferve as a ftandard for meafures of capacity. If
it be known that a pint contains 100 cubical inches,
we may make a veflel five inches fquare, and four
inches deep, which will contain a pint. If the ftan¬
dard be required in any other form, we may fill this
veflel with water, and regulate another to contain an
equal quantity. Standards for weights may be obtain¬
ed from the fame foundation \ for if we know how
many inches of water it takes to weigh a pound, we
have only to meafure that quantity, and the weight
which balances it may be aflumed as the ftandard of a
pound.
Again, If the ftandard of a pound be given, the
meafure of an inch may be obtained from it; for we
may weigh a cubical inch of water, and pour it into a
regular veffel j and having noticed how far it is filled,
■we may make another veflel of like capacity in the
form of a cube. The fide of this veflel may be af¬
lumed as the ftandard for an inch j and ftandards for
a foot, a pint, or a bulhel, may be obtained from it.
Water is the moft proper fubftance for regulating ftan¬
dards j for all other bodies differ in weight from others
of the fame kind ; whereas it is found by experience
that fpring and river water, rain, and melted fnow, and
all other kinds, have the fame weight; and tins uni¬
formly holds in all countries when the water is pure,
alike warm, and free from fait and minerals.
Thus, any one ftandard is fufticient for reftoring all
the reft. It may further be defired to hit on fome ex¬
pedient, if poflible, for reftoring the ftandards, in cafe
that all of them fhould ever fall into diforder, or fhould
be forgotten, through the length of time, and the vi-
eiffitudes of human affairs. This feems difficult, as no
words can convey a precife idea of a foot-rule, or a
pound weight. Meafures, affumed from the dimen-
fions of the human body, as a foot, a hand-breadth,
or a pace, muft nearly be the fame in all ages, unlefs
the fize of the human race undergo fome change •, and
therefore, if we know howr many fquare feet a Roman
acre contained, we may form fome judgment of the
nature of the law which reftricled the property of a
Roman citizen to feven acres ; and this is futficient to
render hiftory intelligible 5 but it is too inaccurate to
regulate meafufes for commercial purpofes. The fame
may be faid of ftandards, deduced from the meafure of
a barley-corn, or the weight of a grain of wheat. If
the diftance of two mountains be accurately meafured
and recorded, the nature of the meafure ufed will be
preferved in a more permanent/ manner than by any
ftandard •, for if ever that meafure fall into difufe, and
another be fubftituted in its place, the diftance may be
meafured again, and the proportion of the ftandards
may be afeertained by comparing the new and ancient
di fiances.
But the moft accurate and unchangeable manner of
eftablifiling ftandards is, by comparing them with the
length of pendulums. The longer a pendulum is, it
] M E A
vibrates the flower; and it muft have one precife length 'VTeafure.
in order to vibrate in a fecond. The flighteft differ-y—J
ence in length will occafion a difference in the time j
which will become abundantly fenfible after a number
of vibrations, and will be eafily obferved if the pendu¬
lum be applied to regulate the motion of a clock. The
length of a pendulum which vibrates feconds in Lon¬
don is about 39-^ inches, is conftantly the fame at the
fame place, but it varies a little with the latitude of
the place, being fhorter as the latitude is lefs. There¬
fore, though all ftandards of weights and meafures
Avere loft, the length of a fecond pendulum might be
found by repeated trials : and if the pendulum be pro¬
perly divided, the juft meafure of an inch Avill be ob¬
tained 5 and from this all other ftandards may be re¬
ftored. See White hutjl on Invariable MEASURES.
Meafures are various, according to the various kinds
and dimenfions of the things meafured.—Hence arife
lineal or longitudinal meafures, for lines or lengths j
fquare meafures, for areas or fuperfices ; and folid or
cubic meafures, for bodies and their capacities •, all
Avhich again are very different in different countries and
in different ages, and even many of them for different
commodities. Whence arife other divifions of ancient
and modern meafures, domeftic and foreign ones, dry
meafures, liquid meafures, &c.
1. LONG Meafures, or Meafures of Application.
I.] The Englifh and Scotch Standards.
The Englifti lineal ftandard is the yard, containing
3 Englifti feet ; equal to 3 Paris feet 1 inch and TV
of an inch, or ^ of a Paris ell. The ufe of this mea¬
fure Avas eftablifhed by Henry I. of England, and the
ftandard taken from the length of his oavu arm. It
is divided into 36 inches, and each inch is fuppofed
equal to 3 barleycorns. When ufed for meafuring
cloth, it is divided into four quarters, and each quar¬
ter fubdivided into 4 nails. The Englifh ell is equal
to a yard and a quarter, or 45 inches, and is ufed in
meafuring linens imported from Germany and the Loav
Countries.
The Scots elwand Avas eftabliftied by King David I.
and divided into 37 inches. The ftandard is kept in
the council chamber of Edinburgh, and being compar¬
ed Avith the Englifti yard, is found to meafure 37-jf
inches •, and therefore the Scots inch and foot are lar¬
ger than the Englifh, in the proportion of 180 to 18^
but this difference being fo inconfiderable, is feldom
attended to in practice. The Scots ell, though for¬
bidden by hrw, is ftill ufed for meafuring fome coarfe
commodities, and is the foundation of the land meafure
of Scotland.
Itinerary meafure is the fame both in England and
Scotland. The length of the chain is four poles, or 22
yards ; 80 chains make a mile. The old Scots com¬
puted miles Avere generally about a mile and a half
each.
The reel for yarn is 2^ yards, or 10 quarters, in
circuit; 1 20 threads make a cut, 1 2 cuts make a hafp
or hank, and 4 hanks make a fpindle.
2. ] The French ftandard Avas formerly the aune or
ell, containing 3 Paris feet 7 inches 8 lines, or 1 yard 4
Englifti 5 the Paris foot royal exceeding the Englifti by
parts, as in one of the folloAving tables. This
ell
M E A [ 33 ] M E A
Mealure. ^ ell is divided two ways ; viz. into halves, thirds, fixths, The French, however, have alfo formed an entirely Meafure.
’ and twelfths j and into quarters, half-quarters, and fix- new fyftem of weights and meafures, according to the  v—~“
teenths. following table.
Proportions of the
meafures of each fpe
cies to its principal
meafure or unity.
' 10,000
1,000
IOO
10
o
0.1
0.01
0.001
Firtt part of the name
which indicates the
proportion to the
principal meafure or
unity.
Myria
Kilo
Hedlo
Deca
Deci
Centi
Mini
Length.
Metre.
Proportion of the principal meafures j
between themfelves and the length of <j
the meridian. I
10,000,OOOth
part of the di-
•tance from the
pole to the e-
quator.
Value of the principal meafures in the 1
ancient French meafures. f
3 feet II lines1 P1"1 a,,d *
and i nearly. ?r 1 ht50n and
Value in Englifh meafures.
Capacity.
Litre.
A decimetre
cube.
Weight.
Agrarian.
Gramme.
Weight of
centimetre
cube of diftil-
led water.
h nearly.
Inches3q.383.
61.083 inches,
which is more
than the wine,
and lefs than
the beer quart
8 grains and
841,000
parts.
22,966
grains.
Are.
For firewood.
Store.
100 fquare
metres.
One cubic
metre.
Two fquare I 1 ^mi-voie,
perches des ,0r ^ a cord
eaux et foret.
11.968
fquare yards.
des eaux et
foret.
The Englifh avoirdupois pound weighs troy grains
7004 ; whence the avoirdupois ounce, whereof 16
make a pound, is found equal to 437.73 troy grains.
—And it follows that the troy pound is to the avoir¬
dupois pound as 88 to 107 nearly ; for as 88 to
107, fo is.5760 to 7003.636 : that the troy ounce is
to the avoirdupois ounce, as 80 to 73 nearly $ for as
80 to 73, fo is 480 to 438. And, laflly, That the
avoirdupois pound and ounce is to the Paris two marc
weight and ounce, as 63 to 68 nearly, for as 63 to
68, fo is 7004 td 7559.873. See Weight. The
Paris foot, expreffed in decimals, is equal to 1.0654
of the Englifh foot, or contains 12.785 Englifh inches.
See Foot.
3. ] The flandard in Holland, Flanders, Sweden, a
good part of Germany, many of what were formerly
called the Huns-towns, as Dant-zick and Hamburgh,
and at Geneva, Franciforl, &c. is likewife the ell: but
the ell in all thefe places differs from the Paris ell.
In Holland it contains one Paris foot eleven lines, or
four-fevenths of the Paris ell. The Flanders ell con¬
tains two feet one inch five lines and half a line j or
fevcn-twelfths of the Paris ell. The ell of Germany,
Brabant, &c. is equal to that of Flanders.
4. ] The Italian meafure is the branchio, brace, or
fathom. This obtains in the Hates of Modena, Venice,
Florence, Lucca, Milan, Mantua, Bologna, &c. but
Vol. XIII. Part I.
is of different lengths. At Venice, it contains one
Paris foot eleven inches three lines, or eight-fifteenths
of the Paris ell. At Bologna, Modena, and Mantua,
the brace is the fame as at Venice. At Lucca it con¬
tains one Paris foot nine inches ten lines, or half a Pa¬
ris elk At Florence, it contains one foot nine inches
four lines, or forty-nine hundredths of a Paris ell. At
Milan, the brace for meafuring of filks is one Paris foot
feven inches four lines, or four-ninths of a Paris ell :
that for woollen cloths is the fame with the ell of
Holland. Lalfly, at Bergama, the brace is one foot
feven inches fix lines, or five-ninths of a Paris ell.
I he ufual mealure at Naples, however, is the canna
containing fix feet ten inches and two lines, or one Pa¬
ris ell and fifteen feventeenths.
5. ] The Spanifh meafure is the vara or yard, in fome
places called the bara 5 containing feventeen twenty-
fourths of the Paris ell. But the meafure in Caftile
and Valencia is the pan, fpan, or palm 5 which is ufed
together with the canna, at Genoa. In Arragon, the*
vara is equal to a Paris ell and a half, or five feet five
inches fix lines.
6. ] The PortuguefC' meafure is the cavedos, contain¬
ing two feet eleven lines, or four-fevenths of a Paris
ell; and the vara, an hundred and fix whereof make an
hundred Paris ells.
.7.] The Piedmontefe meafure is the ras, containing
p. »
«ite
M E A
Mcafure. one Paris foot nine inches ten lines, or half a Paris ell.
v In Sicily, their meafure is the canna, the fame with that
of Naples.
8. ] The Mufcovy meafures are the cubit, equal to
one Paris foot four inches two lines j and the arcin,
two whereof are equal to three cubits.
9. ] The TurkiJJj and Levant meafures are the picq,
containing two feet two inches and two lines, or three-
fifths of the Paris ell. The Chinefe meafure, the
cobre ; ten whereof are equal to three Paris ells. In
Perfia, and fome parts of the Indies, the gueze, where¬
of there are twro kinds j the royal gueze, called alfo the
gue%e monkelfer, containing twTo Paris feet ten inches
eleven lines, or four-fifths of the Paris ell j and thelhorter
[ 34 ] M E A
gueze, called fimply gueze, only two-thirds of the for- Meafure.
mer. At Goa and Ormuz, the meafure is the vara, the' 1 y-——
fame with that of the Portuguefe, having been intro¬
duced by them. In Pegu, and fome other parts of the
Indies, the cando or candi, equal to the ell of Venice.
At Goa, and other parts, they ufe a larger cando, equal
to feventeen Dutch ells 5 exceeding that of Babel and
Balfora by ^ per cent, and the vara by In Siam,
they ufe the ken, Ihort of three Paris feet by one inch.
The ken contains two foks, the fok two keubs, the keuh
twelve nious or inches, the niou to be equal to eight
grains of rice, i. e. to about nine lines. At Camboia,
they ufe the hafter ; in Japan, the tatam; and the fpan
on fome of the coafls of Guinea.
TABLES of Long Meafure,
1. English.
Barley-c
2 Inch
27
36
54
108
180
216
594
23760
190080
9
12
18
36
60
72
198
7920
Palm
6
1 2
20
24
66
2640
63360 21120
Span
8
22
880
7040
Foot
16;
660
5280
Cubit
31
Yard
i4
11
440
3 5 20
54
220
1760
Pace
3to
132
1056
Fathom
Pole
110
880
40
320
Furlong
Mile.
2. Scripture Meafures reduced into Englijh.
Digit
12
24
96
144
192
1920
Palm
24
36
48
480
Span
12
16
160
Cubit
80
Fathom
Ezekiel’s reed
Arabian pole
20
i4
*3i
10
EnS* "Dee
feet. g-1**"
o 0.912
o 3.648
o 10.944
I 9.888
7 3-552
10 11.328
14 7.104
Schtenus, or meafuring line 145 11.04
3. The
afure.
M E A
[ 35 ]
M E A
Cubit
3. The Scripture Itinerary Meafures.
Eng. Miles. Paces, Feet
400
2000
4000
12000
960OO
Stadium
Sabbath day’s journey
Eaftern mile
Parafan
30
240
48
3
24
Da&ylus, digit
A day’s journey
4. Grecian
10
4Doron, dochme
Lidias
11
12
16
20
24
96
9600
76800
2r
4t
24
24OO
I92OO
IA
9 T
960
7680
Orthodoron
Spithame
t9
1 1
2tt
8A
872T8
6981-/
Foot
ii
800
6400
ij
Cubit
i4
600
6800
Pygon
i4
54
533t
4266-
4t
480
3840
Cubic larger
Pace
400
3200
100
800
Furlong
Mile
c. Roman.
o o 1.824
o 145 4.6
o 729 3.000
I 403 1.000
4 1S3 3*000
33 172 4.000
Paces. Feet.
O O
O O
O O
O O
O O
O I
O I
o 1
- O I x
- 06
100 4
8°5 5
Paces. Feet.
O O
O O
O O
O O
O I
O I
O 2
° A
120 4
967 o
Dec.
°-75544-4
3.0218 l
7*5546 1
8.31011%-
9.0656 i
0.0875
i*5984 4-
3^9 1
6.13125
0525
4*5
o
Dec.
0.725!
0.967
2.901
11.604
2.505
5.406
5.01
10.02
4*5
o.
Meafurc.
E 2
6. Proportion
M E A
Mcafiwe.
[ 36 ]
M E A
696
720
629
7°! A
658^
609J-
636
ISli
843
1290
6. Proportion of fever al Long Meafures to each other, by
M. Picard.
The Rhinland or Leyden foot (12 whereof
make the Rhinland perch) fuppofed
The Englifh foot
The Paris foot
The Amfterdam foot, from that of Leyden, by
Snellius
The Danilh foot (two whereof make the Da-
nifh ell) -
The Swedilh foot
The Brulfels foot
The Dantzick foot, from Hevelius’s Selenogra-
phia - -
The Lyons foot, by M. Auzout
The Bologna foot, by the fame
The braceio of Florence, by the fame, and Fa¬
ther Marfenne
The palm of the architefts at Rome, accord
ing to the obfervations of Meflrs Picard and
Auzout - . . 4944
The Roman foot in the Capitol, examined by
Mefifs Picard and Auzout - 653 or 6 534'
The fame from the Greek foot - 652
From the vineyard Mattei - 657I-
From the palm _ _ - 658-J
From the pavement of the Pantheon, fuppofed
to contain 10 Roman feet
From a dip of marble in the fame pavement,
fuppofed to contain three Roman feet
From the pyramid of Ceftius, fuppofed to con¬
tain 9 5 Roman feet
From the diameters of the columns in the arch
of Septimius Severus
From a dip of porphyry in the pavement of the
Pantheon - - -
See on this fubjedt Phil.
P- 774-
653
650
6534
633t
^53t
Tranf. vol. iv. art. 69.
Englilh foot
Paris foot
Venetian foot
Rhinland foot
Stralburgh foot
Norimberg foot
Dantzick foot
Danifh foot
Swedidi foot
Derahor cubit of Cairo
Perfian arifh
Greater Turkilh pike
Leffer Turkidi pike
Braccio at Florence
Braccio for woollen at Sienna
Braccio for linen at Sienna
Canna at Naples
Vera at Almaria and Gibraltar
Palmo di Archtetti at Rome
Canna di Arehtetti
Palmo di braccio di mercantia
Genoa palm
Bolognian foot
Antwerp ell -
Amfterdam ell
Leyden ell
Paris draper’s ell
Paris mercer’s ell
Feet.
2131
I9I3
1242
1974
6880
2760
732
7320
6954
815
1250
2283
2268
2260
3929
3939
Inches. Meafure.
25.572'   
22.956
14.904
23.688
82.56
33-12
87.84
87.84
83.46
9.78
!5
27.396
27.216
27.12
47.I4&
47.244
8. Different Itinerary Meafures.
A French league is about
A German mile
A Dutch mile
An Italian mile
A Spanilh league
A Ruffian verft
Englidi miles
ditto
ditto
ditto
3|- ditto
■l ditto
4
34
II.
7. Proportions of the Long Meafures offeveral nations to
the Englifh foot, taken from Mefprs Greaves, Au%out,
Picard, and Eifenchmid. See Foot.
The Englifh ftandard foot being divided into 1000
«qual parts, the other meafures will have the proportions
to it, which follow.
Feet. Inches.
IOOO I 2
1068 12.816
116l 13.944
IO33 12.396
952 14.424
1000 12
944 11 *3 28
1042 12.504
977i 11-733
1824 12.888
3'97 38-364
2200 26.4
Square, Superficial, or Land Meafure.
1. Englifh fquare meafures are raifed from the yard
of 36 inches multiplied into itfelf, and thus produ¬
cing 1296 fquare inches in the fquare yard 5 the divi-
vifions of this are fquare feet and inches •, and the mul¬
tiples, poles, roods, and acres. Becaufe the length
of a pole is 5-S- yards, the fquare of the fame contains
30^ fquare yards. A fquare mile contains 640 fquare
acres. In meafuring fens and woodlands, 18 feet are
generally allowed to the pole, and 21 feet in foreft
lands.
A hide of land, frequently mentioned in the earlier
part of the Englifh hiftory, contained about 100 arable
acres 5 and 5 hides were efteemed a knight’s fee. At
the time of the Norman conqueft, there were 243,60©
hides in England.
2. Scotch fquare or land meafure is regulated, by
the Scotch ell: 36 fquare ells — 1 fall, 40 falls zr 1
rood, 4 roods zz 1 acre.—The proportion between
the Scotch and Engliffi acre, fuppofing the feet in
both meafures alike, is as 1369 to 1089, or nearly as
5 to 4. If the difference of the feet be regarded, the
proportion is as 10,coo to 7869. The length of the
chain for meafuring land in Scotland is 24 ells, or 74
feet.—A hufoand-land contains 6 acres of fock and
fcythe land, that is, of land that may be tilled with a
plough or mown with a fcythe ^13 acres of arable land
make one ox-gang, and four ox-gangs make a pound-
land of old extent.
3. French fquare meafures are regulated by 12
fquare lines in the inch fquare 5 12 inches in the foot,
22 feet in the perch, and 100 perches in the arpent
or acre.
Tables
Meafure.
M E A
C 37 ] M E A
Tables of Square Meafun.
i. English.
Inches
144
1 296
3600
39204
1568160
Feet
2C
27H
I 0890
627264043560
Yards
3°i
121':
4840
Paces
10.89
435-6
Poles
Rood
40
1743-6
x6o
A.cre
2. Grecian fquare meafures were the plethron or acre,
by fome laid to contain 1444, by others 10,000 fquare
feet; and aroura, the half of the plethron. The aroura
of the Egyptians was the fquare 100 cubits.
3. Roman fquare meafure reduced to Englilli. The
integer was the jugerum or acre, which the Romans
divided like the libra or as: thus the jugerum con¬
tained
As
Deunx
Dextans
Dodrans
Res
Septunx
Semis
Quincunx
Triens
Ouadrans
Sextans
Uncia
Square
feet.
28800
26400
24000
21600
19200
16800
14400
I 2000
9600
7200
4800
24OO
288
264
24O
2l6
I92
168
144
120
96
72
48
24
O OQ
in
18
JO
2
34
25
9
x
32
24
16
Square
feet.
250-05
i^3-85
117.64
5r.42
257-46
191.2s
I2C.03
58.82
264.85
198.64
13 2.43
66.21
Note, Aftus major was 14,400 fquare feet, equal to a
femis 5 clima, 3600 fquare feet, equal to fefcuncia 5 and
a ft us minimus equal to a fextans.
jufted thereto, and therefore exceeding the former In
the proportion of the avoirdupois weight to troy
weight. From this latter llandard are raifed two le-
veral meafures, the one for ale, the other for beer.
The fealed gallon at Guildhall, which is the ftandard
for wines, Ipirits, oils, &c. is fuppofed to contain 231
cubic inches} and on this fuppolition the other mea¬
fures raifed therefrom will contain as in the table un¬
derneath: yet, by aftual experiment, made in 1688,
before the lord mayor and the commiliioners of excife,
this gallon was found to contain only 224 cubic inches :
it was, however, agreed to continue the common fup¬
pofed contents of 231 cubic inches: fo that all com¬
putations Hand on their old footing. Hence, as 12 is
to 231, fo is I4y| to 281^ the cubic inches in the ale
gallon: but in effeft the ale quart contains 7oi- cubic
inches, on which principle the ale and beer gallon will
be 282 cubic inches. The leveral divifions and mul¬
tiples of thefe meafures, and their proportions, are ex¬
hibited in the tables underneath.
The barrel for ale in London is 32 gallons, and the
barrel for beer 36 gallons. In all oilier places of
England, the barrel, both for ale and beer, is 34.
gallons.
2. Scotch liquid meafure is founded on the pint.
The Scotch pint was formerly regulated by a ftandard
jug of caft metal, the cuftody of which was committed
to the borough of Stirling. This jug was fuppofed
to contain 105 cubic inches; and though, after feveral
careful trials, it has been found to contain only about
103^-inches; yet, in compliance with eftablilhed cu-
ftom, founded on that opinion, the pint Jloups are ftill
regulated to contain 105 inches, and the cuftomary
ale meafures are about above that ftandard. It was
enafted by James I. of Scotland, that the pint fhould
contain 41 ounces trone weight of the clear water of
Tay, and by James VI. that it ftiould contain 55 Scots
troy ounces of the clear water of Leith. This affords
another method of regulating the pint, and alfo alcer-
tains the ancient ftandard of the trone weight. As the
water of Tay and Leith are alike, the trone weight
muff have been to the Scots troy weight as 55 to 41 ;
and therefore the pound trone mutt have contained
about 21-J ounces Scots troy.
4 gills =r 1 mutchkin.
2 mutchkins =r 1 chopin.
2 chopins ~ 1 pint.
2 pints = 1 quart.
4 quarts =: 1 gallon.
III. CUBICAL Meafures, or Meafures of Capacity, for
Liquids.
1. The Englifh meafares were originally raifed from
troy weight: it being enafted by feveral ftatutes, that
eight pounds troy of wheat, gathered from the middle
of the ear, and well dried, thould weigh a gallon of
wine meafure, the divifions and multiples whereof were
to form the other meafures; at the fame time it was
alfo ordered, that there fhould be but one liquid mea¬
fure in the kingdom : yet cuftom has prevailed ; and
there having been introduced a new weight, viz. the
avoirdupois, we have now a fecond ftandard gallon ad-
The Scotch quart contains 210 inches ; and is, there¬
fore, about To lefs than the Englifh wine gallon, and
about ^ lefs than the ale gallon.
3. As to the liquid meafures of foreign nations, it
is to be obferved, that their feveral veffels for wine, vi¬
negar, &c. have alfo various denominations accord¬
ing to their different fizes and the places wherein
they are ufed. The woeders of Germany, for hold¬
ing Rhenifh and Mofelle wines, are different in their
gauges; fome containing 14 aumes of Amnerdam
meafure, and others more or lefs. The aume is reckon¬
ed at Amfterdam for 8 fteckans, or 20 verges, or for
of a tun of 2 pipes, or 4 barrels, of French or Bour-
deaux, which at this latter place is called tier go ny,
becaufe:
M E A
Meafure.
| becaufe 3 of them make a pipe or 2 barrels, and 6 the
faid tun. The fteckan is 16 mingles, or 32 pints 5
and the verge is, in refpeft of the faid Rhenifh and
Mofelle, and fome other forts of wine, 6 mingles *,
but, in meafuring brandy it conftfts of 6£ mingles.
The aume is divided into 4 anckers, and the ancker
into 2 fteckans, or 32 mingles. The ancker is taken
fometimes for of a tun, or 4 barrels ; on which
footing the Bourdeaux barrel ought to contain at
Amfterdam (when the calk is made according to the
juft gauge) 124 fteckans, or 200 mingles, wine and
lees; or t2 fteckans, or 192 mingles, racked wine;
fo that the Bourdeaux tun of wine contains 50 fteckans,
or 800 mingles, wine and lees ; and 48 fteckans, or
768 mingles, of pure wine. The barrels or poin^ons
of Nantes and other places on the river Loire, con¬
tain only 12 fteckans, Amfterdam meafure. The wine
tun of Rochelle, Cogniac, Charente, and the ille of
Rhe, differs very little from the tun of Bourdeaux, and
confequently from the barrels and pipes. A tun of
wine of Chaloffe, Bayonne, and the neighbouring
places, is reckoned 60 fteckans, and the barrel 15,
Amfterdam meafure.
The muid of Paris contains 150 quarts or 300 pints,
wine and lees ; or 280 pints clear wine ; of which
snuids 3 make a tun, and the fra&ions are,
[ 38 ]
M E A
At Rochelle, Cogniac, the ifle of Rhe,
and the country of Aunis, - 27 Veertels
At Nantes, and feveral places of Bre¬
tagne and Anjou - - 29 Veertels
At Bourdeaux, and different parts of
32 Verges
30 Veertels
30 Verges
27 Verges
Meafurc.
Guienne
At Amfterdam, and other cities of"
Holland
At Hamburgh and Lubeck
At Embden
In Provence and Languedoc, brandy is fold by the
quintal, the calks included ; and at Bruges in Flan¬
ders, the verges are called fejlcrs of 16 flops each, and
the fpirits is fold at fo much per ftop.
Olive oil is alfo (hipped in calks of various fizes,
according to the cuftom of the places where it is em¬
barked, and the conveniency of ftowage. In England
it is fold by the tun of 236 gallons ; and at Amfter¬
dam by the tun of 717 mingles, or 1434 pints. In
Provence it is fold by milleroles of 66 Paris pints;
from Spain and Portugal it is brought in pipes or
butts, of different gauges ; at the firft place it is fold
by roves, where 40 go to the butt; and at the latter
place by almoudas, whereof 26 make a pipe. Train
oil is fold in England by the tun, at Amfterdam by
the barrel.
The muid
The fetier
The quart
The pint
The chopin
The demi-fetier
{36 fetiers
| 4 quarts
2 pints
2 chopins
2 demi-fetiers
2 poiffons
The muid is alfo compofed of pipes or poin^ons,
quarteaux, queves, and demiqueves ; thofe poinqons
of Paris and Orleans contain about 15 fteckans Am¬
fterdam meafure, and ought to weigh with the calk
6661b. a little more or lefs. In Provence they reckon
by milleroles, and the millerole of Toulon contains 66
Paris pints, or 100 pints of Amfterdam, nearly, and
the Paris pint is nearly equal to the Englilh wine
quart (a).
The butts or pipes from Cadiz, Malaga, Alicant,
Benecarlo, Saloe, and Mataro, and from the Canaries,
from Lilbon, Oporto, and Fayal, arc very different
in their gauges, though in affreightments they are all
reckoned two to the tun.
Vinegar is meafured in the fame manner as wine;
but the meafures for brandies are different : thefe
fpirits from France, Spain, Portugal, &c. are gene¬
rally (hipped in large calks called pipes, butts, and
pieces, according to the places from whence they are
Imported, &c. In France, brandy is (hipped in calks
called pieces at Bourdeaux, and pipes at Rochelle, Cog¬
niac, the ifle of Rhe, and other neighbouring places,
which contain fome more and fome lefs, even from 60
to 90 Amfterdam verges or veertels, according to the
capacity of the veffels, and the places they come from,
which, being reduced into barrels, will Hand as fol-
lows, viz.
Tables of Liquid Meafure.
1. English.
(a) Thefe are the old meafures of France, the account of v'hich, for the fake of comparifon, is here retained.
3
M E A [ 39 ]
2. Jewish reduced to Englifh Wine Meafure.
3. Attic reduced to Engiifli Wine Meafure.
CocMiarion
Cheme
24 i^
10
60
74
3°
120
720
8640
60
360
4320
Myftrone
Conche
Cyathos
24
48
288
3456
12
24
*44
1728
12
72
864
Oxybaphon
Cotyle
2 Xeftes
48
576
12
44
72
Chous
Metretes
12
4. Roman reduced to Engiifli Wine Meafure.
jLigula
Cyathus
1 2
24
48
288
1152
2304
46080
12
72
288
576
11520
Acetabulum
Quartarius
Hemina
S
48
19:
384
24
96
192
76803840
12
48
96
92c
Sextarius
Congius
4jUrna
24
48
960
si
160140
Amphora
20 Culeus
M E A
Gall. 5- .Sfd
S- inches.
o 04 0.177
O 0| 0.211
o 34- 0.844
1 2 2.533
2 4 5.067
7 4 15.2
75 5 7-625
zn
Gal. Pints. ^..Dec.
3
o
3-
0 tIq- 0-°356iTr
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
10
£0 0.0712 4
7T C.o 894^
3T* 0.17841
xV 0.3564-4
Y °*535 I
4 2.141 4
4.283
25.698
19.629
o
Gal. Pints. ^..Dee.
3
o O^V 0.117-^
o oTV 0.469 4
oof 0.704 4
oo| 1.40
004 2.818
o I 3.636
o 7 4.942
3 4 £ 5-33
7 1 10.66
143 3 11.093
IY. Meafures,
Meahye*
M E A
[ 40 ] M E A
RTeafure.
y IV. Meafures of Capacity for things DRT.
1. ] Eng/ifh dry or corn meafure. The ftandard for
meafuring corn, fait, coals, and other dry goods, in
England, is the Winchefter gallon, which contains
272^ cubic inches. The bufhel contains 8 gallons, or
2178 inches. A cylindrical velfel, ] 8-J inches diame¬
ter, and 8 inches deep, is appointed to be ufed as a
bufhel in levying the malt tax. A veffel of thefe di-
menfions is rather lefs than the Winchefter bulhel of
8 gallons, for it contains only 2150 inches j though
probably there was no difference intended. The deno¬
minations of dry meafure commonly ufed, are given
in the firft of the fubjoined tables. Four quarters corn
make a chaldron, 5 quarters make a wey or load, and
10 quarters make a ton. In meafuring fea coal, 5 pecks
make a buftiel, 9 bufhels make a quarter or vatt, 4
quarters make a chaldron, and 21 chaldrons make a
fcore.
40 feet hewn timber make a load.
50 feet unhewn timber make a load.
32 gallons make a herring barrel.
42 gallons make a falmon barrel.
1 cwt. gunpowder makes a barrel.
256 lbs. foap make a barrel.
10 dozen candles make a barrel.
12 barrels make a laft.
2. ] Scotch dry meafure. There was formerly only
©ne meafure of capacity in Scotland ; and fome com¬
modities wrere heaped, others fruiked, or meafured ex-
afldy to the capacity of the ftandard. The method of
heaping was afterwards forbidden as unequal, and a
larger meafure appointed for fuch commodities as that
cuftom had been extended to.
The wheat firlot, ufed alfo for rye, peafe, beans, fait,
and grafs feeds, contains 21 pints 1 mutchkin, meafured
by the Stirling jug. The barley firlot, ufed alfo for
oats, fruit, and potatoes, contains 31 pints. A differ¬
ent method of regulating the firlot was appointed from
the dimenfions of a cylindrical veffel. The diameter
for both meafures was fixed at 19^ inches, the depth
74 inches for the wheat firlot, and io-§- for the barley
firlot. A ftandard conftruifted by thefe meafures is
rather lefs than when regulated by the pint •, and as it
is difficult to make veffels exacf ly cylindrical, the regu¬
lation by the pint has prevailed, and the other method
gone into difufe.
If the Stirling jug contains loaf inches, the wheat
firlot will contain 2109 inches 5 which is more than 2
per cent, larger than the legal malt bufhel of England,
and about 1 per cent, larger tha» the Winchefter bufhel:
and the barley firlot will contain 3208 inches. The
barley boll is nearly equal to fix legal malt bufhels.
In Stirlingfhire, 17 pecks are reckoned to the boll :
in Invernefsfhire, 18 pecks : in Ayrfhire the boll is the
fame as the Englifh quarter. And the firlots, in many
places, are larger than the Linlithgow ftandard.
3. ] French dr7/, are, ihe litron, bufhel, minot, mine,
feptier, muid, and tun. The litron is divided into two
demilitrons, and four quarter litrons, and contains 36
cuHc inches of Paris. By ordonnance, the litron is
to be three inches and a half high, and three inches
40 lines broad. The litron for fait is larger, and is
divided into two halves, four quarters, eight demi-
quarters, and 16 mefurettes. The French buftiel is
different in different jurifdidtions. At Paris it is di¬
vided into demibufhels) each demibufhel into two
quarts j the quart into two half quarts ; and the half
quart into two litrons : fo that the buftiel contains 16
litrons. By ordonnance the Paris bufhel is to be eight
inches two lines and a half high, and ten inches
broad, or in diameter within-fide. The minot con-
fifts of three bulhels, the mine of two minots or fix
bufhels, the feptier of two mines or 1 2 buihels, and
the muid of 1 2 feptiers or 144 bulhels. The bufhel
of oats is eftimated double that of any other grain j
fo that there go 24 buihels to make the feptier, and
288 to make the muid. It is divided into four pico^
tins, the picotin containing two quarts, or four litrons.
The bufhel for fait is divided into two half bufhels, four
quarters, eight half quarters, and 16 litrons ; four bu¬
fhels make a minot, 16 a feptier, and 192 a muid.
The bufhel for wood is divided into halves, quarters,
and half quarters. Eight bufhels make the minot, 16
a mine j 20 mines or 320 buftiels, the muid. For
plafter, 12 bufhels make a fack, and 36 facks a muid.
For lime, three bufhels make a minot, and 48 minot*
a muid. The minot is by ordonnance to be 11 inches
9 lines high, and 14 inches 8 lines in diameter. The
minot is compofed of three bufhels, or 16 litrons j
four minots make a feptier, and 48 a muid. The
French mine is no real veffel, but an eftimation of fe-
veral others. At Paris the mine contains fix bufhels,
and 24 make the muid 5 at Rouen the mine is four bu¬
fhels *, and at Dieppe 18 mines make a Paris muid.
The feptier differs in different places : at Paris it con¬
tains two mines, or eight bufhels, and 1 2 feptiers the
muid. At Rouen the feptier contains two mines or
12 bufhels. Twelve feptiers make a muid at Rouen
as well as at Paris ; but 12 of the latter are equal to 14
of the former. At Toulon the feptier contains a mine
and a half; three of which mines make the feptier of
Paris. The muid or muy of Paris confifts of 1 2 feptiers j
and is divided into mines, minots, bufhels, &c. That
for oats is double that for other grain, i. e. contains
twice the number of buftiels. At Orleans the muid is
divided into mines, but thofe mines only contain two
Paris feptiers and a half. In fome places they ufe the
tun in lieu of the muid ; particularly at Nantes, where
it contains 10 feptiers of 16 bufhels each, and weighs
between 2200 and 2250 pounds. Three of thefe tuns
make 28 Paris feptiers. At Rochelle, &c. the tun con¬
tains 42 buftiels, and weighs two per cent, lefs than that
of Nantes. At Breft it contains 20 bufhels, is equal
to 10 Paris feptiers, and weighs about 2240 pounds.
See Tun.
4.] Dutch, Swedifh, Polifh, Fruffian, and Mufcovite.
In thefe places, they eftimate their dry things on the
foot of the lafi, left, leth, or lecht; fo called according to
the various pronunciations of the people who ufe it. In
Holland, the laft is equal to 19 Paris feptiers, or 38
Bourdeaux bufhels, and weighs about 4 ^6o pounds j the
laft they divide into 27 mudes, and the mude into four
fcheples. In Poland, the laft is 40 Bourdeaux bufhels,
and weighs about 480c Paris pounds. In Pruffia, the
laft is 133 Paris feptiers. In Sweden and Mufcovy
thev meafure by the great and little laft ; the firft con¬
taining 12 barrels, and the fecond half as many. See
Last,
Meafure.
M E A
C 4i 1
M E A
MeaTure, Last. In Mufcovy, they like-wife ufe the chefford,
' which is different in virions places : that of Archangel
is equal to three Rouen bulhels.
5.3 Italian. At Venice, Leghorn, and Lucca, they
‘eftimat-e their dry things on the foot of the ftaro or
ftaio 5 the ftaro of Leghorn weighs 54 pounds: 112
ftaros end feven-eighths are equal to the Amfterdam
laft. At Lucca, 119 ftaros make the laft of Amfterdam.
The Venetian liar* weighs 128 Paris pounds : the ftaro
is divided into four quarters. Thirty-five ftaros and
one-fifth, or 140 quarters and four-fifths, make the lafi:
of Amfterdam. At Naples and other parts, they ufe the
tomolo or tomalo, equal to one-third of the Paris fep-
tier. Thirty-fix tomoli and a half make the carro, and
a carro and a half, or 54 tomoli, make the laft of Am¬
fterdam. At Palermo, 16 tomoli make the falma, and
four mondili the tomolo. Ten falmas and three-
fevenths, or iyi tomoli and three-fevenths, make the
laft of Amfterdam.
6. ] Flemijh. At Antwerp, &c. they meafure by the
viertel ; 32 and one-half whereof make 19 Paris fep-
tiers. At Hamburgh, the fchepel 5 90 whereof make
19 Paris feptiers.
7. ] SpaniJJj and Fortuguefe. At Cadiz, Bilboa, and
St Sebaftian, they ufe the fanega j 23 whereof make
the Nantes or Rochelle tun, or nine Paris feptiers and
a half: though the Bilboa fanega is fomewhat larger*
infomuch that 21 fanegas make a Nantes tun. At Se¬
ville, &c. they ufe the anagoras, containing a little more
than the Paris mine j 36 anagoras make 19 Paris fep¬
tiers. At Bayonne, &c. the concha $ 30 whereof are
equal to nine Paris feptiers and a half. At Lilhon, the
alquiver, a very fmall meafure, 240 whereof make 19
Paris feptiers, 60 the Lilhon muid.
Meafure.
Tables of Dnr Meafure.
1. English.
Solid inches
Pint
33-6
268.8
537-6
2150.4
17203.2
16
SjCallon
Peck
64
512
8
64
4jBu{hel
)uarter.
32! 8|Ou
2. Scripture Dry, reduced to Englifh.
Gachal
20 Cab
36
120 6
S6'
1800
3600
Gomor
Seah
18
90
180
31
10
50
100
£ O T*
8 S’
rr r* r
o
o
o
I
3°
Epha
Leteeh
10
2: C homer, or cor on
3
16
32
o r 7
'-TsTcT
5 rV
I
3
o
1
cn
o
tr
O.03I
O.073
1.211
4.°36‘
12.107
26.500
18.969
Vol. XIII. Part I.
3. Attic
Meafure.
M E A
[ 42 ]
3. Attic Meafures of Capacity for Things dry, reduced to Englifli
Corn Meafure.
Cochliarion - - - - - .
1 80
8640
Cyathos
i^Oxybaphon
4 Cotyle
12
18
864
1 2
576 144
Xeftes
Choenix
72
48jMediinnos
4. Roman Meafures of Capacity for Things dry, reduced to Englifh
Corn Meafure.
Ligula - -
24
48
384
76
Cyathus
Vcetabulum
Hemina
1 2
96
192
64
128
Sextarius
Semimodius
5 Modius
M E A
C/5
? ? ?• s-O
2. 0>
r p
a *
CP*
o 0.276TB-
o 2.763 •§•
O 4.144 I:
o 16.579
° SS*^8
I Ij.7°5i
6 3.50^
05
O
o I- 2
p r
o
O O^g- 0.01
O 0.04
o o £ 0.06
o
o I
I o
o o
0.24
0.48
3*84
7.68
Meafure.
Measure of Wood for Firing, is ufually the cord
four feet high, and as many broad, and eight long •,
this is divided into two half cords, called ways, and
by the French membrures, from the pieces ituck up¬
right to bound them ; or voyes, as being fuppofed half
a waggon load.
Measure for Horfes, is the hand, which by ftatute
contains four inches.
Measure, among Botanifs. In defcribing the parts
of plants, Tournefort introduced a geometrical fcale,
which many of his followers have retained. They mea-
fured every part of the plant; and the effence of the
defcription confifted in an accurate menfuration of the
whole. . '
As the parts of plants, however, are liable to va¬
riation in no circumftance fo much as that of dimen-
fron, Linnaeus very rarely admits any other menfura¬
tion than that arifing from the refpective length and
breadth of the parts compared together. In cafes
that require aftual menfuration, the fame author re¬
commends, in lieu of. Feurnefort’s artificial fcale, the
following natural fcale of the human body, which
he thinks is much more convenient, and equally ac¬
curate.
The fcale in queftion confrfts of 11 degrees,, which
are as follow : 1. A hair’sbreadth, or the diameter
of a hair, (capillus). 2. A lire, (linen), the breadth
«f the crefcent or white appearance at the root of the
finger (not thumb, meafured from the fkin towards
the body of the nail ; a, line is equal to 12 hairbreadths,
and is the 12th part of a Pariiian inch. 3. A nail
(unguis), the length of a finger nail j equal to fix
lines, or half a Parifian inch. 4. A thumb (po/ex),
the length of the firft or outermoft joint of the thumb j
equal to a Parifian inch. 5. A palm (palmus), the
breadth of the palm exclufive of the thumb 5 equal to
three Parifian inches. 6. A fpan (fpithama), the di-
ftance between the extremity of the thumb and that of
the fir ft finger when extended ; equal to feven Parifian
inches. 7. A great fpan (dodrans), the diflance be¬
tween the extremity of the thumb and that of the
little finger, when extended ; equal to nine inches.
8. A foot (pes), meafuring from the elbow to the
bafis of the thumb 5 equal to 12 Parifian inches. 9.
A cubit (cubitus), from the elbow to the extremity
of the middle finger', equal to 17 inches. 10. An
arm length (brachiutn), from the armpit to the extre¬
mity of the middle finger ; equal to 24 Parifian inches,,
or two feet. 11.A fathom (orgi/a), the meafure of
the human ftature *, the diftance between the extremities
of the two middle fingers, when the arms are extend¬
ed ', equal, where greateft, to fix feet.
Measure is alfo ufed to fignify the cadence and
time obferved in poetry, dancing, and mufic, to render
them regular and agreeable.
The different meafures or metres in poetry, are the
different
M E A
[ 43 1
M E A
Meafure. clifferent manners of ordering and combining the quan-
"“■"'V 1 tides, or the long and fliort fyllables. t hus, hexame¬
ter, pentameter, iambic, fapphic verfes, &c. coniift of
different mea fares.
In Englifh verfes, the meafures are extremely vari¬
ous and arbitrary, every poet being at liberty to intro¬
duce any new form that he pleafes. The moil ufual
are the heroic, generally comifting of live long and
five Ihort fyllables ; and verfes of four feet j and of
three feet and a caefura, or fmgle fyllable.
The ancients, by varioufly combining and tranfpof-
ing their quantities, made a vaft variety of different
meafures. Of words, or rather feet of two fyllables,
they formed a fpondee, confifting of two long fyllables j
a pyrrhic, of two Ihort fyllables *, a trochee, of a long
and a Ihort fyllable 5 and an iambic, of a Ihort and a
long fyllable.
Of their feet of three fyllables they formed a mo-
loffus, confifting of three long fyllables ; a tribrach, of
three ftiort fyllables •, a dactyl, of one long and two
fhort fyllables j and an anepaeft, of two fhort and one
long fyllable. The Greek poets contrived 124 dif¬
ferent combinations or meafures, under as many dif¬
ferent names, from feet of two fyllables to thofe of
fix.
Measure, in Mujic, the interval or fpace of time
which the perfon who beats time takes between the
rifing and falling of his hand or foot, in order to con-
du£t the movement, fometimes quicker, and fometimes
flower, according to the kind of mufic, or the fubje£t
that is fung or played.
The meafure is that which regulates the time we are
to dwell on each note. See Time.
The ordinary or common meafure is one fecond, or
60th part of a minute, which is nearly the fpace be¬
tween the beats of the pulfe or heart j the fyftole, or
contraftion of the heart, anfwering to the elevation of
the hand •, and its diaftole, or dilatation, to the letting
it fall. The meafure ufually takes up the fpace that
a pendulum of two feet and a half long employs in
making a fwing or vibration. The meafure is regu¬
lated according to the different quality or value of
the notes in the piece *, by which the time that each
note is to take up is expreffed. The femibreve, for
inftance, holds one rife and one falland this is called
• the meafure or whole meafure, fometimes the meafure
note, or time note; the minim, one rife, or one fall;
and the crotchet, half a rife, or half a fall, there being
four crotchets in a full meafure.
MEASURE Binary, or Double, is that wherein the rife
and fall of the hand are equal.
MEASURE Ternary, or Triple,h that wherein the fall
is double to the rife •; or where two minims are played
during a fall, and but one in the rife. To this pur-
pofe, the number 3 is placed at the beginning of
the lines, when the meafure is intended to be triple;
and a C, when the meafure is to be common or
double. This rifing and falling of the hands Avas
called by the Greeks ct^o-is and St Auguftine
calls it plaufus, and the Spaniards compos. See Arsis
and Thesis.
Powder MEASURES in Artillery, are made of copper,
and contain from an ounce to 12 pounds : thefe are
very convenient in a fiege, Avhen guns or mortars are
loaded Avith loofe powder, efpecially in ricochet firing,
&c.
MEASURING, or Mensuration, is the ufing^.
a certain knoAvn meafure, and determining thereby the
precife extent, quantity, or capacity of any thing.
Measuring, in general, includes the practical part
of geometry. From the various fubjects on which it is
employed, it acquires various names, and conftitutes
various arts. See Geometry, Levelling, Mensu¬
ration, Trigonometry, &c.
MEx\T. See Food, Diet, Drink, &c.
Amongft the Jews, feveral kinds of animals Avere
forbidden to be uied as food. The flefh with the
blood, and the blood Avithout the fleih, Avere prohibit¬
ed •, the fat alfo of facrificed animals Avas not to be
eaten. Roaft meat, boiled meat, and ragouts, Avere in
ufe among the HebreAVs, but Ave meet Avith no kind
of feafoning except fait, bitter herbs, and honey.—
They never mingled milk in any ragout or hath, and
never ate at the fame meal both meat and milk, butter,
or cheefe. The daily provifion for Solomon’s table
was 30 meafures of fine Avheat flour, 60 of common
flour, 10 fat oxen, 20 pafture oxen, 100 (beep, be-
fides venifon and Avildfowl. See Luxury.
The principal and moft neceffary food among the
ancient Greeks, Avas bread, AA'hich they called
and produced in a Avicker bafket called *«ye«v. Their
loaves Avere fometimes baked under the alhes, and
fometimes in an oven. They alfo ufed a fort of bread
called ma%a. Barley meal Avas ufed amongft the
Greeks, Avhich they called tzycpHo*. They had a fre¬
quent difh called Avhich was a compofition of
rice, cheefe, eggs, and honey, Avrapped in fig-leaves.
The /u.vTTtu]oy was made of cheefe, garlic, and eggs,
beaten and mixed together. Their bread and other
fubftitutes for bread, Avere baked in the form of hol¬
lo av plates, into Avhich they poured a fauce. Garlic,
onions, and figs, feem to have been a very common
food amongft the poorer Athenians. The Greeks,
efpecially in the heroieal times, ate flefti roafted ; boil¬
ed meat feldom Avas ufed. Fifti feems not to have
been ufed for food in the early ages of Greece. The
young people only, amongft the Lacedaemonians, ate
animal food } the men and the old men Avere fupport-
ed by a black foup called p.iyx £vp.os, which to people of
other nations Avas ahvays a dilagreeable mefs. Grafs-
hoppers and the extremities or tender (hoots of trees
Avere requently eaten by the poor among the Greeks.
Eels dreffed Avith beet root Avere efteemed a delicate
difti, and they Avere fond of the jowl and belly of falt-
fifti. Neither Avere they Avithout their fweet-meats j
the deffert confided frequently of fruits, almonds, nuts,
figs, peaches, &e. In every kind of food we find
fait to have been ufed.
The diet of the firfi: Romans confided wholly of
milk, herbs, and roots, Avhich they cultivated and
dreffed Avith their OAvn hands ; they alfo had a kind of
gruel, or coarfe grofs pap, compofed of meal and
boiling water ; this ferved for bread : And when they
began to ufe bread, they had none for a great Avhile
but of unmixed rye. Barley-meal was eaten by them,
which they called polenta. When they began to eat
animal food, it Avas efteemed a piece of luxury, and
an indulgence not to be juftified but by fome particu-
F 2 lar
Meafure
Meat.
M E A
Meath. ^ occafion. After animal food had grown into com-
—^ ■ mon ufe> the meat which they moil frequently produced
upon their tables was pork.
Method of Preferving Flefh-MEAT without fpices,
and with very little full. Jones, in his Mifcellanea
Cunofa, gives us the following defcription of the
Maorith Elcholle, which is made of beef, mutton, or
camel’s flefli, but chiefly beef, which is cut in
long fliees, and laid for 24 hours in a pickle-. They
then remove it out of thole jars or tubs into others
with water ; and when it has lain a night, they
take it out, and put it on ropes in the fun and air
to dry.. When it is thoroughly dried and hard, they
cut it into pieces of two or three inches long, and
throw it into a pan or caldron, which is ready with
boiling oil and fuet fufficient to hold it, where it boils
till it be very clear and red when cut. After this they
take it out, and fet it to drain; and when all is thus
done-it Hands to cool, and jars are prepared to put it
up-in, pouring upon it the liquor in which it was fried ;
and as foon as it is thoroughly cold, they Hop it up
clofe. It will keep two years; will be hard, and the
hardell they look upon to be the bell done. This, they
dilh up cold, fometitnes fried with eggs and garlic-,
fbmetimes Hewed, and lemon fqueezed on it. It is very
good any way, either hot or eold.
MEATH, commonly fo called, or otherwife Enf
Meath, to diHinguifli it from the county called Wef
Meath : A county of Ireland, in the province of
LeinHer, bounded by the counties of Cavan and Louth
on the north, the Irifh channel on the eafl, Kildare
and Dublin on the fouth, and Weft Meath and Long¬
ford on the weft. It is a fine champaign country,
abounding with corn, and well inhabited. It returns
14 members to parliament ; and gives title of earl to
the family of Brabazan. It contains 326,480 Irilh
plantation acres* 139 parilhes, and x 12,000 inhabi¬
tants. The chief towm is Trim. This diftrift being the
moft ancient fettlement of the Belgians in Ireland, the
inhabitants wmre efteemed the eldeft and moft honour¬
able tribe : from which feniority their chieftains were
elefted monarchs of all the Belgae ; a dignity that was
continued in the Hy-n-Faillian without intermiflion,
until the arrival of the Caledonian colonies* under the
name of Tuath de Danan, when Conor-Mor, chief¬
tain of thefe people, obtained, or rather ufurped, the
monarchial throne, obliged Eochy Failloch, with fe-
veral of his people, to crofs the Shannon, and eftablifli
themfelves in the prefent county of Rofcommon, where
Crothar founded the palace of Atha or Croghan, a
circumftance which brought on a long and bloody war
between the Belgian and Caledonian races, which was
not finally terminated until- the clofe of the 4th cen¬
tury, when the Belgian line wras reftored in the perfon
of O’Nial the Great, and continued until Briam Bo-
romh ufurped the monarchial dignity, by depofing
Malachy O’Malachlin, about the year 1001. Tuathal
Tetfthomar, by a decree of the Tarah aflembly, fepa-
rated certain large tracts of land from each of the four
provinces, w here the borders joined together ; whence,
under the notion of adopting this fpot for demefne
lands to fupport the royal houfehold, he formed the
county or kingdom of Meath, which afterwards be¬
came the peculiar inheritance of the monarchs of Ire¬
land. In each of the portions thus feparated from
C 44- J
M E A
the four provinces, Tuathal caufed palaces to be crew¬
ed, which might adorn them, and commeAorate tin ^
name in which they- had been. added to the royal do¬
main; In the tract taken out of Munfter, he built
the palace called Flachtaga, where the facred fire, fo
called, was kindled, and wdiere all the priefts and druida
annually met on the laft day of Oaober ; on the evening
of which day it was enafted, that no other fire ihould
be ufed throughout the kingdom, in order that all the
fires might be derived from this, which being lighted
up as a fire of facrifice, their fuperftition led them to
believe would render all the reft propitious and holy ;
and for this privilege every family was to pay three¬
pence, by way of acknowledgment to the king of
Munfter. The fecond royal palace was erected in the
proportion taken out of Connaught, and was built for
the aflembly called the convocation of Vifneach, at
which all the inhabitants-were fummoned to appeal on
the 1 ft day of May, to offer facrifice to Beal, or Bef,
the god of fire, in whofe honour tw o large fires being
kindled, the natives ufed to drive their cattle between
them, which was fuppofed to be a prefervative for
them againrt accidents and diftempers, and this was
called Beal-Tinne, or Bel-Tine, or. the feftival of the
god of fire. The king of Connaught at this meeting
claimed a horfe and arms from every lord of a manor
or chieftain,' as an acknowledgement for the lands ta¬
ken from that province, to add to the territory of
Meath. The third was that which Tailtean erected in
the part taken from Ulfter, where the fair of that
name was held, which was remarkable for this parti¬
cular circumftance, that the inhabitants brought their
children thither, males and females, and eontraftei
them in marriage, where the parents having agreed
upon articles, the young people were joined according--
ly ; every couple contracted at this meeting paid the
king of Ulfter an ounce of filver by w7ay of acknow¬
ledgement. The royal manfion of Tarah, formerly
deftroyed by fire, being rebuilt by Tuathal, on the
lands originally belonging to the king of Leinfter, was
reckoned as the fourth of thefe palaces ; but as a fa¬
bric of that name had flood there before, we do not
find that any acknowledgement was made for it to the
king of Leinfter.
Meath, with Clonmacnois, is a bifhop’s fee, valued in
the king’s books at 373I. 7s. o-^d. fterling, by an ex¬
tent returned anno 28th Elizabeth ; but, by a former
extent taken anno 30th Henry VIII. the valuation a-
mounts to 373I. I2s. w-hich being the largeft and
moft profitable for the king, is the meafure of the firft
fruits at this day. This fee is reputed to be worth
annually 3400I. There were formerly many epif-
copal fees in Meath, as Clonard, Duleek, Kells,
Trim, Ardbraccan, Donftiaghlin, Slaine, and Foure,
befides others of lefs note ; all thefe, except Duleek
and Kelts* were confolidated, and their common fee
was fixed at Clonard, before the year 115 2 •* at which
time the divifions of the bifhoprics in Ireland wer e made
by John Paparo, cardinal prieft, entitled Cardinal of
St Lawrence in Damafo, then legate from Pope Eu¬
gene III. to the Irifti. This divifion was made in a
fynod held on the 6th of March in the abbey of Mel-
lifont, or, as fome fay, at Kells : and the two fees of
Duleek and Kells afterwards fubmitted to the fame
fate. The conftitution of this diocefe is Angular, hav-
insr
Meath.
M E C [ 45 3 M E C
Meath ing no dean nor chapter, cathedral, or economy.—
Me 'eras ^odor the bifhop, the archdeacon is the head officer, to
‘ ~, whom, and to the clergy in general, the conge cPehre
iffued while bifhops were elective. The affairs of the
dioeefe are tranfacled by a fynod, in the nature of a
chapter, who have a common feal, which is annually
lodged in the hands of one of the body, by the ap*
pointment and vote of the majority* The diocefe is
divided into twelve rural deaneries.
Of CloNMACNOJS, now annexed to Meath: There
is no valuation of this lee in the king’s books} but it
is fuppofed to be included in tlie extent of the fee of
Meath, taken anno 30th Henry VIII. The chapter
ef this fee conlilted anciently of dean, chanter,- chan¬
cellor, trealurer, archdeacon, and twelve prebendaries,
but mod of their poffeffions have fallen into lay
hands. At prefent the deanery is the only part of
the chapter which fublilts, to which the prebend of
Cloghran is annexed, and he hath a feal of office, which
appears to have been the ancient epifcopal feal of this
fee. This fee wras founded by St Kiaran, or Ciaran,
the younger, in 548 ur 549 ; and Dermod, the fon of
Ceronill, king of Ireland, granted the fite on which
the church was built.
We/} Meath* See Westmeith..
MEATUS suditorius. See Anatomy, N° 144.
MEAUX, an ancient town of France, in the de¬
partment of the Seine and Marne, with a bihop’s fee,
feated in a place abounding in corn and cattle, on the
river Marne, which divides it into two parts; and its
trade confifts in corn, wool, and cheefe. It fuftained
a liege of three months againft the Engliffi in J421.
E. Long. 2. 58. N. Lat. 48. 58.
MECfENAS, or Mecoenas, C. Cilnius, a cele¬
brated Roman knight, defeended from the kings of
Etruria. He has rendered himfelf immortal by his
liberal patronage of learned men and of letters ; and to
his prudence and advice Auguftus acknowledged him¬
felf indebted for the fecurity he enjoyed. His fond-
nefs for pleafure removed him from the reach of ambi¬
tion ; and he preferred dying, as he was born, a Ro¬
man knight, to all the honours and dignities which
either the friendlhip of Auguftus or his own popularity
could heap upon him. To the interference of Mecamas,
Virgil owed the retribution of his lands; and Horace
was proud to boaft that his learned friend had obtain¬
ed his forgivenefs from the emperor, for joining the
caufe of Brutus at the battle of Philippi. Mecsenas
■was himfelf fond of literature : and, according to the
molt received opinion, he wrote a hiftory of animals,
a journal of the life of Auguftus, a treatife on the
difterent natures and kinds of precious ftones, belides
the two tragedies of Oclavia and Prometheus, and
other things, all now loft. He died eight years be¬
fore Thrift; and on his deathbed he particularly re¬
commended his poetical friend Horace to the care and
confidence of Auguftus. Seneca, who has liberally
commended the genius and abilities of Mecaenas, has
not withheld his cenfure from his diffipation, indolence,
and effeminate luxury. From the patronage and en¬
couragement which the princes of heroic and lyric
poetry among the Latins received from the favourite of
Auguftus, all patrons of literature have ever fince been
called Meccenates. Virgil dedicated to him his Geor¬
gies, and Horace his Odes.
5
MECCA, an ancient and very famous town of Alia-,
in Arabia Felix; feated on a barren fpot, in a
valley furrounded with little hills, about a day’s jour¬
ney from the Red fea. It is a place of no ftrength,
having neither walls nor gates; and the buildings are
very mean;. That which fupports it is the refort of a
great many thoufand pilgrims annually, for the fhops
are fcarcely open all the year befides. The inhabitants
are poor, very thin, lean, and fwarthy. The hills
about tire town are very numerous; and confift of a
blackilh rock, fome of them* half a mile in circumfe¬
rence. On the top of one of them is a cave, wffiere
they pretend Mahomet ufually retired to perform his
devotions, and hither they7 affirm the greateft part of
the Alcoran wras brought him by the angel Gabriel.
The town has plenty of water, and yet little garden-
fluff ; but there are feveral forts of good fruits to be
had, fuch as grapes, melons, water melons, and cucum¬
bers. There are alfo plenty of ffieep brought thither
to be fold to the pilgrims. It ftands in a very hot cli¬
mate ; and the inhabitants ufually fleep on the tops of
their houfes for the fake of coolnefs. In order to pro-
tect themfelves from the heat through the day, they
carefully fliut the w indows, and wrater the ftreets to re-
freffi the air. There have been inftances of perfonsfuf-
foeated in the middle of the town by the burning wind,
called Simoom.
As a great number of the people of diftindlion in
the province of Hedsjas ftay in the city, it is better
built than any other in Arabia. Amongft the beauti¬
ful edifices it contains, the moft remarkable is the fa¬
mous Kaha or Caaba, “ The houfe of God,” which
was held in great veneration by the Arabs even before
Mahomet’s time.
No Chriftian dares go to Mecca ; not that the ap*
proach to it is prohibited by any exprefs law, or that
the fenfible part of the Mahometans have any thing
to objeft to it; but on account of the prejudices of
the people, who regarding this ground as facred, think
Chriftians unworthy of letting their foot on it; it
would be profaned in the opinion of the fuperftiti-
ous, if it was trod upon by infidels. The people even
believe, that Chriftians are prevented from approach¬
ing by fome fupernatural power ; and they tell the
ftory of an infidel, who having got fo far as the hills
that liirround Mecca, all the dogs of the city came
out, and fell upon him ; and who, being ftruck with
this miracle, and the auguft appearance of the Kaba,
immediately became a muffulman. It is therefore to
be prefumed that all the Europeans -who deferibe
Mecca as eye-w itneffes, have been renegadoes efeaped
from Turkey. A recent example confirms this fuppo-
fition. On the promife of being allowed to preferve
his religion, a French furgeon was prevailed on to ac¬
company the Emir Hadsji to Mecca, in qualitv of phy-
fician ; but at the very firft ftation, he was forced to
fubmit to circumcifion, and then he was permitted to
continue his journey.
Although the Mahometans do not allow Europeans
to go to Mecca, they do not refufe to give them de-
feriptions of the Kaba, and information with regard to
that building ; and there are perfons who gain their
bread by making defigns and little pi£tures of the Kaba^
and felling them to pilgrims. See Caaba.
The Mahometans have fo high an opinion of the
fan&ity
Mecca.
M E C [ 40 ] M E G
Mecca, fanclity of Mecca, that they extend it to the places
“"~v in the neighbourhood. The territory of that city is
held faered to certain diftanees, which are indicated by
particular marks. Every caravan finds in its road a
fimilar mark, which gives notice to the pilgrims when
they are to put on the modeft garb in which they muft
appear in thofe iacred regions. Every muffulman is
obliged to go once in his life at leaf! to Mecca, to
perform his devotions there. If that law was rigour-
oufly enforced, the concourfe of pilgrims would be
prodigious, and the city would never be able to con¬
tain the multitudes from all the countries where the
Mahometan religion prevails. We mull therefore,
fuppofe, that devotees alone perform this duty, and
that the others can eafily difpenfe with it. Thofe
■whofe circumltances do not permit a long abfence,
have the liberty of going to Mecca by a fubftitute.—
A hired pilgrim, however, cannot go for more than
one perfon at a time ; and he muft, to prevent frauds,
bring an atteftation in proper form, from an Imam of
Mecca, that he has performed the requifite devotions
on behalf of fuch a perfon, either alive or dead 5 for,
after the deceafe of a perfon who has not obeyed the
law during his life, he is ftill obliged to perform the
journey by proxy.
The caravans, which are not numerous, when we
confider the immenfe multitude of the faithful, are
Oompofed of many people who do not make the jour¬
ney from purpofes of devotion. 1 hefe are merchants,
who think they can tranfport their merchandifes with
more fafety, and difpofe of them more eafily ; and
contractors of every kind, who furnilh the pilgrims
and the foldiers who efcort the caravans, with necelfa-
ries. Thus it happens, that many people have gone
often to Mecca, folely from views of intereft. The
molt confiderable of thofe caravans is that of Syria,
commanded by the pacha of Damafcus. It joins at
fome diftance the fecond from Egypt, which is con¬
duced by a bey, who takes the title of Emir Hadsji.
One comes from Yemen, and another, lefs numerous,
from the country of Lachfa. Some fcattered pilgrims
arrived by the Red fea from the Indies, and from the
Arabian eftabliftunents on the coafts of Africa. The
Perfians come in that which departs from Bagdad ; the
place of conduCor to this laft is bellowed by the pacha,
and is very lucrative, for he receives the ranfoms of the
heretical Perfians.
It is of confequence to a pilgrim to arrive early at
the holy places. Without having been prefent from
the beginning at all the ceremonies, and without hav¬
ing performed every particular aft of devotion, a man
cannot acquire the title of Hadsji: this is an honour
very much coveted by the Turks, for it confers real
advantages, and makes thofe who attain it to be much
refpefted. Its infrequency, however, in the Maho¬
metan dominions, Ihows how much the obfervation of
the law commanding pilgrimages is neglefted. A fi¬
milar cuftom prevails among the Oriental Chriftians,
who are alfo exceedingly emulous of the title of Hadsji,
or Mokdafi, which is given to pilgrims of their com¬
munion. In order to acquire this title, it is not fuffi-
cient that the perfon has made the journey to Jerufa-
lem •, he muft alfo have kept the paffover in that city,
and have affiHed at all the ceremonies of the holy weeks.
I
After all the effential ceremonies are, over, the pil- Mecca,
grims next morning move to a place where they fay MtcEmi-
Abraham went to offer up his fon Ifaac, Avhich is , ca*‘
about two or three miles from Mecca : here they pitch v
their tents, and then throw feven fmall ftones againft
a little fquare ftone building. This, as they affirm, is
performed in defiance of the devil. Every one then
purchafes a fheep, which is brought for that purpofe,
eating fome of it themfelves, and giving the reft to the
poor people who attend upon that occafion. Indeed
thefe are miferable objefts, and fuch ftarved creatures,
that they feem ready to devour each other. After all,
one would imagine that this was a very fanftified place j
and yet a renegado who went in pilgrimage thither,
affirms there is as much debauchery praftifed here as
in any part of the Turkifh dominions. It is 25 miles
from Jodda, the fea port town of Mecca, and 220
fouth-eaft of Medina. E. Long. 40. 55. N. Lat.
21. 45.
MECHANICAL, an epithet applied to whatever
relates to mechanics : Thus we fay, mechanical powers,
caufes, &c. See the articles Power, Cause, &c.
The mechanical philofophy is the fame with what is
otherwife called corpufcular philofophy, which explains
the phenomena of nature, and the operations of corpo¬
real things, on the principles of mechanics1, viz. the
motion, gravity, arrangement, difpofition, greatnefs or
fmallnefs, of the parts which compofe natural bodies.
See Corpuscular.
This manner of reafoning is much ufed in medicine j
and, according to Dr Quincy, is the refult of a tho¬
rough acquaintance with the ftrufture of animal bo¬
dies : for confidering an animal body as a compofition
out of the fame matter from which all other bodies are
formed, and to have all thofe properties which concern
a phyfician’s regard, only by virtue of its peculiar con-
ftruftion it naturally leads a perfon to confider the
feveral parts, according to their figures, contexture,
and ufe, either as wheels, pulleys, wedges, levers,
ferews, cords, canals, ftrainers, &c. For which pur¬
pofe, continues he, it is frequently found helpful to x
defign in diagrams, whatfoever of that kind is under
confideration, as is cuftomary in geometrical demonftra-
tions.
For the application of this doftrine to the human
body, fee the article Medicine.
MechaNICAT., in mathematics, denotes a conftrucr
tion of fome problem, by the afliftahee of inftruments, as
the duplicature of the cube and quadrature of the cir¬
cle, in contradiftinftion to that which is done in an ac¬
curate and geometrical manner.
Mechanical Curve, is a curve, according to Defcartes,
which cannot be defined by any algebraic equation j
and fo Hands contradiftinguiffied from algebraic or geo¬
metrical curves.
Leibnitz and others call thefe mechanical curves
tranfcendental, and diffent from Defcartes, in excluding
them out of geometry. Leibnitz found a new kind of
tranfcendental equations, whereby thefe curves are de¬
fined : but they do not continue conftantly the fame
in all points of the curve, as algebraic ones do. See
the article Transcendental.
Mechanical Solution of a problem is either when
the thing is done by repeated trials, or when lines ufed _
in
M E- C f 47 ] M E C
Mechani- in the folution are not truly geometrical, or by organi which are ufed for raifing greater weights, or over- Mechani¬
cs cal conltru&ion. coming greater refill ances, than could be effected by caI-
Mechanical Powers, are certain limple machines, the natural llrength without them. See Mechanics. ' ~
MECHANICS.
Definition, i. TiTECHANICS is the fcience which enquires into
the laws of the equilibrium and motion of folid
bodies ; into the forces by which bodies, whether ani¬
mate or inanimate, may be made to aft upon one ano¬
ther *, and into the means by which thefe may be in-
creafed fo as to overcome fuch as are more powerful.—
The term mechanics was originally applied to the doc¬
trine of equilibrium. It has by fome late writers been
extended to the motion and equilibrium of all bodies,
whether folid, fluid, or aeriform ; and has been employ¬
ed to comprehend the fciences of hydrodynamics and
pneumatics.
HISTORY.
Progrefs f 2. As the fcience of mechanics is intimately con-
mechamcs ne<^ed S16 arts °f life, and particularly with thofe
amon^the which exift even in the rudeft ages of fociety, the con-
ancients. ftruftion of machines muft have arrived at conliderable
perfeftion before the theory of equilibrium, or the
fimpleft properties of the mechanical powers, had en¬
gaged the attention of philofophers. We accordingly
find that the lever, the pulley, the crane, the capftan,
and other Ample machines, were employed by the an¬
cient architefts in elevating the materials of their
buildings, long before the dawn of mechanical fcience j
and the military engines of the Greeks and Romans,
fuch as the catapultae and balilbse, exhibit an extenfive
acquaintance with the conftruftion of compound ma¬
chinery. In the fplendid remains of Egyptian architec¬
ture, which in every age have excited the admiration
of the world, we perceive the mofl: furprifing marks of
mechanical genius. The elevation of immenfe maffes
of ftone to the tops of their ftupendous fabrics, mufl:
have required an accumulation of mechanical power
which is not in the pofleflion of modern architefts.
Ariftotle 3. The earlieft traces of any thing like the theory of
who^f mechanics arf to be found in the writings of Ariftotle.
tcniictl to ^ome los works we difcover a few erroneous and
thi theory obfcure opinions, refpefting the doftrine of motion, and
| of mech.t- the nature of equilibrium ; and in his 28th mechanical
- queftion he has given fome vague obfervations on the
• 3Z0- force of impulfe, tending to point out the difference be¬
tween impulfe and preifure. He maintained that there
cannot be two circular motions oppofite to one another *,
that heavy bodies defcended to the centre of the uni-
verfe, and that the velocities of their defcent were pro¬
portional to their weights.
Archimedes 4. The notions of Ariftotle, however, were fo con-
foundation erl‘one°us, that the honour of laying the foun-
of theoreti- dat‘on °f theoretical mechanics is exclufively due to the
cal mecha- celebrated Archimedes, Avho, in addition to his inven-
nics. tions in geometry, difeovered the general principles of
C- 250- hydroftatics. In his two books, De Equiponderantibus,
he has demonftrated that when a balance with unequal
arms, is in equilibrio, by means of two weights in its
oppofite feales, thefe weights muft be reciprocally pro¬
portional to the arms of the balance, f rom this gene¬
ral principle, all the other properties of the lever, and
of machines referable to the lever, might have been
deduced as corollaries $ but Archimedes did not follow
the difeovery through all its confequences. In de-
monftrating the leading property of the lever, he lays
it down as an axiom, that if the two arms of the ba¬
lance are equal, the two weights muft alfo be equal
when an equilibrium takes place ; and then ftiows that
if one of the arms be increafed, and the equilibrium
ftill continue, the weight appended to that arm muft be
proportionally diminilhed. ft his important diicovery
condufted the Syracufan philofopher to another equally
ufeful in mechanics. Reflecting on the conftruftion of
his balance, which moved upon a fulcrum, he perceived
that the two weights exerted the fame preliure on the
fulcrum as if they had both relied upon it. He then
confidered the fum of thefe two weights as combined
with a third, and the fum of thefe three as combined
with a fourth ; and faw that in every fuch combination
the fulcrum muft fupport their united weight, and there¬
fore that there is in every combination of bodies, and
in every Angle body which may be conceived as made
up of a number of leffer bodies, a centre of prefjure or
gravity. This difeovery Archimedes applied to par¬
ticular cafes, and pointed out the method of finding the
centre of gravity of plane furfaces, whether bounded by
a parallelogram, a triangle, a trapezium, or a parabola.
The theory of the inclined plane, 'the pulley, the axis
in peritrochio, the ferew, and the wedge, which was firft
publiftied in the eighth book of Pappus’s mathematical
colleftions, is generally attributed to Archimedes. It
appears alfo from Plutarch and other ancient authors,
that a greater number of machines which have not
reached our times was invented by this philofopher.
J he military engines which he employed in the fiege
of Syracufe againft thofe of the Roman engineer Ap-
pius, are faid to have difplayed the greateft mechanical
genius, and to have retarded the capture of his native
city.
5- Among the various inventions which we have re-Invention
ceived from antiquity, that of water mills is entitled to<fwater-
the higheft place, whether we confider the ingenuity ami,
which they dirplay, or the ufeful purpofes to which
they are fubfervient. In the infancy of the Roman* re¬
public the corn was ground by hand-mills confining of
two millftones, one ot which wras moveable, and the
other at reft. The upper millftone w as made to revolve
either by the hand applied direftly to a winch, or by
means of a rope winding round a capftan. ft he precife
time when the impulfe or the weight of water was fub-
ftituted in the place of animal labour, is not exaftly
known. From an epigram in the Antho/ogia Greeca
there is reafon to believe that water-mills were invented
during the reign of Auguitus 3 but it is ftrange that in
th«
Hiftory.
Stevinus
tl ifcovers
the paral¬
lelogram
of forces.
Died in
*63S-
48 M E C H A
tlie defcription given of them by Vitruvius, who lived
under that emperor, they are not mentioned as of re¬
cent origin. The invention of wind-mills is of a later
date. According to fome authors, they were firit uied
in France in the fixth century 5 while others maintain
that they were brought to Europe in the time of the
crufades, and that they had long been employed in the
eafl, where the fcarcity of water precluded the applica¬
tion of that agent to machinery.
6. The feience of mechanics feems -to have been fta-
tionar-y till the end of the 16th century. 'In 1577 a
tieatife on mechanics was publithed by Giiidus (Jbal-
this, but it contained merely the difcoveries of Archi¬
medes. Simon Stevinus, however, a Dutch mathe¬
matician, contributed greatly to the progrefs of the
fcience. He difeovcred the parallelogram of forces j
and has demonftrated in his Statics, publilhed in 1586,
that if a body is urged by two forces in the direction of
the tides of a parallelogram and proportional to thefe
lides, the combined action of thefe two forces is equi¬
valent to a third force acting in the direction of the
diagonal of the parallelogram, and having its intenfity
proportional to that diagonal. This important dis¬
covery, which has been of fuch fervice in the different
departments of phyfics, fhould have conferred upon its
author a greater degree of celebrity than he has actual¬
ly enjoyed. His name has fcarcely been enrolled in
the temple of fame, but juftice may yet be done to the
memory of fuch an ingenious man. He had likewife
the merit of illuftrating other parts of flatics ; and he
appears to have been the firft who, without the aid of
the properties ef the lever, difeovered the laws of equi¬
librium in bodies placed on an inclined plane. His
works were reprinted in the Dutch language in 1605.
They were tranflated into Latin in 1608, and into
French in 1634 ; and in thefe editions of his works his
Statics were enlarged by an appendix, in which he
treats of the rope machine, and on pulleys acting ob¬
liquely.
7. The doctrine of the centre of gravity, which had
lerius writes been applied by Archimedes only to plane furfaces, was
on the cen- now extended by Lucas Valerius to folid bodies. In
vit °offo-" his work entitled Dr Centro Gravitatis Solidorum Liber,
lids. publifhed at Bologna in 1661, he has difculfed this fub -
1661. je£t with fuch ability, as to receive from Galileo the
honourable appellation of the Nevus nojlne cetutis Ar-
Difeoyaries
S. In the hands of Galileo the fcience of mechanics
Died 1641 aflumed a new form. In 1572 he wrote a fmail treatife
on ftatics, which he reduced to this principle, that it
requires an equal power to raife two different bodies to
altitudes in the inverfe ratio of their weights, or that
the fame power is requifite to raife 10 pounds to the
height of 100 feet, and 20 pounds to the height of 50
feet. This fertile principle was not purfued by Galileo
to its different confequences. It was left to Dcfcartes
to apply it to the determination of the equilibrium of
machines, which he did in his explanation of machines
and engines, without acknowledging his obligations to
the Tufcan philofbpher. In addition to this new prin¬
ciple, Galileo enriched mechanics with his theory of lo¬
cal motion. This great difeovery has immortalized its
author -, and whether we confider its intrinfic value, ox
the change which it produced on the phyfieal fciences,
we are led to regard it as nearly of equal importance
Lucas Va-
N I C 8.
with the theory of univerfal gravitation, to which it Hiftory.
paved the way. The firft hints of this new theory were » '*
given in his -SystEMA Cosmicum, Dialogus II. The
fabjecl was afterwards fully difeuffed in another, en¬
titled Difcurfus et Demovjlrationcs Mathematicce cir- 163S.
ca duas novas Scientias pertinentes ad Mechanicam et
Motum Localem, and publifhed in 1638. This work is
divided into'foUr dialogues ; the firft of which treats of
the refiftance of folid bodies before they are broken :
The fecond points out the caufe of the cohefion of folids.
In the third he difeufles his theory of local motions,
comprehending thofe which are equable, and thofe
which are uniformly accelerated. In the fourth he
treats df violent motion, or the motion of projectiles ;
and in an appendix to the work he demonftrates feveral
propofitions relative to the centre of gravity of folid
bodies. In the Frit of thefe dialogues he has founded his
reafoning on principles which are far from being correct,
but he has been more fuccelsful in the other three. In
the third dialogue, which contains his celebrated theo¬
ry, he difeuffes the doclrine of equable motions in fix
theorems, containing the different relations between the
velocity of the moving body, the fpace which it de-
feribes, and the time employed in its defcription. In
the fecond part of the dialogue, which treats of acce¬
lerated motion, he confiders all bodies as heavy, and
compofed of a number of parts which are alfo heavy.
Hence he concludes that the total weight of the body
is proportional to the number of the material particles
of which it is compofed, and then reafons in the follow¬
ing manner. As tire weight of a body is a power al¬
ways the fame in quantity, and as it conftantly acts
without interruption, the body muft be continually re¬
ceiving from it equal impulfes in equal and fuccefllve
inftants of time. When the body is prevented from
falling by being placed on a table, its weight is incef-
fantly impelling it downwards, but ihefe impulies ate
inceffantly deftroyed by the refiftance of the table which
prevents it from yielding to them. But where the
body falls freely, the impulfes which it perpetually re¬
ceives are perpetually accumulating, and remain iti the
body unchanged in every refpect excepting the dimi¬
nution which they experience from the refiftance of air.
It therefore follows, that a body falling tret iy is uni¬
formly accelerated, or receives equal increments of
velocity in equal times. Having eftablifhed this as a de¬
finition, he then demonftrates, that the time in which
any fpace is deferibed by a motion uniformly accelerat¬
ed from reft, is equal Lo the time in which the lame
fpace would be deferibed by an uniform equable motion
with half the final velocity of the accelerated motion 5
and that in every motion uniformly accelerated from
reft, the {paces deferibed are in the duplicate ratio of
the times of defcription. After having proved thefe
theorems, he applies the doftrine with great fitccefs to
the aicent and defeent of bodies on inclined planes.
9. The theory of Galileo was embraced by his pn-Labours of
pil Torricelli, who illuftrated and extended it in his Torricelli,
excellent work entitled De motu gravium return liter 1644.
accelerate, publifhed in 1644. In his treatife De motu
projeciorurn, publifhed in the Florentine edition of his
works, in 1664, he has added feveral new and import¬
ant propofitions to thofe which were given bv his mafter .
t 1 . r • Invention w
on the motion of projectiles. tj,e
10. It was about this time that fleam began to be ei,g;ne.
employed
MECHANICS.
Hiftory.. employed as the firfc mover of machinery. This great
v—difcovery has been afcribed by the Englifh to the mar¬
quis of Worcefter, and to Papin by the French but
it is almoft certain, that about 34 years before the date
' of the marquis’s invention, and about 61 years before
the conftruction of Papin’s digefter, fleam was employ¬
ed as the impelling powrer of a ftamping engine by one
Brancas an Italian, who publiftied an account of his
invention in 1629. It is extremely probable, however,
that the marquis of Worcefter had never feen the work
of Brancas, and that the fire-engine which he mentions
in his Century of Inventions was the refult of his own
ingenuity. The advantages of fleam as an impel¬
ling power being thus known, the ingenious Captain
Savary invented an engine which raifed water by the
expanfion and condenfation of fleam. Several engines of
this con ft met ion were actually erected in England and
France, but they were incapable of raifing water from
depths which exceeded 35 feet. The fleam-engine re¬
ceived great improvements from our countrymen New¬
comen, Brighton, and Blakey; but it was brought to
its prefent ftate of perfection by Mr Watt of Birming¬
ham, one of the moft accomplished engineers of the
prefent age. Hitherto it had been employed merely as
a hydraulic machine for draining mines or raifing wa¬
ter, but in confequence of Mr Watt’s improvements it
has long been ufed as the impelling power of almoft
every fpecies of machinery. It is a curious circum-
ftance, that the fleam-engine wTas not only invented,
but has received all its improvements, in our own
country.
Difcovcries 11. The fuccefs of Galileo in inveftigating the doc-
of Huygens, trine of rectilineal motion, induced the illuftrious Huy-
gens to turn his attention to eurvilineal motion. In
his eelebrated work De Horologia Ofcillatorio, publilh-
ed in 1673, ^-e ^horvn that the velocity of a heavy
body defeending along any curve, is the fame at every
inftant in the direflion of the tangent, as it would have
been if it had fallen through a height equal to the cor-
refponding vertical abfeifs j and from the application of
this principle to the reverfed cycloid with its axis verti¬
cal, he difeovered the ifochrorufm of the cycloid, or
that a heavy body, from whatever part of the cycloid
it begins to fall, always arrives at the lower point of
the. curve in the fame fpace of time. By thefe difeuf-
fions, Huygens was gradually led to his beautiful theo¬
ry of central forces in the circle. This theory may be
applied to the motion of a body in any curve, by con-
fidering all curves as. compofed of an infinite number of
foiall arcs of circles of different radii, which Huygens
had already done in his theory of evolutes. The theo¬
rems of Huygens concerning the centrifugal force and
circular motions, were publilhed without demonftrations.
*700. They were firft demonftrated by Dr Keill at the end of
his Introdu'ffion to Natural Philofophy. The demon-
ftratxons of Huygens, however, which were moye prolix
than thofe of the Englifh philofopher, were afterwards
given in his pofthumous works.
The laws of 1 2. About this time the true laws of collifion or per-
eollifion cuffion were feparately difeovered by Wallis, Huygens,
bv Wnlhl* and Chnftopher Wren in 1661, without having the
Huygens,’ communication with each other. They were
and Wren, tranfmitted to the Royal Society of London in
s66i. 1688, and appeared in the 43d and 46th numbers of
their Tranfadlions. The rules given by Wallis and
Vol. XIII. Part L
Wren are publifhed in N® 43, pp. 864 and 867, and Hiftory.
thofe of Huygens in N° 4f, p. 927. 'j he tounda-
tion of all their folutions is, that in the mutual coliifion
of bodies, the abfolute quantity of motion of the centre
of gravity is the fame after impa£l as before it, and that
when the bodies are elaftic, the refpeflive velocity is the
fame after as before the fhock.—We are indebted like-
wife to Sir Chriftopher Wren for an ingenious method
of demonftrating the laws of impulfion by experiment.
He fufpended the impinging bodies by threads of equal
length, fo that they might touch each other when at
reft. When the two bodies were ft-par a ted from one
another, and then allowed to approach by their own
gravity, they impinged againft each other when they
arrived at the pofitions which they had when at reft,
and their velocities were proportional to the chords of
the arches through which they had fallen. Their ve¬
locities after impact were alfo im a hired by the chords
of the arches through which the ftreke had forced
them to afeend, and the refults of the experiments coin¬
cided exaftly with the dedudlions of theory. I he laivs
of percuflion were afterwards more fully inveftigated by
Huygens, in his pofthumous work De Motu Corporum
ex Percujjionc, and by Wallis in his Meehan:ca, pub¬
liftied in 1670.
13. The attention of philofophers was at this time Mechanical
direded to the two mechanical problems propofed by' ro^leiris
Merfennus in 1635. The firft of thefe problems was
to determine the centre of ofcillation in a compound j63^1
pendulum, and the fceond to find the centre of percuf-
fion of a fingle body, or a fyftem of bodies turning
round a fixed axis. T he centre of ofcillation is that
point in a compound pendulum, or a fyftem of bodies
moving round a centre, in which, if a fmall body were
placed and made to move round the fame centre, it
would perform its ofeillations in the fame time as the
fyftem of bodies. The centre of percuflion, which is
fituated in the fame point of the fyftem as the centre of
ofeillation, is that point of a body revolving or vibrat¬
ing about an axis, which being ftruek by an immove¬
able obftacle, the whole of its motion is deftroyed.
Thefe two problems were at firft difeuffed by Defeartes Huygens
and Roberval, but the methods which they employedloives the
were far from being cor re ft. The firft folution of the‘P'obiem
problem on the centre of ofcillation was given by Huy-t ^
gens. He affumed as a principle, that if feveral weights tion"
attached to a pendulum defeended by the force of gra¬
vity, and if at any inftant the bodies were detached
from one another, and each afeended with the velocity
it had acquired by its fall, they would rife to fuch a
height that the centre of gravity of the fyftem in that
ftate would defeend to the fame height as that from
which the centre of gravity of the pendulum had de¬
feended. The folution founded on this principle, which
was not derived from the fundamental laws of mecha¬
nics, did not at firft meet with the approbation of phi¬
lofophers ; but it was afterwards demonftrated in the
cleareft manner, and now forms the principle of the
confervation of aftive forces.—The problem of the
centre of percuflion was not attended with fuch difficul¬
ties. Several incomplete folutions of it were given by’
different geometers; but it was at laft refolved in an
accurate and general manner by James Bernouilli bv
the principle of the lever. * Works of
l'4* In 1600, a treatife De Vt Pereaflionis, was pub AfN^'
G lilhcd
1686.
Labours of
"V arignon.
Parent on
tbe maxi-
* M E C H
lillicd by Alphonfo Borelli,and in 1686, another work,
De Motionibus Natura/ibus a Gravitate Pendentibus; but
he added nothing to the fcience of mechanics. His in¬
genious work, De Motu Animahum, however, is en¬
titled to great praife, for the beautiful application which
it contains of the laws of ftatics to explain the various
motions of living agents.
1 9. The application of llatics to the equilibrium of
machines, was full made by Varignon in his Project of
a new Syltem of Mechanics, publilhed in 1687. The
fubjefl was afterwards completely difeufled in his Nou-
velle Mecunique, apofthumous work publiflied in 1 725.
In this work are given the firit notions of the celebrated
principle of virtual velocities, from a letter of John
Bernouilli’s to Varignon in 1717. The virtual velo¬
city of a body is the infinitely fmall fpace, through
which the body excited to move has a tendency to
deferibe in one inflant of time. This principle has
been fuccefsfully applied by Varignon to the equilibri¬
um of all the fimple machines. The refillance of folids,
which wras firft treated by Galileo, was difeufled more
correctly by Leibnitz in the Adi a Eruditorum for 1687.
In the Memoirs of the Academy for 1702, Varignon
has taken up the fubjeft, and rendered the theory much
more univerfal.
16. An important ftep in the conftruflion of machin¬
ery was about this time made by Parent. He remark-
inum effect e(j -n general that if the parts of a machine are fo arran-
' ged, that the velocity of the impelling power becomes
greater or lefs according as the weight put in motion
becomes greater or lefs, there is a certain propor¬
tion between the velocity of the impelling power, and
that of the weight to be moved, which renders the ef-
fect of the machine a maximum or a minimum *. He
then applies this principle to underfliot wheels, and
fliows that a maximum effeft will be produced when
the velocity of the ftream is equal to thrice the velocity
of the wheel. In obtaining this conclufion, Parent fup-
pofed that the force of the current upon the wheel is in
the duplicate ratio of the relative velocity, which is
true only when a Angle floatboard is impelled by the
water. But when more floatboards than one are adled
upon at the fame time, it is obvious that the momentum-
of the water is direclly as the relative velocity 5 and by
making this fubftitution in Parent’s demonftration, it
will be found that a maximum effedt is produced when
the velocity of the current is double that of the wheel.
This refult was firft obtained by the Chevalier Borda,
and bas been amply confirmed by the experiments of
Smeaton. (See Hybrodynamics, § 279, 280, 281).
The principle of Parent was alfo applied by him to the
conftrudlion of windmills. It had been generally fup-
pofed that the moft efficacious angle of weather was
450 ; but it was demonftrated by the French philofo-
pher that a maximum efleet; is produced when the fails
are inclined yqy degrees to the axis of rotation, or,
when the angle of weather is 35^ degrees. This con¬
clufion, however, is fubjeCt to modifications which will
be pointed out in a fubfequent part of this article.
17. The Traite de Mecanique of De la Hire, publifli¬
ed feparately in 1695, and in the 9th volume of the
Memoirs of the French Academy from 1666 to 1699,
*■ 3’ contains the general properties of the mechanical powers,
and the defeription of feveral ingenious and ufeful ma¬
chines. But it is chiefly remarkable for the Traite
3
* Mem. de
mead.
.I7°4*
Be ia Hire
writes on
A N I C -S.
des Epicijcloides, which is added to the edition publifli- Hiftory.
ed in the Memoirs of the Academy. In his interefting ^ —v
treatife, De la Hire confiders the genefis and properties
of exterior and interior epicycloids, and demonitrates,
that when one wheel is employed to drive another, the
one will move fometimes with greater and fometimes with
lefs force, and the other will move fometimes with
greater and fometimes with lefs velocity, unlefs the teeth
of one or both of the wheels be parts of a curve gener¬
ated like an epicycloid. The fame truth is applicable
to the formation of the teeth of rackwork, the arms of
levers, the wipers of Hampers, and the lifting cogs of
forge hammers ; and as the epicycloidal teeth when pro¬
perly formed roll upon one another without much fric¬
tion, the motion of the machine will be uniform and
pleafant, its communicating parts will be prevented from
wearing, and there will be no unneceflary wafte of the
impelling power. Although De la Hire was the firft The difeo-
who publiffied this important difeovery, yet the honour very of epi.
of it is certainly due to Olaus Roemer, the celebrated cycloid31
Daniffi aftronomer, who difeovered the fucceffive pro-tee firft
pagation of light. It is exprefsly ftated by Leibnitz Socmen
in his letters to John Bernouilli, that Roemer commu-* Mjcel-
nicated to him the difeovery 20 years before the pub- ^an- tteroli*
lication of De la Hire’s work ; but ftill we have nonenf' D10*
ground for believing that De la Hire was guilty of pla-P‘ ;3IS’
giarifm. Roemer’s refearches were not publiffied 5 and
from the complete difeuffion which the fubjed! has re-'
ceived from the French philofopher, it is not unlikely
that he had the merit of being the fecond inventor.
Even Camus f, who about 40 years afterwards gave af Cours de
complete and accurate theory of the teeth of wheels, Mathema-
was unacquainted with the pretenfions of Roemer, andf,?“<r’
aferibes the difeovery to De la Hire. x' et xu
18. The publication of Newton’s Principia contri-Difcoveries
buted greatly to the progrefs of mechanics. His dif-°f Newton,
coveries concerning the curvilineal motion of bodies,
combined with the theory of univerfal gravitation, ena¬
bled philofophers to apply the fcience of mechanics to
the phenomena of the heavens, to afeertain the law of
the force by which the planets are held in their orbits,
and to compute the various irregularities in the folar
fyftem, which arife from the mutual acHon of the bo¬
dies which compofe it. The Mecanique Celejle of La
Place will be a Handing monument of the extenfion
which mechanics has received from the theory of gravity.
The important mechanical principle of the cpnfervation
of the motion of the centre of gravity is alfo due to
Newton. He has demonftrated in his Principia, that
the ftate of the centre of gravity of feveral bodies, whe¬
ther in a ftate of reft or motion, is not affefted by the
reciprocal aftion of thefe bodies, whatever it may be, fo
that the centre of gravity of the bodies which adl upon
one another, either by the intervention of levers, or by
the laws of attradlion, will either remain at reft, or
move uniformly in a right line.
19. We have already feen that the principle of the Principle of
confervation of adtive forces was difeovered by Huygens the confcr-
when he folved the problem of the centre of ofcillation. vat.'on °f
The principle alluded to confifts in this, that in all the^1^0^.
actions of bodies upon each other, whether that adtion covered by
confifts in the percuffion of elaftic bodies, or is commu-Huygens, ■
nicated from one body to another by threads or inflexi¬
ble rods, the fums of the mafles multiplied by the fquares
of the abfolute velocities remain always the fame.
This
MECHANICS.
Si
HI (lory.
Rendered
general by
Daniel Ber-
nnuilli.
* Mem. de
V Acad.
Berlin,
1748.
Daniel Ber-
»ouilli and
other philo¬
sophers de-
monftrate
the paral-
lilogram of
forces.
| Sup. En-
cycl. \
Dynamics.
Difpute
about the
mcafurc of
active
forces.
This Important law is eaftly deducible from two fimpler
laws admitted in mechanics. 1. That in the collifion
of elaftic bodies, their refpe&ive velocities remain the
fame after impact as they were before it 5 and, 2. That
the quantity of action, or the product of the mafles of
the impinging bodies, multiplied by the velocity of their
centre of gravity, is the fame after as before impart.
The principle of the confervation of artive forces, was
regarded by its inventor only as a fimple mechanical
theorem. John Bemouilli, however, confidered it as a
general law of natve, and applied it to the folution of
feveral problems which could not be refolvcd by dirert
methods *, but his fon Daniel deduced from it the laws
of the motion of fluids from veffels, a fubjert which had
been formerly treated in a very vague manner. He
afterwards rendered the principle more general *, and
(bowed how it could be applied to the motion of bodies
influenced by their mutual attrartions, or folicited to¬
wards fixed centres by forces proportional to any func¬
tion of the diftance.
20. After the parallelogram of forces had been in¬
troduced into ftatics by Stevinus, it was generally ad¬
mitted upon the fame demonftration which was given for
the compofition of motion. The firfi: complete demon-
flration was given by Daniel Bernouilli in the Commen¬
taries of Peterfburgh for 1726, independent of the con-
fideration of compound motion. This demonftration,
which was both long and abftrufe, was greatly Ampli¬
fied by D’Alembert in the Memoirs of the Academy
for 1769. Fonfeneix and Riccati have given a very in¬
genious one in the Memoirs of the Academy of Turin
for 1761. This was alfo improved by D’Alembert,
who gave another in the fame Memoirs, and a third in
his Traite de Dynamique, publithed in 1743- Hr Ro-
bifon f has combined the demonftrations of Bernouilli
and D’Alembert with one by Frifi, and produced one
that is more expeditious and fimple. La Place has
Kkewife given a demonftration of the parallelogram of
forces in his Mecaniqne Celejle.
21. About the beginning of the 18th century, the
celebrated difpute about the meafure of artive forces
was keenly agitated among philofophers. The firft
fpark of this war, which for 40 years England main¬
tained fingle-handed againft all the genius of the conti¬
nent, was excited by Leibnitz. In the Leipfic arts
for 1686, he afferted that Defcartes wras miftaken in
making the force of bodies proportional to their fimple
velocity, and maintained that it followed the ratio of
the fquare of the velocity. He (hewed, that a body,
with a velocity of two feet, acquires the power of rai¬
ling itfelf to a height four times as great as that to
which a body could rife with a velocity of only one
foot; and hence he concludes, that the force of that
body is as the fquare of its velocity. Tire abbe de Co-
tilon, a zealous Cartefian, allowed the premifes of
Leibnitz, but denied his conclufion. The body, faid
he, which moves with a velocity of two feet, will cer¬
tainly rife to quadruple the height of another body that
has only the velocity of one foot •, but it will take
twice the time to rife to that height, and a quadruple
effert, in a double time, is not a quadruple force, but
*nly a double one. The theory of Leibnitz was fup-
ported by John Bernouilli, Herman, Gravefende, Muf-
chenbroeck, Poleni, Wolff, and Bulfinger*, and the opi¬
nion of Defcartes by Maclaurin, Stirling, Clarke, De-
faguliers, and other .Englifli philofophers. The quef- Hiftory. ^
tion was at iaft involved in metaphyfical reafoningj and v 
if the difpute did terminate in favour of either party,
the Englifli philofophers were certainly virtorious. It
appears, in the cleareft manner, that the force of a
moving body, indicated by thefpace which it deferibes,
is as the fimple velocity, if we confider the fpace as de-
feribed in a determinate time ; but it is as the fquare of
the velocity, if we do not confider the time in which the
fpace is deferibed. The queftion, therefore, comes to
be this : In eftimating the forces of bodies in motion,
ought avc to take time into confideration ? If, with the
followers of Leibnitz, we rejert this element, then we
may maintain that the force of a child is equal to that
of a man carrying a load, becaufe the child is alfo ca¬
pable of carrying the fame load, though in fmall parts
and in a greater length of time.
22. In 1743, D’Alembert publiflied his Traite de D’Alem-
Thjnamique, founded upon a new principle in mecha- Bert’s pyin-
nics. This principle was firft employed by James Ber-^V^ y
nouilli in his folution of the problem of the centre of
ofeillation ; but D’Alembert had the honour of genera-
lifing it, and giving it all that fimplicity and fertility
of which it was fufceptible. He (bowed, that in what¬
ever manner the bodies of one fyftem art upon another,
their motions may always be decompofed into two
others at every inftant, thofe of the one being deftroy-
ed the inftant following, and thofe of the other retain¬
ed, and that the motions retained are neceffarily known
from the conditions of equilibrium between thofe which
are deftroyed. This principle is evidently a confe-
quence of the laws of motion and equilibrium, and has
the advantage of reducing all the problems of dynamics
to pure geometry and the principles of ftatics. By
means of it D’Alembert has refolved a number of beau¬
tiful problems which had efcaped his predeceffors, and
particularly that of the preceflion of the equinoxes,
which had occupied the attention of Newton. In his
Trade de Di/namique, D’Alembert has likewile reduced
the whole of mechanics to three principles, the force of
inertia, compound motion, and equilibrium j and has il-
luftrated his view's on this fubjert by that profound and
luminous reafoning which chararterifes all his writ¬
ings.
23. Another general principle in dynamics was Euler,
about this time difeovered feparately by Euler, Daniel
Bernouilli, and the chevalier D’Arcy, and received the cpArCy5 cpf.
name of the confervation of the momentum of rotatory cover the
motion. According to the two firft philofophers, the conferva-
principle may be thus defined : In the motion of feve-tl0n of tlie
ral bodies round a fixed centre, the fum of the produrts
of the mafs of each body multiplied by the velocity of motion,
its motion round the centre, and by its diftance from
that centre, is always independent of the mutual artion 1746.
which the bodies may exert upon each other, and al¬
ways preferves itfelf the fame, provided the bodies are
not influenced by any external caufe. This principle
was given by Daniel Bernouilli in the Memoirs of the
Academy of Berlin for 1746 ; and in the fame year by
Euler ’in the firft volume of his vvorks. They were
both led to the difeovery, while inveftigating the mo¬
tion of feveral bodies in a tube of a given form, and
which can only turn round a fixed point. The princi¬
ple difeovered by the chevalier D’Arcy was given in a
memoir dated 1746, and publiftied in the Memoirs of
G 2 tlie
MECHANICS.
Tire prin¬
ciple ot'
lealt aerion
piopofed by
Mauper-
tuis.
* Mem. 4-
ead. Pan's
1744, and
Mem. 1-
cad. Berlin
*746-
Euler and
Lagrange
generalife
the prin¬
ciple of
Mauper-
tuis.
f Meei-
nique A-
nalviiQue.
p. xSp,
17S8.
Labours of
Segner,
1765. -
the Academy for 1747* ^-e die wed, that the fum of the
products of the mals of each liody by the area which its
radius vector defcribes round a fixed point, is always
proportional to the times. The identity of this princi¬
ple, which is a generalilation of Newton’s theorem
auout the areas delcribed by the planetary bbdies, with
that of Euler and Bernouilli, will be eafily perceived,
ii we coniider that the element of the circular arc, di¬
vided by the element of the time, exprefles the velocity
ox circulation, and that the element of the circular arc,
multiplied by the ddlance from the centre, gives the
element of the area defcribcd romwi that centre 5 fo
that the principle of Euler is only a differential expref-
iion of the principle of D’Arcy, which he afterwards
Cxpreffed in this form, that the fum of the products of
the maffes of each body by their velocities, and by the
perpendiculars drawn from the centre to their lines of
direction, is a conftant quantity.
24. I ne principle of leaft action, which was firff
propofed by Maupertuis in 1744, confifts in this, that
when feveral bodies, adding upon one another, experi-
enoe any change in their motion, this change is always
fuch, that the quantity of adlion (or the produdt of the
mafs by the fpace and the velocity) employed by na¬
ture to produce it, is the leaft poftible. From this
principle Maupertuis deduced the laws of the retledlion
and refradlion of light, and thofe of the collifion of bo¬
dies *. He afterwards extended its application to the
laws of motion, and made the principle fo general as to
comprehend the laws of equilibrium, the uniform mo¬
tion of the centre of gravity in the percuflion of bodies,
and the confervation of adlive forces. This celebrated
principle was attacked by Koenig, profeffor of mathe¬
matics at the Hague, in the Leipfic adds for 1791,
who not only attempted to (hew its falfity, but afferted
that Leibnitz had firft deferibed it in 1707 in a letter
to Herman. The paper of Koenig gave rife to a long
and violent difpute about the accuracy of the principle,
and the authenticity of the letter of Leibnitz. The
academy of Berlin interfered in behalf of their prefi-
dent, and gave importance to a controverfy which
was too perfonal to merit the attention which it re¬
ceived.
25. In his Traite des Ifoperimelries, printed at Lau-
fanne in 1744, Euler extended the principle of leaft
adtion, and (hewed, “ that in the trajedlories deferibed
by means of central forces, the integral of the velocity,
multiplied by the element of the curve, is either a
maximum or a minimum^ This remarkable property,
which Euler recognifed only in the cafe of infulated
bodies, was generalifed by Lagrange into this new
principle, “ that the fum of the produdls of the maffes
by the integrals of the velocities, multiplied by the ele¬
ments of the ipaces deferibed, is always a maximum or
a minimum.” In the memoirs of Turin, Lagrange has
employed this principle to refolve feveral difficult pro¬
blems in dynamics \ and he has (hewn f, that when it
is combined with the confervation of adtive forces, and
developed according to the rules of his method of varia¬
tions, it furniffies diredlly all the equations neceffary for
the folution of each problem, and gives rile to a fimple
and general method oi treating the various problems
concerning the motion of bodies.
26. An important difeovery in rotatory motion, was
at this time made by Profeffcr Segner. In a paper,
entitled Specimen Theorue Turbinum, he demonftrated, Hiftory.
that if a body of any form or magnitude, after it has l'“—w—
received rotatory motions in all diredions, be left en¬
tirely to itfelf, it will always have three principal axes
of rotation \ or, in other words, all the rotatory motions
with which it is affected, may be reduced to three,
which are performed round three axes, perpendicular to
each, palling through the centre of gravity of the re¬
volving body, and preferving the fame pofition in abfo- .
lute Ipace, while the centre of gravity is either at reft
or moving uniformly in a ftraight line.
27. The force of torfion began at this time to be in- Coulomb
veftigated by Coulomb, who publilhed two ingenious ;n<luircs
papers on the fubjed, in the Memoirs of the French
Academy. He has fuccefsfully employed this principle ^0°
in feveral phyfical refearches, but particularly in deter¬
mining the law of magnetic adion, and in finding the
laws of the refiftance oi fluids when the motions are ex¬
tremely flow It w as by means of an elegant experi- * Memrirr
ment on the principle of torfion that Mr Cavendilhde L'lnfti-
determined the mutual attradion of two maffes of lead, ^ N^t'
and thence deduced the mean denfity of the earth p ’
We are alfo indebted to Coulomb for a complete fet of
experiments on the nature and effeds of fridion. By
employing large bodies and ponderous weights, and and into
conduding his experiments on a large fcale, he has the fubjcdl
corroded errors which neceffarily arofe from the limit- b'dion.
ed experiments of preceding writers ; he has brought
to light many new and interelling fads, and confirmed
others which had hitherto been partially eftabliffied.
The moft curious refult of thefe experiments is the ef-
fed of time in increafing the fridion between two fur-
faces. In fome cafes the fridion reaches its maximum
after the rubbing furfaces have remained in contad for
one minute 5 and in other cafes five or fix days were
neceffary before this effed was produced. The increafc
of frid ion, which is generated by prolonging the time
of contad, is fo great, that a body, weighing 1650
pounds, was moved with a force of 64 pounds when
firft laid upon the correfponding furface. After re¬
maining in contad for the fpace of three feconds, 100
pounds were neceffary to put it in motion •, and when
the time was prolonged to fix days, it could fcarcely be
moved with a power of 622 pounds f. f Mcmoires-
28. One of the moft important treatifes on the fei- Prefentees
ence of motion is the Mechanics of the celebrated Lu-tom- 1X‘
ler, publiftied in 1736. It contains the whole theory Works on
of redilineal and curvilineal motion in an infulated mechanics,
body, affeded by any accelerating forces, either in va¬
cuo or in a refilling medium. Fie uniformly ufes
the analytical method, and has employed the principle
of the vis inerliee, and that of compound motion, for
putting his problems into equations. By the vis iner-
tue, motion is at every moment of time redilineal and Euler’s me-
uniform ; and by the principle of compound motion, a chanics.
body, expofed to the adion of any number of forces,
tending to alter the quantity and the diredion of its
motion, will move in fuch a diredion as to reach the
very point at which it would have arrived, had it
obeyed fucceffively each of tire forces which ad upon
it.—In the Mecanique Anahjtique of Lagrange, pub-Lagrange’s.,
liflied in 1788, all the mechanical problems are redu- Mectt-
ced to general formulae, which, being developed, fur- ni(iue Ana~
nilh us with the equations that are neceffary for the fo-tlclue‘
lution of each problem ; and the different principles
which
! Prony’s
I Architec¬
ture Hy-
drauliqr/e
and Meca-
llique Phi-
Tofopbique.
®bje<fls of
theoretical
mechanics.
Divilion of
machines
into Ample
and com¬
pound.
Defini tions.
mechanics.
wlilcli have been difeovered for facilitatfng the folutions
of mechanical quo (lions, are brought under one point
of view, and their connexion and dependence clearly
pointed out. The ArchiteElure Hydraiilu/ue, by M.
Prony, published in 1790, and the Mecunique P/u/q/b-
phique, of the fame author, publilhed in 1799, con¬
tains all the late improvements in mechanics, and a
complete view both of the theory and application of
that fcicnce. The fird of .thefe tvorks is intended
chiefly for the ufe of the engineer, though an exten-
five acquaintance with the higher geometry is necef-
fary for perufing it with advantage. His Mecanique
Philofophique is a profound work, in which, without
the aid of a fmgle diagram, he gives all the formulae,
and the various theorems and problems winch belong to
the fciences of mechanics and hydrodynamics. Every
alternate page contains a methodical table of the refults
Obtained in the preceding page, the defeription of the
(ymbols, and the theorems, problems, and formulae
which may have been obtained.—The Truile de Me-
c unique Element airby M. Franceur, publifhed in 1802
in one volume oftavo, is an excellent abridgement of
the works of Prony, and is intended as an introduction
to the Mecanique Philofophique of that author, to the
Mecanique Anahjtique of Lagrange, and to the Meca¬
nique Celejle of Laplace.—None of thefe works have
been tranflated into Englifh ; but their place is wrell
fupplied by a Treatife on Mechanics Theoretical, Prac¬
tical, and Defcriptive, by Olinthus Gregory, A. M.
publifhed in 1806, and containing a complete view of
the latefl improvements, both in the theory and prac¬
tice of mechanics.
53
Theory.
PART I. THEORY OF MECHANICS.
29. THE theory of mechanics properly compre¬
hends, 1. Dynamics. 2. The motion of projectiles.
3. The theory of fimple machines, or the mechanical
powers. 4. The theory of compound machines, and
their maximum effects. 5. The dqdlrine of the centre
of gravity. 6. The centre of ofeillation, gyration, &c.
7. The collision of bodies. 8. The theory of rotation.
9. The theory of torfion. 10. The flrength of materi¬
als ; and, 11. The equilibrium of arches, domes.—The
fubjedls of Dynamics, Projectiles, Rotation, and
Strength of Materials having been already ably
treated by Dr Robifon, under their refpective heads,
we {hall now direct the attention of the reader to the
other branches of theoretical mechanics.
Chap. I. On Simple Machines, or the Mechanical
Powers.
30. The fimple machines have been generally rec¬
koned fix in number. 1. The lever ; 2. The wheel and
axle, or axis in pentrochio ; 3. The pulley •, 4. The
inclined plane 5 5. The w-edge 5 and, 6. The {crew :
to which feme waiters on mechanics have added the ba¬
lance, and others the rope-machine. It is evident, how¬
ever, that all thefe machines may be reduced to three,
the lever, the inclined plane, and the rope-machine.
The pulley, and the wheel and axle, are obvioufly com-
pofed of an affemblage of levers ; the balance is a lever
with equal arms ; the wedge is compofed of two in¬
clined planes, with their bafes in contact 3 and the
ferew is either a wedge or an inclined plane, wrapped
round a cylinder.—Under the head of fimple machines,
therefore, avc cannot, in flrifl propriety, include any
of the mechanical powers, excepting the lever, the in¬
clined plane, and the rope-machine.
Definitions.
31. Def. 1. When tAvo forces a£t againft each other
by the intervention of a machine, the one force is call¬
ed the power, and the other the weight. The weight
is the refiftance to be overcome, or the effedt to be pro¬
duced. The power is the force, whether animate or
inanimate, Avhich is employed to overcome that refift¬
ance, or to produce the required effecl.
4
32. Def. 2. The power .and Aveight are faid to ba¬
lance each other, or to be in equiHbrio, Avhen the ef¬
fort of the one to produce motion in one diredlion, is
equal to the effort of the other to produce motion in
the oppofite direction 3—or Avben the weight oppefes
that degree of refiftance Avhich is precifely required to
deftroy the action of the power.
Sect. I. On the Lever.
33. Definitions. A lever is an inflexible bar or LeVers di¬
rod moving freely round a point, called its fulcrum, or vided into
centre of motion. three kind®.
Levers have been generally di vided into three kinds.
In levers of the firfl kind the fulcrum is fituated be-
tAveen the power and the weight, as in fteelyards, feif-
fars, pincers, &c. Levers of the fecond kind have
the Aveight bet avc on the poAver and the fulcrum, as in
cutting knives faftened at the point of the blade, and
in the oars of a boat Avhere the Avater is regarded as the
fulcrum. In levers of the third kind, the power is be-
tAveen the Aveight and the fulcrum, as in tongs, fheers
for fheep, &c. The bones of animals are generally
confidered as levers of the third kind, for the mufcles,
by the contradlion of Avhich the power or moving force
is generated, are fixed much nearer to the joints or cen¬
tres of motion than the centre of gravity of the Aveight
to be railed. On this fubjeft, fee Paley’s Natural
Theology, chap. 7. & 8. and Borelli de Motu Ani-
malium.
Axioms.
34. Axiom I. Equal weights acling at the extremi- Axiom?:.
ties of equal arms of a f might lever, and having the
lines of the direction in which they add at equal angles to
thefe arms, will exert the fame effort to turn the lever
round its fulcrum This axiom has been generally re-
ftritfted to the particular cafe Avhen the Aveights a<ft per¬
pendicularly to the arms of the lever ; but no reafon
can be affigned for fuch limitation. The truth in the
axiom is as felf-evident Avhen the angles formed by the
arms of the lever and the dircdlion of the forces are 8o°,
as when they are 90°, for in each cafe the two weights
exert
54
MECHANICS.
, Thcory- _ exert their influence upon the lever in precifely the
’ ' fame circumltances.
35. Axiom 2. If two equal weights are placed at
the extremities of a lever fupported by two fulcra ; and
if thefe fulcra are at equal diftances from the weights, or
the extremities of the lever ; the prejfure upon the fulcra
will be equal to the fum of the weights, and the prejfure
upon each fulcrum will be equal to one of the weights.
The lever being fuppofed devoid of weight, it is ob¬
vious, that as each fulcrum is fimilarly lituated with re-
fpect to both the weights, the preffure upon each muft
be equal j and as the fulcra fupport both the equal
weights, the prefiure upon each muft be equal to one of
the weights.
Proposition I.
36. If two weights or forces a£Hng at equal angles
upon a ftraight lever, devoid of weight, are in
equilibrio, they are reciprocally proportional to
their dillances from the fulcrum.
37. Case i. When the weights aft on contrary fides
of the fulcrum.
Let AB be a lever devoid of weight, and let it be
Plate fupported upon the two fulcra, jfF, fituated in fuch a
^GXVL manner that A/=:/F — FB. Then if two equal
I' weights C, D of one pound each are fufpended at the
extremities A, B, fo as to aft in the direftions AC,
BD, makingtheangles CAB,DBA equal, thefeweights
wiil be in equilibrio, for ftnce Af— FB (Axiom 1.)
the effort of the weight D to turn the lever round the
fulcrum F, will be equal to the effort of thp weight C
to turn it round the fulcrum f Now (Axiom 2.) the
preffure upon the fulcrum f is equal to one pound,
therefore if that fulcrum be removed, and a weight E
of one pound be made to aft upward at the point F,
the weights C and D will continue in equilibrio. Then
it is obvious that fince FB=Ff the weight E of one
pound afting upwards at the pointy^ fo that the angle
D/FrrDBA, will have the fame effeft as an equal
weight afting downwards at B. By removing the
weight E, therefore, and fufpending its equal C at the
extremity B, the equilibrium will ftill be preferved.
But the weights D, C, fufpended at B, are equal to
two pounds, and the weight C is only one pound 5 and
as FA is double of FB, it follows that a weight of two
pounds, placed at the end of one arm of a lever, will
be in equilibrio with a weight of one pound placed at
twice the diftance of the former from the fulcrum.
But 2 : 1=2 FB or AF : FB, that is, when the di¬
ftances are as 2 to 1, an equilibrium takes place if
the weights are reciprocally proportional to thefe di¬
ftances.
38. Case 2. When weights aft on the fame fide of
the fulcrum.'
Fig- 2. Let AB be a lever in equilibrio upon the ful¬
crum F, and let FA be equal to FB, confequently
(cafe 1.) we muft have CzrDm pound. Now as the
fulcrum F fupports a weight equal to C-j-D= 2 pounds,
the equilibrium will continue if a weight E of two
pounds is made to aft upwards at the point F, for in
this cafe it fupplies the place of the fulcrum. It is ob¬
vious alfo that a fulcrum placed at A or B will fupply
the place of the weights at thefe parts without affefting
the equilibrium^ Let, therefore, the weight D he re- Theory.
moved, and let the extremity B reft upon a fulcrum; v *
then fince the lever is in equilibrio, we have a weight
-E,^C-j-Dz=2 pounds afting at F, and balancing a
weight C of one pound afting at A. But 2 : irr AB ;
FB, confequcntly when there is an equilibrium between
two weights C, D a&ing at the diftances 2 and 1 from
the fulcrum, and on the fame fide of the fulcrum, the
weights are reciprocally proportional to thefe diftances.
39* -A-ga^n> hft AB be the lame lever fupported by Fig. 3,
the fulcra F, and let A f— FB and/F—2FB. Then
if two weights C, D of one pound each be fufpended at
the extremities A, B, they will be in equilibrio as be¬
fore. But fince the fulcrum f fupports a preffure of
one pound (Axiom 2.), the equilibrium will ftill con¬
tinue when that fulcrum is removed and a weight of
one pound made to aft in a ^contrary direftion y P at
the point^ fo that the angle PyT may be equal to
DBA. Now, (Axiom 1.) a weight E of one pound
afting upward at f will be in equilibrio with a weight
E' of one pound afting downwards at f; Fybeing equal
to Yf, and therefore by removing E from the point f
and fubftituting E at the point f, an equilibrium will
ftill obtain. But fince Fy /~2FB a weight of one pound
fufpended from f will have the fame influence in turn¬
ing the lever round F as a weight of two pounds fuf¬
pended at B (Cafe 2.). Let us remove, therefore, the
Aveight E' from f, and fubftitute a Aveight G“2E/, fo as
to aft at B. Then fince the equilibrium is not deftroy-
ed, Ave have a Aveight C of one pound afting at the di¬
ftance FA, and the Aveights D -f-G —3 pounds afting at
the diftance FB. But FA=3FB and D-J-G^C,
confequently C: D-f-GrrFB :FA: That is, Avhen the
diftances from the fulcrum are as 3 to I, and when an
equilibrium exifts, the Aveights are reciprocally propor¬
tional to thefe diftances.
40. By making FA in fig. 2. equal to 2FB it may Fig. 2. '
be (hewn, as in Cafe 2. that the Aveights are reciprocally
proportional to their diftances from the fulcrum, Avhen
they aft on the fame fide of the fulcrum, and Avhen the
diftances are as 3 to 1.
41. In the fame Avay the demonftration may be ex-pig.
tended to any commenfurable proportion of the arms,
by making EA to FB in that proportion, and keeping
f A always equal to FB. Hence avc may conclude in
general, that Avhen tAvo Aveights afting at equal angles
upon a ftraight lever devoid of weight, are in equilibrio,
they are reciprocally proportional to their diftances from
the centre of motion, (y. E. D.
42. Cor. 1. If tAvo Aveights afting at equal angles Corollarifs.
upon the arms of a ftraight lever devoid of Aveight are
reciprocally proportional to their diftances from the ful¬
crum, they Avill be in equilibrio.
For if an equilibrium does not take place, the pro¬
portion of the Aveights muft be altered to procure an
equilibrium, and then, contrary to the propofition, the
weights would balance each other when they Avere not
reciprocally proportional to their diftances from the ful¬
crum.
43. Cor. 2. If a weight Wbe fupported by a hori-Fjg.
zontal lever refting on the fulcra A, B, the preffure up¬
on A is to the preffure upon B in the inverfe ratio of
their diftances from the point Avhere the Aveight is fuf¬
pended, that is, as BF to FA.
For if avc fuppofe B to be the fulcrum, and if removing
the
MECHANIC S.
55
Theory, tlie fulcrum A, we fupport the extremity A of the lever
V“ by a weight E equivalent to the weight fuftained by
the fulcrum A, and acting upwards over the pulley P,
then the weight E or that fuitained by A : W—JBF :
BA (Prop, i.) and if we conceive A to be the ful¬
crum, and fupport the extremity B by a weight F
equal to that which was fupported by the fulcrum B,
we fhall have the weight F or the weight fuftained by
B : W=AF : AB. Hence ex cequo the weight fuf¬
tained by A is to the weight fuftained by B as BF is
to FA.
Fig. 5. 44. Cor. 3. We may now call the two weights P
and W, the power and the weight, as in fig. 5, and
fince P : WrrFB : FA, we have (Geometry, Sedft.
iv. Theor. 8.) P X FA=W X FB, when an equilibrium
takes place,
. . p WXFB „T PxFA
coniequently Pzz
FA=
w-
FA 7
WxFB
FB
FB=
P
PxFA
W
45. Cor. 4. We have already feen (Axiom 2.)
that when the power and the weight are on contrary
fides of the fulcrum, the preffure upon the fulcrum is
equal to P-j-W or the fum of the weights *, but it is
obvious that when they act on the fame fide of the ful¬
crum, the preffure which it fupports will be P—W, or
the difference of their weights.
46. Cor. 5. If a weight P be Ihifted along the arm
of a lever AD, the weight W, which it is capable of
balancing at A, will be proportional to FA.
When the weights are in equilibrio (Cor. 3.)
W : P—FA : FB, or by alternation W : FArrP : FB,
and if iv be another value of W and f a another value-
of FA, we (hall alfo have w : Prr:f a : FB or w : f a—
P : FB, confequently (Euclid, Book v. Prop. xi. and
xvi.) W : iu=FA : f a, that is, W varies as FA.
Fig. 6. Cor. 6. It is obvious that the truths in the preced¬
ing propofition and corollaries, alfo hold Avhen the lever
has the form reprefented in figure 6. only the ftraight
lines AF, FB are in that cafe the length of the arm.
Dcfcription 47* Cor. 7. Since by the laft corollary FA : f a-=z
of the fteel- W : w, it follows that in the Roman Jlatera or J}eeli/ardy
tera ^ ^ merely a lever with a long and ftxort arm, ha¬
ving a weight moveable upon the long one, the diftances
at which the conftant weight muft be hung are as the
7- Aveights fufpended from the fhorter arm. The fteelyard
is reprefented in fig. 7. Avhere AB is the leArer Avith un¬
equal arms AF, FB, and F the centre of motion. The
body W, Avhofe Aveight is to be found, is fufpended at
the extremity B of the lever, and the conftant Aveight
P is moved along the divided arm FB till an equili¬
brium takes place. As foon as this happens, the num¬
ber placed at the point of fufpenfion D, indicates the
weight of the body. If the lever is devoid of Aveight,
it is obvious that the fcale EB Avill be a fcale of equal
parts of which EB is the unit, and that the Aveight of
the body W Avill be always equal to the conftant weight
P multiplied by the number of divifions between P and
F. Thus if the equilibrium takes place Avhen P is pull¬
ed out to the 12 divifion, avc (hall have W=i2 P, and
pound, W~ 12 pounds. But when the gravity
of the lever is conlidered, which muft be done in the Theory,
real fteelyard, its arms are generally of unequal Aveight,' :
and therefore the divifions of the fcale muft be alcer-
tained by experiment. In order to do this, remove the
weight P, and find the point C, at Avhich a Aveight P'
equal to P being fufpended, will keep the unequal arms
in equilibrio, C will then be the point at which the
equal divifions muft commence. For Avhen W and P
are placed upon the fteelyard and are in equilibrio, W
balances P along with a weight Avhich, placed at D,
would fupport P placed at C : Therefore W X BF—
P x DF-f-P x CF j but PxE>F4-PxCF=:PxDC,
confequentlyW X BF=P X DC,and(GEOMETRY, Seft.
iv. Theor. 8.) W: DC=P : BF. By taking different
values of the variable quantities W and DC as %v and
d c, we fhall have w : dc~P : BF, confequently
(Euclid, B. V. Prop. xi. and x\d.) W : w=DC : ds,
that is, the weight of W varies as DC, and there¬
fore the divifions muft commence at C. If the arm BF
had been heavier than FA, which, however, can fcarce-
ly. happen in practice, the point C Avould have been
on the other fide of F. In conftrufting fteelyards,.
it might be advifable to make the unequal arms
balance each other by placing a weight M at the
extremity of the lighter arm, in which cafe the
fcale Avill begin at F. In the Danifh and Swedifli.Danifh and'
fteelyard the body to be weighed and the conftant Swedilh
weight are fixed at the extremities of the fteelyard, but fteel>'ard'*
the point of fufpenfion or centre of motion F moves
along the lever till the equilibrium takes place. The
point F then indicates the weight of the body required..
—There are fome fteelyards in which the conftant Aveight
is fixed to the fhorter arm, Avhile the body to be Aveigh-
ed moves upon the longer arm.. The method of divid¬
ing this and the preceding fteelyard may be feen in
De la Hire’s Traite de Mecunique, Prop. 36, 37, 38.
Prop. II.
48. To find the condition of equilibrium on a
ftraight lever when its gravity is taken into the
account.
49. Let us fuppofe the lever to be of uniform thick-
nefs and denfity, as AB, fig. 7. and let it be fufpended Fig. 2.
by the points c, d to another lever a b, confidered as
Avithout Aveight, fo that a c~c fz= f d~d b. Then if
be the centre of motion or point of fufpenfion, the cy¬
linder A B will be in equilibrio ; for the weight AB
may be regarded as compofed of a number of pairs of
equal Aveights, equally diftant from the centre of mo¬
tion. For the fame reafon, if we conceive the cylinder
to be cut through at F the equilibrium Avill continue,
c, d being uoav the points at which the Aveights AF,
FB act, and their diftances cf df from the centre of
motion being equal. Confequently the arms AF, FB
have the fame energy in turning the lever round f as if
weights equal to AF, FB Avere fufpended at the diftance
of their middle points c, d from the fulcrum.
Let P therefore, in fig. 5. be the poAver, W the
weight, m the weight of the arm AF, and n the weight ,
of FB. Then Avhen there is an equilibrium Ave {hall ' '
have (Prop. I. Cor. 3.) P x AF-\.m X ^ AF=W X FB
+ w X sT B j and fince the Aveight m a fling at half the
diftance AF is tlie fame as half the weight m, acting at
the
16
MECHANICS.
Lheory. the whole diftance AF? we may fubfHtute m X AF
v inftead of m x 1 AF, and the equation becomes
h X AF= W^fn x FB. Hence
W+>xFB ,
B——    im
AF
•yjy- P“F i w X AF
FB
\V 1// x 2FB
AF
X 2 AF
: FB '
in
— 2P
-2\V
af=w+>xFB
 jjF ^"2
P+4otX AF
1E--w+i^—
50. Cor. If the arms of the lever are not of uniform
denfity and thicknefs, inftead of the diftance of their
middle points, we muft take the diftance of their centre
of gravity from the fulcrum.
Prop. III.
51. If two forces acting in any dire&ion, and in
the fame plane, upon a lever of any form, are
in equilibrio, they will be reciprocally propor¬
tional to the perpendiculars let fall from the
fulcrum upon the dire&ions in which they a£t.
Plate 52* ^‘et AFB be a lever of any form, F its fulcrum,
eccXYII. A, B the points to which the forces, or the power P and
Fijj. 1. & 2. weight W, are applied, and AE, BK the direftions in
which thefe forces aft. Make AE to PK as P is to
W, and they will therefore reprefent the forces applied
at A and B. Draw AC perpendicular to AF and
EC parallel to it, and complete the parallelogram
AD EC. In the fame way form the parallelogram
BGKH. Produce EA and KB towards m and n if
neceflary, and let fall F m, F « perpendicular to AE,
BK produced. Then P fhall be to W as F « is to F m.
By the refolution of forces (Dynamics, § 140.) the
force AE is equivalent to forces reprefented by AD and
AC, and afting in thefe direftions. But as AD afts
in the direftion of the arm AF, it can have no influ¬
ence in turning the lever round F, and therefore AC
reprefents the portion of the force AD which conUi-
butes to produce an angular motion round F. In the
fame -way it may be {hewn that BG is the part of the
force BK which tends to move the lever round F.
Now fuppofe AF produced to B, FB being made equal
to FB and B'G'—BG. Then by Prop. I. AC : B'G'
=rFB' : FA *, but by Axiom 1. the effort of BG to
turn the lever round F is equal to the effort of the
equal force B'G' to turn the lever round F ; therefore
AC: BG=FB : FA and AC xFA=BG xFB. Now
the triangles ACE, AE m are fimilar, becaufe the
angles at F and M are both right, and on account of
the parallels DF, AC, MAC^ADF; therefore AC :
AErrFw: FA, and AC xFA = AE xFra:. For the
fame reafon in the fimilar triangles BGK, BF n we
have BG : BK=F n : FB, and BK x F w=BG X FB.
Hence AE X F-wrr BK X F and AE : BK or P : W Theory.
—Yn : Fm. (^. E. D.   
53. Cor. 1. The forces P and W are reciprocally corollaries,
proportional to the fines of the angles which their di- jq t & 2
reftions make with the arms of the lever, for F m is
evidently the fine of the angle FA m, and F n the fine
of the angle FB n, FA, FB being made the radii ;—
therefore P : WrrSin. FB « : Sin. FA m, or P : W
Since FA : Fw=:Rad. :
Sin. FA/« Sin. FB«*
c- ir a i t- FAxSm. FA/» , „
Sin. IA m, we have t m— T— : and finer
Bad.
FB : FtfrzrRad.: Sin. FB«, wehave Fffl——B * p^'FBw
had.
but in the cafe of an equilibrium P : WrrF n : Ym, ccn-
FF X Sin. FB n FA x Sin.FAwz
Rad. ’ Rad. '*
and fince magnitudes have the fame ratio as their equi¬
multiples, P : W nrEB X bin. EB n : FA x bin. FA#*.
54. Cor. 2. rI he energies of the forces P, W to
turn the lever round the fulcrum F is the fame at what¬
ever point in the direftions w E, « K they are applied,
for the perpendiculars to which thefe energies are pro¬
portional remain the fame.—T he truth of this corollary
has been affumed as an axiom by feme writers on me¬
chanics, who have very readily deduced from it the.
preceding propofition. But it is very obvious that the
truth affumed as felf-evident is nearly equivalent to the
truth which it is employed to prove. Thofe who have
adopted this mode of demonftration illuftrate their
axiom by the cafe of a folid body that is either pufhed
in one direftion with a ftraight rod, or drawn by a
cord ; in both of which cafes it is manifeft that the
effeft of the force employed is the fame, at whatever
part of the rod or firing it is applied : But thefe cafes
are completely different from that of a body moving
round a fixed centre.
55. Cor. 3. If AE and BK the direftions in which
the forces P, W are exerted be produced till they meet
at L; and if from the fulcrum E tire line FS be drawn
parallel to the direftion AL of one force till it meets BL,
the direftion of the other ; then LS, SF will reprefent
the two forces. For as the fides of any triangle are as
the fines of the oppofite angles LS : SF~fin. LFS : fin.
FLS j but on account of the parallels FS, AL the
angle LFS—FLA, and FL being radius F m is the
fine of FLA or LFS, and F n the fine of FLS, there¬
fore by fubfiitution LS : SFnF : F #, that is as the
force W : P.
36. Cor. 4. If feveral forces aft upon a lever, and
keep it in equilibrio, the fum of the produfts of the
forces and the perpendiculars from the fulcrum to the
direftion of the different forces on one fide is equal to
the fum of the produfts on the other. For fince the
energy of each force to turn the lever is equal to the
produft of the force and the perpendicular from the
fulcrum on the line of its direftion ; and fince in the
cafe of an equilibrium, the energy of all the forces on
one fide of the fulcrum muft be equal to the energy of
all the forces on the other fide, the produfts propor¬
tional to their energies muft alfo be equal.
57. Cor. 5. If two forces aft in a parallel direftion
upon an angular lever whofe fulcrum is its angular
point,
fequently P : Wa=
MECHANIC S.
57
Theory.
F>S- 3-
%• 4*
f'g- 5*
point, thefe forcc!i will be in equilibrio when a line
drawn from the fulcrum upon the line which joins the
two points where the forces are applied, and parallel to
the direction of the forces, cuts it in luch a manner that
the two parts are reciprocally proportional to the forces
applied.
Let AFB be the angular lever, whofe fulcrum is F,
and let the forces P, W be applied at A and B in the
parallel diredtions P ni^ W n ; then if the line FD, pa¬
rallel to P m or W «, cut AB in luch a manner that
DB : DA=P : W, the forces will be in equilibrio.
Draw F m perpendicular to P m, and produce it to « ;
then lince A m, B n are parallel, m n will alfo be
perpendicular to B », and by the propofition (Art. 51.)
F n : F m — P : W. Now, if through F, there be
drawn m! n' parallel to AB, the triangles F m m', F n n'
will be fxmilar, and we lliall have F « : F m=.Y n': Ym',
but on account of the parallels AB, ni n'; F ?i' : F m'
—DB : DA, therefore DB : DA—P : W.
58. Cor. 6. Let CB be a body moveable round
its centre of gravity F, and let two forces P, W act
upon it at the points A, B in the plane AFB, in the
directions AP, BW; then fince this body may be re¬
garded as a lever whofe fulcrum is F, the forces will be
in equilibrio when P : WrrF n : F ?n the perpendicu¬
lars on the directions in which the forces adt.
59. Cor. 7. If AB be an inflexible rod moveable
round F as a fulcrum, and adled upon by two forces
P, W in the diredtions A m, A n, thefe forces will be
in equilibrio when they are to one another as the per¬
pendiculars F «, F m.—For by cor. 2. the forces may
be confidered as applied at in and «, and m F;/ may be
regarded as the lever •, but by the propofition (Art. 51.)
P : W=rF n : F m ; F ?;/, F n being perpendiculars upon
A m, A n.
Fig. 6. 60. Cor. 8. Let DE be a heavy wheel, and FG
an obflacle over which it is to be moved, by a force P,
adting in the diredtion AH. Join AF, and draw' Y m,
F « perpendicular to CA and AH. The weight of the
wheel is evidently the weight to be raifed, and may be
reprefented by W acting at the point A in the vertical
diredtion AC. We may now confider AF as a lever
whole fulcrum is F, and by cor. 7. there will be an
equilibrium when P : W—F « : F m. Since F m re-
prefents the mechanical energy of the power P to turn
the wheel round F, it is obvious that when FG is
equal to the radius of the wheel, thfe weight P, how¬
ever great, has no power to move it over the obftacle ;
for when FG—AC, F m—Q, and F ttc X P—o.
Big. 7. 61. Cor. 9. If a man be placed in a pair of feales
hung at the extremities of a lever, and is in equilibrio
with a weight in the oppoftte fcale, then if lie prefifes
againft any point in the lever, except that point from
which the fcale is fufpended, the equilibrium will be
deilroyed. Let CB be the lever in equilibrio, F its
fulcrum, and let the feales be fufpended from A and B,
AP being the fcale in which the man is placed. Then
if he preffes with his hand or with a rod againfl D, a
point nearer the centre than A, the fcale will take the
pofition AP', and the fame effedl will be produced as.
if AD were a folid mafs adling upon the lever in the
diredlinn of gravity. Confequently if Vp be drawn
perpendicular from the point P' to FC, Fp will be the
lever with which the man in the fcale tends to turn
fehe lever round the fulcrum j and as Yp is greater than
VoL.Xin.PaA I.
FA, the man will preponderate. In the fame way it Theory,
it may be thown, that if the man in the fcale AP preffes '—--nr"—-'
upwards again It a point C, more remote from the ful¬
crum than A, he will diminilh his relative weight, and
the fcale W will preponderate, for in this cafe the icale
affumes the pofition AP", and Fp' becomes the lever
by which it afts.
62. Cor. 10. If a weight W be fupported by an Fig. &.
inclined lever relting on the fulcra A, B, the preiiure
upon A is to that upon B inverfely, as A/is to fb,
the. feclions of a horizontal line by the vertical direction
of the weight W.
Remove the fulcrum A, and fupport the extremity
A by a weight P, equal to the preiiure upon A j then
B being the centre of motion, and m n being drawn
through F perpendicular to the direction of the forces
A /«, Ey, and confequently parallel to A b, we have
(Art. 51.) P : WrrF n ; F m—fb : f A, that is, the
preflfure upon A is to the preflure upon B inverfely as
A/is to fb.
Scholium.
63. Various attempts have been made by different
writers on mechanics to give a complete and fatisfac-
tory demonflration of the fundamental property of the
lever. The firft of thefe attempts was made by Archi¬
medes, who aflumes as an axiom, that if two equal bo¬
dies be placed upon a lever, they will have the lame in¬
fluence in giving it a rotatory motion as if they were
both placed in the middle part between them. This
truth, however, is far from being fell’ evident, and on
this account Mr Vince * has completed the demonitra- * Phil.
tion by making this axiom a preliminary propolition. Tranf.
The demonftration of Galileo f is both Ample and ele-D94-P-33
gant, and does not feem to have attracted much notice,
though in principle it is exactly the fame as that oijttatiuncs
Archimedes completed by Mr Vince. Galileo fuf- MathemaU
pends a folid cylinder or prifm from a lever by feveral
threads. When the lever is hung by its centre, the*5' 58,
whole is in equilibrio. He then fuppofes the cylinder
to be cut into two unequal parts, which from their
mode of fufpenfion ftill retain their pofition, and then
imagines each part of the cylinder to be fufpended by
its centre from the lever. Here then we have two
unequal weights hanging at unequal diflances from the
centre of fufpenfion, and it follows from the conftruc-
tion, that thefe weights are in the reciprocal ratio of
their diftances from that centre. Mr Vince, on the
other hand, employs a cylinder balanced on a fulcrum.
He fuppofes this cylinder divided into unequal parts,
and thus concludes from his preliminary propofltion,
that thefe unequal parts have the fame effe6t in turning
the lever as if the weight of thefe parts was placed in
their centres ; which is done by Galileo by fufpending
them from their centres. From this the fundamen¬
tal property of the . lever is eafily deduced The next
demonftration was given by Huygens, who aflumes as
an axiom, that if any weight placed upon a lever is
removed to a greater diftance from the fulcrum, its ef¬
fort to turn the lever w ill he increafed. This axiom
he might have demonil rated thus, and his demenftra-
tion would have been completely fatisfactory, though
it applies only to cafes where the arms of the lever p,at<_
are commenfiu-able. Let AB be a lever w ith equal <ecxvi.
weights C, D, fupported on the fulcra /, F, fo that Fig. t.
H Af~
ton's Dif-
coueries.
53 M E C H
, rhfory- A/“FB •, then, as was fliown in Prop. I. the weights
will be in equilibrio, and each fulcrum will fupport
a weight equal to C or D. By removing the fulcrum
fi the weight C muft defcend, as the equilibrium is de-
'ftroyed by a weight equal to C a£ting at f; therefore
the weight C, at the diftance AF, has a greater effeft
in turning the lever than an equal weight D plaoed at
a lefs diilance FB.—In Sir Ifaac Newton’s demonftra-
tion, it is fuppofed that if a given weight aft in any
direftion, and if feveral radii be drawn from the ful¬
crum to the line of direftion, the effort of that weight
to turn the lever will be the fame to whatever of thefe
radii it is applied. It appears, however, from Art. 54.
that this principle is far from being felf-evident, and
therefore the demonftration w hich is founded upon it
cannot be admitted as fatisfaftory. The demonftration
* Account given by Maclaurin * is Ample and convincing, and
of has been highly approved of by Dr T. Young, and other
writers on mechanics, though it extends only to any
commenfurable proportion of the arms. He fuppofes
Plate the lever AB with equal arms to be in equilibrio upon
©CPXVII. t]ie fulcrum F, by means of the equal forces P, W, in
. which cafe the fulcrum F will evidently be preffed
down with a weight equal to 2 P—P-}-W. He then
fubftitutbs, inftead of the weight P, a fixed obftacle O,
which will not deftroy the equilibrium, and confiders the
fulcrum as Jlill loaded with a weight equal to P-j-W.
The preffure on F being therefore equal to 2 P or
P-j-W, a weight E equal to 2 P, and afting upwards,
is fubftituted in the room of that preffure, fo that the
equilibrium will ftill continue. Here then we have a
lever AB of the fecond kind, influenced by two forces
E and W afting at different diftances from the fulcrum
A ; and fince E—2P=2W, and AB = 2AF, wre
have E : W=rAB : AF, which expreffes the funda¬
mental property of the lever. Without objefting to
the circumftance that this demonilration applies only
to the lever of the fecond kind, we may be allowed to
obferve, that it involves an axiom which cannot be
called felf-evident. It is certainly manifeft that when
P and W are in equilibrio, the preffure upon the ful¬
crum is — 2 P—P-j-W •, but it by no means follows that
this preffure remains the fame w'hen the fixed obftacle O
is fubftituted in the room of P. On the contrary, the
axiom affumed is a refult of the propofition which it is
employed to prove, or rather it is the propofition itfelf.
For if, when the extremity A bears againft the ob¬
ftacle O, the preffure upon F is equal to 2 W, the
force W obvioufly produces a preffure — 2 W at half the
diftance AB, which is the property to be demonftrated.
—The demonftrations given by Mr Landen and Dr
Hamilton, the former in his Memoirs, and the latter
4 See alfo in his Effays f, though in a great meafure fatisfaftory,
Phii. ffan/.are long and tedious. In the demonftration of Dr Ha¬
milton, he employs the following propofition •, that
when a body is at reft, and afted upon by three forces,
they will be to one another as the three fides of a tri¬
angle parallel to the direftion in which the forces aft.
W hen the three forces aft on one point of a body, the
propofition is true, but it is not applicable to the cafe
of a lever where the forces are applied to three different
points, and at all events the demonftratiion does not
A N I C S.
hold when any two of the forces aft in parallel diree- Theory,
tions. The demonftration which we have given in *•——v—*
Prop. I. is newq and different from any that have been
noticed. The truths on which it is founded are per¬
fectly axiomatic j and the only objeftion to which it
feems liable is, that the demonftration extends only to
a commenfurate proportion of the arms of the lever.—
An analytical demonftration of the fundamental pro¬
perty of the lever was given by Fonceneix in the Mif-
cellan. Jour. tom. ii. p. 321. which was afterwards im¬
proved by D’Alembert in the Mem. de 1’Acad. 1769.
p. 283.
Prop. IV.
vol. xcxii.
B- iiJ-
Fig- 1*
64. When feveral levers AB, ah, x 3, whofe fulcra plate
are F, /, <p, are fo combined as to a£l perpendi- CCCXVIH
cularly upon each other, or at equal angles ;
and it the directions in which the power and
weight are applied, be alfo perpendicular to the
arms, or at the fame angles with them as thofe
at which the levers a<St upon each other, there
is an equilibrium when P : W—BF X hfxjfif:
AF xajXatf).
Let M be the force which is exerted by the firft le¬
ver AB upon the fecond a h, and N the force which is
exerted by the fecond lever a b upon the third % ,5, then
by Prop. 1.
P : M=BF : AF
M : 'N — b f \ af
N : W = /3 <p : « <p.
Confequently by compofition
P : W=BFxX<P : AFx«/X*p.
Prop. V.
65. To explain the new property of the lever dif-
covered by M. Aipinus, and extended by Van
Swinden.
Let AFB be any lever whofe fulcrum is F, and to F; ^
whofe extremities A, B are applied the forces P, W g
in the directions AY, BO. Join AB, and produce it
on both fides towards E and I. Produce alfo the line*
Y A, VB till they meet in H, and from H, through the
fulcrum b, draw HFy, dividing AB into two parts Af,
B/ Let UM be a line given inpoiition, and let <*,
reprefent the angles which the direftion ot the forces
A A, VB make with that line. Let YA anckVB like-
wife reprefent the intenfity of the forces P, W, and let
VA be refolved into AE and YF ; and the force VB
into BI and VI.—'ihen the lever cannot be in equili¬
brium till
L EA x/A-j-iiJ x/ B is a maximum.
II. Or putting <p for the angles formed by the lines
AB, UT, which the lever, when in equilibrio, makes
with the line UM given in pofition, there cannot be an
equilibrium till
Tang, p X P X Ay x Cof, «-j-Tang. (p X W X B/x Lui. x By X bin. /S—P x A/x bin. «.
III. And
MECHANICS. 5£
^,eory. III. And putting «, b for the arms AF, BF, and w, « for the angles EAB, EBA, there cannot be an Theory.
—T-"—' equilibrium unlels , 1 ---v-.
^ b (Sin. /3 x Cof. «—Sin. « X Cof. fi)—P. a (Sin. * X Cof. m—Sin, m x Cof.
ang- p. a (Cof. «e X Cof.OT-f-Sin. * X Sin.wz) -j-W.b (Cof. /3 X ^of. n + Si11'/5 XSin.«.)
As the demonftrations of thefe different cafes are far
from being elementary, we fhall only refer the reader
to the memoir upon this fubjefl given by iEpinus in
the Nov. Comment. Petropol. tom. viii. p. 271.
Scholium.
66. This property of the lever was only confidered
by iEpinus in the cafe of a reftilineal lever with equal
arms •, but was extended by J. H. Van Swinden. When
the lever is rectilineal and with equal arms, we have
AF=FB— A/ttP> f, and alfo m—n—o, fo that, if the
laft formula is fuited to thefe conditions, we fhall have
the formula of iEpinus.
Prop. VI.
67. If a power and weight acting upon the arms
of any lever be in equilibrio, and if the whole
be put in motion, the velocity of the power is to
the velocity of the weight as the weight is to
the power.
Fig. 3. Let AFB be any lever whofe fulcrum is F, and let
the power P and weight W be applied to its extremi¬
ties A, B, fo as to be in equilibrio. Draw F /«, ¥ n
perpendicular to AD, BE the direction of the forces
P, W. Then -fuppofe an uniform angular motion to be
given to the lever, fo as to make it defcribe the fmall
angle AFA', the pofition of the lever will now be
A'FB', and the directions of the forces, P, W will be
A'D', B'E, parallel to AD, BE refpeCtively, fince the
angle AEF is exceedingly fmall. Join A A', BB', and
from A' and B' draw A'r, B'ss perpendicular to AD
and BE. Now it is obvious, that though the point A
has moved through the fpace AA' in the fame time
that the point B has deferibed the fpace BE', yet A x
is the fpace deferibed by A in the direction AD, and
B % the fpace deferibed by B in the direction BE.
For if we fuppofe a plane pafling through A at right
angles to AD, snd another through P parallel to the
former plane, it is manifeit that A x meafures the ap¬
proach of the point A to the plane paffing through P j
and for the fame reafon B •z meafures the approach of
the point B to a plane pafling through W at right
angles to WB. Therefore A x, B 2 reprefent the
fpaces uniformly and fimultaneoufly deferibed by the
points A, B, and may therefore be taken to denote the
velocities of thefe points (Dynamics, § 14.) 5 confe-
quently the velocity of A : the velocity of B=r A a1 : B 2.
Now, in the triangles A a A', ¥ m A, the exterior an¬
gle * AFzrrA m F-j-ra F, A (Euclid, B. I. Prop. 32.)
and A'AF=A/raF, becaufe AFA' is fo exceedingly
imall that A'A is fenfibly perpendicular to AF; confe-
quently # AA':= AEwz; and as the angles at x and m
are right, the triangles A a: A', Atn¥ are fimilar
(Geometry, Theor. XX. SeCt. IV.).
Therefore, A x : AA'—F m : FA, and in the fimilar
triangles AFA', BFB' AA' : BB'=FA : FB, and in
the fimilar triangles BB'^, BF«, BB': BzrrFB : F«,
therefore by compofition we have A a? : B %zz.¥ m : ¥n.
But by Propofition II. P : W=F/z : F/«, confequent-
ly A.v : B izrrrW : P, that is, the velocity of the power
is to the velocity of the weight as the weight is to the
power. (). E. D.
68. Cor. Since Aa : B : P we have A x x P
=B«xW, that is, the momenta of the power and
weight are equal.
SECT. II. On the Inclined Plane.
69. Definition. An inclmedplane is a plane fur- P^ate
face AB, fupported at any angle ABC formed with
the horizontal plane BC. The inclination of the plane S‘
is the angle which one line in the plane AB forms with
another in the horizontal plane BC, both thefe lines
being at right angles to the common interfeClion of the
two planes.—The line BA is called the length of the
plane, AC its height, and BC the length of its bafe.
70. In order to underhand how the inclined plane
ads as a mechanical power, let us fuppofe it neceflary
to elevate the weight D from C to A. If this weight
is lifted by the arms of a man to the point A, he mull
fupport the whole of the load •, but when it is rolled up
the inclined plane, a confiderable part of its weight is
fupported upon the plane, and therefore a much fmaller
force is capable of railing it to A.
Prop. I.
71. When any weight Wr is kept in equilibrio up¬
on an inclined plane by a power P, the power is
to the weight as the fine of the plane’s inclina¬
tion is to the fine of the angle which the direc¬
tion of the power makes with a line at right
angles to the plane.
Let MN be the inclined plane, NO a horizontal Fig. 5,
line, and MNO the inclination of the plane, and let
the weight W be fuftained upon MN by means of the
power P a£Hng in the dire&ion AE. From the point
A, the centre of gravity of the weight, draw AB per¬
pendicular to the horizontal plane ND, and AF per¬
pendicular to MN 5 produce EA till it meets the plane
in C, and from the point F where the body touches the
plane draw Fra at right angles to AC, and F« at right
angles to AB. Then, fince the whole body may be
confidered as colledled in the centre of gravity A, AB
will be the direction in which it tends to fall, or the di-
redtion of the weight, and EA is the diredtion of the
power •, but AF is a lever whofe fulcrum is F, and fince it
is adled upon by two forces which are in equilibrio, we
lhall have (Art. 59.) P : W—F« : Fra, that is, as the
perpendiculars drawn from the fulcrum to the diredtioa
in which the forces adl. Now FA being radius, F«
is the fine of the angle FAB, and F ra is the fine of
the angle FAC $ but FAB is equal to MNO the angle
of the plane’s inclination, on account of the right angles
at F and B and the vertical angles at D j and FAC is.
the angle which the diredtion of the power makes with
a line perpendicular to the plane \ therefore P : W
H 2 as
6o
MECHANICS.
Theory. ag the fine of the plane’s inclination, is to the fine of the
* " » angle formed by the direction of the power with a line
at right angles to the plane.
72. Cor. 1. When the power a£fs parallel to the
plane in the direction AE', P is to W as EA to E «,
that is, as radius is to the fine of the plane’s inclination,
or on account of the fimilar triangles FA/z, MNO, as
the length of the plane is to its height. In this cafe
the power a£ts to the greateft advantage.
73. Cor. 2. When the power a£ts in a vertical line
A s, F m becomes equal to or coincides with F ?z, and
we have P : Wz=F « : F «, that is, the power in this
cafe fuftains the whole weight.
74. Cor. 3. When the power a£ls parallel to the
bafe of the plane in the direction Ae, P : WirF n \Yf
“F n : A.n.
7 Cor. 4. When the power adls in the direction
AF e' perpendicular to the plane, it has no power to
refill the gravity of the weight 5 for the perpendicular
from the fulcrum F, to which its energy is proportional,
vanilhes.
76. Cor. 5. Since the body W a£ls upon the plane
in a diredlion AF perpendicular to the plane’s lurface,
(for its force downwards may be refolved into two, one
parallel to the plane, and the other perpendicular to it),
and fince the reaction of the plane mull alfo be perpen¬
dicular to its furface (Dynamics, § iqq.)? that is, in
the direction FA, then, when the direction of the power
is A e parallel to the horizon, the power, the weight,
and the preflure upon the plane, will be refpe&ively as
the height, the bafe, and the length of the plane. The
weight W is a£led upon by three forces j by its own
gravity in the direction A n, by the rea£lion of the
plane in the direction AF, and by the power P in the
direftion AF. Therefore, fince thefe forces are in
equilibrio, and fince Ay is parallel to n F, and Fy to
A «, the three fides AF, Ay Fy will reprefeut the
three forces (Dynamics, § J44-)* But the triangle
AFyis fimilar to A n F, that is, to MNO, for it was
already (hewn that the angle n AF is equal to MNO,
therefore, fince in the triangle AFy AF reprefents
the preffure on the plane, K f the weight of the body,
and F f the energy of the power, thefe magnitudes will
alfo be reprefented in the fimilar triangle MNO by the
fides MN, MO, NO.
Fig. 6. 77* Cor. 6. If a power P and weight W are in
equilibrio upon two inclined planes AB, AC *, P : W=r
AB : AC. Letp be the power, which a6ling on the
weight W in a direflion parallel to the plane would
keep it in equilibrio, then we have p : W~AD : AC ;
but fince the firing is equally firetched at every point,
the fame power p will alfo fuftain the power P, confe-
quently P : AB : AD, and by compofition P : W
r=AB : AC.
Prop. II.
78. If a fpherical body is fupported upon two in¬
clined planes, the preffures upon thefe planes
will be inverfely as the fines of their inclination,
while the abfolute weight of the body is repre¬
fented by the fine of the angle formed by the
two planes.
Fig. 7. Let AC, BC be the two inclined planes, and F the
4
fpherical body which they fupport. The whole of its
matter being fuppofed to be collected in its centre of
gravity F, its tendency downwards will be in the ver¬
tical line 10. The reaction of the planes upon F is
.evidently in the direction MF, NF perpendicular to
the furface of thefe planes, and therefore we may con-
fider the body F as influenced by three forces acting in
the directions FC, FM, FN ; but thefe forces are re¬
prefented by the fides of the triangle ABC perpendicu¬
lar to their directions, (Dynamics, § 144.), confe-
quently the abfolute weight of the body F, the prefllire
upon the plane AC, and the preflure upon the plane
BC, are refpeCtively as AB, AC, and BC, that is, as
the fines of the angles ACD, ABC, BAC, for in every
triangle the fides are as the fines of the oppofite angles,
or, to expre.fs it in fymbols, W being the abfolute
weight of the body, w the preflure on AC, and w' the
preffure on BC,
Theory.
W : ‘m : it/—AB : AC : BC, or
W : io : lo'zrfin. ACB : fin. ABC : fin. BAC.
But on account of the parallels AB, DF, the angle
ABCzrBCF, and BAC—ACD, therefore the pref¬
fures upon the planes are inverfely as the fines of their
inclination, the abfolute weight of the body being re¬
prefented by the fine of the angle formed by the fur-
faces of the two planes.
79. Cor. I. Since the two fides of a triangle are Corollaries
greater than the third, the fum of the relative weights
fupported by the two planes is greater than the abfolute
weight of the body.
80. Cor. 2. If the inclination of each plane is 6o°,
then ACB mult alfo be 6o°, and the triangle ABC
equilateral, confequently the prelfure upon each plane
is equal to the abfolute weight of the body.
81. CoR. 3. When the inclination of each plane
increafes, the preffure which each fufiains is alfo in-
creafed ; and when their inclination diminilhes till it
almoft vanilhes, the preflure upon each plane is one
half of the abfolute weight of the body F.
Prop. III.
82. If a body is raifed with an uniform motion
along an inclined plane, the velocity of the
power is to the velocity of the weight as the
weight is to the power.
Let the weight W be drawn uniformly up the in- p;^
dined plane AB, from B to D, by a power whtife di¬
rection is parallel to DH. Upon DB defcribe the
circle BFEDN, cutting BC in E, and having pro¬
duced HD to F, join FP, FB, FE, and draw DC per¬
pendicular to BD. Now the angles BFD, BED are
right (Geometry, Se£t. II. Theor. 17.), and there¬
fore, though the power moves through a fpace equal to
BD, yet its velocity in the direction DH is mealured
by the fpace FD uniformly defcribed ; and for the fame
reafon, though the weight W defcribes the fpace BD,
yet its velocity in the direction in which it ads, that is,
in a vertical direction, is evidently meafured by the fpace
DE uniformly defcribed. Then becaufe the triangle
DEE is equal to DFE, (Geometry, SeCt. II. Theor.
15.) and DBErrDCH, (Geometry, Sed. IV. Theor.
23.) and FDE=DHC, (Geometry, Sed. I. Theor.
MECHANIC S.
6i
Thwy. 21.) the triangles DT'E, DHC are fimilar, and (Geo-
»■■ ■ v 1 ^ metry, Se£t. IV. Theor. 20.) DF : DE“DH : HC.
But DH : HCrdin. DCId : fin. HDC, that is, (art.
71.) DF : DE, or the velocity of th# power to the ve¬
locity of the weight, as W : P. Q. E. D.
Scholium.
83. The inclined plane, when combined with other
machinery, js often of great ufe in the elevation of
weights. It has been the opinion of fome writers, that
the huge maffes of ftone which are found at great alti¬
tudes in the fplendid remains of Egyptian architecture,
were railed upon inclined planes of earth, with the aid
of. other mechanical powers. This fuppofition, how¬
ever, is not probable, as the immenfe blocks of granite
which compofe the pyramids of Egypt could not pof-
fibly have been railed into their prelent fituation by
any combination of the mechanical powers with which
we are acquainted.—The inclined plane has been very
advantageoufiy employed in the duke of Bridgewater’s
canal. After this canal has extended 40 miles on the
fame level, it is joined to a fubterraneous navigation
about 12 miles long by means of an inclined plane,
and this fubterraneous portion is again connected by an
inclined plane with another fubterraneous portion about
106 feet above it. This inclined plane is a lira turn of
ftone which Hopes one foot in four, and is about 453
feet long. The boats are conveyed from one portion
of the canal to another by means of a windlafs, fo that
a loaded boat defeending along the plane turns the axis
of the windlafs, and raifes an empty boat.—A pair of
flairs, and a road that is not level, may be regarded as
inclined planes 5 and hence it is a matter of great
importance in carrying a road to the top of a hill, to
ckoofe fuch a line that the declivity may be the leaft
pofiible. The additional length, which, in order to
effeCt this purpofe muft fonaetimes be given to the line of
road is a trifling inconvenience, when compared with the
advantages of a gentle declivity.
Sect. III. 0,v the Rope Machine.
84. Definition. When a body fufpended by two or
more ropes, is fuftained by powders which aft by the
afliftance of thefe ropes, this aifemblage of ropes is called
a rope machine.
DE : BErrfin. DBE : fin. BDE, and on account of
the parallels DE, AB, the angle BDE—ABD, con-
fequently P : pzrfin. DBE : fin. BDE.
86. Cor. i. When the line joining the pulleys is
horizontal, as AC, then P : 7?—EC : FA, for FC and
FA are evidently the fines of the angles DBE, BDE.
87. Cor. 2. Any of the powers is to the weight, as.
the fine of the angle which the other makes with the
direftion of the weight, is to the fine of the angles
which the power makes with one another. For fince
DB reprefents the weight, and BE the power P, we
have BE : BD—fin. BDE : fin. BED •, but on account
of the parallels DE, AB, the angle DEB — ABC, the
angle made by the direftion of the powrers, confequent-
ly BE : BD, that is, p : W= fin. ABF : fin. ABC.
In the fame way it may be fhown that P : W—fin.
CBF : fin. ABC. Hence we have P-\-p : W—
fin. CB.b ft-fin. ABF : fin. ABC, that is, the fum
of the powers is to the weight, as the fum of the
fines of the angles which the powers make with the
direftion of the weight is to the fine of the angle which
the powers make with one another.
88. Cor. 3. The two powers P, /J, arc alfo direftly
proportional to the cofecants of the angles formed by
the direftion of the powers with the direftion of the
weight. For fince P : prrfin. DBE : fin. BDE, and
by the principles of trigonometry, fin. DBE : fin. DBE
—cofec. BDE : cofec. DBE, we have P : y^nrcofec.
ABl1 : cofec. CBF. It is alfo obvious that P : jo as
the fecants of the angles which thefe powers form with
the horizon, fince the angles which they make with
the horizon are the complements of the angles which
they form with the direftion of the weight, and the cofe-
cant of any angle is juft the fecant of its complement,
therefore P : jorzfec. BAF : fee. BCF.
Theory.
Chap. II. On Compound Machines.
89. Definition. Compound machines are thofe
which are compofed' of two or more fimple machines,
either of the fame or of different kinds. The number
of compound machines is unlimited, but thofe which
properly belong to this chapter, are, 1. The wheel and
axle ; 2. The pulley 5 3. The wedge ; 4. The ferew j
and, 5. The balance.
Prop. I.
85. If a weight is in equilibrium with two powers
adfing on a rope machine, thefe powers are in-
verfely as the fines of the angles which the
ropes form with the diredfion of the weight.
Let the weight W be fufpended from the point B,
where the ropes AB, BC are joined, and let the
powers P, p afting at the other extremities of the ropes
which pafs over the pulleys A, C, keep this weight in
equilibrio, we ftiall have P : fin. CBD : fin. ABD.
Produce WB to F, and let BD reprefent the force
exerted by W •, then by drawing DE parallel to AB,
the fides of the triangle BDE will reprefent the three
forces by which the point B is folicited (Dynamics,
$ M4*)> f°r CB are the direftions of the forces
P and p. We have therefore P : p—DE : BE 3 but
Sect. I. On the Weed and Axle.
90. The ’wheel and axle, or the axis in peritrochio, Fig. i®,
is reprefented in fig. 9. and confifts of a wheel AB, and
cylinder CD having the fame axis, and moving upon
pivots E, F, placed at the extremity of the cylinder.
The power P is moft commonly applied to the circum¬
ference of the wheel, and afts in the direftion of the
tangent, while the weight W is elevated by a rope
which coils round the cylinder CD in a plane perpen¬
dicular to its axis.—In this machine a winch or handle
EH is fometimes fubftituted inftead of the wheel, and
fometimes the power is applied to the levers S, S fixed
in the periphery of the wheel 3 but in all thefe forms
the principle of the machine remains unaltered. 
I hat the wheel and axle is an affemblage of levers will
be obvious, by confidering that the very fame effeft
would be produced if a number of levers were to ra¬
diate
62 M E C H
, 'ni('orv- diate from tlie centre C, and if a rope carrying the
v power P were to pafs over their extremities, and i xtri-
cate itfelf from the defeending levers when they come
into a horizontal pofition.
91. Axiom. The effeft of the power to turn the-cy¬
linder round its axis, is the fame at whatever point in
- the axle it is fixed.
I
Prop. I.
92. In the wheel and axle the power and weight
will be in equilibrium, when they are to one
another reciprocally as the radii of the circles
t<* which they are applied, or when the power
is to the weight as the radius of the axle is to
the radius of the wheel.
Fig, 11. Let AD be a fedtion of the wheel, and BE a fee*
tion of the axle or cylinder, and let the power P and
weight W a£t in the diredtions AP, WP, tangents to
the circumferences of the axle and wheel in the points
A, B, by means of ropes.winding round thefe circum¬
ferences. As the effedt is the fame according to the
axiom, let the power and weight adt in the fame plane
as they appear to do in the figure, then it is obvious
that the effort of the power P and weight W will be
the fame as if they were fufpended at the points A, B 5
confequently the machine may be regarded as a lever
AFB, whofe centre of motion is F. But fince the di-
redlions of the power and weight make equal angles
with the arms of the lever, we have (Art. 36.) P : W
r=:FB : FA, that is, the power is to the weight as the
radius of the axle is to the radius of the wheel.
®orollaries. 93. Cor. 1. If the power and weight adl obliquely
to the arms of the lever in the diredlions A />, B “u;,
draw F iT* F « perpendicular to A/j and B to, and as in
the cafe of the lever (Art. 51.) there will be an equili¬
brium when P : W“F n :¥ m. Hence the tangential
diredlion is the moil advantageous one in which the
power can be applied, for FA is always greater than
F m, and the leaft advantageous diredlion in which the
weight can be applied, for it then oppofes the greateff
refinance to the power.
94. Cor. 2. If the plane of the wheel is inclined to
the axle at any angle x, there will be an equilibrium
when P : W— femidiameter of the axle : fin. x.
95. Cor. 3. When the thicknefs of the rope is of a
fenfible magnitude, there will be an equilibrium when
the power is to the weight as the fum of the radius
of the axle, and half the thicknefs of its rope, is to
the fum of the radius of the wheel and half the thick¬
nefs of its rope 5 that is, if T be the thicknefs of the
rope of the wheel, and t the thicknefs of the rope of the
axle, there will be an equilibrium when P : Wrr FB
: FA-f iT.
96. Cor. 4. If a number of wheels and axles are fo
•ombined that the periphery of the firft axle may adt
on the periphery of the fecond wheel, either by means
of a firing or by teeth fixed in the peripheries of each,
and the periphery of the fecond axle on the periphery
of the third wheel, there will be an equilibrium when
the power is to the weight as the produdl of the radii
•f all the axles is to the produdl of the radii of all the
srheels. This corollary may be demonftrated by the
I
A N I C S.
fame aeafoning which is ufed in Art. 63. for the com- Tfieorr,
binauon of Levers. ^ " y—**
97. Cor. 5. In a combination of wheels, where tl e
motion is commifnicated by means of teeth, the axle is
called the pinion. Since the teeth therefore muff be
nearly of the fame fize, both in the wheel and pinion,
the number of teeth in each will be as their circum¬
ferences, or as their radii; and confequently in the com¬
bination mentioned in the preceding corollary, the
power will be to the weight, in the cafe of an equili¬
brium, as the produdt of the number of teeth in all the
pinions is to the produdl of the number of teeth in all
the wheels.
Prop. II.
98. In the wheel and axle the velocity of the
weight is to the velocity of the power as the
power is to the weight.
If the power is made to rife through a fpace equal to
the circumference of the wheel, the weight -will evi¬
dently deferibe a fpace equal to the circumference of
the axle. Hence, calling V the velocity of the power,
v that of the weight, C the circumference of the wheel,
and c that of the axle, we have V : v~ C : c. But by
the propofition P : W=rc : C, therefore P : : V.
Scholium.
99. The conflrudlion of the main-fpring box of the On the
fufee of a watch round which the chain is coiled, is a fufce a
beautiful illullration of the principle of the wheel and watc*b
axle. The fpring-box may be confidered as the wheel,
and the fufee the axle or pinion to which the chain
communicates the motion of the box. The power re-
fides in the fpring wound round an axis in the centre
of the box, and the weight is applied to the lower cir¬
cumference of the fufee. As the force of the fpring is
greateil when it is newly wound up, and gradually de-
creafes as it unwinds itfelf, it is neceffary that the fufee
fliould have different radii, fo that the chain may adl
upon the fmallell part of the fufee when its force is
greateil, and upon the largell part of the fufee when
its force is lealt, for the equable motion of the watch
requires that the inequality in the adtion of the fpring
fhould be counteradled fo as to produce an uniform ef-
fedl. In order to accomplilh this, the general outline
of the furface of the fufee mull be an Apollonian hyper¬
bola in which the ordinates are inverfely as their re-
fpedlive abfeiffse. For further information on this fub-
jedl, fee Recherches des Mathemat. par M. Parent.
tom. ii. p. 678. 5 Traite d'Hor/ogerie, par M. Berthoud,
tom. i. chap. 26. ; and Traite de Mecanique, par M. de
la Hire, prop. 72.
Sect. II. On the Pulley.
100. Definition.—The pulley is a machine com-On the
pofed of a wheel with a groove in its circumference, pulley,
and a rope which paffes round this groove. The wheel
moves on an axis whofe extremities are fupported on a
kind of frame called the block, to which is generally
fufpended the wreight to be raifed. A fyllem of pulley*
is called a muffle, which is either fixed or moveable ac¬
cording as the block which contains the pulleys is fixed
or moveable.
Prop.
MECHANICS.
Theory.
Prof. I.
Ioi. In a fingle pulley, or fyItem of pulleys where
the different portions of the rope are parallel to
each other, and where one extremity of it is
fixed, there is an equilibrium when the power
is to the weight as unity is to the number of
the portions of the rope which fupport the
weight.
Pig. 12.
F‘g- 13-
Fig. 14.
15.
102. Case i. In the fingle fixed pulley A A let the
power P and weight W be equal, and act againft each
other by means of the rope PBAW, paffmg over the
pulley A A ; then it is obvious that whatever force is
exerted by P in the direftion PBA, the fame force
muft be exerted in the oppofite direction WBA, con-
fequently thefe equal and oppofite forces muft be in
equilibrio •, and as the weight is fupported only by one
rope, the propofition is demonftrated, for P : W— 1 : 1.
103. Case 2. In the fingle moveable pulley, where
the rope, faftened at H, goes beneath the moveable pulley
D and over the fixed pulley C, the weight to be raifed is
fufpended from the centre of the pulley D by the
block /?, and the power is applied at P in the dire£tion
PE. Now it is evident that the portions CFjo, HGD
of the rope fuftain the weight W, and as they are
equally ftretched in every point, each muft fuftain one
half of W •, but (Cafe 1.) in the fingle pulley C the
rope CEP fuftains a weight equal to what the rope
CFp fuftains *, that is, it fuftains one-half of W. Con-
fequently P~FW, or W—2P, when there is an equi¬
librium ; and fince the weight W is fupported by two
firings, we have P : W~ 1 : 2.
15. 104. Case 3. When the fame rope paffes round a
number of pulleys, the ropes which fupport the weight W
are evidently equally ftretched in every part, and there¬
fore each of them fuftains the fame weight. Confe-
quently if there be ten ropes fupporting the weight,
each fuftains -/^th part of the weight, and therefore
P—to W, or W—10P, which gives us P : W— 1 : 10.
—T he pulley in fig. 15. is the patent pulley invented
by Mr White, in which the lateral friftion and fhaking
motion is confiderably removed.
Prop. II.
Prop. III.
Theory.
106. In a fyflem of moveable pulleys whofe num¬
ber is «, fufpended by feparate and parallel
ropes, whofe extremities are fixed to the weight
W, there is an equilibrium when P : W : 1 : 2”
—1.
In this fyftem of pulleys, the rope which fuftains the pjg lJs
power P pafles over the pulley C, and is fixed to the
weight at O. Another rope attached to the pulley C
paftes over the pulley B and is fixed to the weight at
E, and a third rope iaftened to B paifes over A and is
fixed at F. Then it is manifeft that the rope CD
furtains a weight equal to P j and finee the pulley C is
pulled downward with a weight equal to 2P, the rope
BC muft fupport a weight equal to 2P, and the rope B
the fame weight j confequently the rope AB fuitains
4P. The whole weight therefore is P + 2P-f4P,
and hence P : W=:P : P-j-^P-j-qP, or P : W=i : 1
4-2+4 &c. to « terms, fo that P : W = i : 2„—j.
Prop. IV.
107. In the fyftem of pulleys reprefented in Fig. 1-.
fig. 19. and called a bpamlh barton, in which
two pulleys are fupported by one rope, there is
an equilibaum when P : W = i : 4.
In this combination of pulleys, the rope AB which
fupports the power P paiies over the moveable pulley
A, and beneath C towards H, where it is faxed. Ano¬
ther rope, attached to the pulley A, paftes over the fixed
pulley B, and is faftened at E to the pulley C, which
fupports the weight W. Then, finee the rope AP fup¬
ports 1 pound, the rope AC alio fupports 1 pound,
and therefore the pulley A, or the rope BA, is pulled
down with a force of 2 pounds. But the rope BDE
is equally ftretched with BA, confequently the pulley
C, to which DE is attached, is pulled upwards with a
force of 2 pounds. Now the rope AC lupporting 1
pound, the rope GH muft likewile I'upport 1 pound,
confequently, fince DE fuftains 2 pounds, AC 1 pound,
and HG 1 pound, they will together fuftain V\ =4
pounds, and therefore P : ^ = 1 : 4,
J05. In a fyftem of « moveable pulleys fufpended
by feparate and parallel ropes, there is an equi¬
librium when P : W - 1 : 2* ; that is, if there are
4 pulleys «—4, and P : W= 1 : 2 x 2 X 2 x 2, or
P : W=i : 16.
rig. 17. This fyftem is reprefented in fig. 17. where the rope
which carries the power P pafles over the fixed pulley
M, and beneath the moveable pulley A, to the hook E
"where it is fixed. Another rope fixed at A pafles over
B and is fixed at F, and fo on with the reft. Then by
Art. 103.
P : the weight at A= r : 2
The weight at A : the weight at B—1 : 2
The weight at B : the weight at Cm : 2
The weight at C : the weight at D or W=x : 2; and
therefore by compofition
E : W=I ; 2x 2X 2x 2 or P : Wm : 16. £. E. d.
Prop. V.
108. In the fyftem of pulleys reprefented in fig.F;„ m
20. called a Spaniih barton, where two pulleys
are fupporteu by one rope, tnere is an equili¬
brium when P : W=:i : 5.
In this fyftem the rope PB pafles over B round C
and is fixed at E. Another rope attached to B paiies
round AF and is fixed at i to the pulley CD, vvhich
carries the weight W. i\iow the rope BP bemg itretched
with a force of 1 pound, the ropes BGC, CDE are
alfo ftretched with a force of 1 pound each, and the
pulley CD is pulled upwards with a force of 2 pounds.
But linee the three ropes BP, ED, and GC, are each
ftretched with a force of 1 pound, the pulley B and the
rope BA, upon which they all ad in one diredion, mull
be pulled down with a force of 3 pounds. Now the
mpe IT equally ftretched with BA, confequently it,
will draw the pulley CD upwards with a force of 3
pounds,
MECHANIC
pounds, and 0nee it is drawn upwards by the ropes
CG, DF, with a force of two pounds, the whole force
will fuftain W= 5 pounds 5 but this force of 5 pounds
is by the hypotheiis in equilibrio with P or I pound,
confequently P : W=ri : 5.
s.
P : ^rrrad.
p : tt—rad.
9r : W~rad.
2Cof. MAP
2cof. NBA
2cof. RGB, confequently
P : W=rad. : 2 cof. MAP x 2 oof. NBA Xi^OtCB,
or, which is the fame thing,
Theory.
Prop. VI.
Plate
eccxix.
%, 1.
109. When the ropes are not parallel, and when
two powers are in equilibrxo with a weight by
means of a pulley, and have their dire£Uons at
equal angles to the dire&ion of the weight,
each of thefe powers is to the weight as the
radius of the pulley is to the chord of that por¬
tion of the pulley’s circumference with which
the rope is in contact.
Let the weight W fufpended from C be fuftained in
equilibrio by two powers P, p, which a& by a rope
PCFEp paffing over the pulley CHEF, and touching
the arch CFE of its circumference. Then fince the
angles PWD,/;WD are equal, and the powers P, p in
equilibrio, P mull be equal to p ; and making W A
=WB, and drawing AI parallel to PW, and BI pa¬
rallel toPW WB, BI, WI will refpeflively repre-
fent the forces P,/?, W or P : jo : W=WB : BI : WI,
Dynamics, Art. 144. Now the triangles WBI, CDE
having their refpe&ive fides at right angles to each
other, are fimilar j confequently WB : BI : WI=CD :
DE : EC, that is, P : : W=CD : DE : EC 5 but
CD, DE are equal to radius, and EC is obvioully the
chord of the arch CEE, therefore P : W or p : W as
radius is to the chord of the arch with which the rope is
in contact. , .
no. Cor. t. Any of the powers is alfo to the
weight as radius is to twice the eofme of the angle
which either rope makes with the dire&ion of the
weight. For fince CG is the cofine of DCG, and fince
CE is double of CG, CE is equal to 2 cofine DCG
— 2 Cof. PWD but P : W=:CD : CE, hence we have
By fubftituting the preceding value of CE, P ; W=CD
©r radius : 2 Cof, PWD,
Scholium.
in. By means of this propofition and corollary, the
proportion between the powers and the weight in the
various fyftems of pulleys, reprefented in fig. 12, 13,
14, 15, f 6, 17, 18, 19, 20. when the ropes are not
parallel, may be eafily found.
Prop. VII.
112. In a fyftem of moveable pulleys, where each
has a feparate rope, and wdtere the ropes are
not parallel, there is an equilibrium when the
power is to the weight as radius is to the cofines
of half the angles made by the rope of each
pulley, multiplied into that power of. 2 whofe
exponent is the number of pulleys.
F. Let the power P fuftain the weight W by means of
^ the pulleys A, B, C} let P, p, w be the different powers
which fupport the pulleys A, B, C, and let MAP,
NBA, RGB be the angles formed by the ropes. Then,
by the laft propofition,
P : W—rad. : 2X 2X 2 x cof. MAP X cof. NBAx
cof. RGB.
Prop. VIII.
113. In a fingle pulley, or in a combination of
pulleys, the velocity of the power is to the ve¬
locity of the weight as the weight is to the
power.
114. Case i. In the fingle fixed pulley, it is ob-pig,
vious, that if the weight W is raifed uniformly one
inch, the power D will alfo defcribe one inch, confe¬
quently velocity of P : velocity of W~W : P.
115. Case 2. in the fingle moveable pulley, when Fig. 15,
the weight W is raifed one inch, the ropes become
one inch ftiorter } and fince the rope has always the
fame weight, the power muft defcribe two inches,
therefore velocity P : velocity W~W : P.
116. Case 3. In the combination of pulleys, in Figs 14, i<
figs. 14, 15, 16, when the weight rifes one inch, each 16.
of the four ftrings becomes an inch Ihorter, fo that P
muft defcribe four inches, as the length of the rope is
invariable j confequently velocity P : velocity W =:
W : P.
117. Case 4. In the fyftem exhibited in fig. 17. it Fig.
is evident, that when the weight W rifes one inch,
the rope DC is lengthened two inches, the rope CB
four inches, the rope BA eight inches, and the rope
AFP, to which the power is lulpended, 16 inches } fo
that lince the power of this pulley is as 16 to j, we
have velocity P : velocity W=W : P.
118. Case 5. In the combination of pulleys, repre- Fig. 18.
fented in fig. 18. when the weight W rifes one inch,
all the three ropes CD, BE, AF are each ihortened
one inch. But while CD fhortens one inch, CP be¬
comes one inch longer; while BE Ihortens one inch, BC
becomes one inch longer, and CP two inches longer
(art. 110.) j and while AF fhortens one inch, AB be¬
comes one inch longer, BC two inches longer, and
CP four inches longer j therefore CP is lengthened al¬
together feven inches, and as the power of the pulley
is as 7 to 1, we have, as before, velocity P : velocity
W=W ; P.
119. Case 6. In the fyftem of pulleys, called the Fig.
Spanilh barton, fig. 19. when the weight W rifes one
inch, the three ropes AC, DE, HG are each Ihorten¬
ed one inch. By the fhortening of HG, CA one inch
each, the rope AP is lengthened two inches ; and by
the ftiortening of DE one inch, BA is lengthened one
inch, and AP two inches (art, 115.) $ confequently,
fince AP is lengthened in all four inches, and fince the
power of the pulleys is four, we have velocity P : velo¬
city W=W ; P.
120. Case 7. In the other Spanifti barton, in fig, 20, Fig. 2*.
when the weight is elevated one inch, the three ropes
DE, IF, CG are each one inch (horter. While ED,
and CG fhorten one inch each, BP is lengthened two
inches^
M E C H
Theory, inches, and wlille IF becomes one inch fhorter, AB be-
^ 1 comes one inch longer'; but when AB is lengthened
one inch, BP becomes one inch longer, and ED, CG
one inch fhorter each, and by this Ihortening of ED,
CG, the rope B is lengthened two inches, therefore,
finee the rope BP is lengthened altogether five inches,
and fince the pulleys have a power of five, we have, as
formerly, velocity P ; velocity Vv zr W : P.
Sect. III. On the Wedge.
121. Definition. A wedge is a machine compofed
®f two inclined planes with their bafcs in contad ; or,
more properly, it is a triangular prifm, generated by
the motion of a triangle, parallel to itfelf, along a
ftraight line pa ding through the vertex of one of its
angles. The wedge is called ifofceles, rectangular,
Plate or fcalene, according as the triangle ABC by which
CtCXIX the wedge is generated, is an ifofceles, a redangular
3' er a fcalene triangle. The part AB is called the
head or back of the wedge, DC its altitude, and AC,
BC its faces.—The wedge is generally employed for
cleaving wood, or for quarrying ftones but all cutting
inilruments, fuch as knives, fwords, chifels, teeth, &c.
properly belong to this mechanical power, when they
ad in a diredion at right angles to the cutting furface j
for when they ad obliquely, in which cafe their power
is inereafed, their operation refembles more the adion
•f a faw.
Prop. I.
122. If each of the faces of an ifofceles wedge,
which are perfe&ly fmooth, meet with an equal
refiflance from forces a£Hng at equal angles of
inclination to their faces, and if a power ad:
perpendicularly upon the back, thefe forces will
be in equilibrio, when the power upon the
back is to the fum of the refiltances upon the
fides, as the fine of half the angle of the wedge,
multiplied by the fine of the angle at which
the refilling forces ad upon its faces, is to the
fquare of radius.
Fig. g. 'h,et ABC be the wedge, AC, BC its ading faces,
and iVID,ND the diredions in which the refilling forces
ad upon thefe faces, forming with them the equal angles
DMA, DNB. Draw CD, DF, DE at right angles
to three fides of the wedge, and join F, E meeting CD
in G. On account of the equal triangles CAD, CDB
(Euclid, Book i. Prop. 26.) AD=rDB ; and in the
equal triangles ADM, BDN, MDrrND. In the
fame way DF—DE and AF=BE, therefore CF=CE.
But in the triangles CFG, CEG there are two fides FC,
CG equal to EC,CG, and the angle FCGrrECG, con-
fequently FG —GE, and FGC, ABC are both right
angles,, therefore FE is parallel to AB.—Now the force
Mi) is refolvable into DF, EM, of which FM has no
elfed upon the wedge. But, as the effedive force FD
is net in dired oppofition to the perpendicular force ex¬
erted on the back of the wedge,, we may refolve it into
the t wo forces FG, GD, of which GD ads in dired op¬
pofition to the power, while FG ads in a diredion paral¬
lel to the back of the wedge. In the fame way it mav be
Ihewn that EG GD are the only effedive forces which
Vol. XIII. Part I.
A N I C S. 65,
refult from the force ND. But the forces FG EG be- Theory.
ing equal and oppolite, deliroy each other , c, rncquent- ''■“"'v ’
ly 2GD is the force which oppoles that which is exert¬
ed upon the back of the wedge, and the wedge will be
kept at reft if the force upon the back is equal to
2GD, that is, when the force upon the back is to the
fum of the refinances upon the faces as 2Gi> is to
MD-j-ND, or as 2GD : 2DM, or as Gd is to DM.
Now
DG : DF — fin. DFG : radius, or as (Euclid, vi. 8.}
fin. DCF radius, and
DF : MD—fin. DMF : radius; therefore by compofi*
fition,
DG : MD — fin. DCF x fin- DMF : rad. x rad. or
rad.J1. But, DG : MD as the force upon the back
is to the fum of the refiftanees, therefore the force up¬
on the back is to the fum of the refinances as fin. DCF
X fin. DMF is to the fquare of the radius.
I23* Cor. i. If the diredion of the refifting forces Corollaries,
is perpendicular to the faces of the wedge, DMF be¬
comes a right angle, and therefore its fine is equal to
radius. Confequently we have, in this cafe, the force
upon the back to the fum of the refiftances, as fin. DCF
X rad. is to radipsj1, that is, as fin. DCF is to radius,
or as AD half the back of the wedge is to AC the
length of the wedge.
124. Cor. 2. In the particular cafe in the propofi-
tion, it is obvious that the forces MF, NE are not op-
pofed by any other forces, and therefore the force upon
the back will not fuftain the refifting forces ; but in the
cafe in cor. 2. the forces MF, NE vanilh, and there¬
fore the other forces will fuftain each other.
125. Cor 3. If the refifting forces ad in a direc¬
tion perpendicular to AB, the angle DMF becomes
equal to ACD, and therefore the force upon the back
is to the fum of the refiftances as fin. ACDj* is to
radius|*, that is, as the fquare of AD half the back of
the wedge is to the fquare of AC the length of the
uredge.
1 26. Cor. 4. When the diredion of the refiftances
is parallel to the back of the wedge, the angle of in¬
clination DMC becomes the complement of the ferni-
angle of the wedge, and therefore the force upon the
back is to the fum of the refiftances as the fin. ACD
X col. ACD is to the fquare of the radius, that is, as
DA X DC is to AC*. But in the fimilar triangles
DAF, DAC, we have DF : DArrDC : AC, and DF
X ACnrDA X DC, confequently the force upon the
back of the wedge is to the fum of the refiftances as
DFx AC is to AC*, that is, as DF : AC.
Prop. II.
127. If, on account of the fridlion of the wedge, pig
or any other caufe, the refiftances are wholly
effedlive, that is, if the refifting furfaces adhere
to the places to which they arc applied without
Aiding, there will be an equilibrium, when the
force upon the back is to the lum of the refin¬
ances, as the fine of the acute angle which the
diredlion of the refifting forces makes with the
back of the wedge is to radius.
Join MN, which will cut DC perpendicularly at the
I" point
66 , M E C H
, Thcory- . point H. 1'hen, lince the forces MD, ND are refolvable
into MH, HD and into NH, HD, and fince MH, HN
deftroy each other, the force upon the back is fuftained
by 2 HD. Confequently, the force upon the back is
to the fum of the refiltances as 2 HD is to 2 MD, or as
HD is to MD. But the angle ADM, which the direc¬
tion of the forces makes with the back of the wedge, is
equal to DMN, and HD is the fine of that angle, MD
being radius, therefore the force upon the back is
to the fum of the refinances as fin. ADM : radius.
Q. E. D.
Corollaries. 128.C0R. I . Since the angle AMD=:MDC-fMCD,
the angle MDC is the difference between MCD the fe-
miangle of the wedge, and AMD the angle which the
direction of the refilling forces makes with the face of the
wedge, and fince HD is the cofine of that angle, MD
being radius, we have the force upon the back to the
fum of the refiftances, as the cofine of the difference be¬
tween the femiangle of the wedge and the angle which
the direction of the refilling forces makes with the face
of the wedge, is to radius.
•
Prop. III.
129. When there is an equilibrium between three
forces a£ting perpendicularly upon the Tides of
a wedge of any form, the forces are to one an¬
other as the lides of the wedge.
This is obvious from Dynamics, $ 144. Cor. 2.
where it is fhewnthat when three forces are in equilibrio,
they are proportional to the fides of a triangle, which
are refpedlively perpendicular to their directions.
Prop. IV.
130. When the power adling upon the back of a
wedge is in equlibrio with the refiftances op-
pofed to it, the velocity of the power is to the
velocity of the refiftance as the refiftance is to
the power.
Tig. 3. Produce DM to K, and draw CK perpendicular to
DK. Then, by Art. 122. the power is to the refin¬
ance as MD : DPI. Let the wedge be moved uni¬
formly from D to C, and DK is the fpace uniformly
defcribed by the refilling force in the direftion in which
it acts j therefore, the velocity of the poAver is to the
velocity of the refiftance as DC : DK ; that is, on ac¬
count of the equiangular triangles DHM, DKC, as
MD : DH 5 that is, as the refiftance is to the power.
Sect. IV. On the Screw.
131. Definition. A fcrerv is a cylinder with an
inclined plane AATapped round it, in fueh a manner, that
the furface of the plane is oblique to the axis of the cy¬
linder, and forms the fame angle with it in every part
of the cylindrical furface. When the inclined plane
winds round the exterior furface of a folid cylinder, it
is called a male fcrew ; but Avhen it is fixed on the in¬
terior circumference of a cylindrical tube, it is called
a female fcrew. In the female lerew, the fpiral grooves
formed by the inclined plane on the furface of the cy¬
lindrical tube, mull be equal in breadth to the inclined
A N I C S.
plane in the male ferew, in order that the one may Theory.
move freely in the other. By attending to the mode ' * 
in which the fpiral threads are formed by the circum¬
volution of the inclined plane, it will appear, that if
one complete revolution of the inclined plane is deve¬
loped, its altitude will be to its bafe as the diftance be-
tiveen the threads is to the circumference of the fcreAv.
1 hus, let a b c (fig. 4.) be the inclined plane, whofe Fig. 4.
bafe is a c and altitude b c, and let it be wrapped round
the cylinder MN (fig. 5.) of fuch a fize that the points
a, c may coincide. The furface ab of the plane (fig. 4.)
will evidently form the fpiral thread a d e b (fig. 5.),
and ab the diftance betAA^een the threads Avill be equal to
be (fig. 4.) the altitude of the plane, and the circumfer¬
ence of the fcreAv MN Avill be equal to ac the bafe of the
plane. If any body, therefore, is made to rife along
the plane a deb in fig. 5. or along the fpiral thread of
the fcreAv, by a force acting in a direction parallel to
a deb, there Avill be the fame proportion betAveen the
poAver and the refiftance as if the body afeended the
plane abc (fig. 4.).
132. A male fcrew Avith triangular threads is repre-pj 6 „
fented by AB (fig. 6.), and its correfponding female
fcreAv by AB (fig. 7.). A male fcrew Avith quadrangu¬
lar threads is exhibited in fig. 8. and the female fcreAv Fi g
in which it works in fig. 9. The friftion is confidera- lg’ ’ 9
bly lefs in quadrangular than in triangular threads,
though, when the fcrew is made of Avood, the triangular
threads iliould be preferred. When the ferews are me¬
tallic and large, the threads fliould be quadrangular; but
the triangular form is preferablein fmall fcreAvs. When
the fcreAv is employed in practice, the porver is always
applied to the extremity of a lever fixed in its head.
This is ftiCAvn in fig. 10. where AB is the lever afting
upon the fcrew BC, Avhich works in a female fcrew in Ir
the block F, and exerts its force in bending the fpring
CD ».
Prop. I.
133. If the fcrew is employed to overeome any
refiftance, there will be an equilibrium when
the power is to the refiftance as the diftance be¬
tween two adjacent threads is to the circum¬
ference defcribed by the power.
Let FAKbe a fection of the fcrew reprefented in fig. Fig. 11..
8. perpendicular to its axis 5 CD a portion of the inclined
plane Avhich forms the fpiral thread, and P the porver,
Avhich, when applied at C in the plane ACF, will be
in equilibrium with a weight upon the inclined plane
CD. Then, in the inclined plane, Avhen the direction
of the poAver is parallel to the bafe, avc have (Art. 72.)
P: VV, as the altitude of the plane is to the bafe, or (Art.
131.) as the diftance betAveen two threads is to the Avhole
circumference FKCF. If avcfuppofe another poA\rer PTo
aft at the end of the lever AB, and deferibe the arch
HBG, and that this poAcer produces the fame effeft at
B as the power P did at C, then (Art. 36.), avc lurve
P': P=:CA : BA, that is, as FKCF is to the circumfe¬
rence HBG ; but it Avas fheAvn before, that P : W~ as
the diftance between tA\To contiguous threads is to
FKCF; therefore, by compofition, P: W as the diftance
betAveen two threads is to HBG or the circumference
of a circle whofe radius is AB. f). E. D.
j34. Cor. I. It is evident from the propofition that
the
S
M E C H
Tlieory. the power does not In the lead: depend upon the fize of
~-v cyiincier FCK, but that it incieafes with the di-
ftance of that point from the centre A, to which the
power is applied, and alfo with the fhortnefs of the di-
llance between the threads. Therefore, if P, p be the
powers applied to two different fcrews, D, d the di-
itances of thefe powers from the axis, and T, t the di-
ftances between the threads; their energy in overcom¬
ing a given refiftance will be diredlly as their diftances
fro'm the axis, and inverfely as the diftances (»f their
, . , • T2 1) d . D
threads, that is, r : ,p- : -, or P vanes as
Prop. II.
135. In the endlefs ferew, there will be an equi¬
librium when the power is to the weight, as the
diftance of the threads multiplied by the radius
of the axle, is to the diltance of the power from
the axis of the ferew multiplied by the radius
of the wheel.
Fig. 12. The endlefs ferew, which is reprefented in fig. 12.
confifts of a ferew EF, fo combined with the wheel and
axle ABC, that the threads of the ferew may work in
teeth fixed in the periphery of the wheel, and thus com¬
municate the power exerted at the handles or winches
P, p. Let W' repreient the power produced by the
ferew at the circumference of the wheel 5 then, by the
laft propofition, P : W7 as the diftance between the
threads is to the diftance of P from the axis of the
ferew •, but (Art. 92.) in the wheel and axle W7: Was
the radius of the axle is to the radius of the wheel \
therefore, by compofilion, P : W as the diftances of the
threads multiplied by the radius of the axle C, is to the
diftance of the poirer P from the axis multiplied by the
radius of the wheel A B.
Prof. Ill,
136. When there is an equilibrium in the ferew,
the velocity of the weight is to the velocity of
the power, as the power is to the weight.
r'£- ii- It is obvious from fig. 11. that while the power de-
feribes the circumference of the circle HBG uniformly,
the weight uniformly rifes through a fpace equal to the
diftance between two adjacent threads ; therefore, the
velocity of the power is to the velocity of the weight as
the diftance between the threads is to the arch deferibed
by the power, that is, (by Art. 133.), as the weight is
to the power.
Prop. IV.
137. To explain the conftru&ion and advantages
* See Phil, of Mr Hunter’s double ferew *.
Tranf. vot.
Ixxi. p. 5s. Let the ferew CD work in the plate of metal BA,
Fig. 13. and have n threads in an inch : the cylinder CD, of
which this ferew is formed, is a hollow tube, which is
alfo formed into a ferew, having «-f-1 threads in an
inch, and into this female ferew is introduced a male
ferew DE, having, of courfe, threads in an inch.
The ferew DE is prevented from moving round with
CD by the frame ABGF and the crofs bar a bt but is
A N I C S. 67
permitted to afeend and defeend without a motion of Theory,
rotation. Then, by a revolution of the ferew CD, " ’"
the other ferew DE will rife through a fpace equal to
and if the circumference deferibed by the
//-f-i X«
lever CK be m inches, we (hall have P : W—     :
  «+iX«
m ; or P : W~i : m « X « T 1 •
138. This reafoning will be more perfpicuous by fup-
pofing «, or the number of threads in CD, to be 12,
and or the number of threads in DE, will confe-
quently be 13. Let us fuppofe that the handle CK is
turned round 12 times, the ferew CD will evidently
afeend through the fpaee of an inch, and if the ferew
DE is permitted to have a motion of rotation along
with CD, it will alfo advance an inch. Let the ferew
DE be now moved backwards by 12 revolutions, it
will evidently deferibe a fpace of 4f of an inch, and
the confequence of both thefe motions will be that the
point E is advanced Th- of an inch. But, fince DE is
prevented from moving round with CD, the fame effeft
will be produced as if it had moved 12 times round
with CD, and had been turned 1 2 times backwards j
that is, it will in both cafes have advanced t't of an
inch. Since, therefore, it has advanced Tt °f an inch
in 12 turns, it will deferibe only of Th-, or ^ of
an inch uniformly at one turn ; but if the length of the
lever CK is 8 inches, its extremity K will deferibe, in
the fame time, a fpace equal to 16 X 3-1416=: ^0.2656
inches, the circumference of the circle deferibed by K j
therefore the velocity of the weight is to the velocity
of the power, as of an inch is to 50.2656 inches,
or as 1 is to 7841.4336, that is, (Art. 136.) P : W
=ri : 7841.4336. Hence the force of this double
ferew is much greater than that of the common ferew,
for a common one with a lever 8 inches long muft have
I 56 threads in an inch to give the fame power, which
would render it too weak to overcome any confiderable
refiftance.
139. Mr Hunter propofes * to conned! with his*
double fcrews, a wheel and a lantern, which are put in T/a/// vol.
motion by a winch or handle. The power of this com-lxxi- P- 65*
pound machine is fo great, that a man, by exerting a
force of 32 pounds at the winch, will produce an effect
of 172100 pounds 5 and if we fuppofe y of this effedt
to be deftroyed by friction, there will remain an effedt
of 57600 pounds.—In fome fcrews it would be advan¬
tageous, inftead of perforating the male ferew CD, to
have two cylindrical fcrews of different kinds at differ¬
ent parts of the lame axis.
Scholium.
140. The ferew is of extenfive ufe as a mechanical
power, when a very great preffure is required, and is very
fuccefsfully employed in the printing prefs. In the prefs
which is ufed for coining money, the power of the ferew
is advantageoufly combined with an impulfive force,
which is conveyed to the ferew by the intervention of
a lever. The ferew is alfo employed for raifing water,
in which form it is called the ferew of Archimedes
(Hydrodynamics, § 328)5 and it has been lately
employed in the flour mills in America for pufhing the
flour which comes from the millftones, to the end of a
long trough, from which it is conveyed to other parts
I 2 of
63
MECHANICS.
Theory.
Plate
(2CCXX.
Fig. x.
of the maclimery, in order to undergo the remaining
precedes. In this cafe, the fpiral threads are very
large in proportion to the cylinder on which they are
fixed.
141. As the lever attached to the extremity of the
ferew moves through a very great fpace when compared
with the velocity of its other extremity, or of any body
which it puts in motion •, the ferew is of iramenfe ufe
in fubdividing any fpace into a great number of minute
parts. Hence it is employed in the engines for dividing
mathematical inftruments, and in thofe which have been
recently ufed in the art of engraving. It is likewife
of great ufe in the common wire micrometer, and in the
divided objeft-glafs micrometer, inftruments to which
the fcience of aftronomy has been under great obliga¬
tions. See Micrometer.
Sect. V. On the Balance.
142. Definition. The balance, in a mathematical
fenfe, is a lever of equal arms, for determining the
weights of bodies.—The phyfical balance is reprefented
in fig. 1. where FA, FB are the equal arms of the ba¬
lance, F its centre of motion fituated a little above the
centre of gravity of the arms, FD the handle which al¬
ways retains a vertical pofition, P, W the fcaies luf-
pended from the points A, B, and CF the tongue or
index of the balance, which is exadlly perpendicular to
the beam AB, and is continued below the centre of
motion, fo that the momentum of the part below F is
equal and oppofite to the momentum of that part which
is above it. Since the handle FD, fufpended by the
hook H, muft hang in a vertical line, the tongue CF will
alfo be vertical when its polition coincides with that of
FD, and confequently the beam AB, which is perpen-
IV. ffl-j-L x AO X Sin.AAO-}-S X OG X Sin.^=,
dicular to CF, muft be horizontal. When this happens,
the weights in the fcale are evidently equal.
Prop. I.
Theory.
143. To determine the conditions of equilibrium Fig. 2>
in a phyfical balance.
Let AOB be the beam, whofe weight is S, and let
P, be equal weights exprefied by the letter /x, and
placed in the fcaies, whofe weights are L and /. Let
O be the centre of motion, and g the centre of gravity
of the whole beam, when unloaded j we fhall have in the
cafe of an equilibrium,
LpHh L X K.Q, — p-\-lxBC + SxCc; for fince S is
the weight of the beam and g its centre of gravity, its
mechanical energy in afting againft the weights /x-f L
is =5 X Cc, the diftance of its centre of gravity from
the vertical line palling through the centre of motion
o.  
II. But fince ACrrEC', /xxAC—^xBC~c.
Then, after tranfpofition, take this from the equation
in N° I. and w7e fhall have,
III. /xBC—Lx AC + SxCc; or L—1~ 8 X Cc
Let
placed
points of fufpenfion will be no longer horizontal, but
will affume an inclined pofition. Let BA/=:<p be the
angle which the beam makes with the direction of gra¬
vity. Then by refolving the weight of the beam which
O G G
a£ts in the direflion O 2;, the parts and —— will be-
Vg Og
in equilibrio, and we ftiall have,
AC °
us now fuppofe that a fmall weight w is
in the fcale L, the line AB which joins the
But fince the fines and cofines of any angles, are the fame as the fines and cofines of their fupplement, wre have.
V. j9+L X ACXCof.p—Ocx Sin.<p+S X OG X Sin.<p=^+/+m x AC x Cof.<p4-OC x Sin.<p-J-S X Ccx Cof.^
Hence by N° III. we have,
w x AC
2/j-j-L-f/-|-mX OC-f S x OG
But the force v, with which the balance at¬
tempts to recover its horizontal fituation, is the excefs
of momenta with which one arm is moved, above
the momenta with which the other arm is moved,
therefore
?;=2yx-}-L-}-/xOC X Sin. <p_j-S X OG X Sin <p.
144. A more extended illuftration of thefe conditions
of equilibrium will be found in an excellent paper by
Euler, publilhed in the Comment. Petropol tom. x. p. 1.
and in another memoir upon the fame fubjeeft by Kuhne
in the Verfuche der natnrforchende gefellckhaft in Dant-
zig, tom. i. p. 1.—See alfo Hennert’s Curfus Mathefeos
appheatee, tom. i. § 123. From the preceding for¬
mulae, the following pradlical corollaries may be de¬
duced.
345. Cor. 1. The arms of the balance muft be ex-
2
VI. Tang. <p
adlly equal in length, which is known by changing the
weights in the fcaies 5 for if the equilibrium continues,
the arms muft be equal.
146. Cor. 2. The fenfibility of the balance increafes
with the length of the arms.
147. Cor. 3. If the centre of motion coincides with
the point C and the centre of gravity, the balance will
be in equilibrio in any pofition, and the fmalleft weight
added to one of the fcaies will bring the beam into a
horizontal pofition. The centre of motion, therefore,
fliould not coincide with the centre of gravity.
14S. Cor. 4. If the centre of motion is in the line
which joins the points of fufpenfion, the accuracy of the
balance will be increafed. The excefs of the weights
may be eafily determined by the inclination of the
beam, pointed out by the tongue or index upon a cir¬
cular arch fixed to the handle, or more accurately by
means of two divided arches fixed near the points of
fufpenfion, on a ftand independent of the balance.
When the value of one of thefe divifions is determined
experimentally, the reft are eafily found, being propor¬
tional to the tangents of the inclination of the beam.
I49*
M E C H
Theory. Cor. 5. The fenfibility of the balance will in-
■—v ' creafe, the nearer that the centre of gravity approaches
to the centre of motion.^
150. Cor. 6. If the centre of gravity is above the
centre of motion, the balance is ufelefs.
Scholium.
151. A balance with all the properties mentioned in
the preceding corollaries, has been invented by M.
Kuhnc’s Kuhne, and defcribed in the work already quoted (Art.
balance. 144.). It is fo contrived that the points of fufpenlion
may be placed either above the centre of motion or be¬
low it, or in the line of its axis : the beam is furnilhed
with an index, which points out the proportion of the
weights upon a divided fcale, and the fridlion of the
axis is diminilhed by the application of friftion wheels.
152. In order to get rid of the difficulties which at¬
tend the conftru&ion of the tongue, the handle, and the
Magellan’s arms of the balance, M. Magellan invented a very ac-
balance. curate and moveable one, in which there is no handle,
and where one of the arms adds as a tongue. The body
to be weighed and the counterpoife are placed in the
fame fcale, fo that it is of little confequence whether
the arms of the balance are equal or not. In this ba¬
lance the centre of motion can be moved to the fmalleft
diflance from the centre of gravity. See Journal de
Phyjlque, Jan. 1781. tom. xvii. p. 43.
Ludlamls 153. The balance invented by Ludlam, and defcribed
balance. in the Philofophical Tranfaddions for 176^, N° 55. de-
rrrvvm Pen^s uPon ALpinus’s property of the lever, which we
fi(r ^ have explained in Art. 65. The angular lever AFB,
in which AF=FB, is moveable round /, which is equi-
diflant from A and B. The weight P is fufpended by
a thread from A, and the body W, which is to be
weighed, is fufpended by a thread from B. Hence it
is obvious, that with different bodies the lever AFB
will have different degrees of inclination, and the index
or tongue LF_/^ which is perpendicular to AB, will
form different angles ZFL, b¥ f with the line of direc¬
tion ZF b. Now, by Art. 57. and by fubftituting for
b¥>,b A. the fines of the angles F B, F £ A, to which
they are proportional, and alfo by taking inftead of
F B the difference of the angles y'FB,yF £, and in¬
ftead of AF b, the fum of thefe angles, we fhall have
P—W AFB
I ang. /F £= p X Tang. ——,
whence, by tranfpofition, and by Geometry, Theor.
VIII. Sea. IV.
P-ffW : P—W=Tang.—-— : Tang-j^F^.
Hence, when the angle formed by the arms of the ba¬
lance, and the angle of aberration f¥ b or ZFL, are
known, the weights may be found, and vice verfa.
Chap. IV. On the Centre of Inertia, or Gravity.
154. Definition.—The centre ofinertia, or the centre
of gravity, of any body or fyftem of bodies, is that point
upon which the body or fyftem of bodies, when influ¬
enced only by the force of gravity, v7ill be in equilibrio
in every pofition. The centre of inertia of plane fur-
faces bounded by right lines, and alfo of fome folids
A N I C S.
may be eafily determined by the common geometry.
The application of the method of fluxions, however, to
this branch of mechanics is fo Ample and beautiful, that
we (hall alfo avail ourfelves of its afliftance. The centre
of gravity has been called, by fome writers, the centre
of pofition, and by others, the centre of mean diftances.
Prop. I.
155. To find the centre of inertia of any number
of bodies, whatever be their pofition.
Let ABCD be any number of bodies influenced by Fig. 4
the force of gravity^ Suppofe the bodies A, B connedr-
ed by the inflexible line AB confidered as devoid of
weight, then find a point F, fo that the weight of A :
the weight of B—BF : FA. The bodies A, B will
therefore be in equilibrio about the point F in every
pofition (Art. 36.), and the preffure upon F will be
equal to A-{-B. Join FC, and find the point f fo that
A-f-B : C~Cf: fF> the bodies A, B, C, will confe-
quently be in equilibrio upon the point f which will
fuftain a preffure equal to A-f-B-f-C. Join Df and
take the point <p, fo that A-f-B-f-C : D~<p D : <pf;
the bodies A, B, C, D will therefore be in equiiibrio
about the point tp, which will be their common centre
of inertia, and which fupports a weight equal to A-j-B
-j-C-J-D. In the fame manner we may find the centre
of inertia of any fyftem of bodies, by merely connedt-
ing the laft fulcrum with the next body by an inflexible
right line, and finding a new fulcrum from the magni¬
tude of the oppofite weights which it is to fuftain.
156. Cor. 1. If the weights of the bodies A, B, C,D
be increafed or diminilhed in a given ratio, the centre of
inertia of the fyftem will not be changed, for the pofi-
tions of the points F,^ <p are determined by the rela¬
tive and not by the abfolute weights of the bodies.
157. Cor. 2. A motion of rotation cannot be com¬
municated to a body by means of a force acting upon its
centre of inertia; for the refiftances which the inertia
of each particle oppofes to the communication of motion
a6t in parallel directions, and as they are proportional to
the weights of the particles, they will be in equilibrio
about the centre of gravity.
Prop. II.
158. To find the centre of inertia of any number
of bodies placed in a ftraight line.
Let A, B, C, D, E be any number of bodies whofe pig. <
common centre of gravity is <p. In the ftraight line A E
take any point X. Then fince all the bodies are in equiii¬
brio about their comtnon centre of gravity p, we have
by the property of the lever (Art 36.) A X ^ <p-f-
B X B C X C <p -f-D ff-D -f- E X E ; but fince X <p
—XAr: A <p, and X tp—XB = B <p, and fo on with the
reft, we have by fubftitution \ x A <p —X A -j-L x
X p -XB= C x X p—XC-f-D x X <p—XD + E x
X <p—XE. Hence by multiplying and tranfpofing,
we obtain A x X fl-f-B x > <P + C x X p -4. L X X <p -f-
E X X <p=A X X A + i> x XB -)-E x XC -J-Z xXD-P
ExXE, then dividing by A-j-B-f C-J-D-f-E, we
70
Theory,
Theory.
MECHANICS.
v A _A X XA+BxXB+C xXd'+I) X XD+Ex^I
^ a+b+c+d+e
Now AxXAj B xXB, &c. are evidently the mo¬
menta of the bodies A, B, &c. and the divifor A-f-B
-J-C-f-D-j-E is the fum of the weights of all the bodies 5
therefore the diftance of the point X from the centre of
gravity <p is equal to the fum of the momenta of all the
weights divided by the fum of the weights.
159. Cor. 1. If the point X had been taken between
A and E, at x for example, then the quantity A X X A
would have been reckoned negative, as lying on a dif¬
ferent lide of the point X. ^
160. Cor. 2. From this propofition we may deduce a
general rule for finding the centre of gravity in any body
or fyftem of bodies. Let any point be affumed at the
extremity of the fyftem, then the product of the mo¬
menta of all the bodies, (or the produft arifing from the
continual multiplication of each body by its diftance from
the point), divided by the fum of the weights of all the
bodies, will be a quotient which expreffes the diftance
of the centre of gravity from the point affumed.
Prop. III.
161. If, in a fyftem of bodies, a perpendicular be
let fall from each upon a given plane, the fum
of the produdls of each body multiplied by its
perpendicular diftance from the plane, is equal
to the fum of all the bodies multiplied by the
perpendicular diftance of their common centre
of inertia from the given plane.
Fig. 6. Let A, B, C be the bodies which compofe the fyf¬
tem, and MN the given plane 5 by Art. 155. find F
the centre of inertia of A and B, and G the centre of
gravity of the three bodies \ and from A, F, B, G, C
draw A a, F/ B£, G^, Cc perpendicular to the plane
MN. Through F draw x F y, meeting A a produced
in x, and BZ> in, y, then in the fimilar triangles AjvF,
ByF, we have A* : ByzrAF : BF, that is, (Art.
155.) as B : A, hence AxAv=rBxBy, that is,
A X * «—A «zrB X B b—yb, or on account of the e-
quality of the lines arn, F_/^B£^Ax Fy£—Aa=r B
X B b F/, therefore, by multiplying and tranfpofing,
we have A-j-B X^/—A X Aa-J-B X B£. In the very
fame way, by drawing G z parallel to the plane, it
may be (hewn that A + B-j-C X G^rzA X A«-f-B
XB^+CxCc. Q.E.D.
162. Cor. By dividing by A-f B-f-C we have
^_AxAfl4-BxB/>+CxCc
A+B+C
Prop. IV.
163. To find the centre of inertia of a ftraight
line, compofed of material particles.
If we confider the ftraight line as compofed of a
number of material particles of the fame fize and den-
fity, it is evident that its centre of inertia will be a
point in the line equidiftant from its extremities. For
if we regard the line as a lever fupported upon its mid¬
dle point as a fulcrum, it will evidently be in equilibrio,
in every pofition, as the number of particles or weights
on each fide of the fulcrum is equal.
Prop. V.
164. To find the centre of inertia of a parallelo¬
gram.
Let ABCD be a parallelogram of uniform denfity, Fig. 7,
bifeft AB in F, and having drawn Ff parallel to AC
or BD, bifeft it in <p 5 the point will be the centre of
inertia of the parallelogram. The parallelogram may¬
be regarded as compofed of lines AB, a b parallel to
one another, and confifting of material particles of the
fame fize and denfity. Now, by Art. 155. the centre of
inertia of A B is F, and the centre of inertia of a ^ is c ;
and in the fame way it may be fhewn that the centre
of inertia, of every line of which the furface is com¬
pofed, lies in the line Yf. But Yf may be confidered
as compofed of a number of material particles of uni¬
form denfity, each being equal in weight to the par¬
ticles in the line AB, therefore, by Art. 165. its centre
of inertia will be in its middle point.
Prop. VI.
165. To find the centre of inertia of a triangle.
Let ABC be a triangle of uniform denfity, and let Fig. 2.
AB, BC be bifefted in'the points E, D. Join CE,
AD, and the point of interfeftion F (hall be the cen¬
tre of inertia of the triangle ABC. The triangle
may be confidered as compofed of a number of parallel
lines of material particles BC, be, $*■'■> but in the
fimilar triangles ADC, Aec; AD : DC= A e : e c,
and in the triangles ADC, ADB, Aeb ; BD : DArz
be \ e A\ hence by compofition BD : Y)C—be \ e c ;
but BD and DC are equal j therefore, b e~e c ; and
the line b c, fuppofed to confift of material particles,
will be in equilibrio about e. In the fame way it may
be (hewn that every other line /3 * will be in equilibri©
about a point fituated in the line AD •, confequently
the centre of gravity is in that line. For the lame rea-
fon it follows, that the centre of gravity is in the line
CE, that is, it will be in F, the point of interfe&ion of
thefe two lines. In order to determine the relation be¬
tween FA and FD, join ED-, then, fince BErrEA,
and BD=DC, BE : EA=BD : DC, and confequent¬
ly, (Geometry, Se£t. IV. Theor. 18.) ED is pa¬
rallel to AC, and the triangles BED, BAG fimilar.
We have, therefore, CA : CBnDE : DB, and by al¬
ternation CA : DEnCB : DB, that is, CA : DE^
2: 1. In the fimilar triangles CFA, DFE, AF : AC—
DF : DE, and by alternation AF : DFzzAC : DE,
that is, AF : DF=2 : 1, or AF=|AD.
166. Cor. 1. By Geometry, Theor. 16. Sett. IV.
we have
ABl+AC1=2BD*-|-2AB,( = 4^C*-f ?AF*
ABl+BC*=2CC» + 2BG2 -f AC»-KCF»
AC*4- BC,= 2AE1 + 2EC1 AB*+1BF*.
By
MECHANICS.
7i
Theory. By adding thefe thre£ equations, and removing the
V'"—"’ fraftions, we have AC2=:3 AF*-f-3CF*
+3 BP, or in any plane triangle, the fum of the fquares
of the three fides is equal to thrice the fum of the
fquares of the diftances of the centre of gravity from
each of the angular points.
167. Cor. 2. By refolving the three quadratic equa¬
tions in the preceding corollary, we obtain AFrrf
AB*+ 2 AC*—EG*; CF^rf^/ 2 B A*-f-2 BC*—
AC*-, and BF=fy/2 BC*-{-2 AC*—ABZ, formulae
which exprefs the diftances of the centre of gravity from
each of the angular points.
Prop. VII.
168. To find the centre of inertia of a trapezium
or any re£Iilineal figure.
Fig. 9. Let ABCDE be the trapezium, and let it be divid¬
ed into the triangles ABC, ACE, ECD by the lines
AC, EC. By the laft propofition find wz, «, 0, the
centres of gravity of the triangles, and take the point
F in the line m n, fo that F « : F /Tzrrtfiangle ABC :
triangle ACE, then F will be the centre of gravity of
thefe triangles. Join F 0, and find a point f, fo that
fo : Yf~ triangle ABC-}-triangle ACE : triangle
CED, then all the triangles will be in equilibrio about
f that is, f is the centre of gravity of the rectilineal
figure ABCDE. The fame method may be employed
in finding the centre of gravity of a trapezium, what¬
ever be the number of its fides.
Prop. VIII.
169. To find the centre of inertia of a pyramid
with a polygonal bafe.
Fig. 10. Let the pyramid be triangular, as A BCD, fig. 10.
Bifeft BD in F, and join CF and FA. Make Ff—
•f- of FC, and F (pzz f of FA, and draw f p. It is evi¬
dent, from Art. 159. that f is the centre of gravity of
the triangular bafe BCD, and that the line AF, which
joins the vertex and the point f will pafs through the
centre of gravity of all the triangular laminae or fec-
tions of the pyramid parallel to its bafe ABC ; for, by
taking any fedtion bed, and joining c m, it may be
eafily (hewn, that b m—m d, and m n—±m c, fo that n
is the centre of gravity of the fedlion bed. It fol¬
lows, therefore, that A f will pafs through the centre
of gravity of the pyramid. In the fame way it may be
fliewn, by confidering ABD as the bafe, and D the
vertex, and making F frifFA, that the centre of gra¬
vity lies in the line C. But, as the lines Af <p C lie
in the plane of the triangle AFC, they muft interfedl
each other ; and therefore the point of interfedlion
H will be the centre of inertia of the triangular pyra¬
mid. Now, fince Fy=rfFC, and F <p—j-FA, we have
F <p : FAzrF/: FC, therefore (Geometry, Theor. 8.
SedL IV.) (p/is parallel to AC. The triangle <pfYL
will confequently be fimilar to AHC, and H <p : HC
r=H HA—/(p : AC—I : 3 ; therefore H <p—fHC
=£<p C, and/H=sf AH=4A f
170. When the pyramid has a polygonal bafe, it
may be conceived to be formed of a number of triangular
pyramids, whofe centres of inertia will be in one plane
parallel to the bafe. Their common centre of gravity
will therefore be in the fame plane, and in the line
drawn from the vertex to the centre of gravity of all
the triangles which compofe the bafe j the diftance'of
the centre of gravity, therefore, from the vertex, will
be equal to three-fourths of the altitude of the py¬
ramid.
171. Cor. t. Hence it is obvious, that the centre of
gravity of a right cone is a point in its axis, whofe di-
ftance from the vertex is equal to three-fourths of the
length of the axis ; for as this may be demonftrated of
a pyramid whofe bafe is a polygon, with an infinite
number of fides, it muft hold alfo of a right cone
which may be confidered as a pyramid of this deferip-
tion.
172. Cor. 2. By proceeding as in Art. 160. it
will be found, that in a triangular pyramid, the di-
ftance of any of the vertices from its centre of iner¬
tia, is equal to one-foUrth of the fquare root of the
difference of thrice the fum of the fquares of the three
edges which meet at that Vertex, and the fum of the
fquares of the other three edges ;—and likewife, that
the fum of the fquares of the diftances of the centre of
inertia from the vertices of any triangular pyramid,
is equal to one-fourth of the fum of the fquares of the
fix edges of the pyramids. A demonftration of thefe
theorems may be feen in Gregory’s Mechanics, vol. i.
p. 59, 60.
Theory.
173. In order to fhew the application of the doc¬
trine of fluxions to the determination of the centre of
inertia of curve lines, areas, folids, and the far faces ir_
of folids, let ABC be any curve line whofe axis is BR.
Then, finee the axis bifefts all the ordinates DG, AC,
each of the ordinates, confidered as compofed of mate¬
rial particles, will be in equilibrio about their points of
bifedftion E, R ; and therefore the centre of inertia of
the body will lie in the axis. But, if we confider the
body as compofed of a number of fmall weights D dg G,
we ftiall find its centre of inertia by multiplying each
weight by its diftance from any line parallel to the or¬
dinates, and dividing the fum of all thefe produfts by the
fum of all the particles, Art. 158. Thus, let x denote the
diftance EB, then its fluxion x will be the breadth of
the element or fmall weight D dg G, and x X DG will
reprefent the weight, and the fluent of this quantity will
be the fum of all the weights. Again, if we multiply the
weight x x DG by v—EB its diftance from the point B,
we fhall have the momentum of that weight ~xX x X
DG, and the fluent of this quantity will exprefs the fum
of the momenta of all the weights into which the body is
divided. But, by Art. t 58. the diftance of the centre of
gravity from a given point B is equal to the fum of all
the momenta divided by the fum of all the weights or
bodies, that is, if F be the centre of gravity of the
body ABC, we have FB=
fluent of x X x DG
fluent of .r X DG
calling y the ordinate DE, we have DG —23/, and FB
fluent of x 2 11 x fluent of xi/ x .
~ or FB= y— in the cafe
fluent of 2y x fluent y x
of areas.
174. In the cafe of folids generated by rotation, the
element or fmall wTcight F x x UCr will be a circular
fe&iom
Fig. ir.
Fig. 12.
M E C H
fe&ion, '\vliofe diameter is 2DE=r2.y, and fince the
area of a circle is equal to its circumference multiplied
by its diameter, we have (making ?r“3.i4i6) livy' x,
rrthe circular feflion whofe diameter is DG ; and iince
# X in y* x, or m x yzxf will reprefent the momentum
r , • ! n 1, i T-n fluent of 2 7T X 7/* X
oi the weight, we thall have r lj= ,
fluent of 2 5r y1 x
and dividing by 2 7ry, we have FB——Uent
fluent o{ y x
175. In finding the centre of inertia of the furfaces
of folids, the elements or fmall weights are the circum¬
ferences of circles, whofe radii are the ordinates of the
curve by whofe revolution the folid is generated. Now,
the furface of the folid may be conceived to be gene¬
rated by the circumference of a circle increafing gra¬
dually from B towards A and C ; making 2 therefore
equal to BD, its fluxion ss multiplied into the peri¬
phery of the circle ivhofe diameter is DG, that is,
2 tt y ‘z will exprefs the elementary furface or fmall
weight whofe diameter is DG. Then, fince xy,2 7r y
or 2 7? x y will be the momentum of the elementary
. . , n 11 1 -p'T> fluent of 2 tv x y z ,
Weight, we mail have hB=r J . , and di-
fluent of 2 7r y %
.... , . fluent oi x y %
vidmg by 2 5r we obtain rB—  ——.
fluent oiy z
176. If the body, whofe centre of inertia is to be
found, be a curve line, as GBD, then it is manifefl that
the fmall weights will be expreffed by the fluxion of
GBD, that is, by 2 •%, fince GBDrr 2 BD=2 « ; con-
fequently their momenta will be 2 x x, and we fliall
fluent 2X z fluent x z fluent x z
have FB=r.
fluent 2 z fluent a
Prop. IX.
177. To find the centre of inertia of a circular
fegment.
Let AE=rAr, FC=y, and AD the radius of the cir¬
cle =R, confequently ME=:2 R—EA. Then, fince
by the property of the circle (Geometry, Theor. 28.
Sedt. IV.) MExEA—BE*, we have, by fubftitution,
BE* = 2 R x EA—EA x EA, or y* = 2R » —x* j
hence y=\/2 R x—,v*. Now, by Art. 174. we have
the diftance of the centre of gravity from A, that is,
fluent x y x .
AG= . ; but the fluent of y x or the fum of
fluent y x
all the weights, is equal to the area of half the feg¬
ment ABEC *, therefore AG~
fluent x y x
Then, by
_ 4BEC
fubftituting inftead of y, in this equation, the value of
it deduced from the property of the circle, we have
. ^ fluent of x x Jr B x—x* .
AG=r   AirEC  ’ or’ m or^er to
GD the diftance of the centre of gravity from the cen¬
tre, we muft fubftitute inftead of x (without the
A N I C S.
vinculum) its value R—x, and we have GD = fluent Theory.
(R—Jc)a*(2RA:—v*) . ^ e—
.LABEd “• Now, in order to find the
fluxion of the numerator of the preceding fradlion, af-
fume 2;:=2R *—**, and %^f—J2 R 2—^*, and by tak¬
ing the fluxion, we have ssn 2 R x—2xx~2\{^2x x x j
but this quantity is double tif the firft term of the nu¬
merator, therefore ^zrR—at x By fubftituting thefe
values in the fraftional formula, wTe obtain GDrrfluent
, • *t v/—-wll-
2 3.3
we have, by raifing both fides to the third power,
, but fince y— 2B.X—xx'£
2 R x—x x \ : therefore GD=—tt — — ^ -
? 4ABEC 4ABEC
^ 2
~^ g 0, that is, the diftance of the centre of gravi¬
ty of a circular fegment from the centre of the circle, is
equal to the twelfth part of the cube of twice the ordi¬
nate, (or the chord of the fegment) divided by the area
of the fegment.
178. Cor. When the fegment becomes a femicircle
> r')3
we have 2 7j—2 r ; and therefore zr GD—--4 - ■■■ —
3 ABEC
(2r)*   8x?'3 r* . .
12 ABEC 12 AiiEC~ 14ABEC’ that IS’ the dlf'
tance of the centre of gravity of a femicircle from the
centre of the femicircle, is equal to the cube of the ra¬
dius, divided by one and a half times the area of the
fegment.
Prop. X.
179. To find the centre of inertia of the fedfor of
a circle.
Let ABDC be the fedlor of the circle. By Art. 157.
find m the centre of inertia of the triangle BCD, and
by the laft propofition find G the centre of inertia of
the fegment *, then take a point n fo fituated between
G and m, that ABEC : BCBrzwz n : G n, then the
point n will be the centre of gravity of the fedlor.—
By proceeding in this way, it will be found that D ny
or the diftance of the centre of gravity of the fedlor
from the centre of the circle, is a fourth proportional t«
the femiarc, to the femichord, and to two-thirds of the
radius.
Prop. XL
180 To find the centre of inertia of a plane fur¬
face bounded by a parabola whofe equation is
y—a x>7.
Since y~a xK, multiply both terms by x xy and x fe-
paratcly, and we have y x xzza x+* x, and y x—a xn x.
But, by Art. 174. we have FB--Uent °f there-
fluent y x
fore, by fubftituting the preceding values of x y x and
• f! PTlt of // /Y? 77“I"'1 V
yx in the formula, we obtain FEzz— —,
fluent of a xn x
and
M E C FI A N I C S.
Theory, and by taking the fluents it becomes
* ax +*
Fig. 12.
FB=r
n 2 a i
« atH-1 n-\- 2
n~hI
X *•
and
FB=
2 a —2
a* y'n U'
2/2 + 1
2/Z + 2
X
When n—\, the folid becomes a common parabo¬
loid, and we obtain FBrr| ;r.
When n—\, the folid becomes a cone, and FB
as in Art. 171.
Prop. XIII.
182. To find the centre of gravity of a fpherical
furface or zone, comprehended between two
parallel planes, or of the fpherical furface of
any fpherical fegment*
Let BMNC be a feftion of the fpherical furface
comprehended between the planes BC, MN, and let
EP=a?, EC—y, DCrzR, and a rr the arc CN. Sup-
pofe the abfcifla EP to inereafe by the fmall quantity
E 0, draw 0 r parallel to EC, C r parallel to E 0, and
C r perpendicular to DC 5 then it is evident, that in
the fimilar triangles CDE, Cv r, EC : DCzrC s :
C r, that is, ij : Rt=C r : C r ; but C r is the flux¬
ion of the arc NC, and C r the fluxion of the abfcif-
fa PE 5 therefore y : Rzr.v : 55, and zyrzR x, and a
  R * XT , . fluent oi x 11 % ,
= . Now, by Art. 17 c. FB=   ^—
y fluent o{ x y %
therefore, by fubftituting the preceding value of ss
Vol. XIII. Part I.
in this formula, we obtain FB—
fluent of R x x
fluent of R a;
R .v .v 2;
Ft AC «
R v x x %
If n, therefore, be equal to then y=® arid,
fquaring both Tides, if—a* x, which is the equation of
the common or Apollonian parabola. Hence, F.3—
^ x, that is, the diltance of the centre of gravity from
the vertex is -l-ths of the axis.
When n is equal to 1, then y~a x, and the para¬
bola degenerates into a triangle, in which cafe FB
rzy.v, as in Art. 165.
Prop. XII.
181. To find the centre of inertia of a folid, ge¬
nerated by the revolution of the preceding curve
round its axis.
Since y=o xn, fquare both fides, and we have y2—
m2x2n ; then multiply both fides by x x, and x feparate-
ly, we obtain y*xxzza2x2n-\-tx, and y2x—a2 a?1® x. But,
, . , fluent of w* a; a; , .
by Art. 174. we have r B—  —r-; therefore,
fluent of y2Af
by fubftituting the preceding values of y2x x, and if x
. r , , . „„ fluent of a2x2n-\'2x
m that formula, we obtain rBzz .,
fluent of a2x2nx
by taking the fluents we ftiall have
a2x2n-V2x
2/2 + 1
R y a; a
r (and dividing by y 2):
Rata?
for
By
73
Theory.
y
R a;*
taking the fluents wre obtain FB=r 4- 'jfTT—^ x’ a
which requires no correftion, as the other quantities’
vamih at the fame time with x.
183. When DP is equal to DC, the folid becomes
a fpherical fegment, and EA becomes the altitude
of the fegment, fo that universally the centre of gra¬
vity of the fpherical furface of a fpherical fegment
is in the middle of the line which is the altitude of the
fegment, or in the middle of the line which joins the
centres of the two circles that bound the fpherical
fegment.
184. When the fpherical fegment is a hemifpheroid,
the centre of gravity of its hemifpherical furface is ob-
vioufly at the diftance of one-half the radius from its
centre.
Prop. XIV.
185;. To find the centre of gravity of a circular
arc.
Let BAG be the circular arc, it is required to Fig. 13.
find its centre of inertia, or the diftance of the cen¬
tre of inertia of the half arc AC from the diameter
HG ; for it is evident, that the line which joins the
centres of gravity of each of the femiarcs AB, AC
muft be parallel to HG, and therefore the diftance of
their common centre of gravity, which muft be in that
line, from the line HG, will be equal to the diftance of
the centre of gravity of the femiarc from the fame line. '
Make PC—DE—a; ; EC=y; DC=DA=R, and AC
rrs;, then it may be ftiewn, as in the laft propofition,
that y : Rzza: : z ; hence % y=R x. But, by Art. 176.
. fluent of w 55 , . ... r ,
we have I B—   , y being in this cale equal
to x in the formula in Art. 176. and fubftituting the
. r • . t fluent of Ra?
preceding value 01 y as, it becomes rB= ,
R 9C
and, taking the fluent, we have FB=-^—, which re¬
quires no corredtion, as the fluent of y sz vaniflies at the
fame time with x. Calling </, therefore, the diftance
of the centre of inertia of the arc BAC from the cen-
R x
tre D, we have 2/— , and d zzzR x : hence z : x
z
zrR : 2/, or 2 Z : 2A:=rR : 2/, that is, the diftance of
the centre of inertia of a circular arc from the centre
of the circle is a fourth proportional to the arc, the
chord of the arc, and radius.
186. When the arc BAC becomes a femicircle, PC
or x is equal to DG or radius, fo that we have
2 2; : 2 R=R ; 2/, or 4 Z : 4 R=R : d; but 4 2; is
equal to the whole circumference of the circle, and 4 R
K ‘ is
74
M E C H A N I C S.
Theory.
* Mathe¬
matical
DiZ/ei ta-
tionr,
p. 109.
Pofition of
the centre
of jnertia in
bodies of
various
forms.
is equal to twice the diameter; therefore, 3,141593 : 2
rr ft : d; hence —  —.65662 R.
3'141S93
187. When y is equal to 2R, or when the arc ABC
becomes equal to the whole circumference of the circle,
R # .
x vaniihes, and is o, and therefore —— — o, which
fltews, that the centre of inertia coincides with the cen¬
tre of the circle.
Scholium I.
188. From the fpecimens which the preceding pro-
pofltions contain of the application of the formulae in
Articles 173, 174, I75> I7^» t^ie reader will find no
difficulty in determining the centre of inertia of other
fur faces and folids, when he is acquainted with the equa¬
tion of the curves by which the furfaces are bounded,
and by whofe revolution the folids are generated.
A knowledge of the nature of thefe curves, how¬
ever, is not abfolutely necefl'ary for the determination
of the centres of inertia of furfaces and folids. A me¬
thod of finding the centre of gravity, without employ¬
ing the equation of the bounding curves, was difcover-
ed by our countryman, Mr Thomas Simfon *. It was
afterwards more fully illuftrated by Mr Chapman, in
his work on the Conftru&ion of Ships ; by M. Le-
veque, in his tranflation of Don George Juan’s Trea-
tife on the Conftru£tion and Management of Veffels ;
and by M. Prony, in his Architeklure Hydraulique,
tom. i. p. 93. to which we mull refer fuch readers as
with to profecute the fubjedt.
Scholium II.
189. As it is frequently of great ufe to know the po¬
fition of the centre of inertia in bodies of all forms, we
ffiall collefl all the leading refults which might have
been obtained, by the method given in the preceding
propofitions.
1. The centre of inertia of a ftraight line is in its
middle point.
2. The centre of inertia of a parallelogram is in the
interfeftion of its diagonals.
3. The centre of inertia of a triangle is diftant from
its vertex two-thirds of a line drawn from the vertex
to the middle of the oppofite fide.
4. The centre of inertia of a circle, and of a regular
polygon, coincides with the centres of thefe figures.
5. The centre of inertia of a parallelopiped is in
the interfeftion of the diagonals joining its oppofite
angles.
6. The centre of inertia of a pyramid is diftant from
its vertex three-fourths of the axis.
7. The centre of inertia of a right cone is in a point
in its axis whofe diftance from the vertex is three-fourths
of the axis.
8. In the fegment of a circle, the centre of inertia is
diftant from the centre of the circle a twelfth part of
the cube of the chord of the fegment divided by the
area of the fegment,
or d~
|C_3
A ’
where </ the dif¬
tance of the centre of inertia from the centre of the
circle, C = the chord of the fegment, and A its
axis.
9. In the leflor of a circle, the centre of inertia is Theory.
diftant from the centre of the circle, by a quantity ""■v’——
which is a fourth proportional to thefemiarc, the iemi-
chord, and two-thirds of the radius..
10. In a fpherical furface or zone, comprehended
between two planes, the centre of inertia is in the mid¬
dle of the line which joins the centres of the two circu¬
lar planes by which it is bounded. When one of the
circular planes vaniflies, the fpherical zone becomes
the fpherical furface of a fpherical fegment; there¬
fore,
11. In.a fpherical furface of a fpherical fegment, the
centre of inertia is in the middle of its altitude or ver-
fed fine ; confequently,
12. The centre of inertia of the furface of a com¬
plete fphere coincides with the centre of the fphere.
13. In a fpherical fegment, the centre of inertia
is diftant from the vertex by a quantity equal to
4 a—3 x ...
y X*, where a is the diameter of the fphere,
6 a—4 x r 7
and x the altitude or verfed fine of the fegment.
Hence,
14. The centre of inertia of a hemifphere is diftant
from its vertex by a quantity equal to five-eighths of
the radius, or it is three-eighths of the radius diftant
from the hemifphere ; and,
15. The centre of inertia of a complete fphere coin¬
cides with the centre of the fphere.
16. In a circular arc the centre of inertia is diftant
Rtf
from its centre by a quantity equal to  , where R is
the radius, x the femichord, and « the femiarc.
Hence,
17. In a femicircular arc the centre of inertia is dif¬
tant from its centre .63662 R, and,
18. The centre of inertia of the circumference of a
circle coincides with the centre of the circle.
19. In a circular feftor the centre of inertia is dif-
2 R.
tant from the centre of the circle , where R is the
3 a
radius, a the arc, and c its chord.
20. In a fpherical fedlor, compofed of a cone and
a fpherical fegment, the centre of inertia is diftant
from the vertex of the fegment by a quantity equal to
2 R 4-3 tf
8
where R is radius, and x the altitude or
verfed fine of the fegment.
21. In an ellipfis the centre of inertia coincides with
the centre of the figure.
22. The centre of inertia of an oblate and prolate
fpheroid, folids generated by the revolution of an el-
lipfe round its lefler and its greater axis refpeflively,
coincides with the centres of the figures.
23. In the fegment of an oblate fpheroid the centre
of inertia is diftant from its vertex by a quantity equal to
—~ X where m h the leffer axis, or axis of rota-
6 m—4*
tion, and x the altitude of the fegment. Hence,
24. In a hemifpheroid the centre of inertia is diftant
from its vertex five-eighths of the radius.
35. The centre of inertia of the fegment of a prolate
fpheroid
M E C H
fplierold is diftant from its vertex by a quantity equal to
4 n 3 * ^ -where « is the greater axis, or axis of ro-
6 m—4 fc
tation.
26. In the common or Apollonian parabola, the dif-
tance of the centre of inertia from its vertex is three-
fifths of the axis.
27. In the cubical parabola the diftance of the cen¬
tre of inertia from its vertex is four-fevenths of the axis,
in the biquadratic parabola five-ninths of the axis, and
in the furfolid parabola fix-elevenths of the axis.
28. In the common femiparabola, the diflance of its
centre of gravity from the centre of gravity of the whole
parabola, in the direftion of the ordinate pa fling through
that centre, is | of the greateft mdinate._
29. In the common paraboloid, the diftance of the
centre of inertia from its axis, is equal to of the
.kj»
30. In the common hyperboloid, the diftance of the
centre of inertia from the vertex is equal
4 n-f- 3 a:
X*,
6 o-f-4x
where a is the tranfverfe axis of the generating hyper¬
bola, and x the altitude of the folid.
31. In the fruftum of a paraboloid, the diftance of
the centre of inertia from the centre of the fmalleft
circular end is
2R,-f>
X —, where h is the diftance
4
between the centres of the circles which contain the
paraboloidal fruftum, R the radius of the greater circle,
and r the radius of the lelfer circle.
3 2. In a conic fruftum or truncated cone, the dif¬
tance of the centre of inertia from the centre of the
fmalleft circular end is
3RI-f-2Rr-{-r1 h
X — which re-
4
R*-f-Rr-f-r*
prefents the diftance between the centres of the circles
which contain the fruftum, and R, r the radii of the
circles.
33. The fame formula is applicable to any regular
pyramid, R and r reprefenting the fides of the two
polygons by which it is contained.
Prop. XIV.
190. If a quantity of motion be communicated to
a fyftem of bodies, the centre of gravity of the
fyftem will move in the fame dire£Uon, and
with the fame velocity, as if all the bodies were
collected in that centre, and received the fame
quantity of motion in the fame dire&ion.
Let A, B, C be the bodies w'hich compofe the
fyftem, and let F be the centre of gravity of the bodies
B, C, andy the centre of gravity of the whole fyftem,
as determined by Art. 1 55. Then if the body A re¬
ceives fuch a momentum as to make it move to a in a
fecond, join F a, and take a point <p fo that F ® a—
Yf:fa, <p will now be the centre of gravity of the
fyftem, yip the path of that centre will be parallel
to A a, and f <p will be to A « as B is to A-f-B-j-C.
Let the fame quantity of motion be now communicated
to B, fo as to make it deferibe the fpace B in a fe-
cood •, and having drawn <p G parallel to B b, take a
point G, fo that <p G : E £<—B : A-f-B-f-C, and G
will be the centre of gravity of the bodies after B has
A N I C S.
moved to in the fame it may be found, that H 'Hw
will be the common centre of gravity of the bodies
after the fame quantity ot motion has been communi¬
cated to C in the direction C c. Now it the quantity of
motion which was communicated to A, B, C feparately
had been communicated to them at the fame inllant,
they would have been found at the end of a fecond in
the points a, b, c, and l heir centre of gravity would have
been the point H. Let us now fuppofe the three
bodies eolledfted in their common centre of gravity J\
the body at F will be equal to A-j-B-f-C, and if the
fame quantity of motion which made A move to a
in a fecond be communicated to the body at f and in
the fame direction, it will be found fomewhere in the
line/> at the end ot a fecond. But as the quantity of
motion is equal to the produdt of the velocity of the
body multiplied by its quantity of matter, the velo¬
cities are inverfely as the quantities of matter, and con-
fequently the velocity of the body at f is to A’s velo¬
city as A is to A -f-B-j-C, that is, as is to A a ;
therefore A a and f <p are delcribed by A and by the
body at f in equal times, and the body at f will be
found at <p at the end of a fecond. In the fame w7ay it
may be ftrewn, that the body at f will be found at G
if it receives the fame momentum that was given to B,
and in the fame diredlion, and that it will be found at
H after it has received the momentum that was com¬
municated to C, confequently if it received all thefe
momenta at the fame inftant, it would have deferibed
/H in a fecond. (^. E. I).
191. Cor. t. Ii the bodies of a fyftem move uni¬
formly in right lines, their common centre of gravity will
either be at reft, or move uniformly in a right line. For
if the momenta communicated to the bodies A, B, C
were communicated to a body at yizrA-f-B-f-C, it will
either remain at reft or move uniformly in a ftraight
line. See Newton's Principia, I. Seel III. Cor. 1.
192. Cor. 2. The centre of gravity of any fyftem is Fig. 14.
not affedled by the mutual adlion of the bodies which
compofe it. For let B and C be two bodies whofe
common centre of gravity is F ; and let the points /3,
be taken, fo that B/3 : C *=: C : B, the fpaees B /3,
C * will reprefent the mutual aft ion of the bodies B,
C, that is, B /3 will reprefent the aftion of C upon B,
or the motion which is the refult of that aftion, and Cx.
the aftion of B upon C, or the motion which refults
from it. Then, fince F is the common centre of gra¬
vity of B and C, we have (Art. I5<;.) B : C=:FC :
FB, but B : C=C * : B /3, therefore' FC : FE=C * :
B /3 ; but C * is a magnitude taken from FC, and B ,4
is a magnitude taken from FB, confequently (Playfair’s
Euclid, Book V. Prop. 19.) the remainder * F : /3 F
—FC : F B, that is, * F : /3 F=B : C, that is, (Art.
155.) the point F continues to be the centre of gra¬
vity notwithftanding the aftion of the bodies B, C. If
the fyftem is compofed of feveral bodies, the fame thing
may be proved of every two of the bodies, and confe¬
quently of the whole fyftem. See D'Alembert's Dynct-
miqne, Art. 76. and Nezvton's Principia, I. Stft. III.
Cor. 4.
Prop. XV.
193. If a body is placed upon a horizontal plane,
or fufpended by two threads, it cannot be in
K 2 equilibri®
76
MECHANICS.
Thgorv- i equilibrio unlefs a perpendicular drawn from
the centre of gravity to the horizontal plane,
or to a horizontal line pafling through the two
threads, fall within the bafe of the body, or
upon that part of the horizontal line which lies
between the threads.
194. 1. Let ABCD be a body placed in the horizon¬
tal plane CD, G its centre of gravity, and GE a per¬
pendicular drawn to the horizontal line DE. Then the
whole matter of the body ABCD may be conceived
as united in its centre of gravity G, and as its tendency
downwards is in the vertical line GE, it can delcend
only by turning round the point C as a centre. Here
then we have a body G placed at the end of a lever
GC whole fulcrum is C, and its power to turn round
C is reprefented by the quantity of matter in G multi¬
plied by the perpendicular CE, let fall from the ful¬
crum upon its line of diredlion *, and as there is no
force to counterbalance this, the body G, and confe-
quently the body ABCD, will fall by turning round C.
W hen the vertical line GE coincides with GC, EC
vanithes, and the weight of the body concentrated at
G has no powrer to turn the lever round C, but is fup-
ported upon the fulcrum C. When the vertical line
GE, (by fome writers called the line of direciion), falls
within the bafe CD, it is obvious that the weight at
G has no influence in producing a motion round C or
D, but is employed in prefling the body upon the ho¬
rizontal plane ED.
Fig. 16. 195. 2. Let the body ACBD be fufpended at the
points f, cp by the threads A f, h! <p, and let G be the cen¬
tre of gravity of the body. Join G <p, Cf draw f <p paral¬
lel to the horizon, and through G draw’ ti 0 parallel to
/$>• Continue h f //<p to 0 and «, and draw G i perpen¬
dicular to ftp, the body AB cannot be in equilibrio un¬
lefs the point i falls upon the horizontal line f cp which
palfes through the threads. It is obvious that the centre
of gravity can never change its diltance from the fixed
points of fufpenfion ftp if therefore the body is not in
«<quilibrio, its centre of gravity mull defcend either to¬
wards m or n; let it defcend towards tn till it refls at the
point y then yf—fG ; but ytp is greater than G <p (Eu¬
clid, Book I. Prop. 7.) which is abfurd, therefore the
point G cannot defcend, that is, the body is in equili¬
brio. It may be Ihewn in the fame way, that it will
be in equilibrio when G is any where between n and 0,
that is, when the perpendicular let fall from G cuts the
horizontal line f tp that lies between the threads. If
the body be fufpended by the two threads HE, hf{o
that the perpendicular G i falls without the line fY,
the body is not in equilibrio, for the centre of gravity
G afting at the end of the lever GF tends to turn round
F with a power equal to G X Gm, it will therefore de¬
fcend, and as its diftance from f cannot change, the
point f w'ill rife, and the thread f h w'ill be relaxed.
When G arrives at m the perpendicular G m vanilhes,
and G has no power to turn round F. The body AB
therefore cannot be in equilibrio till the perpendicular
G i falls within fY, which it does as foon as it arrives
al m.
196. Cor. t. If a body is placed upon an inclined
plane, fiippofed without fri&ion, it will Aide down the
plane ’ hen th- Hue of direction falls within its bafe,
and will roil down when this line falls without the bafe.
z
'this is the reafon why a fphere or cylinder rolls down Them
an inclined plane ; for as they touch the plane only in -V”
one point or line, the line of direction mult aBvays fall
without the bafe.
197. Cor. 2. I he higher the centre of gravity of Fig. 17.
a body is, the more eafily will it be overturned. For
if ABCD be the body whofe centre of gravity is F,
and if any force be employed to move it round C as a
fulcrum, the power with which it will refill this force
is inverfely as ICj then, if the centre of gravity is
raifed to ffC will be greater than FC, and the
power with which it refills being overturned is dimi-
nilhed, that is, the body is the more eafily overturned
the higher that its centre of gravity is placed.
198. Cor. 3. If a body be fufpended by one thread,
it will not be at relt unlefs its centre of gravity is in
the diredflion of the thread produced, for when the.
two threads hf, h’ tp approach fo near each other as to
coincide with the fingle thread HE, the point i mull
in the cafe of an equilibrium fall upon F, and the lines
G 1, GF mult coincide with m F ; but HF and in F
are both perpendicular to the horizontal Wr\t j tp, there¬
fore the centre of gravity G is in the direction of the
thread HF.
199. Cor. 4. If the bodies A, B, C, fig. 18. be fu-Fig. iB,
fpended by any point F from the hook H, they will
not be in equilibrio unlefs their common centre of gra¬
vity G is in the vertical line FG pafling through the
point of fufpenfion j and in fig. 19. the bodies A, B Fig. 1^.
connetled by the bent rod AFB will not be in equi¬
librio unlefs their common centre of gravity G is in a
vertical line pafling through F, the point in which the
fyltem rells upon the plane CD.
Scholium.
200. We have feen in the preceding propofition and Different
corollaries, the pofition which mult be given to the centre kinds of
of gravity in order to procure an equilibrium. It
evident, however, that though the bodies are neeefiari-
ly at relt, yet they have different degrees of liability,
depending on the pofition of the centre of gravity with
regard to the centre of motion. Hence bodies are faid
to have a liable equilibrium when their centre of gra¬
vity cannot move without afeending, or when the path
deferibed by their centre of gravity has its concavity
upwards •,—a tottering equilibrium when the centre of
gravity cannot move without deicending, or when the
path which it deferibes has its concavity downwards,—
and a neutral equilibrium when the body will reft in any
pofition. Thus in fig. 20. if the veflels A, B have their Fig. *•,
handles fo placed that in the one the handle A is fixed
above the centre of gravity^, and in the other the handle
B is fixed below the centre of gravity g, then the equi¬
librium of A will be liable, and that of B tottering j
for if A is held by the handle it will require a coniider-
able force to make its centre of gravity delcribe the path
tn n, whereas the fmallell force will deilroy the equili¬
brium of B. The veffel A, too, has a conllant tenden¬
cy to recover its equilibrium, and always recovers it
as foon as the difturbing force is removed, but the vef¬
fel B has no tendency to do this even when its equili¬
brium is affcfled in the fmallefl degree. For the fame Fig. *r.
reafon the elliptical body A, when rtfting on the extre¬
mity of its conjugate axis, has a liable equilibrium, but
when relting on its tranfverfe axis as at B, its equilibri¬
um
M E C H
Theory. Um is tottering. The equilibrium of a circle or fphere
is always neutral, for when it is difturbed, the body has
neither a tendency to fall nor to refume its former iitua-
Fig. 22. tion.—A flat body A fupported by a fphere B will
have its equilibrium liable when its centre of gravity is
nearer the point of contact than the centre of the fphere
is, and the equilibrium of C will be tottering when its
centre of gravity is farther diflant from the furface of
the fphere D than the centre of the fphere is.
Prop. XVI.
i. To find the centre of inertia mechanically.
Mechanical 201. If the body whofe centre of inertia is to be
method of fotmci can be fufpended by a thread, then when the bo-
^ dy is in equilibrio, the centre of gravity will be fome-
gravity. where in the line, prolonged if neceflary, that is form¬
ed by the thread upon the furface of the body. Let a
body be again fufpended from another part of its fur¬
face, fo that the direction of the thread may be nearly
at right angles to its former direction, then as the centre
of gravity mult alfo be in the new direftion of the
thread prolonged, it will be in the point where thefe
two lines interfect each other.
202. 2. If the body is of fuch a kind that it cannot
be conveniently fufpended, balance it upon two (harp
points, and its centre of motion will be fomewhere in
the line which joins thefe points. Balance it a fecond
time upon the {harp points, fo that the line which joins
the points may be nearly at right angles to the former
line. The' interfeftion of thefe two lines will be the
centre of inertia of the body.
203. 3. If the body is fo flexible that it can neither
be fufpended by a thread nor balance upon points, then
let a thin board be balanced upon the points as be¬
fore, and let the body be fo placed upon this board
when balanced, that the equilibrium may Hill continue j
then, having found the centre of gravity of the board
when loaded with the body, the centre of gravity of
the body will be a point on its furface exaftly oppofite
to that centre. ,
204. The preceding method, however, only gives us
the centre of gravity when the body has no fenfible
thicknefs, for when it is of three dimenlions, the centre
of gravity mull be fomewhere between the two oppofite
furfaces.
205. Definition.—The centro-baryc method is the me¬
thod of determining the areas of furfaces, and the con¬
tents of folids, bv confidering them as generated by mo¬
tion, and by employing the laws of the centre of gravity.
Prop. XVII.
Centro- 206 If any ftraight or curve line, or any plane
thod of16" Surface bounded by ftraight or curve lines re-
Guldinus. volve round an axis fituated in the fame plane
with the lines or furfaces, the furface or folid
thus generated will be refpe£Hvely equal to a
furface or folid whofe bafe is equal to the
given line or furface, and whofe height is equal
to the arc deferibed by the centre of gravity of
the generating line or fmface.
fig- 23* Let A BCD be the plane furface by whofe revolu¬
tion round the axis MPN is generated the folid a D,
A N I C vS.
contained by the parallelograms ABCD, abed, and
by the areas a AC c, b BD d, and a AB b, c CD d 5 let
G be the centre of gravity of ABCD, then the folid
a D (hall be equal to a folid whofe bafe is ABCD, and
whofe altitude is a line equal to G^, the fpace deferib¬
ed by its centre of gravity G. It is evident from
Art. 161. that the fum of the produdls of all the
particles of the furface ABCD, multiplied by their
refpe£tive diltances from any given point P, is equal
to the fum of all the particles multiplied by the
diftance of their common centre of gravity G from the
fame point P. Now every particle of the furface
ABCD, during its revolution round the point P, will
obvioully deferibe the arch of a circle proportional to
the diitance of that particle from the point P, which is
the centre of all the arches *, therefore the fum of the
produft of all the particles multiplied by the arch de¬
feribed by each of them, will be equal to the fum of
the particJ.es multiplied by the arch which their com¬
mon centre of gravity deferibes ; that is, the folid a D
will be equal to the area of the furface multiplied by
the path of its centre of gravity. In order to have
a clearer illuflration of this reafoning, let P, jo, w, &c.
be the particles of the furface ABCD j D, r/, § their
diftance from the centre of rotation P, and A, «, «,
the arches which they deferibe, while GP is the diftance
of the centre of gravity of the furlace ABCD from the
centre P, and G^ the arch deferbed by it. Then
by Art. 161. PxD-fjO X^-f ^4-^ = P-f X GP,
butD:r/:^:GP—A:«:«: G^,thereforeP X A-j-/>X«+
jrX*=P 4-J»+?vX G^-. But PX A-f-/;X«-f-5rX«
&c. make up the whole folid a D, and P+^-f tr, &c.
make up the whole furface ABCD 5 therefore the folid
a D is equal to the generating furface ABCD multi¬
plied by the path of its centre of gravity. (^. L. D.
207. Cor. 1. Let us fuppofe the circle B AGO to be
generated by the revolution of the line DA round the Fig. iz,
point D j then fince the centre of gravity of the line
DA is in its middle point G, the path of this centre
will be a circumference whofe radius is DG, or a line
equal to half the circumference BONAB, therefore,
by the theorem, the area of the circle BONB will be
equal to the radius DA multiplied by the femieircumfe-
rence, which coincides with the refult obtained from the
principles of geometry. See Playfair’s Geometry,
Supp. B. I. Prop. 5. In the fame way, by means of
the preceding theorem, we may readily determine the
area of any furface, or the content of any folid that is
generated by motion.
Scholium.
208. The centro-baryc method, which is one of the
finelt inventions of geometry, was firft noticed by Pap¬
pus in the preface to the feventh book of his mathema¬
tical colle£Hons, but it is to Father Guldinus that we
are indebted for a more complete difeuflion of the fub-
je£t. He publilhed an account of his difeovery partly
in 1635, and partly in 1640, in his work entitled De
Centro Gravitatis, lib. ii. cap. 8. prop. 3. and gave an in-
diretl demonftration of the theorem, by {bowing the con¬
formity of its refults with thofe which were obtained by
other means. Leibnitz demonflrated the theorem in the
cafe of fuperficies generated by the revolution of c urves,
but concealed his demon {{.ration (Ad. Lerpf. 1695, p.
492-
M E C H
493. The theorem of Leibnitz, however, as well as that
of Guldinus, was demonftrated by Varignon in the Me¬
moirs of the Academy for 1714, p. 78. Leibnitz ob-
ferves that the method will itill hold, even if the centre
round which the revolution is performed be continually
changed during the generating motion. For further
information on this tubjeft, the reader is referred to
Dr Wallis’s work, De Calculo Centri Gravitatis, Hut¬
ton’s Menfuration, Prony’s Architecture Hydraulique,
•vol. i. p. 88. and Gregory’s Mechanics, vol. i. p. 64.
Prop. XVIII.
>209. To (bow the ufe of the do&rine of the centre
of gravity in the explanation of fome mechanical
phenomena.
On the mo- In the equilibrium and motion of animals, wTe per-
an‘" ceive many phenomena deducible from the properties of
the centre of gravity. When we endeavour to rife
from a chair, we naturally draw our feet inwards, and
reft upon their extremities, in order to bring the centre of
gravity directly below our feet, and we put the body into
that polition in which its equilibrium is tottering, a pe¬
tition which renders the fmalleft force capable of pro¬
ducing motion, or of overturning the body. In this
fituation, in order to prevent ourfelves from falling
backwards, we thruft forward the upper part of the
body for the purpofe of throwing the centre of gravity
beyond our feet: and when the equilibrium is thus de-
ftroyed, we throw out one of our feet, and gradually
raife the centre of gravity till the pofttion of the body
is ereft.—When we walk, the body is thrown into
the poiition of tottering equilibrium by refting it on
one foot ; this equilibrium is deftroyed by puthing for-
ward the centre of gravity, and the body again afl’umes
the poiition of tottering equilibrium by refting it on the
other foot. During this alternate procefs of creating
and deftroying a tottering equilibrium, the one foot is
placed upon the ground, and the other is railed from
it •, but in running, which is performed in exaClly the
fame way, both the feet are never on the ground at the
fame rirne : A t every ftep there is a Ihort interval,
during which the runner does not touch the ground at
all.
210. When we afeend an inclined plane the body is
thrown farther forward than when we walk on a hori¬
zontal one, in order that the line of diredlion may fall
without our feet; and in defeending an inclined plane,
the body is thrown backward, in order to .prevent the
line of direction from falling too fuddenly without the
bafe. In carrying a burden, the centre of gravity is
brought nearer to the burden, fo that the line of direc¬
tion would fall without our feet if we did not naturally
lean towards the fide oppofite to the burden, in order to
keep the line of direffion within our feet. When the
burden is therefore carried on the back, we lean for¬
ward ; when it is carried in the right arm, we lean to¬
wards the left} when it is carried in the left arm, we
lean towards the right •, and when it is carried before
die body, we throw the head backwards.
211. When a horfe walks, he firft fets out one of
his Tore feet and one of his hind feet, fuppofe the right
foot; then at the fame inftant he throws out his left fore
£*ot and -hi* left hind foot, fo as to be fupported only
A N I C S.
by the two right feet. His two right feet are then Theory,
brought up at the fame inftant, and he is fupported on- y-——J
ly by his two left feet.—When a horfe pulls at a load
which he can fcarcely overcome, he railes both his fore
feet, his hind feet become the fulcrum of a lever, and
the weight of the horfe colledted in his centre of gravi¬
ty acts as a weight upon this lever, and enables him to
furmount the obftacle. (See Appendix -to Fergulbn’s
Le&ures, vol. ii.).
212. When a rope-dancer balances himfelf upon thei\^clhod in
fore part of one foot, he preferves his equilibrium in two which a
ways, either by throwing one of his arms or his elevated roFe-dancer
foot, or his balancing pole, to the fide opnofite to that to-^k3.^8
wards which he is beginning to fall, or by fhifting the bni.m.
point of his foot, on which he refts, to the fame fide to¬
wards which he is apt to fall; for it amounts to the
fame thing whether he brings the centre of gravity
diredfly above the point of fupport, or brings the point
of fupport diredfly below the centre of gravity. For
this purpofe the convex form of the foot is of great
ufe, for if it had been perfedfly flat, the point of lup-
port could not have admitted of fmall variations -in its
pofition *. * See Dr
213. We have already feen ( Art. 197.) that any body T. Toung't
is more eafily overturned in proportion to the height of
its centre of gravity. Hence it is a matter of great
importance that the centre of gravity of all-carriages °'1'F 4*
fhould be placed as low as poflible. This may often
be effedled by a judicious difpolition of the load, of
which the heavieft materials fliould always have the
loweft place. The prefent conftrubfion of our mail
and poll coaches is therefore adverfe to every principle con-
of fcience, and the caufe of many of thole accidents in
which the lives of individuals have been loft. Thees erronc_ *
elevated pofition of the guard, the driver, and theous.
outfide paflengers, and the two boots which contain
the baggage, raifes the centre of gravity of the load¬
ed vehicle to a very great height, and renders it much
more eafily overturned than it would otherwife have
been. When any accident of this kind is likely to hap¬
pen, the paffengers ftiould bend as low as poflible, and
endeavour to throw themfelves to the elevated fide of the
carriage.—In two wheeled carriages where the horfe
bears part of the load upon its back, the elevation of
the centre of gravity renders the draught more difficult,
by throwing a greater proportion of the load upon the
horfe’s back when he is going dowm hill, and when
he has the leaft occafion for it ; and taking the load
from the back of the horfe when he is going up hill,
and requires to be preffed to the ground.
214. A knowledge of the laws of the centre of gra-Fig. 3^.
vity enables us to explain the experiment reprefented in
fig. 24. where the vefiel of wrater CG is -fufpended on a
rod A B, palling below its handle, and refting on the
end E of the beam DE. The extremity B of the rod
AB is fupported by another rod BF, which bears a-
gainft the bottom of the vefiel; fo that the veflfel and
the two rods become, as it were, one body, which, by
Art. 199. will be in equilibrio when their common
centre of gravity C is in the fame vertical line with the ^ |oa(Ld
point of fupport E. may* be I
215. The cylinder G may be made to afeend the in-mfc;ie t0
dined plane ABC by putting a piece of lead or any cend an is,
heavy fubftance on one fide of its axis, fo that the cen-1'1™ "ne
tre of gravity may be moved from G towards g. Hence^•tk°wm
MECHANICS-
A double
cone may
be made to
af< end an
inclined
plane by
its own
tveight.
Fig. 26.
Fig. 27.
Theory it is obvious, that the centre of gravity y will defeend,
and by its defeent the body will rife towards A. The
inclination of the plane, however, mull be fuch, that
before the motion commences, the angles formed by a
vertical line drawn from g with a line drawn from G
perpendicularly to AB, muft be lefs than the angle of
inclination ABC, or, which is the fame thing, when
the vertical line drawn from g does not cut the line
which lies between the point of contact and the centre
of the cylinder. When the vertical line, let fall from
g, meets the perpendicular line .drawn from G to the
plane in the point of contaft, the cylinder will be in
equilibrio on the inclined plane.
2 i 6. Upon the fame principle, a double fealene cone
may be made to afeend an inclined plane without being
loaded with a weight. In fig. 26. let ABC be the
feftion of a double inclined plane, AB, BC being fec-
tions of its furfaces perpendicular to the line in which
the double fealene cone ADEFC moves. Then, fince
the centre of gravity of a cone is in the line joining the
vertex and the centre of its bafe, and fince the axis of
a fealene cone is not perpendicular to its bafe, the line
which, joins the centres of both the cones, when in the
pofition reprefented in the figure, will be above the line
which joins the centres of their bafes. If the circle,
therefore, in fig 27. reprefents the bafe of one of the
cones, and C its centre, the line which joins the cen¬
tres of gravity of the two cones will terminate in fome
point G at a diftance from the centre, and therefore the
double cone will afeend the plane upon the fame prin¬
ciples, and under the fame conditions, as thofe men¬
tioned in the laft paragraph.
Chap. V. On the Motion of Bodies along inclined
Planes and Curves, on the. Curve of fwiftejl defeent,
aitd on the Ofcillutions of Pendulums.
Prop. I.
217. When a body moves along an inclined plane,
the force which accelerates or retards its motion,
is to the whole force of gravity as the height of
the plane is to its length, or as the fine of its
inclination is to radius.
Let ABC be the inclined plane, A the place of the
body, and let AB reprefent the whole force of gravi¬
ty. The force AB is equivalent to the two forces
AD, DB or AE, AD, of which AD is the force
that accelerates the motion of the body down the plane,
while AE is deftroyed by the refiftance or re-a61ion of
the plane. The part of the force of gravity, therefore,
which makes the body arrive at C is reprefented by
AD, while the whole force of gravity is reprefented by
AB j but the triangle ABD is equiangular to ABC,
and AD: AB=AB : AC, that is, the accelerating
force which makes the body defeend the inclined plane,
is to the whole force of gravity as the height of the
plane is to its length, or as the fine of the plane’s in¬
clination is to radius ; for when AC is radius, AB be¬
comes the fine of the angle ACB.
218. Cor. 1. Since the force of gravity, Avhich is
uniform, has a given ratio to the accelerating force, the
accelerating force is alfo uniform ; confequently the
laws of accelerated and retarded motions, as exhibited
in the article Dynamics, are alfo true when the bodies
5
Plate
ceexxr.
fig. I.
move along inclined planes. If H, therefore, repre¬
fent the height AB of the plane, L its length AC, g
the force of gravity, and A the accelerating force, we
(hall have, by the propofition, L : Hrry : A, hence
AzryX-j-^ or, fince : A=radius : fin. ACB, and A
— g X fin. ACB. Now, from the principles of
Dynamics, s — i-g t*,. v — gt:
\l 2 g s, and / — ——
<?
/77
—, where, s is the fpace deferibed, g the force of
gravity, or 3 2f feet, v the velocity, and t the time.
Making <p, therefore, equal to ACB, and fubftituting
the value of A inftead ofj in the preceding equation,
we (hall have j-'rzrfin. <p X j P—g lin.<p/— f Ugs'tin.
f
2 s'
and t=—  —
g. tin. <p g. 1m. <p
219. Cor. 2. If on» body begins to defeend through
the vertical AB at the fame time that another body
defeends along the plane AC, when the one is at any
point m, the pofition of the other will be n, which is
determined by drawing m n perpendicular to AC.
The forces by which the two bodies are actuated, are
as AB : to AD, that is, as A m to A« ; but iorces
are meafured by the fpaces deferibed in the fame time 5
therefore, the fpaces deferibed in the fame time, are as
A /tt, A n, that is, as the length of the plane is to its
height ^ for A 777: A tz—AC ; AB ; confequently, when
the body that defeends along the vertical line AB is at
777, the other body will be at n.—Through the three
points A, 777, 77 deferibe the femicircle A m n; then,
fince A 77 777 is a right angle, the centre of the femicircle
will be in the line A m (Playfair’s Euclid, Book iv.
Prop. 5.) 5 confequently, if two bodies defeend from the
point A at the fame time, the one through the diameter
of a circle A m, and the other through any chord A n,
they, will arrive at the points m n, the extremities of the
diameter and of the chord at the fame infant. It alfo
follows from this corollary, that if from the point A
there be drawn any number of lines making different
angles with the diameter A m, and if bodies be let fall
from A, fo as to move along thefe lines, they will, at
the end of any given time, be found in the circumfe¬
rences of circles which touch one another in the. point
A. If the lines are not in the fame plane, .the bodies
will be in the circumferences of fpheres which touch
each other in the point A,.
220. Cor, 3. If any number of bodies defeend from
the fame point A along any number of inclined planes
AC, AF, their velocities at the points C, F will be
equal. By Cor. 1. the velocity of a body defeending
the plane AC, is v—xl2gsfm.<p, and the velocity
of a body falling in the vertical line AB is v'= \/2g s'.
But, finee v=v', we have \/2 g ,r fin. (p—zf'ig s' or
2gs fin. (pzzlg s', and dividing by ..g ; s fm. cp^zo,
confequently j-: P—fin. <p : 1, or AR: ACrrfin. DAB :
radius. Therefore, when v~v', that is, when the veloci¬
ties of the two bodies are equal, the fpaces deferibed are
as fin. DAB : radius, which can only happen when BC
is perpendicular to AB. In the fame way it may be
{hewn that the velocity at F is equal to the velocity at C,
therefore the velocity at C is equal to the velocity at F.
221. Cor. 4. The time of defeending along AC is
to
So
MECHANIC S.
Theory, to the time of defeending along AB, as AC is to AB.
v From the values of r, s' in Cor. I. we obtain : /'*—
lin. <p
AC*
AC
’fin. <p
AB
AB. But fin. ip therefore,
t7-: ; AB, and taking equal multiples of thefe
two laft terms, that is, multiplying them by AB, we
have ? : /*=:AC2 : AB% or t: /'=AC : AB. Hence
the times of defeending along AF and AC, are as AF
and AC.
222. Cor. 5. The velocities acquired by defeending
any planes AC, AF, are as the fquare roots of their al¬
titudes AB. The velocity acquired by falling through
AB is, by the principles of D YNAMICS, as the fquare
root of AB 5 and as the velocities at F, C are equal
to that at B, they will alfo be as the fquare root of
AB.
Prop. II.
223. If a body defeend from any point along a
number of inclined planes to a horizontal line,
its velocity, when it reaches the horizontal line,
will be equal to that which it would have ac¬
quired by falling in a vertical dire&ion from the
given point to the horizontal line.
Fig. 2. Let AB, BC, CD, be a number of planes differently
inclined to a horizontal line DN, and let the body be let
fall from the point A, fo as to move along thefe planes,
without lofing any of its velocity at the angular points j
it will have the fame velocity when it reaches the hori¬
zontal plane at D, which it would have acquired by
falling freely from A to F. It is manifeft from Art.
220. that the velocity of the body when at B will be
the fame as that of another body which had fallen
freely from A to c in a vertical line. The two bodies
let out from B and c with the fame velocity, and will
therefore continue to have the fame velocity when they
reach the points C, G, becaufe c G~B d. 1 he two
bodies again fet off from the points C, G with the fame
celerity, and fince GF=Ce, their refpe&ive velocities
will be equal when they arrive at the points D, F in
the horizontal plane. The velocity, therefore, acquired
by the body falling along the planes AB, BC, CD is
equal to that which is acquired by the fame body fall¬
ing through the vertical line AF.
224. Cor. I. As the preceding propofition holds
true, whatever be the number of inclined planes which
lie between the point A and the horizontal line, it will
hold true alfo of any curve line which may be conlider-
ed as made up of an infinite number of ifraight lines.
And, fince the fmall planes are diminilhed without li¬
mit, the radius is diminifhed without limit, and there¬
fore the verfed fine, or the velocity loft in palling from
one plane to another, is diminilhed without limit (a),
confequently, abftracting from friftion, a body will af-
cend or defeend a curve furface without lofing any of
its velocity from the curvature of the furface.
225. Cor. 2. If a body be made to afeend a curve
furface, or a fyftem of inclined planes, the vertical
height to which it will rife, is equal to that through
which it mull fall in order to acquire the velocity with
which it afeended, abftrafting from the effefts of fric¬
tion, and the velocity which is loft in palling from one
plane to another. This is obvious, from Dynamics,
§ 26, 51. •, for the body experiences the fame decre¬
ments of velocity in its afeent, as it received increments
in its defeent.
226. Cor. 3. The fame thing will hold if the body
is kept in the curve by a firing perpendicular to the
curve, for the firing fuftains that part of the weight
which was fuftained by the curve, fmee the readlion of
the curve furface is in a line perpendicular to the curve.
Theory.
Scholium.
227. It is obvious, that the body which moves along
the fyftem of inclined planes mull lofe a part of its ve¬
locity in palling from one plane to another. By the re-
folution of motion it will be found that the velocity ac¬
quired by falling through any of the planes, is to the
velocity loft in palling to the fucceeding one, as radius
is to the verfed fine of the angle formed by the tw*o
planes. Or the velocity with which the body enters
upon one plane is as the cofine of the angle made by
the contiguous planes, divided by the velocity which
the body had when it left the preceding plane.
*
Prop. III.
228. The times of defeending two fyftems of in¬
clined planes fimilar and fimilariy fituated, are
in the fubduplicate ratio of their lengths.
Let AB, BC, CD, and ab, be, c d be the fimilar Fig. a.
fyftems of inclined planes, and let T be the time of
defeending ABCD, and t the time of defeending
abed.
By Cor. 4. Prop. 1. Ave have
Time along AB : Time along AcrrAB : Ac,
Time along ab : Time along ufi—ab :
But, on account of the fimilar triangles AB c, ab ft, Ave have,
AB : Ac~ab :
Hence (Euclid, Book v. Prop. 11. 16.)
Time along AB : Time along ab=zTime along Ac : Time along *p.
(a) See Wood’s Principles of Mechanics, p. 58. note j and alfo Gregory’s Mechanics, vol. i. p. 112. vrhere
this corollary is demonftrated by the method of fluxions.
Theory.
MECHANICS.
Theory.
In the fame way if may be fhewn, that
Time along EC : Time along Z'crrTime along cG : Time along ut
Time along CD : Time along ('(/“Time along GF : Time along kf.
Then, by Geometry, Sect. III. Theorem VIII.
Time along AB-}-BC-|-CD : Time along a b-^bc-^c at;Time along ; Time along
tliat is,
Time along AB-{-BC-{-CD : Time along a b + bcc dzzTime along AF : Time along af.
But by Dynamics § 37, 2.
Time along AF : Time along af— v/AF : S1' af
Therefore, Euclid, B. V. Prop. 11.
Time along AB-J-BC-f-CD ; Time along a b-\-b c^cdzz. AF ; \/a f. ^). E. D.
But by fimilar triangles, &c.
V"AF : V^AB-J-BC-f-CD : a b-\-b c-\-c d.
Therefore,
Time along AB-J-BC-j-CD : Time along a b-^-b c-\-c d— AB-j-BC-j-GD : a b-\-b c-\-c d. Q^. E. Di
229. Cor. I. This proportion holds true of curves,
for the reafons mentioned in Prop. 2. Cor. 1.
230. CoR. 2. 1 he times of defcent along fimilar ares
of a circle are as their radii; for by the preceding co¬
rollary the times are as the arcs, and the arcs are as the
radii, therefore the times are as the radii.
Prop. IV.
231. An inverted femicycloid is the curve of quick-
eft defcent, or the curve along which a body muft
defeend in order to move between two points
not in a vertical line, in the leaft time pof-
fible.
Fig. 4. Let q FZ be a femicycloid, and A'D', C'F' two pa¬
rallel and vertical ordinates at an infinitely fmall dif-
tance. Draw the ordinate B'E' an arithmetical mean
between the ordinates A'D' and C'F',' and from F',Ef
draw F'-y, E'w perpendicular to B'F, GE\ Make
CF'=a, B'E'—Z>, E'v=c, C'B'=™, B'A'=//. Then
fince F'E' may be confidered as a ftraight line,
and fince B'C'rrF'i;, we have (Euclid, B» I. Prop.
47.) F'E'— Vz^+c'2, and fince F'x;r=:E'«,E'D'— Vrf+c**
Now the velocities at F' and E' vary as */(t~and
and F'E', E'Dr are the elementary fpaces deferibed
with thefe velocities j but the times are directly as the
Iquare root of the fpaces, and inverfely as the velocities,
therefore the time of deferibing F'E'is ~^rH ~j~—,and
V a
the time of deferibing E'D' is —confequently,
Vb 
the time of deferibing FD muft be — ~^~C ^ 4.—
tj 1 a b b-%-
But the propofition requires that this time fhould be the
leaft poflible or a minimum, therefore taking its fluxion
«nd making it equal to 0, we have
2mm ^ 2 mi
2JaXmmj-c* 2/%//'X««Xc,a
VOL. XIII. Part I.
But fince CA is invariable m-\-n is invariable, and
therefore its fluxion or m=z—« and  mf
therefore by tranfpofing the fecond member of the
preceding equation, and fubftituting thefe values of
m and n, it becomes j- - =: — — 
Let us now call the variable abfeifs yC'—at, the or¬
dinate C'F'zzy, and the arc yF'srss, then m and n.
are fluxions of *, and F'E' is the increment of F or «
when ij is equal to «, and E'D' the increment of
q F or 55, when y is equal to b, therefore by fubfti¬
tuting thefe values in the preceding equation, we ob-
tain ^ which ftiews that this quantity is
conftant, and gives us the following analogy, 55' : V
— ^ y* Now m the cycloid y is always
the chord of the generating circle when the dia¬
meter is y (for by Euclid, Book. I. Prop. 47, Book. II.
Prop. 8. and Book III. Prop. 35.) AF— y'ADX AO ^ ^
and fmee AOzri and ADrry, we have AF=:y'y!
But fince the arc of the cycloid at F is perpendicular
to the chord AF, the elementary triangle FE® is fimi¬
lar to hDO, (for BE is parallel to AO) and conle-
quently to AFO (Euclid. B. VI. Prop. 8.), therefore,
we have FE : E'a'rrAO : AF; but FE=r', E^=y;,
AOrzi and AF— y'y, confequently : x'— 1 : y'y,
which coincides with the analogy already obtained, and
being the property of the cycloid fhews that the curve
of quickeft defcent is an inverted cycloidal arc.
Properties of the Cycloid.
Definition.—If a circle NOP be fo placed as Fig. 3.
to be in contact with the line AD, and be made to Properties
roll along that line from D towards A, till the fameoft.he CP*
point D of the circle touches the other extremity A clold’
the point D will deferibe a curve DBA, called a
cycloid.
The line AD is called the bafe of the cycloid; the
line CB, which bifefts AD at right angles and meets
the curve in B, is called the axis, and B the vertex.
The circle NOP is called the generating circle.
I* 232. 1. The
82
MECHANICS.
heory. 232. I. The bafe AD is equal to the circumference
of the generating circle, and AC is equal to half that
circumference.
2. The axis CB is equal to the diameter of the ge¬
nerating circle.
3. If from any point G of the cycloid, there be
drawn a flraight line GM parallel to AD, and meet¬
ing the circle BLC in L, the circular arc BL is equal
to the line GL.
4. If the points L, B be joined, and a tangent drawn
to the cycloid at the point G, the tangent will be pa¬
rallel to the chord LB, and the tangent is found by
joining G, E, for GE is parallel to LB.
5. The arc BG of the cycloid is double of the chord
BL, and the arc BA or BD is equal to twice the
axis BC.
6. If the two portions AB, DB of the cycloid in
fig. 3. be placed in the. inverted pofition AB, DB (fig.
f/ig, 4. 4.), and if a firing BP equal in length to BA be made
to coincide with B A, and then be evolved from it, its
extremity P will defcribe a femicycloid AF, fimilar
and equal to BA. In the fame way the femicycloid
DF, produced by the evolution of the firing BP from
the femicycloid BD, is equal and fimilar to BD and'to
AF. Therefore, if BP be a pendulum or weight at¬
tached to the extremity of a flexible line BP, which
vibrates between the cycloidal cheeks BA, BD, its ex¬
tremity D will defcribe a cycloid AFD, equal to that
which is compofed of the two halves BA, BD.
7. The chord CN is parallel to MP, and MP is per¬
pendicular to the cycloid AFD, at the point P.
8. If P p be an infinitely fmall,arc, the perpendicu¬
lar to the curve drawn from the points P/> will meet at
M, and P p may be regarded as a circular arc, whofe
radius is MP. An infinitely fmall cycloidal arc at F
may likewife be confidered as a circular arc whofe ra¬
dius is BF. •
As thefe properties of the cycloid are demonftrated
in almoft every treatife on mechanics, and as their de-
monftrations more properly belong to geometry than to
mechanics, they are purpofely omitted to make room
for more important matter.
233. Definition.—If a body defcend from any
point of a curve, and afcend in the fame curve till its
velocity is deftroyed, the body is faid to oicillate in
that curve, and the time in which this defcent and ai-
cent are performed is called the time of an ofcillation
or vibration.
234. Definition.—A cycloidal pendulum is a pen¬
dulum which ofcillates or vibrates in the arch of a cy¬
cloid.
235. Definition,—Ofcillations which are perform¬
ed in equal times are faid to be ifochronous.
Prop. V.
Hg. 4. 236. The velocity of a cycloidal pendulum BP at
the point F, varies as the arch which it de-
feribes.
The velocity of the pendulum at F is that which it
•would have acquired by falling through EF (Prop. 2.
and Cor. 3. Prop. 2.), and the velocity of availing bo¬
dy is as the fquare root of the fpace which it deferibes
(Dynamics, § 37.% therefore the velocity of the pen¬
dulum P, when it reaches F, varies as ^/EF. But
(Geometry, Sedt. IV.Theor. 23. and 8.) FE varies as
FN*
——, and fince FC is a conftant quantity, FE will vary
t C
Theory.
as FNJ varies, or, to adopt the notation ufed in the article
Dynamics, FEziiFN2, or V'FEirFN, but the ve¬
locity acquired by falling through EF varies as \/FE,
therefore the velocity of the pendulum at F varies as
FN, that is, as FP, for (Art. 232. N° 5.) FN is equal
to half FP. Q. E. D.
Prop. VI.
237. If the pendulum begins its ofcillation from
the point P, the velocity of the pendulum at
any point R varies as the fine of a circular
arc whofe radius is FP, and whofe verfed fine
is PR.
Through F draw p F 7 parallel to AD, and with a Fig. 4.
radius equal to the cycloidal arc FP, defcribe the femi-
circle p 0 q. Make p r equal to the arc PR of the cy¬
cloid, and through r draw r m perpendicular to p F.
Through the points P, R draw PE, R1 parallel to
AD, and cutting the generating circle CNF in the
points N, S.—By Prop. 4. the velocity at R varies as
Vet, that is, as VEF—TF, or fince CF is conftant,
as VCF x EF—CF X TF, that is, as VFNV—FS\
For, (Playfair’s Euclid, Book I. Prop. 47, Book II.
Prop. 7. and Book III. Prop. 35O hNI”Cll xEh,
and FS=CFxTF), that is, as VpTP—TFS% that
is (Art. 232. N° 5.) as VFP*—FR*. But or
F m was made equal to FP, and, p r being made *
equal to PR, the remainder F r muft be equal to FR,
therefore the velocity at R varies as \/y mz—F r*, but
(Euclid, 47. 1.) rm ~ s/¥m1—Fr1, and rm is by con-
ftru£Hon equal to the fine of a circular arc, whofe ra¬
dius is FP, and verfed fine PR, confequently, the velo¬
city at R varies as the fine of that arc. C,L E. D.
238. Corollary. The velocity of the pendulum
at F is to the velocity of the pendulum at R, as F m :
r m, for the verfed fine is in this cafe equal to radius,
and therefore the correfponding arc muft be a quadrant
whofe fine is alfo equal to radius or F m.
Prop. VII.
239. The time in which the pendulum performs Fig. 4,
one complete ofcillation from P to O, is equal
to the time in which a body would defcribe the
femicircle p ° uniformly with the velocity >
which the pendulum acquires at the point F.
Take any infinitely fmall arc RV, and making r v
equal to it, draw v 0 parallel to r m, and mn r v.
Now, by the laft propofition, and by Dynamics, Art.
28. ; the velocity with which RV is deferibed is to the
velocity with which w 0 is deferibed as r m is to F zw,
J that.
Theory.
Fig. 4.
, . RV
that is as 
r m
m 0 m n
——, or as —
F m r m
til 0
F /«’
for m n~r RV.
But in the fimilar triangles Y mr, m n o,Y m : r m~m 0
• m n, confequently = —therefore the velocity
with which RV is defcribed is equal to the velocity
with which m 0 is defcribcd, and the times in which
thefe equal fpaces are defcribed muft likewife be equal.
The fame thing may be demonftrated of all the other
correfponding arcs of the cycloid and circle, and there¬
fore it follows that the time in which the pendulum
performs one complete ofcillation is equal to the time
in which the femicircle poqu uniformly defcribed with
the velocity acquired at !.
Prop. VIII.
240. The time in which a cycloidal pendulum
performs a complete ofcillation is to the time
in which a body would fall freely through the
axis of the cycloid, as the circumference of a
circle is to its diameter.
Since FP — 2FN, and fince the velocity acquired by
falling down NF is equal to the velocity acquired by
falling down PF, the body, if it continued to move
uniformly with this velocity, would deferibe a fpace
equal to 2PF (Dynamics, § 37. N° 6.) in the fame
time that it would defeend NF or CF (Art. 219.).
Calling T therefore the time of an ofcillation, and t the
time of defeent along the axis, we have, by the preced¬
ing proportion,
Trz time along p 0 q, with the velocity at F,
and by the preceding paragraph,
/=time along Y p, with the fame velocity j therefore
T :: /rrtime along po q with velocity at V : time along
Fp with the fame velocity ; that is, T : t—poq : Yp
~lpoq\ 2 Yp— the circumference of a circle : its di¬
ameter.
241. Cor. 1. The ofcillations in a cycloid are
ifochronous, that is, they are performed in equal times
whatever be the fize of the arc which the pendulum
deferibes. For the time of an ofcillation has a conftant
ratio to the time of defeent along the axis, and is there¬
fore an invariable quantity.
242. Cor. 2. The ofcillations in a fmall circular arc
whofe radius is BF, and in an equal arc of the cycloid,
being ifochronous (Art. 23 2. N° 8.), the time of an ofcil¬
lation in a fmall circular arc will alfo be to the time of
defeent along the axis, as the circumference of a circle
is to its diameter.
243. Cor. 3. Since the length BF of the pendulum
is double of the axis CF, the time of an ofcillation in a
cycloid or fmall circular arc varies as the time of de-
feending along CF, half the length of the pendulum,
the force of gravity being conftant. But the time of
defeent along CF varies as \fCF, therefore the time
of an ofcillation in a fmall circular or cycloidal arc
varies as the fquare root of half the length of the pen¬
dulum, or as the fquare root of its whole length. If T, t
therefore be the times of ofeillations of two pendulums,
MECHANICS.
and L, / their refpe&ive lengths, we have by this co¬
rollary T : /= x/L : and T X v/L j hence
y
ty. yL
y/
TXy/
_t x y/.
t— — )
w
'x yR
and L =
yL 7'~V T
, from which we may find the time in which
a pendulum of any length will vibrate •, a pendulum of
39.2 inches vibrating in one fecond.
244. Cor. 4. When the force of gravity varies,
which it does in going from the poles to the equator,
the time of an ofcillation is direftly as the fquare root
of the length of the pendulum, and inverfely as the
fquare root of the force of gravity. T he time of an
ofcillation varies as the time of defeent along half the
length of the pendulum, and the time of defeent
through any fpace varies as where j is the fpace de¬
fcribed and g the force of gravity 5 but in the prefent
cafe s — — therefore, by fubftitution, the time of
defeent along half the length of the pendulum,
time of an ofcillation, varies as ^ 1
Hence T :
yL y/
Vg
or the
yL
Vg'
from which it is eafy to de-
Vg' Vg’
duce equations fimilar to thofe given in the preceding
corollary.
245. Cor. 5. Since 4/^ xTrr yL j and if
' Vg
the time of ofcillation is 1 fecond, we have i/ g^\/h,
or ^rzL, that is, the force of gravity in different lati¬
tudes varies as the length of a pendulum that vibrates
feconds.
246. Cor. 6. The number of ofcillations which a
pendulum makes in a given time, and in a given la¬
titude, are in the inverfe fubduplicate ratio of its length.
The number of ofcillations n made in a given time
are evidently in the inverfe ratio of /, the time of each
ofcillation ; that is n±i ~ ; but by Corollary 3. tzz
y/, therefore nzz —jj, and /~ t
' \ l n
from which it is
eafy to find the length of a pendulum which will vibrate
any number of times in a given time, or the number of
vibrations which a pendulum of a given length will per¬
form in a given time.
Prop. IX.
247. To find the fpace through which a heavy
body will fall in one fecond by the force of
gravity.
Since by Propofition 8. the time of an ofcillation is
to the time along half the length of the pendulum as
3.1411^9 is to 1, and fince the {paces are as the fquares
of the times, the fpaees defcribed by a heavy body in
the time of an ofcillation will be to half the length of
the pendulum as 3.14159* is to 1. Now it app ars
from the experiments of Mr Whitehurft, that the length
of a pendulum which vibrates feconds at London at
113 feet above the level of the fea, in a temperature of
L 2 6s4
84
MECHANICS.
Theory, go0 of Fahrenheit, and when the barometer is 30 inches,
is 39.1196 inches j hence i* : 3.14159I* — — - :
19.5598 X3.i4i59|,= i6.o87 feet the fpace required.
The methods of determining the centre of ofcillation,
gyration, and percuflion, properly belong to this chap¬
ter, but they have been already given in the article
Rotation, to which we mull refer the reader who
willies to profecute the fubjeft.
have 2B'xy=B'X2VrorB': zB'rrV : 2V* but 2V
is the velocity of B', and V is the velocity of 2 B',
therefore when one body is double of the other, they
will remain at reft when the maffes of the bodies are in-
verfely as their velocities.
In the fame way the propolition may be demonftrated
when the bodies are to one another in any commen-
furable proportion.
Theory.
Prop. II.
Chap. VI. On the Collijion or Imfmljion of Bodies.
248. Def. I. When a body moving with a cer¬
tain velocity ftrikes another body, either at reft or
in motion, the one is faid to impinge againft, or to im-
pell the other. This effeft has been diltinguilhed by
the names collilion, impullion or impulfe, percuffion,
and Impafl.
249. Def. 2. The collilion or impullion of two
bodies is faid to be direti when the bodies move in the
fame ftraigbt line, or when the point in w'hieh they
ftrike each other is in the ftraight line which joins their
centres of gravity. When this is not the cafe, the im¬
pulfe is faid to be oblique.
250. Def. 3. A hard body is one which is not fuf-
ceptible of compreflion by any finite force An elafic
body is one fufceptible of compreflion, which recovers
its figure with a force equal to that which comprelfes it.
A foft body is one which does not recover its form
after compreffion. There does not exift in nature any
body which is either perfectly hard, perfeftly elaftic or
perfectly foft. Every body with which vTe are ac¬
quainted polfelfes elafticity in fome degree or other.
Diamond, cryftal, agate, &c. though among the hard-
eft bodies, are highly elaftic 5 and even clay itfelf will
in fome degree recover its figure after compreflion. It
is neceflary, however, to confider bodies as hard, foft
or elaftic, in order to obtain the limits between which
the required refults mult be contained.
251. Def. 4. The mafs of a body is the fum of the
material particles of which it is compofed •, and the
momentum, or moving force, or quantity of motion of any
body, is the produdl arifing from multiplying its mafs
by its velocity.
Prop. I.
252. Two hard bodies B, B' with velocities V, V'
(Iriking each other perpendicularly, will be at
reft after impulfe, if their velocities are inverfe-
ly as their mafles.
1. When the two bodies are equal, their velocities
muft be equal in the cafe of an equilibrium after im¬
pulfe, and therefore B : B'—V' : V, or BY—B'V'5
for if they are not at reft after impulfe, the one muft
carry the other along with it: But as their mafles and
velocities are equal, there can be no reafon why the one
fhould carry the other along with it.
2. If the one body is double of the other, or B=:2B',
we ftiould have V'r: 2V'. Now inftead of B we may fub-
ftitute two bodies equal to B', and inftead of V; we may
fubftitute two velocities equal to V, with which the
bodies B' may be conceived to move j confequently we
- 3
253. To find the common velocity v of two hard
bodies B, B' whofe velocities are V, V', after
ftriking each other perpendicularly.
If the bodies have not equal quantities of motion they
cannot be in equilibrio after impulfe. The one will
carry the other along with it, and in confequence of
their hardnefs, they will remain in contact, and move
with a common velocity v.
1. In order to find this, let us firft fuppofe B' to be at
reft and to be ftruck by B in motion. The quantity of
motion which exifts in B before impulfe is BY, and as
this is divided between the two bodies after impulfe, it
muft be equal to the quantity of motion after impulfe.
But X B -f- B' is the quantity of motion after impulfe,
  RV
therefore vx B + B'zrB V, and v zz———.
B+B'
2. Let us now fuppofe that both the bodies are
in motion in the fame direction that B follows B'.
In order that B may impel B', we muft have V greater
than V'. Now we may conceive both the bodies pla¬
ced upon a plane moving with the velocity V'. The
body B', therefore, whofe velocity is V; equal to that
of the plane, will be at reft upon the plane, while the
velocity of B with regard to B' or the plane, will be
V—V'J confequently, the bodies are in the fame eir-
cumftances as if B' were at reft, and B moving with
the velocity V—V'. Therefore, by the laft cafe, we
have the common velocity of the bodies in the move-
B V—BY"
able plane - ; and by adding to this V', the
velocity of the plane, we ftiall have v, or the abfolute
velocity of the bodies after impulfe, v zz —
Hence the quantity of motion, after impadl, is equal to
the fum of the quantities of motion before impaft.
3. If the impinging bodies mutually approach
each other, we may conceive, as before, that the body
B' is at reft upon a plane which moves with a velocity
V' in an oppofite direfti'on to V, and that B moves on
this plane with the velocity V-J-V'. Then, by Cafe 1.
BY 4-BY' .
—— will be the common velocity upon the plane
after impulfe ; and adding to this V', or the velocity
of the plane, we fhall have v, or the abfolute velocity
BY—-B'V'
of the bodies after impaft, v zz —5———. Hence the
quantity of motion after impa£t is equal to the differ¬
ence of the quantities of motion before impadt. It is
obvious that v is politive or negative, according as BY
is greater or lefs than B'V', fo that when BY is great¬
er than B'V', the bodies will move in the diredlion of
B’s.
M E C H
Theory. motion ; and ivlien. BV is lels than the bo-
    dies will move in the direftion of A’s motion.
254. All the three formulae which we have given,
may be comprehended in the following general formu-
BVrtrB'V'
la, v=————•, for when B' is at reft, V'=0, and
B-f-B
the formula afiumes the form which it has in Cafe 1.
255. Cor. I. If BrrB', and the bodies mutually
approach each other, the equation in Cafe 3. becomes
V V' . . . . .
zi=: , or the bodies will move in the direction
2
of the quickeft body, with a velocity equal to one half
of the difference of their velocities.
256. Cor. 2. If V=V, and the bodies move in the
fame direction, the laft formula will become vzz
R 1 "R/
V X ———, or V •, for in this cafe there can be no
B-|-B
impulfion, the one body merely following the other
in contaft with it. When the bodies mutually ap¬
proach each other, and when V—V', we have DzrV
B—B'
X B+B'
257. Cor. 3. When the bodies move in the fame di-
^ r BV-fBV'
reftion, we have, by Cale 2. vzz
velocity gained by B' is evidently v-
BV—BW
B-f-B'
-V',orBV+B'V'
Now the
hence B + B': B=V—V':
B+B'
BV-
-V
-BV'
B+B' ’ r“  ’ ' B + B'
but this laft term is the velocity gained by B, and
V—V' is the relative velocity of the two bodies.
Therefore, in the impaft of two hard bodies moving in
the fame dir eel ion, B+B' : B as the relative velocity
of the two bodies is to the velocity gained by B'. It is
obvious alfo that the velocity loft bv B is V—vzz.
BV+B'V' B'V—B'V' , ' , „
■ hence B+B
V—V'
B+B'
B'V-
B'=
-B'V'
B + B
B+B'
j but this laft term is the velocity
loft by B, and V—V' is the relative velocity of the bo¬
dies, therefore in the impaB of two hard bodies
B + B' : B' as their relative velocity is to the velocity
lofl by B. The fame thing may be {hewn when the
bodies move in oppoftte direftions, in which cafe their
relative velocity is V+V'.
Prop. III.
258. To determine the velocities of two elaftic
bodies after impulfe.
If an elaftic body ftrikes a hard and immoveable
plane, it will, at the inftant of collifion, be compreffed
at the place of contaft. But as the elaftic body in-
ftantaneoufly endeavours to recover its figure, and as
this force of reftitution is equal and oppofite to the
force of compreflion, it will move backwards from the
plane in the fame direftion in which it advanced.—If
two elaftic bodies, with equal momenta, impinge a-
gainft each other, the effeft of their mutual compref-
iion is to deftroy their relative velocity, and make
them move with a common velocity, as in the cafe of
A N I C S. 85
hard bodies. But by the force of reftitution, equal Theory,
to that of compreflion, the bodies begin to recover ^
their figure,—the parts in contaft ferve mutually as
points of fupport, and the bodies recede from each
other. Now, before the force of reftitution began to
exert itfelf, the bodies had a tendency to move in one
direftion with a common momentum ; therefore, the
body whofe effort to recover its figure was in the fame
direftion with that of the common momentum, will
move on in that direftion, with a momentum or moving
force equal to the fum of the force of reftitution and
the common momentum ; while the other body, whofe
effort to recover from compreflion is in a direftion op¬
pofite to that of the common momentum, will move
with a momentum equal to the difference between its
force of reftitution and the common momentum, and
in the direftion of the greateft of thefe momenta : Af¬
ter impulfe, therefore, it either moves in the direftion
oppofite to that of the common momentum, or its mo¬
tion in the fame direftion as that of the common mo¬
mentum is diminilhed, or it is flopped altogether, ac¬
cording as the force of reftitution is greater, lefs, or
equal to the common momentum.
259. In order to apply thefe preliminary obferva-
tions, let us adopt the notation in the two preceding
propofitions, and let v be the common velocity which
the bodies would have received after impulfe, if they
had been hard, and v', v" the velocities which the elaf¬
tic bodies B, B' receive after impaft.
260.. 1. If B follows B', then V is greater than V',
and when B has reached B', they are both compreffed
at the point of impaft. Hence, fince v is the common
velocity with which they Avould advance if the force of
reftitution were not exerted, we have V—i;=the velocity
loft by B,and v—V'crthe velocity gained by B' in confe-
quence of compreflion.—But, when the bodies ftrive to
recover their form by the force of reftitution, the body B
will move backwards in confequence of this force, while
B' will move onward in its former direftion with an acce¬
lerated velocity. Hence, from the force of reftitution, B
will again lofe the velocity V—v, and B' w ill, a fecond
time, gain the velocity v—V' $ confequently, the whole
velocity loft by B is 2 V—2iq and* the whole velocity
gained by B' is 2 v—2 V'. Now, fubtrafting this lofs
from the original velocity of B, we have V—2 V—2 v>
for the velocity of B after impaft, and adding the ve¬
locity gained by B to its original velocity, we have
V'+I^=I V' for. the velocity of B' after impaft j
hence we have
v'zz V 2 V 2VZZ2V—V
^"=:V'+ 2 v—2 V'= 2 v—V.
Now, fubftituting in thefe equations, the value of v as
found in Cafe 2. Prop. 2. we obtain
, BV—B'V+2 B'V'
v"=z
B+B'
BV'—B'V'+2BV
B + B'
261. 2. When the bodies move in oppofite direftions
or mutually approach each other, the body B is in pre-
cifely the fame circumftances as in the preceding cafe j
but
M E C H
but the body B' lofes a part of its velocity equal to
2 "y -p 2 V'—V'. Hence we have, by the fame reafoning
that was employed in the preceding cafe,
v' —2 v—V'
v”— 2 “y-l-V',
and by fubftituting inftead of v its value, as determined
in Cafe 3. Prop. 2. or by merely changing the fign of
V' in the two laft equations in the preceding corollary,
wre obtain the two following equations, which will an-
fwer for both cafes, by ufing the upper fign when the
bodies move in the fame direction, and the under fign
when they move in oppofite dir eft ions.
B V—B'V=t2 B'V'
v'~ b7+!5
„ rdnBV'rtrB'V' + aBV
V) —      .
E + B'
From the preceding equation the following corol¬
laries may be deduced.
262. Cor. 1. The velocity gained by the body that
is ftruck, and the velocity loft by the impinging body,
are twice as great in elaftic as they are in hard bodies
for in hard bodies the velocities gained and loft were
v—V', and V—v ; whereas in elaflic bodies the velo¬
cities gained and loft were 2V—2 V', and 2 V—2v.
263. Cor. If one of the bodies, fuppofe B', is at ref,
its velocity \'—o, and the preceding equation be¬
comes
A N I C S.
and V—V', both the bodies will recoil or move back¬
wards after impact with the fame velocities which they
had before impaft. For in the formulae in Cafe 2. with
the inferior figns, when BrrB' and V—V', we have
vf——V and
270. CoR. 9. If the bodies move in oppofite direc-
VB—VB'
v— ■. v—;
2VB
B-ftB' 7 ~ B-fB'
264. Cor. 3. If one of the bodies B' is at reft, and
their mafles equal, we have BrrB' and \'—o, by fub¬
ftituting which in the preceding formulae, we obtain
■y'—0, and v"—'V ; that is, the impinging body B re¬
mains at reft after impaft, and the body B' that is
itruck when at reft moves on with the velocity of the
body B that ftruck it, fo that there is a complete tranf-
fer of B’s velocity to B'.
265. Cor. 4. If B' is at reft and B greater than B',
both the bodies will move forward in the direclion of
B’s motion } for it is obvious from the equations in
Cor. 2. that when B is greater than B', v', and v" are
both pofitive.
266. Cor. 5. If B' is at reft, and B lefs than B',
the impinging body B will return backwards, and the
body B' which is ftruck will move forward in the direc¬
tion in which B moved before the ftroke. For it is evi¬
dent that when B is lefs than B', v' is negative, and v"
pofitive.
267. Cor. 6. If both the bodies move in the fame di¬
reclion, the body B' that is ftruck will after impadt
move with greater velocity than it had before it. This
is obvious from the formula in Cafe 1. of this propofi-
tion.
268. CoR. 7. If the bodies move in the fame direc¬
tion, and if B=:B', there will at the moment of impadt
be a mutual transfer of velocities, that is, B will move
on with B'’s velocity, and B' will move on with B’s
velocity. For in the formula; in Cafe 1. when B“B,
vre have v'~\T' and v"—'V.
269. CoR. 8. When the bodies move in oppofte di¬
rections, or mutually approach other, and when B=B'
tions, and VrrV'', we have v'
3B—B'
B—3 B'
'VX B-f-B' ’
and vn
=VX
Hence it is obvious, that if B=3 B',
B-fB'
or if one of the impinging bodies is thrice as great as
the other, the greateft will be Hopped, and the fmalleft
will recoil with a velocity double oi that which it had
before impadt. For fince B—3 B', by fubftituting this
value of B in the preceding equations, we obtain ‘t/=0,
and v"—2 V.
271. Cor. 10. If the impinging bodies move in op¬
pofite diredtions, and if B=zB', they will both recoil
after a mutual exchange of velocities. For when
B~B', we have v'——V', and y' r= V.
272. Cor. 11. When the bodies move in oppofite
diredtions, the body which is ftruck, and the body
which ftrikes it, will flop, continue their motion, or
return backwards, according as BV—B'V is equal to,
or greater or lefs than 2 B'V'.
273. Cor. 12. The relative velocity of the bodies
after impadt, is equal to their relative velocity before
impadt, or, which is the fame thing, at equal inftants be¬
fore and after impadt, the diftance of the bodies from
each other is the fame. For in the different cafes we
have v'—2v—V j v"—2 vz+zV. But the relative ve¬
locity before impadt is in the different cafes VrqpV', and
the relative'velocity after impadt is y'—■y'—\ r+rV'.
274. Cor. 13. By reafoning fimilar to that which
was employed in Prop. 2. Cor. 3. it may be (hewn that
B+B' : 2 B as their relative velocity before impadt is
to the velocity gained by B' in the diredtion of B’s mo¬
tion •, and B-f-B': 2 B' as their relative velocity before
impadt is to the velocity loft by B in the diredtion of
A’s motion.
275. Cor. 14. The vis viva, or the fum of the pro-
dudts of each body multiplied by the fquare of its ve¬
locity, is the fame before and after impadt, that is,
B y^-j-B'y',1=:BV,-f-B,^r,1< From the formulae at the
end of Cafe 2. we obtain
By*
B—B'i* x BV14- B'V'* ,
: — - ■■ ■  and
B+B'l1
B'
4BB'X oV2 * B'V'2
, hence their fum By'* xBV'
B+B'j*
BUB7!* X I/V7* -f-4 BB'x BV2 +177
: B+B',*
Theory,
BV*-l-b'V'2xB-B'2-KEB' _-By3 B,v/J>
B+B'*
276. Cor. 14. If feveral equal elaftie bodies B, B",
B'", B"", &c. are in contadt, and placed in the fame
ftraight line, and if another elaftic body /S of the (ame
magnitude impinges againft B, they will remain at
reft, except the laft body B"", which will move on
with the velocity of /3. By Art. 264. B will transfer
MECHANIC S. »7
Theory, to B" all its velocity, and therefore B will be at reft,
   ' in the fame way B" will transfer to Bw all its velocity,
and B" will remain at reft, and fo on with the reft ;
but when the laft body B"" is fet in motion, there is
no other body to which its velocity can be transferred,
and therefore it will move on with the velocity which
it received from B"', that is, with the velocity of /3.
277. Cor. 15. If the bodies decreafe in lize from
B to B,w, they will all move in the dire&ion of the
impinging body /3, and the velocity communicated to
each body will be greater than that which is communi¬
cated to the preceding body.
278. Cor. 16. If the bodies increafe in magnitude,
they will all recoil, or move in a direftion oppoftte to
that of /3, excepting the laft, and the velocity commu¬
nicated to each body will be lefs than that which is
communicated to the preceding body.
Prop. IV.
279. To determine the velocities of two imperfect¬
ly elaftic bodies after impulfe, the force of com-
preflion being in a given ratio to the force of
reftitution or elafticity.
Let B, B' be the two bodies, V, V' their velocities
before impadt, v', v" their velocities after impaCt, and
l : ;; as the force of compreflion is to that of reftitu¬
tion. It is evident from Cafe 1. Prop. 8. that in con-
fequence of the force of compreflion alone we have,
V-^=velocity loft by B j from reffion.
v—V—velocity gamed by ±i 3
But the velocity which B lofes and TV gains by the
force of compreflion will be to the velocity which B
lofes and B' gains by the force of reftitution or elaftici¬
ty as 1 : n ; hence
I : «—V—v : n\T—n v, the velocity loft by B1 from ela-
1: n—v—V: n v-n V' the velocity gained by B j fticity.
therefore by adding together the two portions of ve¬
locity loft by B, and alio thofe gained by B', we ob¬
tain
I 4-« V—1 -\-n v, the whole velocity loft by B,
x _j_7/ <11—1 _}-7;V', the whole velocity gained by B.
Hence by fubtrafting the velocity loft by B in confe-
quence of collifton from its velocity before impadt, we
fliall have 1/ or the velocity of B after iinpadt, and by
adding the velocity gained by B' after collifion to its
velocity before impact, we ftiall find v" or the velocity
of B' after impaft, thus
•y'rrV— 1 -j-7/ V —\ -\-nv the velocity of B after impafl.
t;"—V'-j-1 -\-nv—1—nV the velocity of B after impaff.
Now by fubftituting in the place of v its value as de¬
termined in Cafe 2. Prop. 2. we obtain
, I-MXB'V—FV7
v=V B + B, 
• ,,-y, 1 TPxBV-BV'
^ B+B
280. Cor. 1. Hence by converting the preceding
equation into analogies, B + B: i+«xBas the relative t r^ . i
velocity of the bodies before ixnpaft is to the velocity
gained by B' in the direction of B’s motion j and
B+B': 1 +« X B' as the relative velocity of the bodies
before impadt is to the velocity loft by B.
281. Cor. 2. The relative velocity before impadt is
to the relative velocity after impadt as the force of com¬
preflion is to the force of reftitution, or as 1 :
The relative velocity after impact is v"—v', or tak¬
ing the preceding values of thefe quantities v"—v'zzTV1
, r+//xBV^BV'l 1X B^V^-W _v,_
+ ^ + ^' B + B'
y+ 1 dividing by B + B' we
have v"—v’=. V'-V+V—V + n x V-V'=«XV_V'
— the relative velocity after impadt. But the relative
velocity before impadt is V—V', and V—V' : n X
V V'—1 : n. Q. E. D. The quantity V' has evident¬
ly the negative fign when the bodies move in oppoiite
diredtions.
282. Cor. 3. Hence from the velocities before and
after impadt we may determine the force of reftitution
or elafticity.
Prop. V.
283. To find the velocity of a body, and the di-
redtion in which it moves after impinging upon
a hard and immoveable plane.
284. Case i. When the impinging body is perfectly Wlien the
hard. Let AB be the hard and immoveable jplane,
and let the impinging body move towards AB in the j ^ §
diredtion CD, and with a velocity reprefen ted by CD.
Then the velocity CD may be refolved into the two
velocities CM, MD, or MD, FD ; CM DF being a
parallelogram. But the part of the velocity FD,
which carries the body in a line perpendicular to the
plane, is completely deftroyed by impadt, while the
other part of the velocity MD, which carries the body-
in a line parallel to the plane, will not be affedted by
the collifion, therefore the body will, after impadt,
move along the plane with the velocity MD. Now,
CD : MD —radius : cof.^lCDM, therefore fince MD
=rCF the fine of the angle of incidence CDF, the ve¬
locity before imp add is to the velocity after impadt, as
radius is to the fine of the angle of incidence ; and fince
AM —CD—MD, the velocity before impadi is to the
velocity lojt by impadt, as radius is to the verfedfne of
the complement of the angle of incidence.
285. Case 2. When the impinging body is perfedtly^Ten the
clafic. Let the body move in the diredtion CD with ,1Sel^“
a velocity reprefented by CD, which, as formerly, may tiCt
be refolved to MD, FD. The part of the velocity
MD remains after impadt, and tends to carry the body
parallel to the plane. The other part of the velocity
FD is deftroyed by compreflion ; but the force of refti¬
tution or elafticity will generate a velocity equal to
FD, but in the oppofite diredtion DF. Confequently
the impinging body after impadt is folicited by two ve¬
locities, one of which would carry it uniformly from D
to F in the fame time that the other would carry it uni¬
formly from M to D, or from D to N j the body will,
therefore
SB
MECHANICS.
When the
body is im¬
perfectly
elaftic.
Theory, therefore, move along DE, the diagonal of the paral-
—-y——; ie]0grjim DFEN, which is equal to the parallelogram
DFCM. Hence the angle CDF is equal to the angle
EDF, therefore, when an elajlic body impinges oblique¬
ly againjl an immoveable plane, it will be reflected from
the plane, fo that the angle of reflexion is equal to the
angle of incidence. Since CD, DE are equal fpaces
deferibed in equal times, the velocity of the body after
impadt will be equal to its velocity before impaft.
286. Case 3. When the impinging body is imperfeElly
elaflic. In DF take a point m, fo that DF is to D m
as the force of compreflion is to the force of reftitution
or elafticity, and having drawn me parallel to DB, and
meeting NE in e, join D e; then, if the impinging bo¬
dy approach the plane in the direction CD, with a ve¬
locity reprefented by CD, D e will be the direflion in
which it will move after impaft. Immediately after
compreflion, the velocity DF is deftroyed as in the laft
cafe, while the velocity MD tends to carry the body
parallel to the plane. But, by the force of reftitution,
the body would be carried uniformly along D m, per¬
pendicular to the plane, while, by the velocity MDzr:
DNzr/w e, it would be carried in the fame time along
m e, confequently, by means of thefe two velocities, the
body will deferibe D e, the diagonal of the parallelo¬
gram D * N. The velocity, therefore, before impaft
is to the velocity after impaft as DC : D e, or as
DE : D ?, or as fin. D £ E, fin. DE e, or as fin. T) emx
fin. DE<?, or as fin. FD e : fin. FDE. Now, by pro-
duing De fo as to meet the line CE produced in G,
we have, on account of the parallels FE, m e, D m : DF
rr/w e : FG ; but, FD being radius, FE is the tangent
of FDE, or FDG the angle of incidence, and FDG is
the tangent of the angle of reflexion FDG : Therefore
D ?n : DFnrtang. ^nCDF : tang. --i.FDG. Confe¬
quently, when an imperfeBly elaflic body impinges a-
gainfl a plane, it will be refledled in fuch a manner that
the tangent of the angle of reflexion is to the tangent of
the angle of incidence, as the force of compreflion is to
the force of reflitution or claflicity ; and the velocity be¬
fore incidence will be to the velocity after teflexion, as
the fine of the angle of reflexion is to the fine of the angle
of incidence.
Scholium.
287. When the furface againft which the body im¬
pinges is curved, we muft conceive a plane touching the
furface at the place of incidence, and then apply the
rules in the preceding propofition. The dodlrine of
the oblique collifion of bodies is of great ufe both in
acouftics and optics, where the material particles
which fuffer reflexion, are regarded as perfedlly elaf-
tic bodies.
Prop. VI.
288. To find the point of an immoveable plane
which an elaftic body moving from a given
place muft ftrike, in order that it may, after re¬
flexion, either from one or two planes, im¬
pinge againft another body whofe pofition is
given.
289. Case i. When there is only one reflexion. Let
C be the place from which the impinging body is to
move, and let E be the body which is to be ftruck af- Ttitoiy
ter reflexion from the plane AB. From C let fall--w—*
CH perpendicular to AB, continue it towards C till
HGzrCH, and join G,E by the line GDE j the point
D where this line cuts the plane, is the place againft
which the body at C muft impinge in order that, after
reflexion, it may ftrike the body at E. The triangles
CDH, HDG are equiangular, becaufe two fides and one
angle of each are refpedtively equal, therefore the angles
DCH, DGH are equal. But on account of the parallels
FD, CG the angle EDFrrDGCrrDCH, and DCH =
FDC, therefore the angle of incidence FDCrrFDE
the angle of reflexion ; confequently by Prop, 4. a
body moving from C and impinging on the plane at D
will, after reflexion, move in the line DE, and ftrike
the body at E.
290. Case 2. When there are two reflexions. Let pig 3
AB, BL, be the two immoveable planes, C the place
from which the impinging body is to move, and F the
body which it is to ftrike after reflexion from the two
planes, it is required to find the point of impaft D.
Draw CHG perpendicular to AB, fo that HGrrCH.
Through G draw GMN parallel to AB, cutting LB
produced in M, and make GMr:MN. Join N, F,
and from the point E, where NF cuts the plane BL,
draw EG, joining the points EG : the point D will be
the point of the plane, againft which the body at C
muft impinge, in order to ftrike the body at F. By
reafoning as in the preceding cafe, it may be ftiewn
that the angle CDHrzEDB, therefore DE will be the
path of the body after the firft reflexion. Now, the
triangles GEM, EMN are equiangular, becaufe GM
rrMN, and the angles at M right, therefore DEB
= FEL, that is, the body after reflexion at E will
ftrike the body placed at F.
Prop. VIE
2p 1. To determine the motions of two fpherical
bodies which impinge obliquely upon each
other, when their motion, quantities of matter,
and radii, are given.
Let A, B be the two bodies, and let CA., DB be pjg ^
the direftions in which they move before impaft, and
let thefe lines reprefent their refpedtive velocities. Join
A, B the centres of the bodies, and produce it both
ways to K and I. Draw LM perpendicular to IK,
and it will touch the bodies at the point of impaft*
Now, the velocity CA may be refolved into the two
velocities Cl, IA, and the velocity DB into the velo¬
cities DK, KB, but CA and DB are given, and alfo
the angles CAI, DBK, confequently Cl and IA, and
DK and KB may be found. The velocities Cl, DK,
which are parallel to the plane, will not be altered by
collifion, therefore IA, KB are the velocities with
which the bodies dire&ly impinge upon each other,
confequently their effects or the velocities after impaft
may be found from Prop 3.5 let thefe velocities be re¬
prefented by AN, BP. Take AFrrrCI and BHrrDM,
and having completed the parallelograms AFON,
BPf)H, draw the diagonals AO, B£L Then, fince
the body A is carried parallel to the line LM with a
velocity CIrrAF, and from the line LM by the velo»
city AN, it will deferibe AO, the diagonal of the pa¬
rallelogram
MECHANICS.
The pheno¬
mena of
imimlflon
owing to
repulfive
forces
which pre¬
vent bodies
from com¬
ing into
mathemati
cal contact
Theory, rallelogram NT j and for the fame reaibn the body
" v 1 ‘ B will delbribe the diagonal B'^ of the parallelo¬
gram PH.
2C)2. Corollary. If ArrB, and if the body which
is 11 ruck moves in a given direction and with a given
Velocity alter impact, the direction of the impinging
body, and the velocity of its motion, may be eaiiiy
Fig. io. found. Let the body D impinge againft the equal
body C, and let CB be the direction in which C moves
after impadt, it is required to find the direction in
which D will move. Draw D f, touching the bail C
at c, the place where the ball D impinges ; produce
BC to E, and through c draw A c F perpendicular to
EB, and complete the redtangle FE. The force D c
may be refolved into the forces £ c, c F, of which E c
is employed to move the ball C in the direction CB
and with the velocity E c; but the force c F has no
{hare in the hnpulfe, and is wholly employed in making
the body D move in the direction CA, and with the
velocity CF.
Scholium.
293. In the preceding propofition, we have endea¬
voured to give a Ihort and perfpicuous view of the com¬
mon theory of impulfion. The limits of this article
will not permit us to enter upon thofe interefting fpecu-
lations to which this fubjedt has given rife ; but thofe
who are anxious to purfue them will find ample aflift-
ance in the article Impulsion, in the Supplement to
the laft edition of this work, where Dr Robifon has
treated the fubjedt with his ufual ability. It may be
proper however to remark, that all the phenomena of
impulfe as well as preffure, are owing to the exiftence of
forces which prevent the particles of matter from coming
into mathematical contadl. The body which is ftruck,
in the cafe of collifion, is put in motion by the mutual
repulfion of the material particles at the point of impadl,
while the velocity of the impinging body is diminilhed
by the fame caufe. Hence we fee the abfurdity of re¬
ferring all motion to impulfe, or of attempting to ac¬
count for the phenomena of gravitation, eledtricity, and
magnetifm by the intervention of any invifible fluid.
Even if tne fuppofition that fuch a medium exifts were
not gratuitous, it would be impoffible to Ihew that its
particles, by means of which the impulfe is conveyed,
are in contadl with the particles of the body to which
that impulfe is communicated.
294. A phylico-mathematical theory of percuffion, in
which the impinging bodies are confidered as imper-
fedtly elaftic, has been lately given by Don Georges
Juan, in his Exatnen Maritimo, a Spanilh work which
has been tranllated with additions by M. L’Eveque, un¬
der the title of Examen maritime, theorique et pratique,
ou Traite de mecanique, applique a la conJiruBion, et a
la manoeuvre des vaiffeaux et autres batimens. This
theory has been embraced by many eminent French
philofophers, and may be feen in Prony’s ArchiteBure
Hydrauhque, vol. i. p. 208, and in Gregory’s Mechanics,
vol. i. p. 291. We {hall endeavour, under the article
Percussion, to give a (hurt account of this interefting
theory, which has been found to accord with the moft
accurate experiments.
295* 1° fome cafes of collifion the refults of experi¬
ments are rather at variance with thole of theory, in
confequence of the communication of motion not being-
Vol. XIII. Part I. S
89
Don Geor¬
ges Juan’s
phyfico-ma.
thematical
theory of
percuflion.
exadlly inftantaneous. “ If an ivory ball (fays Mr Theory.
Leilie) ftnkes againft another of equal weight, there " »
Ihould, according to the common theory, be an exact
transfer of motion. But if the velocity of tire impin¬
ging ball lie very coniiderabie, fo far from flopping iird-
denly, it will recoil back again with the lame force,
-while the Dali which is itruck will remain at reft; the
reafon is, that the ihock is fo momentary, as not to per¬
mit the eommunieaiion of impulfe to the whole mals
of the fecond ball, a fmall Ipot only is aftedted, and
the confequence is therefore the fame as it the ball had
impinged againft an immoveable wall. On a periedt
acquaintance with fuch fadts depends, in a great mea-*
fure, the Ikill of the billiard player. It is on a limilar
principle that a bullet fired againft a door which hangs
freely on its hinges will perforate without agitating it
in the leaft. Nay, a pellet of clay, a bit of tallow, or
even a fmall bag of water, difeharged from a piftol
will produce the lame effedf. In all thefe inftances the
impreflion of the ftroke is confined to a lingle fpot, and
no fufticient time is allowed for diffufing its action over
the extent of the door. If a large ftone be thrown
with equal momentum, and confequently with fmaller
velocity, the effedt wTill be totally reverfed, the door
will turn on its hinges, and yet fcarcely a dent will
be made on its furface. Hence likewfife the theory of
moft of the tools, and their mode of application in
the mechanical arts : the chifel, the faw, the file, the
feythe, the hedge bill, &c.—In the proeels of cutting,
the objedf is to concentrate the force in a very narrow
fpace, and this is effedfed by giving the inftrument a
rapid motion. Hence, too, the reafon why only a fmall
hammer is ufed in rivetting, and why a mallet is prefer¬
red for driving wedges.” Enquiry into the Nature of
Heat, p. 127,8.
296. The fucceflive propagation of motion may be il- Suecefllve
luftrated by a very fimple experiment. Take two balls propagation
A, B, of which B is very large when compared w ith A, pf motion
and conned! them by a tiring S palling over the pulley lduftratecb
P. If the ball B is lifted up towards S and allowed toFl§- 11-
fall by its own weight, inftead of bringing the little ball
A along with it, as might have been expected, the
firing will break at P. Here it is evident that the mo¬
tion is not propagated inftantaneoufly, for the firing Is
broken before the motion is communicated to the por¬
tion of the firing between P and A.
297. An apparatus for making experiments on the Apparatus
collifion of bodies is reprefented in fig. 1 2. The ini- exPer‘'
pinging bodies are fufpended by threads like pendu-™
lums, and as the velocities acquired by defeending FV
through the arches of circles are in the ratio of their2' I2*
chords, the velocities of the impinging bodies rpav be
eafily afeertained. The apparatus is therefore furnilhed
with a graduated arch MN which is generally divided
into equal parts, though it would be more convenient to
place the divifions at the extremities of arcs whofe
chords are expreffed by the correfponding numbers.
The balls that are not ufed may be placed behind the
arc as at m and n ; and in order to give variety to the
experiments, the balls may be of different fizes. Some¬
times a difti like G is attached to the extremities of the
ftrings, for the purpofe of holding argillaceous balls, and
balls of wax foftened with a quantity of oil equal to one-
fourth part of their weight.—See SmeatoEs Experiments
on the Collijlon of Bodies.
M
Chap.
MECHANICS.
Chap. VII. On the Maximum EjfeEls of Machines.
298. We have already feen in feme of the preceding
chapters, that when two bodies act upon each other by the
intervention either of a fimple or compound machine,
there is an equilibrium when the velocity of the power is to
the velocity of the weight as the weight is to the power.
In this lituation of equilibrium, thereiore, the velocity of
the weight is nothing, and the power has no eifedt in
railing the weight, or, in c/her words, the machine per¬
forms no work. When the weight to be raifed is in¬
finitely fmall, the velocity is the greateft poflible ; but
in this cafe likewife, the machine performs no wrork.
In every other cafe, however, between thefe two ex¬
tremes, fome work will be performed.—In order to il-
luftrate this more clearly, let us fuppofe a man employ¬
ed in railing a weight by means of a lever with equal
arms; and that he exerts a force upon the extremity of
the lever, equivalent to 50 pounds. If the weight to
be raifed is alfo 50 pounds, there will be an equilibri¬
um between the force of the man and the weight to be
raifed, the machine will remain at reft, and no work
will be performed. If the man exert an additional
force of one pound, or if his whole force is 51 pounds,
the equilibrium will be deftroyed, the weight will rife
with a very flow motion, and the machine will therefore
perform fome work. When the motion of the machine
therefore is =0 the work performed is alfo nothing,
and when the machine is in fuch a ftate that the power
preponderates, the work performed increafes. Let us
now fuppofe that the weight fufpended from the lever
is infinitely fmall, the motion of the machine will then
be the greateft poflible j but no work Avill be perform¬
ed. If the weight however is increafed, the motion of
the machine will be diminiflied, and work will be per¬
formed. Here then it is evident that the Avork per¬
formed increafes from nothing Avhen the velocity is a
maximum, and decreafes to nothing when the velocity
is a minimum. There muft therefore be a particular
A’elocity Avhen the Avork performed is a maximum, and
this particular velocity it is our prefent objett to de¬
termine. Sometimes, indeed, the velocities of the
machine are determined by its ftrudture, and there¬
fore it is out of the poAver of the mechanic to ob¬
tain a maximum effeft by properly proportioning them.
The fame object hoAvever may be obtained, by making
the Avork to be performed, or the refiftance to be over¬
come, in a certain proportion to the poAver Avhich is em¬
ployed to perform the Avork or overcome the refift¬
ance.
299. Dee. 1.—In a machine performing Avork, the
poAvers employed to begin and continue the motion of the
machine, are called the firji movers, the movers of powers $
and thofe poAvers Avhich oppofe the production and con¬
tinuance of motion are called rejiftances. The friCtion
of the machine, the inertia of its parts, and the Avork
to be performed, all oppofe the production and conti¬
nuance of motion, and are therefore the refiftances to
be overcome. When various poAvers aCi at the fame
time, and in different directions, the equivalent force
which refults from their combined aCtion is called the
Plate moving force, and the force refulting from all the refitting
CCCXXII. forCes, the refijlance. If the machine, for example, is a
f)o’I< lever A B moving round the centre F? by means of which,.
two men raife water out of two pump barrels by the Theory,
chains Aw, Ctu attached to the piftons, and pafling over '’■’■"“v™*"
the arched heads or circular feCtors M, N, for the pur-
pofe of giving the piftons and chains a vertical motion.
Let the force of the man at B, fix feet from F, be e-
qual to 50 pounds, or tt, his mechanical energy to turn
the lever is 6 X 50=300. Let the force of the other
man applied at L, four feet from F, be alio equal to
50 pounds, or p. His mechanical energy Avill be
4X $0—200, fo that the Avhole moving power is equal
to 300-{-200=500. But if the tAvo forces of 50
pounds, inftead of being applied at Iavo different dif-
tances from I, had been applied at the fame point
G, 5 feet from F, their energy to turn the lev'er would
have been the fame, for 5 X 50-{- 50= 500. In the pre¬
fent cafe, therefore, the moving force is equivalent to
P X GF, or a force of 100 pounds aCling at a diftance of
five feetfrom the centre of motion. Noav let'us fuppofe that
each pifton A w, C m raifes 60 pounds of Avater equiva¬
lent to the Aveights u, w, and that CF—2 feet, and
AF=3 feet, then the mechanical energy of thefe
Aveights will be refpedlively 2x60=120, and 3x60
= 180, and the fum of their energies =300. But tAvo
forces of 60 pounds each, adling at the diftances two
feet and three feet from F, are equivalent to their fum
= 120 pounds, a&ing at a diftance of tAvo feet and a
half from F, for 2\ X 120=300 ; therefore, the refift¬
ance arifing from the work to be performed, or from
the Avater raifed in the pump barrels, is equal to a Aveight
P of 120 pounds ailing at the diftance DF=2i feet.
But in addition to the refiftance arifing from the Avork
to be performed, the two men have to overcome the re¬
fiftance arifing from the friilion of the pifton in the bar¬
rels, which Ave may fuppofe equivalent to f <p, each
equal to 10 pounds, ailing at the points A, C $ but
thefe forces are equivalent to 20 pounds, or ff<p ail¬
ing at D, therefore the refiftance arifing from the Avork
and from friition is equal to 140 pounds, ailing at the
diftance DF=2 feet and a half. While the tAvo mes
are employed in overcoming thefe refiftances, they have
alfo to contend againft the inertia of the beam AF,
and that of the chains and piftons, which we may fuppofe
equal to 20 pounds Avhen colleited in their centre of
gravity^, whofe diftance from F is 2.2 feet j but a
weight of 20 pounds ailing at the diftance of 2.2 feet
is equivalent to a Aveight of 194 pounds, ailing at
the diitance of 2.5 feet, or DF, confequently the fum
of all the refiftances Avhen reduced to the fame point D
of the lever is equal to 159^ pounds ailing at the dif¬
tance of 2.5 feet from F. The mechanical energy,
therefore, of the fum of all the refiftances Avill be=
2-5 X I59v=::::398-75> while the energy of the moving
force, or the fum of all the moving poAvers, is equal t*
5°°.
300. Def. 2.—The impelled point of a machine is that
point to Avhich the moving poAver is applied, if there is-
only one poAver, or that point to Avhich all the moving
powers are reduced, or at which the moving force is fup-
pofed to ail. The working point of a machine is that
point at Avhich the refiftance ails if it is fingle, or that
point to Avhich all the refiftances are reduced, and at
Avhich they are fuppofed to ail when combined. Thus
in fig. 1. G is the impelled point of the machine, andpj 2
D the working point. Had a fingle force w been ap- 0 *
plied at the point B to raife a fingle weight u, ailing
at
MECHANICS.
9*
Theory, at the point A, then B would have been the impelled
v""1"' point, and the working point of the machine. In the
wheel and axle, the point of the wheel at which the
rope touches its circumference is the impelled point,
while the working point is that point in the circumfe¬
rence of the axle where the rope which carries the
Weight is in contact with it.
301. Def. 3.—The velocity of the moving power, and
the velocity of the reliftance, are refpedtively the fame
as the velocity of the impelled point, and the velocity
of the working point.
302. Def. 4.—The effett of a machine, or the luorh
performed, is equal to the refiltance multiplied by the ve¬
locity of the working point; for when any machine raifes
a mafs of matter to a given height in a certain time, the
effeft produced is meafured by the produdl of the mafs,
and the height through which it rifes, that is, by the
product of the mafs by the velocity with which it moves.
303. Def. 5.—The momentum of impulfe is equal to
the moving force multiplied by the velocity of the im¬
pelled point.
Esplana- 304* In any machine that has a motion of rotation,
*,0\°F l6* x I56 ^e velocity of the impelled point, and y the
ym 0 ' velocity of the working point. When the machine is
a lever, x, y will exprefs the perpendiculars let fall
from the centre of motion upon the line of direction in
which the forces a6t j and if the machine is’ a wheel
and axle, x, y will reprefent the diameters of the wrheel
and the axle refpeflively. In compound machines,
which may be regarded as compofed of levers, (Art. 90.)
x will reprefent the fum of all the levers by which the
power a6ts, and y the fum of all the levers by which
the refiftance adds.
305. Let P be the real preflure which the moving
power exerts at the impelled point of the machine, and
R the actual preflure which the mere reliftance of the
work to be performed exerts at the working point, or
which it dire&ly oppofes to the exertion of the power.
Let a be the inertia of the power P, or the mafs of
matter which the power P muft move with the veloci¬
ty of the impelled point, in order that P may exert its
prefliire at the impelled point; and let b be the inertia
of the reliftance R, or the mafs of matter which muft
be moved with the velocity of the working point in the
performance of the work.
306. Since the refiftance ariling from the fri&ion of
the communicating parts is an uniformly retarding
force, it may be meafured by a weight <p adding at the
working point of the machine, which will oppofe the
fame reliftance to the moving power as the friddion of
the parts.
307. Let m be the inertia of the machine, or rather
that quantity of matter, which adding at the working
point of the machine will require the fame part of the
moving force to give it an angular motion, then lince y
reprefents the arm of the lever by which the reliftance
a<fts, or the diftance of the working point from the
centre of motion •, and lince the momentum of inertia, or
the momentum with which any mafs revolving round a
centre refills being put in motion, is equal to its quanti¬
ty of matter multiplied by the fquare of its diftance
from its centre of motion (fee article Rotation), we
have m y* for the momentum of inertia of the machine.
It is obvious that every machine oppofes a certain relif¬
tance to any force that endeavours to give it an angu- Theory,
lar motion, and that this reliftance will increafe with
the inertia of its parts. It is eafy, therefore, to find a
quantity of matter, which, when placed at any part of
the machine, will oppofe the fame reliftance to an angu¬
lar motion, as the combined inertia of the various parts
of the machine. This is the quantity of matter which
we have called m, and which we have fuppofed to aft
at the working point, becaufe to that point all the other
refiftances have been reduced. Collefting the fymbols,
therefore, we have
Afrrthe velocity of the impelled point or the ra¬
dius of the wheel, or the length of the le¬
ver by which the power afts.
yzrthe velocity of the working point, or the ra¬
dius of the axle, or the length of the le¬
ver by which the reliftance afts againft
the power.
Prrthe preflure exerted by the powrer at the im¬
pelled point of the machine.
Rirthe preffure which the refiftance ariling from
the work to be performed exerts at the
Working point of the machine,
err the inertia of the power P, or the quantity
of matter to which it muft communicate
the velocity of the impelled point.
^rzthe inertia of the refiftance R, or the quan¬
tity of matter which it muft move with
the velocity of the working point before
any work is performed.
f=a quantity of matter which, if placed at the
working point of the machine, would op¬
pofe the fame reliftance to the moving
power as that which arifes from the fric¬
tion of the communicating parts,
w/rzthe quantity of matter which, if placed at
the working point of the machine, would
oppofe the fame refiftance to the produc¬
tion of an angular motion, that is oppofed
by the inertia of the various parts of which
the machine is compofed. Hence, by the
principles of rotation, we have
m y*zrthe momentum of inertia of the machine.
We are now prepared for determining the conditions of
conftruftion, which will enable any machine to produce
a maximum effeft.
Prop. I.
308. To determine the velocities which muft be
given to the impelled and working points of a
machine, or the ratio of the levers by which the
power and refiftance ought to adl, in order to
obtain a maximum effedt.
Let AB be a lever, whofe fulcrum is F, and to Fig.
whofe extremity B is applied the power P to over¬
come the refiftance R, and let FBrr.v, and FA=ry.
Then, by Art. 36* we lhall have, from the following
analogy, the weight which, placed at B, would be in
equihbrio with R ; # : y=:R : —A, the weight which
x 0
will keep R in equilibrio, or the weight which is equal
M 2 t®
M E C H
to that part of the power P which balances the refill-
p
ance R. Hence, P   will be the effective force
x
exerted by the power P, which, multiplied by x, its
dillance from the centre of motion, gives Pa;—Ry for
the force which is exerted in giving an angular motion
to the power and refiifance. But the reliilance of fric¬
tion was fuppofed equal to the weight (p ailing at the
working point or at the dillance FA or y; confequently,
(p // will be the leliftance which friftion oppofes to the
force P x—Ry, and therefore P x—R y —<p y is the mo¬
tive force exerted by P. Now, the momentum of the in¬
ertia of the power P, or the force with which it refills be¬
ing put in motion, is a v*, and the momentum of inertia
of the reliilance R is by*, while the momentum of in¬
ertia of the machine is mij*. Therefore, the fum of thefe
momenta, viz. ax*-^-by1 my* is the mafs to be put
in motion by the power P. But, by Dynamics, § 167.
the velocity generated in a given time is diredlly as the
motive force, and inverfely as the quantity of matter to
which that force is applied. Hence the angular velo¬
city, or the number of turns which the machine will
, . . . . P#—Ry—<Py t, .
make in a given time, is  —T   —. But in eve-
6 ’ a x*-\-b y*-\-my*
ry rotatory machine the velocities of its different parts
are as their dillance from the axis $ hence, we lhall
have the velocities of the impelled and working points
of the machine, by multiplying the angular velocity by
x, y the dillances of the impelled and working points
of the machine from the centre of motion. There¬
fore,
P,**—Ra?/—<pxy , , . r , . i, i .
—■ ^ — ,   --=the velocity ot the impelled point,
ax*-^by -^my
and
P#y—Ry*—<py*
ax1 -\-by* -\-my*
of the machine ; and multiplying by R, we have from
Def. 4.
P #y R—R* y*—R y*
—the work performed.
ax* -\-vy*-\-my*
309. But as forces are proportional to the velocities
generated by them in equal times (Dynamics, § 133.
Cor. 4. § 159.)* the preceding quantities will reprefent
the accelerating forces. Now, the velocities are as the
forces and times jointly (Dynamics, § 153.), that is,
yrrF /, or is F j but F, the accelerating force,
which generates the velocity of the impelled point, is
- , , , r . P*1—— <pxy
repreiented by the formula
There-
ax*-\-by*-\-my*
fore, v, or t he abfolute velocity of the impelled point, is
Pat*—J\xy—Q xy
ax*-\-by*-^-mtj* ^ ^ ’
A N I C S.
ing the fluxion of the preceding formula —o, we fhall Thccry.
find that the performance of the machine is a maximum, v—*■
■when
and the abfolute velocity of
a* X P +?lJ-ffPJ a X v:+b\t—a1R—a4>
 ^-pr, ■, u-f   X *-
i-fPb
When R—o, we have
  a*<p* + P*a x m + b^—a? w „
" ¥m+lJb X
When o, the firft formula becomes
«sR24- P^jr x rn-f-blf—oR
y= pm+Pr— X^‘
When both R and <p=o, we have, after redudeion,
\/ a
y=~rzn,x*-
When b~o, the firfl; formula becomes
X R-F<plI4-P*«'»!i—«R—nip w
y_ p^ X x.
When R, <p and b—o, we have
V" a
y-
\/ m
Xx.
When a : £=P : R, we have, by fubftituting P an^l
R inftead of a and b.
 P* xR4-<pi2+P3xw-hR|-5—PR—P<?
P«*+PR
X^.
C—the velocity of the working point y'
When P#z and <p—0, the lafi: formula becomes
PTRlppIpl^—PR /PIP+PVR PR
_ pR piR, —
PR
. , . . PAfy—Ry*—cpy* . . ,
the working point — xgl. Again, by
Def. 4. the effect of a machine, or the work performed,
is equal to the reftftance of the work multiplied by the
velocity ; eonfequently, fince R is the work, we have,
for the performance of the machine,
PgyR R*y* iftRy*
ax*-pby*-\-my* ^
Now, confidering y as the variable quantity, and mak-
5
and when x—l, and R=i, we have
y=v/p+Il—1,
and when P=i, and x—i, we obtain
When x~ 1,
y=yi+T|_j.
Thefe various formul.ee, the application of which
to particular cafes ihall be ihown in the praflical part
of this article, give us values of y for almoft every fpe-
cies of machinery $ fo that the mechanic may eafily de¬
termine the velocities which muff be given to the im¬
pelled and working points of the machine in order to
produce a maximum effect.
310. When the machine, however, is already con-
flrudled, the velocities of the impelled and working
points cannot be changed, without altering the ftruc-
ture of the machine j and therefore we muff find the
ratio between the power and refiftance, which will
enable
Theory.
M E C H
enable us to obtain a maximum efteft. The method of
1 determining this will be (hewn in the folloAving propo-
fxtion.
Prop.. II.
311. To determine the ratio between the power
and the refiftance of a machine when its per¬
formance is a maximum.
Since the ftni£ture of the machine is given, the va¬
lues of x, y are known, and therefore we have to deter¬
mine the relative values of P and R, when the eftedt of
the machine is a maximum. This would be eafily
done, by making R variable in the formula which ex-
pre.Tes the performance of the machine, and making its
fluxion equal to o, if none of the other quantities varied
along with R. It often happens, however, that while
R varies, the mafs b fuffers a confiderable change,
though in other cafes the change induced upon b is too
unimportant to merit notice. This proposition, there¬
fore, admits of two cafes, 1. When the change upon b
is fo fmall that it may be fafely omitted in the invefti-
gation ; and, 2. When the change upon b is fufficient-
ly great to require attention.
312. Case i. When R is the only quantity which
is variable, the fluxion of the formula
P x y R—R1 z/J-—<p R y*
a xi-\-b y1 -\-m y* ’
which reprefents the work performed, is equal to the
fluxion of the numerator, becaufe the denominator is
conftant, that is, P x y R—2RR y1—<p RyI=:o, and,
dividing by R j Ptfy—2R y*—<py*=:o, hence 2Ry*=:
P X ;J 0 ij*
P x y—if, and R—' ——, which, divided by y,
f_Px—<py
ments of Coulomb, the fridtion is, in general, propor¬
tional to the refilling preflure, or a certain part of that
preflure, for example, ^R 5 and calling and
omitting y, we have for the refiltance R-j-T'yR,
•r i|^R=r—, or R=: (-^ )an(i making ~
A N T C S.
by thefe fubftitutions in the formula which exprefies the
elfedl of the machine, ——-fj—^ or, for the fake
R y*
of fimplieity, making u-\-m—q, we have for the per-
Ry R* y*
formance of the machine — —;—— ? then fince R is the
q+dry
variable quantity, we lhall find, after making the fluxion
of this formula —o, that the performance is a maximum.
when 11=^31=?.
dy\
When b—K then d—1, and we lhall have
gives R:
2 if
Now, according to the experi-
2y \ 2y/
=ri, and arm, we have fo that, ab-
y<
ftradling from the quotient which being little
greater than 1, will not alter the refult, the refiltance
Ihould be one-half of the force which would keep the
impelling power in equilibrio.
313. Case 2. When b varies at the fame time with
R, it will in mod cales vary in the lame proportions,
and therefore may be reprefented by any multiple of
R, as J R, where d may be either an integer or a frac¬
tion. In order to Amplify the inveftigation, Ave may
confider the fradtion p as a refiftance diminilhing the
impelling poAver, inftead of regarding it as a refiftance
to be added to the other refilling forces. Thus the im¬
pelling power P will become P—<p. In the fame Avay
we may confider the momentum of the machine’s in¬
ertia applied to the impelled point, that is, inftead of
mf it may be made m x\. Now making P—<p, or the
impelling poAver =1, and making xzzi, we fliall have
R_y+?y|4—?
y'
When a=P and P:=i, and when m, the inertia of the
machine, —O, we lhall have a -{-m— 1 —y, and then thu
formula becomes
y
When ij—x, then y~i, and
1 -f i ||—1
R=—CJ =0.4142.
Scholium.
314. Thofe Avho Avilh to profecute this interefting
fubjedt may confult the different papers of Euler in the
Comment. Petropol. vol. x. p, 80, 1743, and in the
Comment. Nov. Petropol. vol. iii. and viii. In the article
Machinery in the Supplement to the laft edition of
this Work, the fubjedt has been treated Avith great
ability by Dr Robifon, though he has omitted the vari¬
ous Iteps in the invelligation which condudt to the
leading formulae. The fubjedt has been alfo ably dif-
cufled by Profeffor Leflie in a paper publilhed in the
Appendix to Fergufon’s Ledtures, vol. ii. p. 353 } and
as the refults of his inveftigations may be of great ufe
in pradtice, we fliall here prefent the reader Avith a
Ihort abltradt of them.
If the reliftance is equal to the power, is double, tri¬
ple, or quadruple, &c. a maximum effedt will be pro¬
duced Avhen the velocity of the power, or its diltance
from the centre of motion, is 1 -|- ^/22 -f- \/63 -}--v/ * 2 »
4—\l20 5 5+\/3Q j 6-f->/42, that of the Aveight be¬
ing 1, &c. If the refiftance is very great, compared
Avith the poAver, the velocity Ihould at lealt be double
of that Avhich would procure an equilibrium, in order
that the machine Anil produce a maximum effedt.
315. If the velocity of the poAver, or its diftance from
the centre of motion, be equal to, double, triple, qua¬
druple, &c. &c. of the velocity of the Aveight or re-
ffftance, a maximum effedt Avill be produced Avhen the
power P is equal to R X i-f’-v/2?
R X T-byW > R X l + I/ Ay ^ X t + V ^c*
Avhere ft is the refiftance or weight to be raifed. If the
velocity of the porver lie very large, a maximum effedt
will be produced when the poAver P is, at leaft, double
of that which would procure an equilibrium. It ap¬
pears alfo from Mr Lellie’s paper, that in whatever
way the maximum be procured, the force which impells
the
MECHANICS.
94
Theory, the weight can never amount to one-fourth part of the
diredt adiion of the power 5 and that in machines where
the velocity of the power is great, we may difregard
the momenta of the connedling parts, and confider the
force which ought to be employed as double of what
is barely able to maintain the equilibrium.
Chap. VIII. On the Equilibrium of Arches, Piers,
and Domes.
3* 316. Def. I. An arch is reprefented in fig. 3. by
the affemblage of Hones ab,cd,ef &c. forming the mafs
ABMN, whofe inferior furface is the portion of a
curve. The parts A, B are called the fpring of the
arch, the line AB the /pan of the arch, C b its altitude,
b its crown, ab the keystone, the curve or lower fur-
face A B the intrados, and the roadway TUV the
extrados ; P£), RS, the piers when they Hand between
two arches, and the abutments when they are at the
extremities of the bridge.
■Fig. 4. 317. Def. 2. A catenarian curve is the curve formed
by any line or cord perfedtly flexible, and fufpended
by its extremities. Thus if the chain ACB be fufpend¬
ed by its extremities A, B, it will by the adtion of gra¬
vity upon all its parts aflume the form ACB, which is
called the catenary or catenarian curve.
318. There are three modes of determining the con-
ftrudtion of arches •, the firft of which is to confider the
arch as an inverted catenary j the fecond is to eftablilh
an equilibrium betweeen the vertical preflures of all
the materials between the intrados and extrados ; and
the third is to regard the different arch-ftones as por¬
tions of wedges without fridtion, which endeavour by
their own weight to force their way through the arch.
The firft of thefe methods rvas given by the ingenious
Dr Hook, and is contained in the following propoli-
fcion.
Prop. I.
319. To determine the form of an arch by con-
fidering it as an inverted catenary, when its
fpan, its altitude, and the form of the roadway
or extrados are given.
Fig. 5. Let a, b, c, d be a number of fpheres or beads con-
nedted by a ftring, and fufpended by their extremities
A, B ) they will form a catenarian curve A a £ c B,
and be in equilibrio by the adtion of gravity. Each
fphere is adted upon by two forces •, at its lower point by
the weight of tire fpheres immediately below it, and at
its upper point by the weight of the fame fpheres added
to that of the fphere itfelf j that is, any fphere c is in
«quilibrio from the refult of two forces, one of which
*? produced by the weights c d e adling at the lower
j.oint of b , while the other force arifes from the weight
of b c d e adling at its upper point. The equilibrium
of this chain of fpheres is evidently of the liable kind,
as it will immediately recover its polition when the
equilibrium is difturbed. Let us now fuppofe this
arch inverted, fo as to Hand in a vertical plane as in
Fig. 6. fig* 6. It will Hill preferve its equilibrium. For the
relative pofitions of the lines which mark the diredlions
remain unchanged by inverting the curve, the force of
gravity continues the fame, and therefore the refult of Theory,
thefe forces will be the fame, and the arch will be in ‘—■"Y'"—
equilibrio. The equilibrium, however, which the arch
now poffeffes is of the tottering kind, fo that the leaft
difturbing force will deftroy it, and it will confequently
be unable to fupport any other weight but its own.
3 20. Let us now fuppofe that it is required to form
an equilibrated arch, whofe fpan is AB, whofe altitude
is D k, and which ivill fupport the materials of a road¬
way, whofe form TUV is given. It is obvious,
that if the fpheres a, b, c, d increafe in denfity from k
towards a, the catenarian curve will grow lefs concave at
its vertex e, and more concave towards its extremities
A,B. Let us then fuppofe that the denfities of the fpheres
a, b, c, d, e, &c. are refpedtively as a m, b n, c 0, dp, eq,
&c. the vertical diftances of their refpedlive centres
from the roadway TUV, the arch will have a form
different from that which it would have affumed if the
fpheres were of equal denfity, and will be in equilibrio
when inverted as in fig. 6. Now, in place of the Fig. &
fpheres a, b, c, d, e, &c. of different denfities, let us fub-
ftitute fpheres of the fame denfity, and having the fame
pofition as thofe of different denfities j let us then load
the fphere a with a weight which, when combined with
the weight of a, will be equal to the weight of the cor-
refponding fphere a, that had a greater denfity j and
let us load the other fpheres b, c, d, &c. with weights
proportional to bn,c o,dp, &c. Then it is obvious
that the preffure of each fphere when thus loaded upon
that which is contiguous to it, is precifely equal to the
preffure of the fpheres of different denfities upon each
other, becaufe the denfity of thefe fpheres varied as
their diftances from the roadway. But the arch com-
pofed of fpheres of different denfities was in equilibria
when inverted, therefore fince the loaded fpheres of the
fame denfity have the fame pofition and exert the fame
preffures, the arch compofed of thefe fpheres and fup-
porting TUVB k A compofed of homogeneous materi¬
als, will be in equilibrio. Hence a roadway of a given
form, and compofed of homogeneous materials, will be fup-
ported by an arch whofe form is that of a catenary, each
of whofe points varies in denfty as their di/lance from
the furface of the roadway; or, which is the fame
thing, A roadway of a given form, and compofed of
homogeneous materials, will be fupported by an arch
whofe form is that of a catenary, each of whofe points is
a Pled upon by forces proportional to the diflances of thefe
points from the furface of the roadway.
32I. Hence we have the following praflical method
of afeertaining the form of an equilibrated arch, whofe
fpan is AB, and altitude D k, and which is to fupport
a roadway of the form T'U'V'. Let a chain
Aa b ck~&, of uniform denfity, be fufpended from the
points A, B, fo that it forms a catenary whofe altitude
is D k, the required height of the arch. Divide AB
into any number of equal parts, fuppofe eight, and let
the vertical lines 1 m, 2n, 30, drawn from thefe
points, interfeft the catenary in the points a, b, c. From
the points a, b, c, k, r, s, t, fufpend pieces of chain of uni¬
form denfity, and form them of fuch a length, that
when the whole is in equilibrio, the extremities of the
chains may lie in the line T'U'V'j then the form Avhich
the catenary A £ B now affumes, will be the form of
an equilibrated arch, which, when inverted like AKB,
will fupport the roadway TUV, fimilar to T'U'V'.
This
M E C H
Theory. This is obvious from the laft paragraph, for the pieces
of chain a m, b n, c o, k\J, &c. are forces afting upon
the points a, b, c, k of the catenary, and are proportional
to a m, b n, c 0, &c. the distances of the points a, b, ct
i, &c. from the roadway.
322. An arch of this conftruftion will evidently an-
fwer for a bridge, in which the weight of the materials
between the roadway and the arch ftones is to the
weight of the arch ftones, as the weight of all the pieces
of chain fufpended from a, b, c, &c. is to the weight of
the chain A £ B. As the ratio, howrever, of the weight
of the arch ftones to the weight of the fuperincumbent
materials is not known, we may affume a convenient
thicknefs for the arch ftones, and if from this aflumed
thicknefs their weight be computed, and be found to
have the required ratio to the weight of the incumbent
mafs, the curve already found will be a proper form
for the arch. But if the ratio is different from that of
the weight of the whole chain to the -weight of the fuf¬
pended chains j it may be eafily computed how much
muft be added to or fubtra&ed from the pieces of chain,
in order to make the ratios equal. The new curve
which the catenary then affumes, in confequence of the
change upon the length of the fufpended chains, will
be the form of an equilibrated arch, the weight of whofe
arch ftones is equal to that which we affumed.
Scholium.
323. In moft cafes the catenarian curve thus deter¬
mined will approach very near to a circular arc equal
to 120 degrees, which fprings from the piers fo as to
form an angle of 60 degrees with the horizon. The
form of the arch, however, as determined in the pre¬
ceding propofition, is fuited only to thofe cafes in which
the fuperincumbent materials exert^a vertical preffure.
A quantity of loofe earth and gravel exerts a preffure
in almoft every diredtion, and therefore tends to deftroy
the equilibrium of a catenarian arch. This tendency,
however, may be removed by giving the arch a greater
curvature towards the piers. This will make it approach
to the form of an ellipfis, and make it fpring more ver¬
tically from the piers or abutments.
324. We ftiall now proceed to deduce the form of an
arch and its roadway, by eftabliftiing an equilibrium a-
mong the weights of all the materials between the arch
and the roadway. Ihis method was given by Emerfon
in his Fluxions, publifhed in 1742, and afterwards by
Dr Hutton in his excellent work on bridges.
Prop. II.
325. To determine the form of the roadway or
extrados, when the form of the arch or intrados
is given.
g. 8- Let the lines AD, DE, EB, BF, FG, GH lie in
the fame plane, and let them be placed perpendicular
to the horizon. From the points D, E, B, &c. draAV the
vertical lines D d, Ee, B b, &c. and taking D p of any
length, make E r equal to D p, &c. and complete the
parallelograms pc,qr. Again, make B szzqe, and com¬
plete the parallelogram /r; in like manner make Ek^isb,
and complete the parallelogram F f ; and fo on with all
the other lines, making the fide of each parallelogram
©qual to that fide of the preceding parallelogram which
A N I C S.
is parallel to it. Let us new flippofe that the lines
CD, DE, EB, &c. can move round the angular points
D, E, B, F, &c. the extremities A, C being immove¬
able ; and that forces proportional to Dr/, Ee, BZ», &c.
are exerted upon the points D, E, B, F, &c. and in
the direflion Dr/, Ee, &c. Now, by the refolution of
forces, the force Dr/ may be refolved into the forces
D c, D p, the force E e into the forces E y, E r, and the
force B b into the forces B j-, B /, and fo on -with the
reft. The force D c produces no other effedt than to
prefs the point A on the plane on which it refts, and is
therefore deftroyed by the refiftance of that plane 5 but
the remaining force Dp tends to bring the point D to.
wards E, and to enlarge the angle ADE 5 this force,
however, is deftroyed by the equal and oppofite force
E q, and in the fame way the forces E r, B t, F x are
deftroyed by the equal and oppofite forces Br, Ek, G v,
while the remaining force G u> is deftroyed by the re¬
fiftance of the plane which fupports the point C. When
the lines AD, DE, &c. therefore are adted upon by
vertical forces proportional to D </, E e, B b, &c. thefe
forces are all deftroyed by equal and oppofite ones, and
the lines will remain in equilibrio.
326. Now the force Dc : Dja or Eyrzfin. cdT> or
dE)p \ fin. AD </, that is, by taking the reciprocals
D r : E
* 4-,
and for the fame reafon
fin. AD d' fin. </ D jp’
E y : B szz
Hence
fin. E eq ‘ fin. b B s‘
E?~fin. Ee^
Now, fince Eq : Ee=fin. Ee q : fin. E qe, we have
EyXfin. Eqe .
Ee=—-—   that is, fince DE/w — E qe. and
im. Eeq 7 ’
t"n t- E <7 x fin. DEm ^ ^
.EB=Eef; E,= -L* s ButE?=;
fin. e EB
therefore, by fubftitution, we obtain
"fin. Eeq
£ ^ fin. DEm
’"r" fin. EeqX fin. e EB "
Now, as the fame reafoning may be employed to find
D c?, B b, &c. we have obtained expreflions of the
forces which, when adting at the angular points D,
E, B, &c. keep the whole in equilibrio, and thefe ex¬
preflions are in terms of the angles which the lines DE,
EB, &c. form with the diredtion of the forces. If the
lines AD, DE, &c. be increafed in number fo that
they may form a polygon with an infinite number of
fides, -which will not differ from a curve line, then the
forces will adt at every point of the curve, and the lin*
m E will be a tangent to the curve at the point E, and
DE m will be the angle of contadl. The line E q be¬
ing now infinitely fmall will coincide with E m, and
therefore the angles eEq and eEB or Eeq will be
equal to the angle e E m, and confequently their fines
will be equal. Therefore by making thefe fubftitutions
in the laft formula, we have an expreflion of the force
at every point of the curve, thus
fin. DEm
l fin. DE m
fin. E w * fin. r E w £
But
96
Theory.
Fig- 9-
But the angle of contact DE m varies with tire
1 curvature at the point E, and the curvature varies as
the reciprocal of the radius of curvature, therefore the
angle of contact varies as the reciprocal of the radius
of curvature ; hence by iubftitution,
E er=—;   g—==•
radius of curvature X nn. e 1L m1
In order to get rid of the confufion in fig. 8. where the
arch is a polygon, let us fuppofe ABC, fig. 9. to be the
curve, 7/1 n a tangent to any point E, and E £■ a vertical
line *, then the prejjure at any point of the arch is ’ rect-
prr calhi as the radius of curvature at that point, and the
fan are of the fine of the angle which the tangent to that
point of the curve forms with a vertical line.
cj27. Corollary. Let us now fuppofe that the arch
ABC fupports a mafs of homogeneous materials lying be¬
tween the roadway TUV and the arth AEBC \ and the
whole being fuppofed in equilibrio, let us determine
the weight which preflfes on the point E. The wreight
of the fuperincumbent column E cZ'r/ varies as E ^Xg
but g dy,fin. tfE£•, E being radius, and d Y,g
—E n B, on account of the parallels E c, UB, there¬
fore the weight of the column ¥. c b d varies as E c X
E dy fin. E » B, that is, -as E cy fin.'E V B, becaufe
E is a conftant quantity j but the ^reflure at E was
! proved to vary as——y— ——  =£=-==, there-
radius curvature X fin. e E m*
fore the weight of the column Y*cbd or Ec-X^n. E« B
varies alfo as this quantity, that is,
E c.X fin. E w B±:     : ■
radius curvature X fin. e E mx
But as the angle E w B is-equal to the angle e E we
1 fliall have, by fubftitution and divificn,
'MECHANICS.
Se£l. IV. and Divifion, we have E rrr———. Now,
Di
by the notation R : :BF : DF j therefore R3 :
tn &
E err
, that is,
radius-curvature ^Xfin* e E m *
When an arch fupports <a roadway, the preffure ex¬
erted upon any point of it, is reciprocally as the radius
of curvature, and the cube of the fine of the angle which
the tangent to that point forms with a vertical line.
q 28! Having thus obtained an expreflion for E c, we
ftiall proceed to fnew the application of the formula to
the cafe when the arch is a portion of a circle.
Fig. 10. Lei EB be the arch of a circle whofe centre is
F. Let the radius = R, BD rr verfed fine, BErrv,
DF—cof. BE—B\J=m. Draw the tangent GE,
and through E the vertical lire c e, which will be
parallel to BE, Then fince GEF is a right angle,
and e EFrrEFB, the angle GE e is the complement
ofEFB, therefore, fin. GEerrcof. EFBrrFD. But,
in the prefent cafe, the radius of curvature is the radius
of the arch, or R, therefore, E c=Pk ^fm. GE °r
= BFJ : DF5, hence
R3
& DF3
BF3 . .
_, and multiplying each
fide by in, we have
iR3 wBF3
R3
“P DF3 ? but ^3 ~
therefore the vertical diftance of the furface of the
roadway from the point F, or E c—
Theory.
m BF3_BU x BF3
DF5 DF3 "
When the point E coincides with B, BFzrDF, and
E 8U. When E coincides with A, the cofine DF
vanilhes, and therefore E c, or the diitance of the
point A from the extrados or roadway, is infinite, h he
'-curve VtJ c T, therefore, will run up to an infinite
height, approaching continually to a vertical line,
drawn from A, which will be its afymptote. Such a
form of the extrados, however, is inadmiflible in prac¬
tice *, and therefore a femicircular arch is not an arch
of equilibration. When the arch is lefs than a lemi-
circle, as PBR, the curve terminates in the point yi;
and as it does not rife very much above a horizontal
lire, palling through U when the arch is finall, we
might produce a perfeft equilibrium, by making the
roadway horizontal as J U u, and making the denfity
of the fuperincumbent columns P n, E 0, which prefs
upon the points P, E refpedlively, in the ratio of
P p, E c, the diftances of thefe points from the curvili-
neal roadway.
329 The inconvenience, however, arifing from the
inflexion of the extrados, may be confiderably removed
by throwing the point of contrary flexure to a greater
diftance, which may be done by diminifhing BU, the
thicknefs of the incumbent mafs above the keyftrone.
Thus, if BU is diminilhed to B d, and if points a, b
are taken in the lines P jo, E c, fo that P «^ P/>= £ b r
Ef—B</ : BU, and fo on with all the points in the
arch •, and if a new roadway v d b a the drawn through
thefe points, the equilibrium of the arch will ft ill
continue, For the various preffures which it fuftained,
though they are diminiftied, preferve the fame proportion.
3 30. Let us fuppofe it neceffary to have the extrados
a horizontal line, and let it be required to find BU=ra
when there is an equilibrium. In this cafe the point H
coincides with U $ or rather, when tire curve U c'l cuts
the horizontal line t U v, the point H coincides with U.
By fubftituting BF—BD inftead of DF in the value
of E c, formerly determined, and by putting BD
we have E c= ^ . But when H coincides with U,
R—#|3
c coincides with 0, and therefore E orrEr—BD + BU
rry-fwz, confequently, J?L==.fzy-\-m, and multiplying
R-
fubftitution, Ec^-tt-tj-, that is, fince R is conftant, by R—y[5, we have raRErry X R—yj3 wj X R—y^?i
E c-±.
b' ’
But when the point E coincides with B,
the cofine b becomes equal to radius •, therefore, in that
cafe Ecrr^-, and E c becomes BU = m, hence
— : tn : E c, and by Geometry, Theor. 8.
RS b* ’ 7
mh3fm x R—yl3=y y R-
coefficients of m, we have
-y'j3, and, dividing by the
?/xR~y|s
/722T 
that
RS—R_yj3
The thicknefs of the roadway above the keystone, when
the extrados is a Jlrctight line, is equal to the quotient
arifing
Tlieory. ari/ing from multiplying the verfed fine of half the arch
 v ' by the cube of its cofine, and dividing this product by the
difference between the cube of the radius, and the cube of
the cofine ; or, to change the expre (lions, the thicknefs of
the roadway above the keystone, when the roadway is a
Jlraight line, is equal to the quotient arifing from multi¬
plying the height of the arch, by the cube of the differ¬
ence between the radius of the arch and its height, and
dividing this produci by the difference between the cube
of the radius, and the cube of the difference between the
radius and the heigh t of the arch.
331. When the arch is a femicircle R—y vaniflies,
and m becomes equal o, fo that the femicircular arch is
evidently inadmiflible. But when the arch is lefs than
a femicircle, the value of m will be finite. Thus, if
the arches are refpectively
Arch.
6o°, we have the fpan,
90°, we have m—~ of the fpan, or
iio°, we have m~T\ of the fpan nearly.
The two firft arches of 60® and 90°, manifeftly give
too great a thicknefs to the part BU or m. In the
third arch of iio°, the thicknefs of BD is nearly what
is given to it by good archite&s, and is therefore the
bell in praftice ; for if the arch were made greater
than no0, the thicknefs of BU or m would be too
fmall. It is obvious, however, that an arch of no0 is
not an arch of perfeB equilibration, for this can be the
cafe only when the roadway has the form Uar. When
the roadway, therefore, is horizontal, as U r, there is
an unbalanced preffure on both fides of the keyflone,
produced by the weight of the materials in the mixti-
linear fpace r%U. It is indeed very fmall, and might
be countera£led, by making the materials below" Z
lighter than thofe below U : but the unbalanced pref¬
fure is fo trifling, that it may be fafely negle&ed. We
MECHANICS.
may, therefore, conclude, that when the arch is to be
circular with a horizontal roadway, an arch of no de¬
grees approaches nearefi to an arch of equilibration.
332. When the arch is elliptical, it will be found, Elliptical.
as in the circle, that mz
_ y X R—y|3
"R3—R—if
arches fu-
An elliptical Peno[to
^ nrril n
_yi ' circular
arch, however, has the advantage of a circular one, when their
when the tranfverfe axis is horizontal j for as it is tranfverfe
much flatter, the point of contrary flexure in the extra- ax*s ^
dos is thrown at a greater diftance, and therefore itzon a ’
will, with lefs inconvenience, admit of a horizontal
roadway. Elliptical arches have alfo the advantage of
being more elegant, and likewife require lefs labour and
materials.
333. The cycloidal arch is likewife fuperior to a cir¬
cular one, but inferior to thofe which are elliptical.
Parabolic, hyperbolic, and catenarian arches, may be
employed when the bridge has only one arch, and is
to rife high ; but in other cafes they are inadmiflible.
The method of determining the roadway for all thefe
forms of arches Avill be found in Dr Hutton’s excellent
work on the Principles of Bridges, p. 3. See alfo
Emerfon’s Mifcellanies, p. 156.3 and his work on
Fluxions, publiihed in 1742.
334. When the form of the roadway is given, the On the me-
fliape of the intrados for an arch of equilibration may chan'cai
be determined. As the inveftigation is very difficult, cuUf-,ot
unlefs when the roadway is a horizontal line, we (hall turn.1 ^
merely give the formula, which will enable any perfon
to conftrudt the curve. In all other curves the equi¬
librium of the arch is imperfeft 3 but the curve de-
fcribed by the following formula is an arch of perfect
equilibration, and has been called the mechanical curve
of equilibration.
ED=AFx
Hyperbol. log. BU x BD-f-BD*
Hyperbol. log. BU+BF-kA BU x BF+BF-
From this formula, which correfponds with figure 11.
Dr Hutton has computed the following table, contaim
ing the values of c U and cE, for an arch whofe fpan
AC is 100, whofe height BF is 40, and whofe thick¬
nefs at the crown or BU is 6. The table will anfwer
BU
for any other arch whofe fpan and thicknefs are as the
numbers 100, 40, 6 5 only the values of cU and cE
muff be increafed or diminiftied in the fame ratio as
thefe numbers.
1 ABLE for confiruciing the Curve of Equilibration, when the fpan, height, and thicknefs at the crown, are as the
numbers 100, 40, and 6.
Value of
rU.
Value of
cE.
o
2
4
6
8
10
12
*3
6.000
6- °35
6.144
6.324
6.580
6.914
7- 33°
I'.Sl1
7-834
Value of
cU.
15
16
17
18
!9
20
21
22
23
Value of
cE.
8.120
8.430
8.766
9.168
9-S'l
9-934
10.381
10.858
11.368
Value of
cU.
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
Value of
cE.
11.911
12.489
13.106
13- 76i
14- 457
15.196
15.980
16.811
17.693
Vol. XIII. Part I.
Value of
cU.
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
Value of
cE.
18.627
19.617
20.665
2I-774
22.948
24.190
25-5°5
26.894
28.364
Value of
c\J.
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
Value of
c E.
29-9I9
31-563
33-299
35-I35
37-075
39.126
4I-293
43-58i
46.000
N
335* The
MECHANICS.
335. The conftru&ion of arches has alfo been dedu¬
ced from confidering the arch-ftones as fruftums- of po¬
ll died wedges without friction, which endeavour to
force their way through the arch. This principle has
been adopted by Belidor, Parent, Boffut, Prony, and
other French philofophers, and like wife by our ingeni¬
ous countryman, the late Mr Atwood. This theory,
however, is more plausible than ufeful. So far from the
arch-ftones having liberty to Aide between thofe which
are contiguous to them, without friftion, they are
bound together by the ftrongeft cement, and fometimes
connected by iron pins or wedges. The theory like-
wife requires, that the weight of the arch muft regu¬
larly increafe as the portion of the vertical tangent cut
off by lines drawn from a given point in a dire&ion
parallel to that of the joints, and therefore either the
denfity or the magnitude of the arch-ftones muft be
very great at the fpring of the arch, where the portion
of the vertical tangent is a maximum. Thofe who wifti
to be acquainted with the mode of inveftigation, by
which the equilibrium of arches is eftablifhed in this
theory, may confult Prony’s Architecture Hydraulique,
tom. i. p. 152.
On the ConJlruBion of Piers and Abutments.
336. In the conftru&ion of piers and abutments,
there are two circumftances which claim our attention.
3. The ftrength that muft be given to them, in order
to refill the lateral thruft which they fuftain from the
adjacent femiarches, and which tend either to overfet
them, or make them Hide upon their bafe. 2. The
form which muft be given to their extremities, fo that
the force of the current may be a minimum.—The ad-
hefion of the pier to the place on which it refts is al¬
ways much greater than one-third of the preffure *, and
as the lateral thruft of the arch which this adhefion re¬
fills, is oblique to the horizon, and may be refolved in¬
to twro forces, one of which is horizontal, and the
other vertical, we have the vertical portion of the la¬
teral thruft, the weight of the pier, and the fridlion on
its bafe, combined in refilling the horizontal portion of
the lateral thruft, which tends to make the pier Hide
upon its bafe, fo that there is no danger of the pier
yielding to' fuch a preffure.—We do not here confider,
that the lateral thruft which tends to give a horizontal
motion to the pier, is completely counteracted by the
lateral thruft of the oppofite femiarch, becaufe it is ne-
ceffary that the pier Ihould have fufficient liability to
.refill the lateral thruft of one femiarch, in cafe of the
failure of the oppofite one. Let us therefore confider
the ftrength of the pier which will prevent it from be¬
ing overfet.
337. For this purpofe, let ABC be an arch, MHTO
the pier, and BUHA the loaded femiarch, whofe pref¬
fure tends to overturn the pier. Let G be the centre
of gravity of the mafs BUHA : Join GA, and from
G draw GK perpendicular to AC. Then, fince the
whole preffure of the arch is exerted at its fpring A ;
and fince this preffure is the fame as if the whole
weight of the arch were colle&ed into the point G,
GA will be the direftion in which the weight of the
arch and the fuperincumbent mafs ads upon the point
A. Now, by Dynamics, the force GA may be re-
5
folved into the two forces GK, K A, one of which KA Theory,
endeavours to give the pier a motion of rotation about '-““'Y-""
the point O, while the other GK denotes the weight
of the loaded arch in the diredion GK. Putting W,
therefore, for the wreight or area of the fuperincumbent
W s/ K A
mafs, we have GK : K A=W : ——, the preflure
upon A. Now, as this force tends to turn the pier
round O by means of the lever OA, and as ON= AM
is the perpendicular from the centre of motion upon
WyKA
the line of diredlion, we have AM X —— for the
GK
force which tends to overturn the pier. Now, the
force which is oppofed to this is the weight of the
pier MHTO colledted in its centre of gravity g, which
a£ls by the vertical lever O wzzr-^OM, becaufe g is in
the centre of the reftangle TM (Art. 164.). But the
weight or area of the pier may be reprefented by OM
X MH 5 therefore, the force which refills the lateral
thruft of the loaded arch is OMxMHx^fFM? or
4-MH X OM. Now, in the cafe of an equilibrium be¬
tween thefe oppofing forces, we have AM X
WxKA
GK
~4MH X OM*, which, by redu£lion, becomes OM
2 AM X X KA
MHxGK
This formula gives us the
breadth of the pier which is capable of balancing the
lateral thruft •, and therefore OM muft be taken a lit¬
tle greater than the preceding value. In practice, OM
is generally between one-fifth and one-feventh of AG,
the fpan of the arch. The method of finding the cen¬
tre of gravity G of the loaded arch, whether the arch
is in perfect equilibrium or not, may be feen in Dr
Hutton’s work already quoted, p. 49. A very fimple
method of doing this is to form the part BVHA of a
piece of card, and to find its centre of gravity G by
the rules given in Articles 201, 202, 203. This in¬
deed fuppofes all the materials to be homogeneous ; but
if they are of various kinds, we can load the arch made
of card in a fimilar manner, and determine its. centre of
gravity as before.
338. The limits of this article will not permit us to
apply the method of fluxions to the determination of the
form which fhould be given to the ends of the pier, in
order that the impulfe of the current may be the leafl
poflible. The theory of the refiftance of fluids, indeed,
differs fo widely from experiment, that fuch an invefti¬
gation would, in this place, be of little practical utility.
It may be fufficient merely to remark, that the pier
ffiould have an angular form, and that the impulfe of
the current will be diminiffied as the angle is more acute.
When the ends are femicireular, the impulfe of the
ftream is reduced to one half 3 and though a triangular
termination of the piers reduces the impulfe ftill more,
yet femicircular ends are more pleafing to the eye, and
are particularly advantageous when fmall veffels have
occafion to pafs the arch. When thofe veffels happen
to impinge againft the piers, the femicircular ends are
more able to bear the ffiock, and do lefs injury to the
vcffel, while the additional quantity of mafonry will
give greater liability to the pier.
Theory.
M E C H
On the ConjlruElion of Domes.
339. Definition. A dome, cupola, or vault, is
an arched roof, either of a fpherical, conoidal, or fphe-
roidal form.
The following proportion, taken from Dr Robifon’s
article upon this fubjedf, in the Supplement to the late
edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, contains a very
brief view of the theory of domes.
Proposition,
340. “ To determine the thicknefs of a dome vault¬
ing when the curve is given, or the curve when
the thicknefs is given.
Plate “ Let B A, figure I, be the curve which pro-
CCCXXIII. duces the dome by revolving round the vertical
I* axis AD. We fhall fuppofe tins curve to be drawn
through the middle of all the arch-ftones, and that the
courfing or horizontal joints are every where perpen¬
dicular to the curve. We {hall fuppofe (as is always
the cafe) that the thicknefs KL, HI, &c. of the arch-
ftones is very fmall, in comparifon with the dimenfions
of the arch. If we coniider any portion HA h of the
'dome, it is plain that it prefles on the courfe, of
which HL is an arch-ftone, in a direction b C perpen¬
dicular to the joint HI, or in the dire£Hon of the next
fiiperior element /3 b of the curve. As we proceed
downwards, courfe after courfe, wc. fee plainly that
this direction muft change, becaufe the weight of each
courfe is fuperadded to that of the portion above it, to
complete the preffure on the courfe below. Through
B draw the vertical line BCG, meeting /3 Z>, produced
in C. We may take b c to exprefs the prelTure of all
that is above it, propagated in this dire&ion to the
joint KL. We may alfo fuppofe the weight of the
courfe HL united in b, and adling on the vertical.
Let it be reprefented by b F. If we form the paral¬
lelogram ^ FGC, the diagonal b G will reprefent the
direction and intenfity of the whole preffure on the
joint KL. Thus it appears that this preffure is conti¬
nually changing its diredlion, and that the line, which
will always coincide with it, muft be a curve concave
downward. If this be precifely the curve of the dome, it
will be an equilibrated vaulting •, but fo far from being
the ftrongeft form, it is the weakeft, and it is the li¬
mit to an infinity of others, which are all ftronger than
it. This will appear evident, if we fuppofe that b G
does not coincide with the curve A B, but paffes
without it. As we fuppofe the arch-ftones to be ex¬
ceedingly thin from infide to outfide, it is plain that
this dome cannot ftand, and that the weight of the
upper part will prefs it down, and fpring the vaulting
outwards at the joint KL. But let us fuppofe, on the
other hand, that b G falls within the curvilineal ele¬
ment b B. This evidently tends to pufli the arch-ftone
inward, toward the axis, and would caufe it to Aide in,
finee the joints are fuppofed perfectly fmooth and flip¬
ping. But finee this takes place equally in every ftone
of this courfe, they muft all abut on each other in the
vertical joints, fqueezing them firmly together. There¬
fore, refolving the thruft b G into two, one of which is
A N I C S.
'99
perpendicular to the joint KL, and the other parallel Theory,
to it, we fee that this laft thruft is with flood by the 'r~~
vertical joints all around, and there remains only the
thruft in the diredlion of the curve. Such a dome muft
therefore be firmer than an equilibrated dome, and can¬
not be fo eafily broken by overloading the upper part.
When the curve is concave upwards, as in the lower
part of the figure, the line b C always falls below B bt
and the point C below B. When the curve is con¬
cave downwards, as in the upper part of the figure,
’b C' paffes above, or without b B. The curvature
may be fo abrupt, that even b' G' fliall pafs without
'b B', and the point G' is above B7. It is alfo evident
that the force which thus binds the ftones of a horizon¬
tal courfe together, by pufhing them towards the axis,
■will be greater in flat domes than in thofe that
are more convex j that it w ill be ftill greater in a
cone 5 and greater ftill in a curve whofe convexity is
turned inwards : for in this laft cafe the line b G will
deviate moft remarkably from the curve. Such a dome
will ftand (having poliftied joints) if the curve fpringe
from the bafe with any elevation, however fmall} nay,
fince the friction of two pieces of ftone is not lefs than
half of their mutual preffure, fuch a dome wfill ftand,
although the tangent to the curve at the bottom fhould
be horizontal, provided that the horizontal thruft be
double the weight of the dome, which may eafily be
the cafe if it do not rife high.
“ Thus we fee that the liability of a dome depends
on very different principles from that of a common
arch, and is in general much greater. It differs alfo
in another very important circumftance, viz. that it
may be open in the middle : for the uppermoft courfe,
by tending equally in every part to Hide in toward the
axis, preffes all together in the vertical joints, and atls
on the next courfe like the key-ftone of a common
arch. Therefore an arch of equilibration, which is
the weakeft of all, may be open in the middle, and
carry at top another building, fuch as a lantern, if its
weight do not exceed that of the circular legment of
the dome that is omitted. A greater load than this
would indeed break the dome, by caufing it to fpring
up in fome of the lower courfes ; but tins load may be
increafed if the curve is flatter than the curve of equi¬
libration : and any load w hatever, which will not cruth
the ftones to powder, may be fet on a truncate cone,
or on a dome formed by a curve that is convex toward
the axis ; provided always that the foundation be effec¬
tually prevented from flying out, either by a hoop or
by a fufficient mafs of folid pier on which it is fet.
“ We have feen that if b G, the thruft compounded
of the thruft b C, exerted by all the courfes above
HILK, and if the force F, or the weight of that
coiuffe, be everywhere coincident with b B, the ele¬
ment of the curve, we {hall have an equilibrated dome j
if it falls within it, we have a dome which w ill bear a
greater load; and if it falls without it, the dome will
break at the joint. We muft endeavour to get analytical
expreflions of thefe conditions. Therefore draw the ordi¬
nates b £ b", BDB", C c! C'7. Let the tangents at b and
b" meet the axis in M, and make MO , ?dP, each equal
to b c, and complete the parallelogram MONP. and
draw OQ perpendicular to the axis, and produce b F,
cutting the ordinates in E and e. It is plain that MN
N 2 is
M E C H
is to MO as the weight of the arch HA h to the thruft
b c which it exerts on the joint KL (this thruft being
propagated through the courfe of HILK) ; and that
M(), or its equal £ <?, or J d, may reprefent the weight
of the half AH.
“ Let AD be called and DB be called ij. Then
b e~x, and e C—y (becaufe £ c is in the direflion of
the element /3 b). It is alfo plain, that if we make
1/ conftant, BC is the fecond fluxion of x, or BCrr
x, and be and BE maybe confldered as equal, and
taken indifcriminately for x. We have alfo b C—
\/x1 Let </be the depth or thicknefs HI of the
arch-ftones. Then d x2 +3/1 will reprefent the tra¬
pezium HL 5 and finee the circumference of each
courfe increafes in the proportion of the radius y, d y
sf x1 -j- if will exprefs the whole courfe. If j'be taken
to reprefent the fum or aggregate of the quantities an¬
nexed to it, the formula will be analogous to the fluent
of a fluxion, an b/dys/ld+tf will reprefent the whole
mafs, and alfo the weight of the vaulting, down to the
joint HI. Therefore we have this proportion,dy
•J x'+y* : dy \/ x2-{-y'^zb e : bY,—be : CG, ~^d\
CG, ~x : CG. Therefore CG~ ^y x \/x -j-y*
- J'dy*/ A^-j-y*
“ If the curvature of the dome be precifely fuch as
puts it in equilibrium, but without any mutual preflure
in the vertical joints, this value of OG muft be equal to
CB , or to x, the point G coinciding with B. This condi¬
tion will be expreffed by the equation - ^X ^
fdy\/x*+y'
1 y x1 -j-y1  x
fx%+y%
or, more conveniently, by
But
this form gives only a tottering equilibrium, indepen¬
dent of the friction of the joints and the cohefion of
the cement. An equilibrium, accompanied by fome
firm liability, produced by the mutual preffure of
the vertical joints, may be expreffed by the formula
rfyV x‘+,f x nr w dys/x‘ + ,f _ *
. -jor by n—r
x J dys/ ^-f-y*
+ ■
j dyJx’+y1
where t is fome variable politive quantity, which in¬
creafes when x increafes. This laft equation will alfo
exprefs the equilibrated dome, if / be a conftant quan¬
tity, becaufe in this cafe - is ~o.
Since a firm liability requires that
dy x s/ x1
+y*
J'dy*J x*zry*
fhall be greater than x, and CG muft be greater than
CB : Hence .we learn, that figures of too great curva¬
ture, whofe fides defcend too rapidly, are impro¬
per. Alfo, fince liability requires that we have
A N I C S.
d-~- greater than J'd ys/ x1 -fy*, we learn '
that the upper part of the dome muft not be made very
heavy. This, by diminilhing the proportion of b F to
b C, diminilhes the angle cbG, and may fet the point
G above B, which will infallibly fpring the dome in
that place. We fee here alfo, that the algebraic ana-
lyfis expreffes that peculiarity of dome-vaulting, that
the weight of the upper part may even be fuppreffed.
“ The fluent of the equation ^ ^ ^
fdysl **+/ x 1
is moll eafily found. It is ^fdy ^ x'+y2 =L -v +
L t, where L is the hyperbolic logarithm of the quantity
annexed to it. If we conlider y as conftant, and correct
the fluent fo as to make it nothing at the vertax, it may
be expreffed thus, x* —■■■■L # -i—• ii x L
L t. This gives us \A^J'd y^J x -f-y —and there*
fore fdy'Jx'+y'-j ’L.
a - y
“ This laft equation will eafily give us the depth of
vaulting, or thicknefs d of the arch, when the curve is
given. For its fluxion is dy’*^x "v ‘Y , and
j Cl t X — I ■■ Cl t X . c t /Vi* i
a  —? which is all expreiled in known
yysj ^^.y*
quantities j for we may put in place of t any power or
function of x or of y, and thus convert the expreflion
into another, which will ftill be applicable to all fort*
of curves.
. x t
“ Inftead of the fecond member — + we might
x 1
employ -where p is fome number greater than uni-
x
ty. This will evidently give a dome having ft ability j
becaufe the original formula dyxjx +y
J'dy s/A^-f-y1
will then
• /-i ••
• • T) (l X X
be greater than tf. This will give d = —; -~=2
y yb sjx'+y*
Each of thefe forms has its advantages when applied to
particular cafes. Each of them alfo gives dz=
Theory,
yys/x'+f
when the curvature is fuch as is in precife equilibrium.
And, laftly, if d be conftant, that is, if the vaulting be
of uniform thicknefs, we obtain the form of the curve,
becaufe then the relation of x to x and to y is given.
“ The chief ufe of this analyfis is to difcover what
curves are improper for domes, or what portions of
given curves may be employed with fafety. Domes
are
JOI
Theory.
M E C H
are generally built for ornament j and we fee that there
is great room for indulging our fancy in the choice.
All curves which are concave outwards will give
domes of great lirmnefs : they are alfo beautiful. The
Gothic dome, wrhofe outline is an undulated curve, may
be made abundantly firm, efpecially if the upper part
be convex and the lower concave outwards.
“ The chief difficulty in the cafe of this analyfis
arifes from the neceflity of exprefling the weight of
the incumbent part, or j'dy^JThis requires
the mcafurement of the conoidal furface, which, in
moft cafes, can be had only by approximation by means
of infinite feriefes.
“ The furface of any circular portion of a fphere is
very eafily had, being equal to the circle deferibed
with a radius equal to the chord of half the arch, ihis
radius is evidently —s/x'+if.
“ In order to difcover what portion of a hemifphere
may be employed (for it is evident we cannot employ
the whole) when the thicknefs of the vaulting is uni¬
form, we may recur to the equation or formula
dy x \/X1 -f-y1. Let a be the ra-
x
t • a y y
dius of the hemifphere. We have x ———
s/a'—y'
• • a* v%
and ar— ■ ■—. Subftituting thefe values in the
a'—y'fi
/  a* v y
formula, we obtain the equation y*v —y2—
We eafily obtain the fluent of the fecond member
rra3—a's/a1—if, and y—a'J—4 + ^ Therefore if
the radius of the fphere be i, the half breadth of the
dome mufl not exceed —4-x v'l, or 0.786, and the
height will be .618. The arch from the vertex is
about 510 49'. Much more of the hemifphere can¬
not ftand, even though aided by the cement, and by
the fri&ion of the. courfing joints. This laft circum-
ftance, by giving connexion to the upper parts, caufes
the whole to prefs more vertically on the courfe be¬
low, and thus diminifhes the outward thruft 5 but it at
the fame time diminifhes the mutual abutment of the
vertical joints, which is a great caufe of-firmnefs in the
vaulting. A Gothic dome, of which the upper part is
a portion of a fphere not exceeding 450 from the ver¬
tex, and the lower part is concave outwards, will be
very flrong, and not ungraceful.
“341. Perfuaded that what has been faid on the fub-
je£I convinces the reader that a vaulting perfectly equi¬
librated throughout is by no means the bell form, pro¬
vided that the bafe is fecured from feparating, we
think it unnecefiary to give the inveftigation of that
form, which lias a confiderable intricacy, and fhall
merely give its dimenfions. The thicknefs is fuppofed
uniform. The numbers in the firft column of the table
exprefs the portion of the axis counted from the vertex,
and thofe of the fecond column are the length of the
•rdinates.
“ The curve formed according to thefe dimenfions
will not appear very graceful, becaufe there is an
abrupt change in its curvature at a fmall diitance from
its vertex 5 if, however, the middle be occupied by a
lantern of equal or of fmaller weight than the part
whofe place it fupplies, the whole will be elegant, and.
free from this defect.
“ The connexion of the parts arifing from cement and
from fridtion has a great effect on dome-vaulting. In
the fame way as in common arches and cylindrical
vaulting, it enables an overload on one place to break
the dome in a diftant place. But the refiftance to this
effedl is much greater in dome-vaulting, becaufe it ope¬
rates all round the overloaded part. Hence it hap¬
pens that domes are much lefs fhattered by partial
violence, fuch as the falling of a bomb, or the like.
Large holes may be broken in them without much
affefting the reft 5 but, on the other hand, it greatly
diminifhes the ftrength which fhould be derived from
the mutual preffure in the vertical joints.- Fridlion
prevents the Hiding in of the arch-ftones which pro¬
duces this mutual preffure in the vertical joints, ex¬
cept in the very higheft courfes, and even there it
greatly diminifhes it. Thefe caufes make a great
change in the form which gives the greateft ftrength \
and as their laws of aftion are but very imperfedtly
underftood as yet, it is perhaps impoflible, in the pre-
fent ft ate of our knowledge, to determine this form
with tolerable precifion. We fee plainly, however,
that it allows a greater deviation from the beft form
than the other kind of vaulting ; and domes may be
made to rife perpendicular to the horizon at the bafe,
although of no great thicknefs ; a thing which muft
not be attempted in a plane arch. The immenfe ad¬
dition of ftrength which may be derived from hooping
largely compenfates for all defects 5 and there is hard¬
ly any bounds to the extent to which a very thin dome¬
vaulting may be carried, when it is hooped or framed
in the diredtion of the horizontal courfes. The roof
of the Halle du Bled at Paris is but a foot thick, and
its diameter is more than 200, yet it appears to have
abundant ftrength.”
Scholium.
342. The fedtion of the dome of St Paul’s cathedral
is part of an ellipfe whofe conjugate diameter is parallel
to the horizon. It is built of wood, and confined by
ftrong iron chains ; and is fupported by carpentry refting
on a cone of brick work.
*
Chap. -
102
Theory.
MEGHAN I C S;
Fig- 3-
Chap. IX. On the Force of Torjion.
343. Definition. Let ^ rr be a metallic "wire firm¬
ly fixed in the pincers g by means of the fcreW s ; let
the cylindrical weight P, furnifhed with an index e 0,
be fufpended at the lower extremity of the wire •, and
let the axis of the cylinder, or the wire g a produced,
terminate in the centre of the divided circle MNO.
Then, if the cylinder P is made to move round its axis
do that the index eo may deferibe the arch ON, the
wire g a will be twilled. If the cylinder be now left
to itfelf, the wire will, in confeguence of its elafticity,
endeavour to recover its form *, the index e 0 will there¬
fore move backwards from N, and ofcillate round the
axis of the cylinder. The force which produces thefe
ofeillations is called the force of torfon, and the angle
meafured by the arch ON is called the angle of torfon.
Prop. L
344. To deduce formulse for the ofcillatory mo¬
tion of the cylinder, on the fuppofition that the
rea&ion of the force of torfion is proportional
to the angle of torfion, or nearly proportional
to it.
72 x A—M x t~JIrv.
  • • rd r*
/; X A—M x t—uj j
y a
and finee tzz? —, wTe have by fubftitution
iM
dr*
n X A— M X =« C—
u J a
whofe fluent is
n X 2AM—
Taking the fejuare root of both fides of the equation. ^ Theory,
we have v'
.    d j-1
v n X v 2AM—
Multiplying both fides by , and dividing by \ln X
But if CD, the radius of the cylinder, be equal «,
and if tt be the velocity of the point D after the time
r u
t, we have evidently v : u~r : o, and v——. Now by
fubftituting the fluxion of this value of v in the place
of v in the preceding formula, wve have
V2 AM—M% the equation becomes
« M fdr
— x«x/ —
!2 J a
aU
oM x
1 /* 7
' fn X V 2AM_M~ x/n X V 2AM—M*
M xfd r'
Vn X -1/2AM—M*
Therefore, fince /—we fliall have
u
M xf‘
'dr*
v'kx/sAM—M» >or
M  pd r
V2AM—-M* n
Let PC) be a feel ion of the cylinder P in fig. 2.
and let all the elements of the cylinder be projefted
upon this circular feftion in 2/, d’, d". Let ACB, the
primitive angle of torfion, be called A, and let this
angle, after the time /, become AC b, fo that it
has been diminiftied by the angle BCZ>—Mq then
AC b—A—Mm the angle of torfion after the time t.
Since the force of torfion is fuppofed to be pro¬
portional to the angle of torfion, the momentum of the
force of torfion mull be fome multiple of that angle,
or 22 X A—M, 22 being a conftant coefficient, whofe va¬
lue depends on the nature, length, and thicknefs of the
metallic wire. If, therefore, we call v the velocity of
any point d at the end of the time t, when the angle of
torfion becomes AC b, and r~C d the diilance of the
point d from the axis of rotation C, we fliall have, by
£he principles of Dynamics,
M
■Rut—7==-^==== renrefents an arch or angle whof®
^UV2AM—Ml 1 * t
radius is A and whofe verfed fine is M, which arch
vanilhes when IVI~o, and which becomes equal to 90
when M=rA. Therefore the time of a complete ofcil-
lation will be
•p r*
t=f-n
X 1800.
345. In order to compare the force of torfion with the
force of gravity in a pendulum, We have for the time
of a complete ofcillation of a pendulum whofe length is
/, g being the force of gravity,
T
T=
§
180®.
•p A
rP*
J 22
Therefore, fince the time in which the cylinder ofcil-
lates muft be equal to the time in which the pendulum
ofcillates, we have
’ a ^ 7 i.
- x i8o°=— x X 1800.
S
Hence dividing by 1800, and fquaring both fides, we
obtain
rp A 1 /
J n \ g'
We mull therefore find for a cylinder the value of
jTp r1, or the fum of all the particles multiplied by the
fquares of their diftances from the axis. Now, if we
make ^=6.28318 the ratio of the circumference of a
circle to its radius, a— radius of the cylinder, *= its
length, d— its denfity •, then we fliall have for the area
of its bafe which multiplied by A gives the folid
2
content of the cylinder , and this multiplied by
Theory.
i d gives —for the fum of all its particles.
MECHANICS.
But
IO3
as this is to be multiplied by the fum of the fquares
of all the diftances of the particles from the centre
But the number:
f {
G, we (hall have fp r'1 —
A d
fecond from A to B', where the force of torfion, as well Theory,
as the other forces, concur in diminifhing u or retarding
the motion..
347. Ex. 1. If S=rwX A—M we (hall have for
the date of motion in the fir ft portion BA
of particles in the cylinder, or the mafs ^ of the cy- «X2AM—M*-j-
linder, is —^ , therefore fubflituting ft, inftead of
2/«XA—M^1
this value of it in the preceding equation, we have
LC (l*
Jp r1— ——, and, dividing both fides by «, we have
fpr'
■  —, and, ext raffing the fquare root and mul-
n 2 n 0
tiplying by 180, it becomes
v-j-l v-f-1 ^ a*
Hence, when the angle of torfion becomes equal to no->
thing, or A-—M—o, we have
2/«A,'('1
1 7+!
n A1
2 m
A^1
>p r
v + i
r,p r*
= UU/,/i
J a
which dividing hyJ~—, becomes
2 w Ay+I
n A1—J
X1800
2 n
Ul—-
y-f-l
X1800. Therefore
riL
J a*
T-
p. a
2 n
T X 180, and fince^-—
p rz
—— rr —, and by reduffion But r tt is the
mg1 J 2/ 6
weight W of the cylinder, therefore, by fubftituting W
.Pa*
inftead of g p, we obtain n———, a very fimple formu¬
la for determining the value of n from experiments.
* If it were required to find a weight (^, which,
affing at the extremity of a lever L, would have a mo¬
mentum equal to the momentum of the force of torfion
when the angle of torfion is A—M, we muft make
QX L—a X A—M.
346. In the preceding inveftigation we have fuppo-
fed, what is conformable to experiment, that the force
of torfion is proportional to the angle of torfion, which
gives us n X A—M for the momentum of that force.
Let us now fuppofe that this momentum is altered by
any quantity S, then the momentum of the force of tor¬
fion will become n X A—M—S', and the general equa¬
tion will aflume this form
n X A—M—S X "t—u :
J a
and by multiplying in place of / its value
taking the fluent, we have
« X 2 AM—M2—2/^SM—
Now, in order to find the value of T or a complete
ofcillation, we muft divide the ofcillation into two
parts, the firft from B to A, where the force of torfion
accelerates the velocity a, while the retarding force,
Let us now confider the other part of the motion from
A to B', and fuppofe the angle AC Z/urM', we (hall
find, by calling U the velocity of the point A,
n M7* m M'v+1 U*—a* rp r*
~+-,+r-=-—
Then, by fubftituting inftead of U its value as lately
found, and taking the fluents, we (hall have, w hen the
velocity vaniflies, or when the ©fcillation is tmifhed,
A—M'=-
2m
A11 i_I 4-M,,’+i
X - ^
«Xv + 2 A-J-lVi'
and if the retarding forces are fuch, that at each ofcilla¬
tion, the amplitude is a little diminilhed, we (hall have
for the approximate value of A—M?
»X*+I
and if the angle A—M' is fo fmall that it may be
treated as a common fluxional quantity, we (hall then
have for any number of ofcillations
NX
= X
aM
■, and
v—1 Mv—1 Ay
where M reprefents the angle to which A becomes
equal after any number of ofcillations N. Hence we
obtain
M—-
f y 2 ffl X ^ “f" I
Nx — +
^ «X» + I
1 \ 1
7 - )X 
A”-1 } v—1
which determines the value of M after any number of
ofcillations N.
348. Ex. 2. If S=mx A—M]*1; - m'X A—M V/, m'
- - . o. , and being different values of and y, we (hall obtain
ari.mg trom the refiftance of the air and the imper- by following the mode of inveftigation in the laft ex-
feet ion of elafticity, diminiflies the velocity u ; and the ample,
. n/r 2 m A*1 1
n X A—M=r x 
» + A-f-M
+M’
t-i
+
2m' Ay+I XM11^1
+1 A-fM
and if the retarding force is much lefs than the force of torfion, we (hall have for an approximate value of
/*X-A—M
104
Theory.
Torfion
balance.
Fig. 3.
mechanics.
« x A—M~
2 m At . 2 m'A*'
■ +
„_|-i *
^4Q. Ex. 3. In general, if S —m X A—M[ -j-
X 'A=M>' + m" x A=Mr" + ^ x A-Mj"", &e.
we fhall always have for an ofcillatxon when S is fmaller
than the force of torlion.
 — 2mA* 2m!A*' 2m"A'" 2m!"A*1' ^
„xa-m=—+7;rr+-7+r+y''+i ,!Sc-
2 co. Having thus given after Coulomb, the mode of
deducing formulae for the ofcillatory motion of the cy¬
linder, we fhall proceed to give an account of the refults
of his experiments. ' „
In thefe experiments M. Coulomb employed the torh°H
balance reprefented in fig. 2. in which he fufpended
cylinders of different weights from iron and brals wires
of different lengths and thickneffes ; and by obferying
carefully the duration of a certain number of ofcillations,
he was enabled to determine, by means of the preceding
formulae, the laws of the force of torfion relative to the
length, the thicknefs, and the nature of the wires em¬
ployed. If the elafticity of the metallic wires had been
perfect, and if the air oppofed no refiftance to the of-
cillating cylinder, it would continue to ofcillate till its
motion was flopped. The diminution of the ampli¬
tudes of the ofcillations, therefore, being produced fole-
ly by the imperfection of elafticity, and by the refin¬
ance of the air, M. Coulomb was enabled, by obferving
the fucceffive diminution of the amplitude of the olcil-
lation, and by fubflrafting the part of the change which
was due to the refiftance of the air, to afcertam, with
the afiiftance of the preceding formulae, according to
what laws this elaftic force of torfion was changed.
o c 1. From a great number of experiments it appeared,
that when the angle of torfion was not very great, the
ofcillations were fenfibly ifochronous $ and therefore it
may be regarded as a fundamental law, l/iat Jor all
metallic wires, when the angles of torfion are not very
.real, the force of torfion is fenfibly proportional to the
angle of torfion. Hence, as the preceding formulae are
founded on this fuppofition, they may be fafely applied
to the experiments. _
352. In all the experiments, a cylinder of two pounds
weight ofcillated in twice the time employed by a cy¬
linder which weighed only half a pound ; and there¬
fore the duration of the ofcillations is as the fquare root
of the weights of the ofcillating cylinders.. Confequently
the tenfion of the wires has no fenfible influence upon
the force of torfion. If the tenfions however be
very great relative to the ftrength of the metal, the
force of torfion does fuffer a change 5 for when the
weight of the cylinder, and confequently the tenfion of
the wire, is increafed, the wire is lengthened, and as this
diminilhes the diameter of the wire, the duration of the
ofcillation muft evidently be affefted.
3 c 3. When the lengths of the wires are varied without
changing their diameters or the weights of the cylin¬
ders, the times of the fame number of ofallations are as
the fquare roots of the lengths of the wires, a relult
alfo deducible from theory.
354. When the diameters of the wires are varied
without changing their lengths, or the weight of the
cylinders, the momentum of the force of torfion varied
as the fourth power of the diameters of the wires. Now
this refult is perfeftly conformable to theory 5 for if
we fuppofe two wires of the fame fubftance, and of
the fame length, but having their diameters as one to
two, it is obvious that in the wire whofe diameter is
double of the other, there are four times as many parts
extended by torfion, as in the fmaller wire, and that the»
mean extenfion of all thefe parts will be proportional
to the diameter of a wire, the fame as the mean arm of
a lever is, relative to the axis of rotation. Hence it ap¬
pears that, according to theory, the force of torfion of
two wires of the fame nature and of the fame length, but
of different diameters, is proportional to the fourth power
of their diameter.
355. From this it follows in general, that in metallic
wires the momentum of torfion is directly in the com¬
pound ratio of the angle of torfion and the fourth
power of their diameter, and inverfely as the length
of the wires. If a therefore be the angle of torfion,
X the length of the thread, J its diameter, and F th©
force of torfion, we lhall have
Theory.
where w is a conftant coefficient for wires of the lame
metal, depending on the tenacity of the metal, and
deducible from experiment.
3 56. When the angle of torfion is not great, relatives
to the length of the wire, the index of the cylinder re¬
turns to the pofition which it had before the torfion
took place, or, in other words, the wire untwifts itfelf
by the fame quantity by wffiich it had been twilled. But
when the angle of torfion is very great, the wire does
not completely untwift itfelf, and therefore the centre
of torfion will have advanced by a quantity equal to
that which it has not untwifted.—When the angle of
torfion was below 450, the decrements of the ampli¬
tudes of the ofcillations were nearly proportional to the
amplitudes of the angle of torfion •, but when the angle
exceeded 450, the decrements increafed in a much
greater ratio.—The centre of torfion did not begin
to advance or be difplaced till the angle of torfion wa*
nearly a femicircle : its difplacement was very irregular
till the angle was one circle and 10 degrees, but be¬
yond this angle the torfion remained nearly the fame
for all angles.
357. The theory of torfion is particularly ufeful in
delicate refearches, where fmall forces are to be afeer-
tained with a precifion which cannot be obtained by
ordinary means. It has been fuccefsfully employed by
Coulomb in difeovering the laws of the forces of
electricity and magnetifm, and in determining the
refiftance of fluids when the velocities are very
fmall.
PART
MECHANICS.
Pratt ical
Mechanics.
PART II. ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF MACHINERY.
i OS
Pratticai
Mechanics.
358. WE have already feen, when confidering the
maximum effects of machines, the various eaufes which
afteft their performance. It appeared from that invef-
tigation, that there mull be a certain relation between
the velocities of the impelled and working points of a
machine, or between the power and the refiftance to
be overcome, before it can produce a maximum effedt,
and therefore it muft be the firft objedt of the engineer
to afcertain that velocity, and to employ it in the con-
ftrudlion of this machine. The performance of the ma¬
chine is alfo influenced by the fridlion and inertia of its
various parts \ and as both thefe adl as refiftances, and
therefore deftroy a conflderable portion of the impel¬
ling power, it becomes an objedl of great importance to
attend to the Amplification of the machinery, and to af¬
certain the nature of fridlion fo as to diminifli its ef-
fe£l, either by the application of unguents or by mecha¬
nical contrivances. Since the impelled and working
points of a machine are generally connected by means
of toothed wheels, the teeth mufl: be formed in fuch a
manner, that the wheels may always adt upon each
other with the fame force, otherwife the velocity of the
machine will be variable, and its ftrudlure foon injured
by the irregularity of its motion. The irregular mo¬
tion of machines fometimes arifes from the nature of
the machinery, from an inequality in the refiftance
to be overcome, and from the nature of the impelling
power. In large machines, the momenta of their parts
are generally fufficient to equalize thefe irregularities j
but in machines of a fmall fize, and in thofe where the
irregularities are confiderable, we muft employ fly¬
wheels for regulating and rendering uniform their vari¬
able movements. Thefe various fubjedls, and others
intimately connedted Avith them, we ftiall noAv proceed
to difcufs in their order.
Chap. I. On the 'Proportion between the Velocity of the
Impelled and Working point* of Machines, and be¬
tween the Power and Reftfance, in order that thetj
may perform the greattjl work.
359. In the chapter on the maximum effedl of ma¬
chines avc have deduced formulae containing x and y, the
velocities of the impelled and working points of the ma¬
chines,and including every circumftance which can affedt
their motion. The formula Avhich exhibits the value
of y, or the velocity of the working point, affumes various
forms, according as vte negledt one or more of the ele¬
ments of Avhich it is compofed.— When the Avork to be
performed refifts only by its inertia, Avhich is the cafe in
urging round a millftone or heaAry flv, the quantity R
may be negledted, and the fecond formula, (Page 92.
col. 2.) fhould be employed. In fmall machines, and
particularly in thofe Avhere the motion is conveyed by
wheels Avith epicycloidal teeth, the fridlion is very
trifling, and the element cp may be fafely omitted. In
corn and faw mills, the quantity b or the inertia of the
refiftance may be left out of the formula, as the mo¬
tion communicated to the flour or to the farv duft is
too finall to be fubjedted to computation. In ma-
Vol. XIII. Part I.
chines where one heavy body is employed to raife an¬
other merely by its weight, the inertia of the power
and the refiftance, viz. a,b, are proportional to P, R,
the powers and refiftances themfelves, and confequently
P, R may be fubftituted in the formula, in the place of
a, b.—The engineer therefore muft confider, before he
conftrudt his machine, Avhat elements fhould enter into
the formula, and Avhat ftiould be omitted, in order that
he may adapt it to the circumftances of the cafe, and
obtain from his machine the greateft poflible effedl.
360. When the inertia of the poAver and that of the re- To find die
fiftance are proportional to the poAver and refiftance them- relation be-
felves 5 and when the inertia and ffidtion of the machine-twee? tlie „
may be omitted, the formula becomes  j
from which the following table is computed, which
contains the values of y for different values of P; R be- a machine..
ing fuppofed =10, and m—\.
TABLE containing the bef Proportions between the Ve¬
locities of the Impelled and Working Points of a Ma¬
chine, or between the Levers by which the Power and
Reffance a£l.
Proportional
value of thi
impelling
power, or P.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
*3
H
J5
16
r7
18
*9
Value of the ve¬
locities of the
working point or
y ; or of the lever
by which the re¬
fiftance atts, that
of x being r.
Proportional
value of the
impelling
I power, or P.
0.048809
O.095445
O.140175
O.183216
O.224745
0.26491X
0-3°3^4I
0.341641
0-3784°J
0.414214
0.449x38
0.483240
o-5j6575
°-549I93
0.581139
0.612451
0.643168
0-67332°
0.702938
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
3°
40
5°
60
70
80
90
100
V alue of the. ve¬
locities of the
working point or
y ; or of the lever
by which the re¬
finance atts, that
of x being 1.
°-73205I
0.760682
0.788854
0.816590
0.843900
0.870800
0.897300
0-92350°
0.949400
0.974800
1.000000
1.236200
1'44950°
1.645700
1.828400
2.ooooco
2.162300
2.316600
In order to explain the ufe of this table, let us fup-
poft that it is required to raife one cubic foot of water
in a fecond, by means of a ftream which diftharges
three cubic feet of water in a fecond ; and let it be re¬
quired to find the conftruttion of a Avheel and axle for
performing this work ; that is, the diameter of the axle,
that of the wheel being 6. Here the poxver is evident¬
ly 3 cubic feet, while the refiftance is only one cubic
foot, therefore P=3 R 3 but in the preceding fable
O R=xo,
io6
MECHANICS.
Practical n mo, confcquently P=3 X 10=030. But it appears from
Mechanic*, table that when P=30, y or the diameter of the axle
T is I, upon the fuppofition that the diameter a of the wheel
is I } but as x muft be = 6, we {hall have y=6.
361. Inftead of uling the preceding table, we might
find the belt proportion between X and y by a kind of
tentative procefs, from the formula —-—-— ---.which
^ ’ Ptf’ + Ry* ’
exprefies the work performed. This method is indeed Practical
tedious; and we mention it only for the fake of Ihowing Mechanic*
the conformity of the refults, and of proving that there y""
is a certain proportion between x and y which gives a
maximum effedt. Let x=z6, as in the preceding para¬
graph, and let us fuppofe y to be fucceflively 5, 6, and
7, in order to fee which of thefe values is the beft*
Since P=3, R=l, and x=z6, we have
When y=5
When y=6
When y—7
P a? R y—R* y* 3 X 6 X i X 5—1X5X5 _ 6 5
P^ + Ry* ” 3 X6x6 + i X5X 5
P a: Ry—R*y*_3 X 6 x I X 6—I x 6x 6  72 _
P^-i-Ry* “ 3 x6x6 + i x6x6 —144
P * R y—K*ya_3 X 6x 1X 7—1 X 7 X 7_ 77 _
P «*-j-Ry* ~ 3 X 6 x 6-j-i X 7 X 7 _157
0.488
=0.500
0.49045
It appears therefore that when y=5> 6, 7? the work per¬
formed is 0.488 ; 0.5000 ; 0.49045 5 fo that the effedt
is a maximum when y=6, a refult limilar to what was
To find the obtained from the table.
belt proper- 362. When the machine is already conftrudted, x
tion be- and y cannot be varied fo as to obtain a maximum ef-
tween the The fame objedt however will be gained by pro-
the'refilt^ perly adjufting the power to the work when the work
aace. " cannot be altered, or the work to the power when the
power is determinate. The formulae in Prop. 2. Chap. 7.
exhibit the values of R under many circumftances, and
it depends on the judgment of the engineer to feledl
fuch of them as are adapted to all the conditions of the
cafe.
363. The following table is founded on the formula
which anfwers to the cafe where the
inertia of the impelling power is the fame with its pref-
lure, and where the inertia and the fridlion of the ma¬
chine may be fafely negledted. The fecond column
contains the different values of R correfponding to the
values of y in the firft column. The numbers in the
third column fhew the ratio of y to R, or they have the
fame proportion to 1, which R has to the refiftance
which will balance P. In the table it is fuppofed that
P=i and *=1.
Table containing the bejl proportions between the Power and the Refiftance, the inertia of the impelling power
being the fame with its prejfure, and the friBion and inertia of the Machine being omitted.
Values of y,
or the velo¬
city of the
working
point; x being
equal to 1.
V alues of R,
or the refift¬
ance to be
overcome, P
being — 1.
I.8885
i>3928
0.8986
0.4142
0.1830
o.mi
0.0772
0.0580
0.0457
Ratio of R to
the refiftance
which would
balance P.
Values oi y,
or the velo¬
city of the
working
point; x being
equal to 1.
O.4724 to I
O.4639  
0-4493  
0.4142 
0.3660 
o-3333  
0.3088 
0.2900 
0.2742 
7
8
9
10
11
12
r3
14
*5
\
Values of R,
or the refift-
• ance to be
overcome, P
being — i.
O.03731
O.03125
O.02669
O.O2317
O.O2037
0.01809
0.01622
O.OI466
O.OI333
Ratio of R to
the refiftance
which would
balance P.
O.26117 to I
0.25000  
O.2402I  
O.23170  
O.22407  —
O.21708  
0.21086  
O.20524 
O.I9995  
364. To exemplify the ufe of the preceding table,
let us fuppofe that we are to raife water by means of a
fimple pulley and bucket, with a power =10, and
that it is required to find the refiftance R, or the quan¬
tity of water which muft be put into the bucket, in or¬
der that the work performed may be a maximum. In
the fimple pulley, at, y, the arms of the vertical le¬
vers or the velocities of the impelled and working
points are equal} and fince x is fuppofed in the table to
be = 1 , we have y=i, which correfponds in the table
with 0.4142, the value of R, P being = 1 in the ta¬
ble : But in the prefent cafe P=ro. Therefore,
10 : 1=0.4142 : 4.142, the value of R when P=io.
365. The fame refult might be obtained in a more
circuitous method by means of the formula —*
P**+Ry* »
which expreffes the performance of the machine. Thus,
let a=i 5 y=i j P= 1 o, and let us fuppofe R fuccef-
fively equal to 35 4; 4.142} 5} fo that we may de¬
termine which of thefe values gives the greateft per¬
formance.
WhcR
MECHANICS.
Practical
Mechanics.
When R=3, the preceding formula becomes = — =1.61 u.
io+3 J3
When R=4, the formula becomes X ^—4><4 -—^4 _I>7I . .
io-f-4 14 '
When R=4.i42, the formula becomes 10 X M+Mi
10+4.142 14.142
When R=5, the formula becomes I-° —--X ^ Sr j,5555
io + j 15
107
Practical
Mechanics.
Hence it appears, that when R=3 ; 45 4.142 5 5 j the work performed is refpeaively — 1.6154 • 1.-140 <
X’^STi 1*6666 j fo that the work performed is a maximum when R is =4.142, the fame refult which was ob¬
tained from the table.
Chap. II. 0/t the Simplification of Machinei'y.
366. As the inertia of every machine adds greatly
to the refiftance to be overcome, and as the friftion of
the communicating parts is proportional to the preflure,
it becomes a matter of great praftical importance, that
the different parts of a machine fliould be proportioned
to the ftrains to which they are expofed. If the beam
of a fteam-engine, for example, is larger than what is
neceffary, an immenfe portion of the impelling power
muff be deftroyed at every Itroke of the pifton, by drag¬
ging the fuperfluous mafs from a ftate of reft into mo¬
tion *, the preffure upon the gudgeons will alfo be in-
creafed, and their fri&ion in their fockets proportional¬
ly enlarged. The engineer, therefore, Ihould be well
•acquainted with the ftrength of the materials of which
the machine is to be conftru£ted, and fhould frame its
different parts in fuch a manner that they may not be
heavier than what is neceffary for refifting the forces
with which they are urged.—When the motions of the
machine are neceffarily irregular, and when the ma¬
chine may be expofed to accidental ftrains, the parts
muft be made confiderably ftronger than what is ne-
-eeffary for refifting its ordinary ftrains ; but it is not
often that fuch a precaution fhould be obferved. The
gudgeons of water-wheels, and of the beams of fteam-
engines, ought to be made as ftiort and fmall as pofli-
ble, as the friclion increafes with the rubbing furfaces.
This is very feldom attended to in the conftruclion of
water-wheels. I he diameter of the gudgeons is fre¬
quently thrice as large as what is neceffary for fupport-
ing the weight of the wheel.
367. In the conftruftion of machinery we muft not
only attend to the fimplification of the parts, but
alfo to the number of thefe parts, and the mode of con-
nefting them. From the nature and quantity of the
work to be performed, it is eafy to afcertain the velo¬
city of the working point which is moft proper for per¬
forming it. Now this velocity may be procured in a
variety of ways, either by a perplexing multiplicity of
wheels, or by more fimple combinations. The choice
of thefe combinations muft be left folely to the judge¬
ment of the engineer, as no general rules can be laid
down to direct him. It may be ufeful, however, to
remark, that the power ftiould always be applied as
near as poflible to the working point of the machine,
and that when one wheel drives another, the diameter
of the one fliould never be great, when the diameter of
the other is very fmall. The fize of wheels is often
determined from the ftrains to which they are expofed.
If, for example, we are obliged to give a certain velo¬
city to an axle by means -of a wheel with 120 teeth
and if the force with which this wheel is urged, re¬
quires the teeth to be at leaft one inch thick in order to
prevent them from breaking, we fnall be obliged to
make its diameter at leaft feven feet; for fuppofino- the
fpaces between the teeth to be equal to the thicknefs of
the teeth, the circumference of the wheel muft at leaft
be equal to 120 -f-1 20= 240 inches, the fum of the
teeth and their intervals, which gives a diameter of fix
feet eight inches. There are fome cafes where our
choice of combination muft be direaed by the nature of
the machinery. If the work to be performed is a load
raifed ivith a certain velocity by means of a rope wind¬
ing round a hollow drum, and if the fimpleft combina¬
tion of mechanical powers for producing this velocity
fhould give a fmall diameter to the drum, then this com¬
bination muft give way to another which correfponds
with a larger fize of the drum, for, on account of the
inflexibility of the ropes, a great portion of the impel¬
ling power would be wafted in winding them about the
circumference of a fmall drum.
o a. ue auvantages 01 nmplitying machinery are Dcfcriptiora
well exemplified in the following capftane, which unites a Power*
great ftrength and fimplicity. It is reprefented in fin. 4. J"1 caP-
where AD is a compound barrel compofed of two cy- pfate
linders of different radii. The rope DEC is fixed atCCCXXIII.
the extremity of the cylinder D j and after pafling over %• 4*
the pulley E, which is attached to the load by means
ot the hook F, it is coiled round the other cylinder D
and fixed at its upper end. The caprtane bar AB
urges the compound barrel CD about its axis, fo that
while the rope coils round the cylinder D it unwinds it-
lelf Irom the cylinder C. Let us fuppofe that the dia¬
meter of the part D of the barrel is 21 inches, while
the diameter of the part C is only 20 inches, and let
the pulley E be 20 inches in diameter. When the
barrel AD, therefore, has performed one complete revo¬
lution by the preffure exerted at B, 63 inches of rope
equal to the circumference of the cylinder, will be fa!
thered upon the cylinder D, and 60 inches will be un-
winded from the cylinder C. The quantity of wound
rope, therefore,, exceeds the quantity that is unwound
by 63-—6o__3 inches, the difference of their refpe&ive
perimeters j and the half of this quantity, or if inches,
will be the fpace through which the load or pulley
E moves by one turn of the bar. If a fimple capftane
ot the lame dimenfions had been employed, the length
ot rope coiled round the barrel would have been 6q
O 2 inches j
io8
MECHANICS
Practical inches 5 and the fpace deferibed by the pulley, or load
Aiechaiiics.^ to ioe overcome> Would have been 30 inches. Now, as
the power is to the weight as the velocity of the weight
is to the velocity of the power, and as the velocity of
the power is the fame in both capftanes, the weights
which they will raife will be as i~ to 30. If it is wifh-
ed to double the power of the machine, we have only
to cover the cylinder C with lathes a quarter of an
inch thick, fo that the difference between the radii of
each cylinder may be half as little as before ; for it is
obvious that the power of the capftane increafes as the
difference between the radii of the cylinders is diminilh-
ed. As we increafe the power, therefore, we increafe
the ftrength of our machine, wThile all other engines
are proportionably enfeebled by an augmentation of
power. Were we for example to increafe the power of
the common capftane, we muft diminifti the barrel .in
the fame proportion, fuppofing the bar A B not to ad¬
mit of being lengthened, which will not only diminifti
its ftrength, but deftroy much of its power by the ad¬
ditional flexure of the rope.—This capftane may be ea-
fily converted into a crane by giving the compound
barrel a horizontal pofition, and fubftituting a winch
inftead of the bar AB. The fuperiority of fuch a
crane above the common ones does not require to be
pointed out ; but it has this additional advantage, that
it allows the weight to flop at any part of its progrefs,
without the aid of a ratchet wheel and catch, becaufe
the two parts of the rope pull on the contrary Tides of
the barrel. The rope indeed which coils round the
larger part of the barrel afts with a larger lever, and
confequently with greater force than the other ; but as
this excefs of force is not fufftcient to overcome the
friftion of the machine, the weight will remain fta-
tionary in any part of its path. {Appendix to Fer-
gufon's LeEiures, vol. ii.). %
Compound 3^9- ^'^e principle on which the preceding capftane
chine Oi^" conftrU(^ed> might be applied with great advantage
the fame w^en two feparate axles AC, JBD are driven by means
principle. °f the winch H and the -wheels B and A. It is evi¬
dent that when the winch is turned round in one di-
ffig- 5‘ reftion, the rope R is unwinded from the axle BD ;
the wheel B drives the wheel A, fo that the axle AC
moves in a direction oppofite to that of BD, and the
rope is coiled round the axle A.C. If the wheels A, B
are of the fame diameter and the fame number of teeth,
the weight W will be ftationary, as the rope wunded
about one axle will be always equal to what is unwind¬
ed from the other. If the wheels have different diame¬
ters, or different numbers of teeth, the quantity of rope
wound round the one axle will exceed what is un¬
wound from the other, and the weight will be
raifed.
Chap. III. On the Nature of Fri&ion and the Method
of diminijhing its cjfeEls in Machinery ; and on the
Rigidity of Ropes.
370. The fridlion generated in the communicating
parts of machinery, oppofes fuch a refifl ance to the impel¬
ling power, and is fo injurious to the machine itfelf, that
an acquaintance with the nature and effects of this re¬
tarding force, and with the method of diminilhing its
effe£ls on machinery, is of infinite importance to the
practical mechanic.
371. The fubjeffc of friction has been examined at Practical
great length, by Amontons, Bullinger, Parent, Euler, ^Panics,
and Boffut, and has lately occupied the attention of v— a
our ingenious countryman Mr Vince of Cambridge.
He found that the friftion of hard bodies in mo- Refu!t 0f
tion is an uniformly retarding force, and that the Vince’s ex*
quantity of friction confidered as equivalent to a weight periments.
drawing the body backwards is equal to M
M-f-W x S
where M is the moving force expreffed by its weight,
W the weight of the body upon the horizontal plane,
S the fpace through which the moving force or weight
defeended in the time t, and 16.087 feet, the force
of gravity. Mr Vince alfo found that the quantity of
fridlion increafes in a lefs ratio than the quantity of
matter or weight of the body, and that the friction of
a body does not continue the fame when it has dif¬
ferent furfaces applied to the plane on which it
moves, but that the fmalleft furfaces will have the
leaft friction.
372. Notwithftanding the attempts of preceding
philofophers to unfold the nature of friction, it wras
referved for the celebrated Coulomb to furmount the Experi-
difficulties which are infeparable from fuch an in-merits of
veftigation, and to give an accurate and fatisfadtory Coulomk
view of this difficult branch of mechanical philofo-
phy. By employing large bodies and conducting his
experiments on a large fcale, he has corrected feveral
errors which arofe from the limited experiments of
others j he has brought to light many new and ftrik-
ing phenomena, and confirmed others which were hi¬
therto but partially eftablifhed. As it would be foreign
to the nature of this work to follow this ingenious phi-
lofopher through his numerous and varied experiments,
we lhall only prefent the reader with the interefting re-
fults to which they led.
r. The friClion of homogeneous bodies, or bodies of
the fame kind, moving upon one another, is generally
fuppofed to be greater than that of heterogeneous bo¬
dies 5 but Coulomb has (hewn that there are exceptions
to this rule. He found, for example, that the friClion
of oak upon oak was equal to —^— of the force of pref-
fion ; the friClion of pine againft pine
1.78’
and that
of oak againft pine
M *
The friClion of oak againfl:
copper was  , and that of oak againfl: iron nearly
the fame.
2. It was generally fuppofed, that in the cafe of
wood, the friClion is greateft w'hen the bodies are drag¬
ged contrary to the courfe of their fibres ; but Coulomb
has ftiewn that the friClion is in this cafe fometimes
the fmalleft. When the bodies moved in the direction
of their fibres, the friClion was  of the force with
2-34
which they were preffed together ; but w hen the mo¬
tion Avas contrary to the eourfes of the fibres, the fric¬
tion was only —
3-76
3. The longer the rubbing furfaces remain in contaEl,
the greater is their fri£lion.—-NN\izx\ wood was moved
upon
5
MECHANICS.
109
Practical upon wood, according to tlie direftion of the fibres, the
Mechanics frj.-'!joa was incrcafed by keeping the furfaces in eon-
tatc). for a few feconds; and when the time was prolong¬
ed to a minute, the frittion teemed to have reached its
fartheft limit. But when the motion was contrary to
the courfe of the fibres, a greater time was neceffary be¬
fore the fritiion arrived at its maximum. When wood
Avas moved upon metal, the friction did not attain its
maximum till the furfaces continued in contact for five
or fix days •, and it is very remarkable, that when
wooden furfaces Avere anointed with tallow, the time
requiiite for producing the greatell quantity of friction
is increafed. The increafe of fridtion which is gene¬
rated by prolonging the time of conta£t is fo great,
that a body weighing 1650 pounds A\’as moved with a
force of 64 pounds when firfi. laid upon its correfpond-
ing furface. After having remained in contact for the
fpace of three feconds, it required 160 pounds to put it
in motion 5 and, Avhen the time Avas prolonged to fix
days, it could fcarcely be moved Avith a force of 622
pounds. When the furfaces of metallic bodies were
moved upon one another, the time of producing a maxi¬
mum of fridtion Avas not changed by the interpofition
of olive oil ; it was increafed, hoAvever, by employing
fwine’s greafe as an unguent, and Avas prolonged to five
or fix days by befmearing the furfaces with tallow.
4. FriEHon is in general proportional to the force with
which the rubbing furfaces are preffed together ; and is,
for the mofl part, equal to between f and ^ of that force.
—In order to prove the find part of this propofition.
Coulomb employed a large piece of wood, Avhofe fur-
face contained three fquare feet, and loaded it fuccef-
fively Avith 74 pounds, 874 pounds, and 2474 pounds.
In thefe cafes the fridlion Avas fucceflively
.16’
2.21
of the force of preffion; and Avhen a lefs furface and
other Aveights Avere ufed, the fridtion Avas
2.40
2.36’ 2.42’
Similar refults Avere obtained in all Coulomb’s
experiments, even Avhen metallic furfaces Avere employ¬
ed. The fecond part of the propofition has alfo been
' eftablilhed by Coulomb. He found that the greatefl:
fridtion is engendered Avhen oak moves upon pine,, and
that it amounts to -A- 0f the force of preflion j on
the contrary, Avhen iron moves upon brafs, the leaft
fridtion is produced, and it amounts to of the force of
prefiion.
5. FriBion is in general not increafed by augmenting
the rubbing furfaces.—When a fuperficies of three feet
fquare Avas employed, the fridtion, Avith different
weights, Avas — at a medium : but when a fmall
2.28
furface Avas ufed, the fridtion inftead of being greater, as
might have been expedted, Avas only
2-39
Fri&ion di- 6. FriElion for the mo ft part is not augmented by an
min idled by mcreafe of velocity. In fome cafes, it is diminift.wd by
the' veloa an auSmentat^on °f celerity.—M. Coulomb found, that
Avhen wood moved upon wood in the diredtion of the
fibres, the fridtion was a conftant quantity, hoAvever
much the velocity was varied 3 but that when the fur¬
faces \vTere very fmall in refpedt to the force with which PmcTh 'dl
they were preffed, the fritiion was diminif:ed by aug- - -e:!iai,>C9“
menting the rapidity : the fridtion, on the contrary, was
increafed when the furfaces were very large when com¬
pared Avith the force of prefiion. When the wood was
moved contrary to the diredtion of its fibres, the fric¬
tion in every cafe remained the fame. If Ai’ood be
moved upon metals, the tridtion is greatly increafed by
an increafe of velocity 3 and when metals move upon
Avood befmeared Avith talloAv, the fridtion is fiill aug¬
mented, by adding to the velocity When metals move
upon metals, the tridtion is ahvays a conftant quantity ;
but when heterogeneous fubftances are employed which
are not bedaubed Avith talloAv, the fridtion is fo increa¬
fed Avith the velocity, as to form an arithmetical pro-
grefiion A\rhen the velocities form a geometrical one.
7. The friSlion of loaded cylinders rolling upon a ho¬
rizontal plane, is in the dire El ratio of their weights, and
the inveife ratio of their diameters. In Coulomb’s ex¬
periments, the fridtion of cylinders of guaiacum Avood,
which Avere two inches in diameter, and were loaded
Avith 1000 pounds, Avas 18 pounds or of the force of
prefiion. In cylinders of elm, the fridtion was greater by-f-,
and was fcarcely diminifhed by the interpofition of tallow.
373. From a variety of experiments on the fridtion
of the axes of pulleys, Coulomb obtained the folloAving
refults.—When an iron axle moved in a brafs bufh
the fridtion Avas \ of the prefiion 5 but M’hen the bufh
Avas befmeared A\7ith very clean talloAv, the fridtion Avas
only f 3 Avhen fwine’s greafe was interpofed, the fric¬
tion amounted to A 3 and when olive oil Avas employ-
8*5
ed as an unguent, the fridtion was never lefs than -f-
7-5
When the axis Avas of green oak, and the bufh
of guaiacum Avood, the fridtion Avas f6 when talloAv
Avas interpofed 3 but Avhen the talloAv Avas removed, fo
that a fmall quantity only covered the furface, the fric¬
tion was increafed to xrT. When the bufh Avas made
of elm, the fridtion Avas in fimilar circumftances and
2Tq, which is the leaft of all. If the axis be made of
box, and the bufh of guaiacum Avood, the fridtion Avill
be and circumftances being the fame as before.
If the axle be of boxAvood, and the bufh of elm, the
fridtion Avill be -gk and
and if the axle be of iron
and the bufh of elm, the fridtion Avill be -5— of the force
of prefiion.
374. Having thus confidered the nature and effedts of Method of
fridtion, Ave fliall noAV attend to the method of leffeningdii»iniflung
the refiftance Avhich it oppofes to the motion of ma-
chines. The molt efficacious mode of accomplifhing
this is to convert that fpecies of fridtion which arifes
from one body being dragged over another, into that
which is occafioned by one body rolling upon another.
As this Avill always diminifh the refiftance, it may be
eafily effedted by applying Avheels or rollers to the foc-
kets or bufhes which fuftain the gudgeons of large
Avheels, and the axles- of wheel carriages. Cafatus
feems to have been the firft Avho recommended this ap¬
paratus. It Avas afterwards mentioned by Sturmius and Friction
Wolfius ; but was not ufed in pradtice till Sully applied v-hcels.
it to clocks in the year 1716, and Mondran to cranes
in 17 Nbtwithftahding thefe folitary attempts to
introduce fridlion Avheels, they feem to have attradl-
cd little notice till the celebrated Euler examined
and
polling
power.
HO
M^lr ^ aU^ ('xP^a'ne^5 ills ufual accuracy, their nature and
w^ niCS- advantages. The diameter of the gudgeons and pivots
Ihould be made as fmall as the weight of the wheel and
the impelling force will permit. The gudgeons fhould
reft upon wheels as large as circumltances will alloAV,
having their axes as near each other as poffible, but no
thicker than what is abfolutely neceffary to fuftain the
fuperincumbent weight. When thefe precautions are
properly attended to, the refiftance which arifes from the
fridfion of the gudgeon, &c. will be extremely trifling.
Friction 37 5. The effedts of fridtion may likewife in fome
may be di- meafure be removed by a judicious application of the
mimfhed by impe^Jnpr power, and by proportioning the fize of the
application fridfion wheels to the preflure which they feverally fuf-
of the im- tain. If we fuppofe, for example, that the weight of a
wheel, whofe iron gudgeons move in buflies of brafs, is
100 pounds ; then the fridfion arifing from both its
gudgeons will be equivalent to 25 pounds. If we fup¬
pofe, alfo, that a force equal to 40 pounds is employed
to impel the wheel, and adls in the diredtion of gravi¬
ty, as in the cafes of overfhot wheels, the preffure of
the gudgeons upon their fupports will then be 140
pounds and the fridtion 35 pounds. But if the force
of 40 pounds could be applied in fuch a manner as to
adl in diredl oppofition to the wheel’s weight, the pref¬
fure of the gudgeons upon their fupports would be
100—40, or 60 pounds, and the fridfion only 15
pounds. It is impoflible, indeed, to make the moving
force adl in diredf oppofition to the gravity of the
wheel, in the cafe of water mills ; and it is often im-
pradlicable for the engineer to apply the impelling
power but in a given way : but there are many cafes
in which the moving force may be fo exerted, as at
leaf! not to increafe the fridfion which arifes from the
wheel’s weight.
376. When the moving force’is not exerted in aperpen-
dicular diredf ion, but obliquely as in under fhot wheels,
the gudgeon will prefs with greater force on one part of
the focket than on any other part. This point will evi¬
dently be on the fide of the bulh oppofite to that where
the power is applied ; and its diftance from the loweft
point of the focket, which is fuppofed circular and con¬
centric with the gudgeon, being called #, we fhall have
H
Tang. x — y-, that is, the tangent of the arch con¬
tained between the point of greateff preffure and the
loweft point of the bufii, is equal to the fum of all the
horizontal forces, divided by the fum of all the vertical
forces and the weight of the wheel, H reprefenting the
former, and V the latter quantities. The point of
greateff preffure being thus determined, the gudgeon
muff be fupported at that part by the largeff fridfion
wheel, in order to equalize the fridfion upon their axles.
The application of thefe general principles to parti¬
cular cafes is fo fimple as not to require any illuffration.
To aid the conceptions, however, of the pradfical me¬
chanic, we may mention two cafes in which fridfion
wheels have been fuccefsfully employed.
Plate 377* Gottlieb, the conffrudfor of a new crane,
CCCXXIII. has received a patent for what he calls an anti-attrition
6* axle-tree, the beneficial effedfs of which he has afcer-
tained by a variety of trials. It confiffs of a ffeel roller
R about four or fix inches long, which turns within a
groove cut in the inferior part of the axle-tree C which
runs in the nave AB of the wheel. When the wheel-
M E C H A N I C S.
carriages are at reft, Mr Gottlieb has given the friction Practical
wheel its proper petition ; but it is evident that the Mccham«.
point of greatetf prefiure will change when they are v " 'J
put in motion, and will be nearer the front of the car¬
riage. This point, however, will vary with the weight
of the load ; but it is fufficiently obvious that the fric¬
tion roller tliould be at a little diftance from the lowTeft
point of the axle-tree.
378. Mr Garnett of Briftol has applied fridfion rollers
in a different manner, which does not, like the prece¬
ding method, aveaken the axle-tree. Inftead of fixing
them in the iron part of the axle, he leaves a fpace be¬
tween the nave and the axis to be filled with equal roll¬
ers almoft touching each other. A fedfion of this Fig. 7,
apparatus is reprefented in fig. 7. where A BCD is the
metallic ring inferted in the nave of the wheel. The
axle-tree is reprefented at E, placed between the fridfion
rollers I, I, I, made of metal, and having their axes
inferted into a circle of brafs which paffes through their
centres. The circles are rivetted together by means of
bolts palling between the rollers, in order to keep them
feparate and parallel.
379. As it appears from the experiments of Coulomb,
that the leaft fridtion is generated when polifhed iron
moves upon brafs, the gudgeons and pivots of wheels,
and the axles of fridfion rollers, fhould all be made of
polifhed iron ; and the bufhes in which thefe gudgeons
move, and the fridfion wheels, fhould be formed of po¬
lifhed brafs.
380. When every mechanical contrivance has been Fri&ion di.
adopted for diminifhing the obftrudlion which arifes miniftied bj
from the attrition of the communicating parts, it may unguents,
be ffill farther removed by the judicious application of
unguents. The molt proper for this purpofe are fwine’s
greafe and tallow when the furfaces are made of wood,
and oil wfien they are of metal. When the force with
which the furfaces. are preffed together is very great,
tallow will diminifh the fridtion more than fwine’s
greafe. When the wooden furfaees are very fmall, un¬
guents will leffen their fridtion a little, but it •will be
greatly diminifhed if wood moves upon metal greafed
with tallow. If the velocities, however, are increafed,
or the unguent not often enough renewed, in both thefe
cafes, but particularly in the laft, the unguent will be
more injurious than ufeful. The beft mode of applying
it, is to cover the rubbing furfaces with as thin a ftra-
tum as poffible, for the fridlion will then be a eonftant
quantity, and will not be increafed by an augmentation
of velocity.
381. In fmall works of wood, the interpofition of the
powder of black lead has been found very ufeful in re¬
lieving the motion. The ropes of pulleys ffiould be
rubbed with tallow, and whenever the ferew is ufed,
the fquare threads ffiould be preferred.” Appendix to
Tergufon's Lediures, vol. ii.
382. When ropes pafs over cylinders or pulleys, a On thc ri-
confiderable force is neceffary to bend them into the 0
form of the circumference round which they are coiled.
The force which is neceffary to overcome this refiftance
is called the Jiiffnefs or rigidity of the ropes. This im¬
portant fubjedt was firft examined by Amontons, * who * Mem.
contrived an ingenious apparatus for afeertaining the^^'16^*
rigidity of ropes. His experiments were repeated and1
confirmed in part by fubfequent philofophers, but par¬
ticularly by M. Coulomb, who has inveftigated the fub-
MECHANICS.
Pra&ical jecfc with more care and fuccefs than any of his prede-
Mechanics. cefforg. His experiments were made both with the ap-
L » paratus of Amontons, and with one of his own inven¬
tion ; and as there was no great difcrepancy in the re-
fults, he was authorifed to place more confidence in his
experiments. The limits of this article will not per¬
mit us to give an account of the manner in which the.
experiments were conduced, or even to give a detailed
view of the various conclufions which wTere obtained. We
can only prefent the reader with fome of thofe leading
refults which may be ufeful in the conftrudtion of ma¬
chinery.
1. The rigidity of ropes increafes, the more that
the fibres of which they are compofed are twilled.
2. The rigidity of ropes increafes in the duplicate
ratio of their diameters. According to Amontons and
Dcfaguliers, the rigidity increafes in the fimple ratio of
the diameters of the ropes 5 but this probably arofe
from the flexibility of the ropes which they employed :
for Defaguliers remarks, that when he ufed a rope whofe
diameter was half an inch, its rigidity was increafed in
a greater proportion ; fo that it is probable that if they
had employed ropes from twro to four inches in diame¬
ter, like thofe ufed by Coulomb, they would have ob¬
tained fimilar refults. (See N° 9.)
3. The rigidity of ropes is in the fimple and dire£t
ratio of their tenfion.
4. The rigidity of ropes is in the inverfe ratio of
the diameters of the cylinders round which they are
coiled.
5. In general, the rigidity of ropes is direflly as
their tenfions and the fquares of their diameters, and in-
verfely as the diameters of the cylinders round which
they are wnund.
6. The rigidity of ropes increafes fo little with the
velocity of the machine, that it need not be taken into
the account when computing the effefls of machines.
7. The rigidity of fmall ropes is diminilhed when pe¬
netrated with moilture •, but when the ropes are thick,
their rigidity is increafed.
8. The rigidity of ropes is increafed and their ftrength
diminilhed when they are covered with pitch j but when
ropes of this kind are alternately immerfed in the fea
and expofed to the air, they laft longer than when they
are not pitched.—This increafe of rigidity, however, is
not fo perceptible in fmall ropes as in thofe which are
pretty thick.
9. The rigidity of ropes covered with pitch is a fixth
part greater during froft than in'the middle of fummer,
but this increafe of rigidity does not follow the ratio of
their tenfions.
xo. The refiftance to be overcome in bending a rope
over a pulley or cylinder may be reprefented by a for-
a Y)n
mula compofed of two terms. The firll term is a
eonftant quantity independent of the tenfion, a being a
eonftant quantity determined by experiment, a
power of the diameter D of the rope, aVid r the radius
of the pulley or cylinder round which the rope is coil-
b
ed. The feoond term of the formula is Tx —,
r
where T is the tenfion of the rope, b a conllant quanti¬
ty, and D« and r the fame as before. Hence the com-
D* _ , Practical
 X « + Mechanics.
. .a Dw „ b D*
plete formula is 1-1 X :
r r
The exponent n of the quantity D diminilhes with the
flexibility of the rope, but is generally equal to 1.7 or
1.8 ; or, as in N° 2. the rigidity is nearly in the dupli¬
cate ratio of the diameter of the rope. When the cord
is much ufed, its flexibility is increafed, and n becomes
equal to 1.5 or 1.4.
Chap. IV. On the Nature and Advantages of Fly
Wheels.
383. A FLY, in mechanics,is a heavy wheel or cylinder
■which moves rapidly upon its axis, and is applied to
machines for the purpofe of rendering uniform a deful-
tory or reciprocating motion, arifing either from the
nature of the machinery, from an inequality in the
refiftance to be overcome, or from an irregular applica¬
tion of the impelling power. When the firlt mover is
inanimate, as wind, water, and fleam, an inequality of force
obviouflyarifes from a variation in the velocity of the wind,
from an increafe or decreafe of water occafioned by
hidden rains, or from an augmentation or diminution of
the fleam in the boiler, produced by a variation in the
heat of the furnace •, and accordingly various methods
have been adopted for regulating the adlion of thefe
variable powers. The fame inequality of force obtain?
when machines are moved by horfes or men. Every
animal exerts its greatefl ftrength wThen firfl fet to work»
After pulling for fome time, its ftrength will be impair¬
ed *, and when the refiflance is great, it will take fre¬
quent though fhort relaxations, and then commence
its labour with renovated vigour. Thefe intervals of
reft and vigorous exertion mull always produce a varia¬
tion in the velocity of the machine, which ought parti¬
cularly to be avoided, as being detrimental to the com¬
municating parts as well as the performance of the ma¬
chine, and injurious to the animal which is employed to
draw it. But if a fly, confifting either of crofs bars, or.
a maffy circular rim, be connected with the machinery,
all thefe inconveniences will be removed. As every fly
wheel muft revolve with great rapidity, the momen¬
tum of its circumference muft be very confiderable, and
will confequently refill every attempt either to accelerate
or retard its motion. When the machine therefore has
been put in motion, the fly wheel will be whirling with
an uniform celerity, and with a force capable of con¬
tinuing that celerity when there is any relaxation in the
impelling power. After a fhort reft the animal renews
his efforts 5 but the machine is now moving with its for¬
mer velocity, and thefe frefh efforts will have a tendency
to increafe that velocity. The fly, however, now a£ts
as a refilling power, receives the greateft part of the
fuperfluous motion, and caufes the machinery to preferve
its original celerity. In this way the fly fecures to the
engine an uniform motion, whether the animal takes
occafional relaxations or exerts his force with redoubled
ardour.
384. We have already obferved that a defultory or va¬
riable motion frequently arifes from the inequality of
the refiftance, or work to be performed. This is particu¬
larly manifeft in thrafhing mills, on a fmall fcale, which
arc driven by water. When the corn is laid unequally
112
MECHANIC S.
Practical 0n the feeding board, fo that too much is taken in by
Mechanics. t]ie fluted rollers, this increafe of refinance inftantly
afFefts the machinery, and communioates a defultory or
irregular motion even to the water wheel or fir ft mover.
This variation in the velocity of the impelling power
may be diftincfly perceived by the ear in a calm even¬
ing when the machine is at work. The bell method of
correcting thefe irregularities is to employ a fly wheel,
which will regulate the motion of the machine when
the refiftance is either augmented or diminifhed. In
machines built upon a large fcale there is no neceffity
for the interpolation of a tlv, as the inertia of the ma¬
chinery fupplies its place, and refnts every change of mo¬
tion that may be generated by an unequal admiffion of
the corn.
385. A variation in the velocity of engines arifes alfo
from the nature of the machinery. Let us fuppofe that a
weight of 1000 pounds is to be raifed from the bottom
of a well 50 feet, by means of a bucket attached to an
iron chain which winds rounds a barrel or cylinder, and
that every foot length of this chain weighs two pen ds.
It is evident that the refiftance to be overcome in the
firft moment is 1000 pounds added to 50 pounds the
weight of this chain, and that this refiftance diminifhes
gradually as the chain coils round the cylinder, till it
is only 1000 pounds when the chain is completely
wound up. The refiftance therefore decreafes from 1050
to 1000 pounds ; and if the impelling power is inanimate,
the velocity of the bucket will gradually increafe ; but
if an animal is employed, it will generally proportion
its aftion to the refifting load, and muft therefore pull
with a greater or lefs force according as the bucket is near
the bottom or top of the well. In this cafe, however,
the afliftance of a fly may be difpenfed with, becaufe
the refiftance diminifhes uniformly, and may be render¬
ed conftant by making the barrel conical, fo that the
chain may wind upon the part neareft the vertex at the
commencement of the motion, the diameter of the bar¬
rel gradually increafing as the weight diminifhes. In
this wTay the variable refiftance will be equalized much
better than by the application of a fly wheel, for the
fly having no motion of its own muft neceffarily wafte
the impelling power.
386. Having thus pointed out the chief caufes of
variation in the velocity of machines, and the method
of rendering it uniform by the intervention of fly
wheels, the utility, and in fome inftances the necefli-
ty, of this piece of meehanifm, may be more obvioufly
illuftrated by (hewing the propriety of their application
in particular cafes.
^ See In the defeription of Vaulone’s pile engine *,
Part III. the reader will obferve a ftriking inftance of the
Plate utility of fly wheels. The ram O is raifed between
V fi thf guides bb by means of horfes adling again!! the
levers S, S ; but as foon as the ram is elevated to
the top of the guides, and difeharged from the fol¬
lower G, the refiftance againft which the horfes have
been exerting their force is ftiddcnly removed, and
tbev would inftantaneoufly tumble down, wrere it not
for the fly O. This fly is connected with the drum B
by means of the trundle X, and as it is moving with
a very great force, it oppofes a fufBcierit refiftance to Pradtica!
the adfion of the horfes, till the ram is again taken up Mechanics,
by the follower. 1 s-—y—
388. When machinery is driven by a fingle-ftroke
fleam engine, there is fuch an inequality in the impel-
ling p°v er, that for two or three feconds it does not
act at all. During this interval of inactivity the ma¬
chinery would neceffarily flop, were it not impelled by
a mafly fly wheel of a great diameter, revolving wdth
rapidity, till the moving power again refumes its
energy.
389. If the moving power is a man afting with a
handle or winch, it is fubjea to great inequalities. The
greateft force is exerted when the man pulls the handle
upwards from the height of his knee, and he acts with
the leaf! force when the handle being in a vertical po-
fition is thruft from him in a horizontal direflion. The
force is again increafed when the handle is puthed ,
downwards by the man’s weight, and it is diminiflied
when the handle being at its loweft point is pulled to¬
wards him horizontally. But when a fly is properly
conneCled with -the machinery, thefe irregular exer¬
tions are equalized, the velocity becomes uniform, and
the load is raifed with an equable and fteady mo¬
tion.
390. In many cafes, where the impelling force is al¬
ternately augmented and dinunifhed, the performance
of the machine may be increafed by rendering the refif¬
tance unequal, and accommodating it to the inequali¬
ties of the moving power. Dr Robifon obferves that
“ there are fome beautiful fpecimens of this kind of
adjuftment in the mechanifm of animal bodies.”
Belides the utility of fly wheels as regulators of
machinery, they have been employed for accumulating
or collecting power. If motion is communicated to a
fly wheel by means of a fmall force, and if this force is
continued till the wheel has acquired a great velocitv.
fuch a quantity of motion will be accumulated in its
circumference, as to overcome refiftances and produce
effeCts which could never have been accomplifhed by
the original force. So great is this accumulation of
power ; that a force equivalent to 20 pounds applied
% the fpace of 37 feconds to the circumference of a
cylinder 20 feet diameter, which weighs 4713 pounds,
would, at the diftance of one foot from the centre, give
an impulfe to a mufleet ball equal to what it receives
from a full charge of gunpowder. In the fpace of fix
minutes and 10 feconds, the fame effeCt would be pro¬
duced if the cylinder was driven by a man who con-
ftantly exerted a force of 20 pounds at a winch one foot
long (d).
39J. This accumulation of power is finely exem¬
plified in ibr jling. When the thong which contains
the ftofte is fvvung round the head of the {linger, the
force of the hand is continually accumulating in the re¬
volving ftone, till it -is difeharged with a degree of rapi¬
dity which it .could never have received from the force
of the hand alone. When a ftone is projefted from the
hand itfelf, there is even then a certain degree of force
accumulated, though the ftene only moves through the
arch of a circle, if we fix the ftone in an opening at
the
(d) This has been demonftrated by Mr Atwood. See his Treatife on Redtilineal and Rotatory Motion.
Practical extremity of a piece of wood two feet long, and dif-
Mcchanics. charge it in the ufual way, there will be more force ac-
cumulated than with the hand alone, for the ftone de-
fcribes a larger arch in the fame time, and mult there¬
fore be projected with greater force.
392. When coins or medals are Itruck, a very con-
fiderable accumulation of power is neceffary, and this is
effected by means of a fly. The force is firft accumu¬
lated in weights fixed in the end of the tly. This force
is communicated to two levers, by which it is farther
condenfed ; and from thefe levers it is tranfmitted to a
ferew, by which it fuffers a fecond condenfation. The
(tamp is then impreffed on the coin or medal by means
of this force, 'which was firft accumulated by the fly,
and afterwards augmented by the intervention of two
mechanical powers.
393. Notwithftanding the great advantage of fly
wheels, both as regulators of machines and collectors
of power, their utility wholly depends upon the pofition
which is afligned them relative to the impelled and
working points of the engine. For this purpofe
no particular rules can be laid down, as their pofitions
depend altogether on the nature of the machinery. We
may obferve however, in general, that when fly wheels
are employed to regulate machinery, they (hould be near
the impelling power *, and when ufed to accumulate
force in the working point they fliould not be far diftant
from it. In hand mills for grinding corn, the fly is for
the moft part very injudicioufly fixed on the axis to
which the winch is attached ; whereas it fliould always
be faftened to the upper millftone fo as to revolve with
the fame rapidity. In the firft pofition indeed it muft
equalize the varying efforts of the power which moves
the winch *, but when it is attached to the turning mill¬
ftone, it not only does this, but contributes very effec¬
tually to the grinding of the corn.
394. A new kind of fly, called a conical pendulum
has been ingernoufly employed by Mr Watt for procur¬
ing a determinate velocity at the working point of his
fteam-engine. It is reprefenfed in fig. 8. where AB is
a vertical axis moving upon pivots, and driven by means
of a rope pafllng from the axis of the large fty over the
(heave EF. The large balls M, N are fixed to the
rods NG, MH, which have an angular motion round
P, and are connected by joints at G and H, with the
rods GK, HK attached to the extremity of the lever KL
whofe centre of motion is L, and whole other extremity
is connefted with the cock which admits the fteam into
the cylinder. 'Hie frames CD and QR prevent the
balls- from receding too far from the axis, or from ap¬
proaching too near it. Now when this conical pendu¬
lum is put in motion, the centrifugal force of the balls
M, N makes them recede from the axis AB. In con-
fequenee of this recefs, the points C, H, K are deprefs-
ed, and the other extremity of the lever is raifed $ and
the cock admits a certain quantity of fteam into the cy¬
linder. When the velocity of the fly is by any means
increafed, the balls recede ftill farther from the axis, the
extremity of the lever is raifed higher, and the cock
clofes a little and diminilhes the fupply of fteam. From
this diminution in the impelling power, the velocity of
the fly and the conical pendulum decreafes, and the balls
^efume their former pofition. In this way, when there is
any increafe or diminution in the velocity of the fly,
Vol. XIII. Part I.
MECHANICS. • f 13
the correfponding increafe or diminution in the centrifu- Practical
gal force of the balls raifes or depreffes the arm of the le- M<-'chanics.
ver, admits a greater 01* a lefs quantity of fteam into the W-L 'V' ’'' -•
cylinder, and reftores to the engine its former velocity.
DeforiptioH
•f tlie co¬
nical pen¬
dulum.
Rg.8.
Chap. V. On the Teeth of Wheels, and the Wipers
Stampers.
395. In' the conftrutlion of machines, we muft not only
attend to the form and number of their parts, but alfo t©
the mode by which they are to be eonnedted. It would
be eafy to'lhew, did the limits of this article permit it,
that, when one wheel impels another, the impelling
power will fometimes adt with greater and fometimes
with lefs force,- unlefs the teeth of one or both of th©
wheels be parts of a curve generated after the manner
of an epicycloid by the revolution of one circle along the
convex or concave fide of another. It may be fufficient
to fliew, that, when one wheel impels another by the ac¬
tion of epicycloidal teeth, their motion will be uniform.
Let the wheel CD drive the wheel AB by means ot the
epicycloidal teeth mp, n q, or, adting upon the infinite- Fig. j,
ly fmall pins or fpindles a, b, c ; and let the epicycloids
mp, n q, &c. be generated by the circumference of the
wheel AB, rolling upon the convex circumference of
the wheel CD. From the formation of the epicycloid
it is obvious that the arch « £ is equal to m n, and the
arch a c to mo ; for during the formation of the part n b
of the epicycloid n q, every point of the arch is ap¬
plied to every point of the arch m n, and the fame hap¬
pens during the formation of the part c 0 of the epicy¬
cloid 0 r. Let us now fuppofe that the tooth m p be¬
gins to adt on the pin a, and that b, c are fucceflive
pofitions of the pin a after a certain time ; then, n q7
0 r will be the pofitions of the tooth mp after the fame
time 5 but a bzzm n and a c~m 0, therefore the wheels
AB, CD, when the arch is driven by epicycloidal teeth,
move through equal fpaces in equal times, that is, the
force of the wheel CD, and the velocity of the wheel'
AB, are always uniform.
396. In illuftrating the application of this property
of the epicycloid, which wTas difeovered by Olaus Roe-
mer the celebrated Danifti aftronomer, we (hall call the
fmall wheel the pinion, and its teeth the leaves of the
pinion. The line which joins the centre of the wheel
and pinion is called the line of centres. There are three
different ways in which the teeth of one wheel may-
drive another, and each of thefe modes of adlion re¬
quires a different form for the teeth.
1. When the adlion is begun and completed after the
teeth have paffed the line of centres.
2. When the adtion is begun and completed before
they reach the line of centres.
3. When the adlion is carried on, on both fides of the
line of centres.
397- 1 • firft of thefe modes of adlion is reprefented Firft moth
in fig. 1. where B is the centre of the wheel (d), A thatof a&km.
of the pinion, and AB the line of centres. It is evident rr^xiV
from the figure, that the part b of the tooth a b of the C u
wheel, does not adl on the leaf m of the pinion till b
they arrive at the line of centres AB ; and that all the
adlion is carried on after they have paffed this line, and
is completed when the leaf m comes into the fituation «.
When this mode of adlion is adopted, the adting faces
P of
$d) In figs. I, 2, 3, 4, the letter B is fuppofed t» be placed at the centre of the wheels.
i U
MECHANICS.
Practical 0f the leaves of the pinion (liould be parts of an interior
l1t' Jlnlcs'i epicycloid, generated by a circle of any diameter rolling
upon the concave fuperficies of the pinion, or within the
circle a d h; and the faces a b oi the teeth of the wheel
ihould be portions of an exterior epicycloid formed by
the fame generating circle rolling upon the convex lu-
perficies o dp oi the wheel.
398. But when one circle rolls within another whofc
diameter is double that of the rolling circle, the line ge¬
nerated by any point of the latter is a fraight line, tend¬
ing to the centre of the larger circle. Therefore, if the
generating circle above mentioned Ihould be taken with
its diameter equal to the radius of the pinion, and be
made to roll upon the concave fuperficies a d h of the
pinion, it will generate a ftraight line tending to the
pinion’s centre, which will be the form of the faces of
its leaves ; and the teeth of the wheel will be exterior
epicycloids, formed by a generating circle, whofe dia¬
meter is equal to the radius of the pinion, rolling upon
the convex fuperficies 0 dp of the wheel. Thisre&ili-
Fig. a* neal form of the teeth is exhibited in fig. 2. and is per¬
haps the moft advantageous, as it requires lefs trouble,
and may be executed with greater accuracy, than if the
epieycloidal form had been employed, though the teeth
are evidently weaker than thofe in fig. 1.5 it is recom¬
mended both by De la Hire and Camus as particularly
advantageous in clock and watch work.
Fig. 1. 399. The attentive reader will perceive from fig. 1.
that in order to prevent the teeth of the wheel from act¬
ing upon the leaves of the pinion before they reach the
line of centres AB; and that one tooth of the wheel
may not quit the leaf of the pinion till the fucceeding
tooth begins to adl upon the fucceeding leaf, there mull
be a certain proportion between the number of leaves in
the pinion and the number of teeth in the wheel, or
between the radius of the pinion and the radius of
the wheel, when the dillance of the leaves x^B is
given. But in machinery the number of leaves and
teeth is always known from the velocity which is re¬
quired at the working point of the machine : It be¬
comes a matter therefore of great importance to de¬
termine with accuracy the relative radii of the wheel
and pinion.
Relative 400< For this purpofe, let A, fig. 2. be the pinion hav-
fize of the a&ing faces of its leaves ftraight lines tending to
wheel anti the centre, and B the centre of the wheel. AB will be
pinion. the diftance of their centres. Then as the tooth C is fup-
pofed not to aft upon the leaf Am till it arrives at the
line AB, it ought not to quit Am till the following
tooth F has reached the line AB. But fince the tooth
always afts in the direflion of a line drawn perpendicu¬
lar to the face of the leaf Am from the point of contaft,
the line CH, drawn at right angles to the face of the
leaf Am, will determine the extremity of the tooth CD,
or the laft part of it which Ihould afl upon the leaf
Am, and will alfo mark out CD for the depth of the
tooth. Now, in order to find AH, HB, and CD, put
a for the number of teeth in the wheel, b for the num¬
ber ot leaves in the pinion, c for the diftance of the pi¬
vots A and B, and let x be the radius of the wheel, and
?/ that of the pinion. Then, fince the circumference of
the wheel is to the circumference of the pinion, as the
number of teeth in the one to the number of leaves in
the other, and as the circumferences of circles are pro¬
portional to their radii, we fhall have a : b—x : y, then
5
by compofition (Fuel. v. 18.) a-\-b : b~c : y {c being Practical
equal to a:+y), and confequently the radius of the pinion, f'echanics-i
cb , , . . ,
viz.ym—then by inverting the firft analogy, we
have b ; a=zy : x, and confequently the radius of the'
wheel, viz. x — y being now a known number.
Now, in the triangle AHC, right-angled at C, the
fide AH is known, and likewife ail the angles (HAC
being equal to ^ ; the fide AC, therefore, may be
found by plain trigonometry. Then, in the triangle
ACB, the ^iCxAB, equal to HAC, is known, and
alfo the fides AB, AC, ivhich contain it ; the third
fide, therefore, viz. CB, may be determined \ from
which DB, equal to HB, already found, being fub-
ftradfed, there will remain CD for the depth of the
teeth. When the adlion is carried on after the line
of centres, it often happens that the teeth will not
work in the hollows of the leaves. In order to pre¬
vent this, the CBH muft always be greater than
half the HBP. The ^ HEP is equal to 360
degrees, divided by the number of teeth in the wheel,
and CBH is eafily found by plane trigonometry.
401. If the teeth of wheels and the leaves of pinions be
formed according to the directions already given, they
will act upon each other, not only with uniform force,
but nearly without friction. The one tooth rolls upon
the other, and neither Aides nor rubs to fuch a degree
as to retard the wheels, or wear their teeth. But as
it is impoffible in practice to give that perfect curvature
to the faces of the teeth which theory requires, a quantity
of friction will remain after every precaution has been
taken in the formation of the communicating parts.
402. 2. The fecond mode of action is not fo advantage-gccor^
ous as that which we have been confidering, and Ihould, mociG 0f
if poflible, always be avoided. It is reprefented inadlion.
fig. 3. where A is the centre of the pinion, B that of
the wheel, and AB the line of centres. It is evident ^
from the figure that the tooth C of the wheel acts upon
the leaf D of the pinion before they arrive at the line
B A ; that it quits the leaf when they reach this line,
and have affumed the pofition of E and F; and that
the tooth c works deeper and deeper between the leaves
of the pinion, the nearer it comes to the line of centres.
From this laft circumftance a confiderable quantity of
frieftion arifes, becaufe the tooth C does not, as before,
roll upon the leaf D, but Aides upon it ; and from the
fame caufe the pinion foon becomes foul, as the duft
which lies upon the aefting faces of the leaves is pufiied
into the interjacent hollows. One advantage, how¬
ever, attends this mode of aeftion : It allows us to
make the teeth of the large wheel rectilineal, and thus
renders the labour of the mechanic lefs, and the ac¬
curacy of his work greater, than if they had been of a
curvilineal form. If the teeth C, E, therefore of the
wheel BC are made rectilineal, having their fin-faces
directed to the wheel’s centre, the acting faces of the
leaves D, F, &c. muft be epicycloids formed by a ge¬
nerating circle, whofe diameter is equal to the radius
B 0 of the circle op, rolling upon the circumference
m n of the pinion A. But if the teeth of the wheel
and the leaves of the pinion are made curvilineal as in
the figure, the faces of the teeth of the wheel muft be
portions of an interior epicycloid formed by any gene¬
rating
MECHANICS.
115
Fig. 4.
Practical rating circle rolling within the concave fuperficies of
Mechanics. ^ cjrcle 0 and the faces of the pinion’s leaves muft
be portions of an exterior epicycloid produced by roll¬
ing the fame generating circle upon the convex circum¬
ference m n of the pinion.
Third mode 403. 3. The third mode of aftion, which is reprefented
of action. jn fig. is a combination of the two firfl: modes, and
confequently partakes of the advantages and difadvan-
tages of each. It is evident from the figure that the
portion eb oi the tooth a6ts upon the part b c of the
leaf till they reach the line of centres AB, and that
the part e d oi the tooth acts upon the portion b a oi
the leaf after they have pafled this line. Hence the
a£ting parts eand £ c muft be formed according to
the directions given for the firft mode of adtion, and
the remaining parts e d,b a, muft have that curvature
which the fecond mode of aCtion requires ; confequent¬
ly e ^ fhould be part of an interior epicycloid formed
by any generating circle rolling on the concave cir¬
cumference m n of the Avheel, and the correfponding
part £ c of the leaf ftiould be part of an exterior epi¬
cycloid formed by the fame generating circle rolling
upon b EO, the convex circumference of the pinion :
the remaining part c d oi the tooth (hould be a portion
of an exterior epicycloid, engendered by any genera¬
ting circle rolling upon e L, the concave fuperficies of
the wheel : and the correfponding part b a oi the leaf
fhould be part of an interior epicycloid defcribed by
the fame generating circle, rolling along the concave
fide b EO of the pinion. As it would be extremely
troublefome, however, to give this double curvature to
the afting faces of the teeth, it will be proper to ufe a
generating circle, whofe diameter is equal to the radius
of the wheel BC, for defcribing the interior epicycloid
e h and the exterior one b c, and a generating circle,
whofe diameter is equal to AC, the radius of the pi¬
nion, for defcribing the interior epicycloid b a, and the
exterior one ed. In this cafe the two interior epi¬
cycloids e h, b a, will be ftraight lines tending to the
centres B and A, and the labour of the mechanic Avill
by this means be greatly abridged.
404. In order to find the relative diameters of the
wheel and pinion, when the number of teeth in the one
and the number of leaves in the other are given, and when
the diftance of their centres is alfo given, and the ratio
of ES to CS, let a be the number of teeth in the
wheel, b the number of leaves in the pinion, c the
diftance of the pivots A, B, and let w be to « as ES
to CS, then the arch ES, or SAE, will be equal
360°
and LD, or LED, will be equal to
Relative
diameters
of the
wheel and
pinion
to
360°
LCrr/W
But ES : CS=:z
therefore (Eucl.
. , „ LD X n ,
X«, and LC— j but
x; confequently LD :
vi. 16.) LCxot=LD
LD
is equal to
360
therefore by fubftitution
LC= 360x4
Now, in the triangle APB, AB is known, and alfo Pradticai
PB, which is the cofine of the angle ABD, PC ,‘v'ec^amcs/
being perpendicular to DB ; AP or the radius of the v
pinion therefore may be found by plane trigonome¬
try. The reader will obferve that the point P marks
out the parts of the tooth D and the leaf SP where
they commence their a£Hon ; and the point I marks
out the parts where their mutual action ceafes (e) ;
AP therefore is the proper radius of the pinion,
and BI the proper radius of the wheel, the parts
of the tooth L without the point I, and of the leaf
SP ivithout the point P, being fuperfluous. Now,
to find BI, we have ES : CS=m : «, and CS=
ES x «
but ES Avas fheAvn to be therefore, by fubfti¬
tution, CS~-^—^ n. Noav the arch ES, or-^EAS,
bm
being equal to and CS, or CAS, being equal
o 5q ^
to — , their difference EC, or the angle EAC.
bm ^ *
360 360 X« 360° —n
b m
The
will be equal to ~
EAC being thus found, the triangle EAB, or
IAB, Avhich is almoft equal to it, is known, becaufe
AB is given, and likewife AI, which is equal to the
cofine of the angle IAB, AC being radius, and AIC
being a right angle, confequently IB the radius of the
wheel may be found by trigonometry. It was former¬
ly (hewn that AC, the radius of what is called the pri-
cb r
mitive pinion, Avas equal to —, and that BC the
a+b'
radius of the primiti\re wheel Avas equal to
AC X a
If
then avc fubftraft AC or AS from AP, we ihall have
the quantity SP which muft be added to the radius of
the primitive pinion, and if we take the difference of
BC (or BL) and DE, the quantity LE Avill be found,
which muft: be added to the radius of the primitive
Avheel. We have all along fuppofed that the Avheel
drives the pinion, and have given the proper form of
the teeth upon this fuppofition. But Avhen the pinion
drives the wheel, the form Avhich Avas given to the
teeth of the wheel in the firfl: cafe, muft in this be given
to the leaves of the pinion ; and the fliape which Avas
formerly given to the leaves of the pinion muft noAv be
transferred to the teeth of the Avheel.
405. Another form for the teeth of Avheels, differ- Form of
ent from any Avhich we have mentioned, has been re- the teeth
commended by Dr Robifon. He ftiews that a perfeft according
uniformity of adtion may be fecured, by making the Ro"
adling faces of the teeth involutes of the wheel’s circum- 1 0n*
ference, Avhich are nothing more than epicycloids, the
centres of whofe generating circles are infinitely diftant.
Thus, in fig. 1. let AB be a portion of the wheel on
P 2 which
(e) The letter L marks the interfedlion of the line BL Avith the arch em, and the letter E the interfedlion
of the arch b O with the upper furface of the leaf m. The letters D and S correfpond with L and E refpedtivelv
and P with I. r ^
MECHANICS.
Practical which tlieiootli in to be fixed, and let A/? a tie a thread
Mechanics. }appecJ round its circumference, having a loop hole at
jr\s * its extremity a. In this loop hole fix the pin a, and
with it defcribe the curve or involute ab c de h, by
unlapping the thread gradually from the circumference
A p m. This curve will be the proper ihape for the teeth
©f a wheel whofe diameter is AB. Dr Robifon obfervcs,
that as this form admits of feveral teeth to be afting at
the fame time (twice the number that can be admitted
in M. de la Hire’s method), the preffure is divided
among feveral teeth, and the quantity upon any one of
them is fo diminilhed, that thofe dents and impreflions
which they unavoidably make upon each other are part¬
ly prevented. He candidly allows, however, that the
teeth thus formed are not completely free from Hiding
and friction, though this Aide is only -^-th of an inch,
tvhen a tooth three inches long fixed on a wheel ten
feet in diameter drives another wheel whofe diameter
is two feet. Append, to Fergufoil's LeBures.
406. On the Formation of Exterior and Interior Epi¬
cycloids, and on the Difpojition of the Teeth on the
Wheel"1 s Circumference.
. Nothing can be of greater importance to the prae-
methoTof tical mechanic, than to have a method of drawing epi-
fomiing cycloids with facility and accuracy j the following, we
epicycloids, truft, is the moft Ample mechanical method that can
be employed.—Take a piece of plain wood GH, fig.
Fig. 6. 6. and fix upon it another piece of wood E, having its
circumference mb oi the fame curvature as the circu¬
lar bafe upon which the generating circle AB is to
roll. When the generating circle is large, the feg-
jnent B will be fufficient: in any part of the circum¬
ference of this fegment, fix a fliarp pointed nail a,
floping in fuch a manner that the diftance of its point
from the centre of the cirele may be exaftly equal to
its radius \ and faften to the board GH a piece of thin
brafs, or copper, or tinplate, a b, diftinguilhed by the
dotted lines. Place the fegment B in fuch a pofition
that the point of the nail a may be upon the point b,
and roll the fegment towards G, fo that the nail a may
rife gradually, and the point of contadl between the
two circular fegments may advance towards m; the
curve a b defcribed upon the brafs plate will be an ac¬
curate exterior epicycloid. In order to prevent the
fegments from Aiding, their peripheries Amuld be rub¬
bed with rofin or chalk, or a number of fmall iron points
jnay be fixed on the circumference of the generating
fegment. Remove, with a file, the part of the brafs
on the left hand of the epicycloid, and the remaining
concave arch or gage ab will be a pattern tooth, by
means of which all the reft may be eafily formed.
When an interior epicycloid is wanted, the concave fide
of its circular bafe muft be ufed. The method of de-
fcribing it is reprefented in fig. 7. where CD is the ge-
F‘g- ?• nerating circle, F the concave circular bafe, MN the
piece of wood on which this bafe is fixed, and c d the
interior epicycloid formed upon the plate of brafs, by
rolling the generating circle C, or the generating feg¬
ment D, towards the right hand. The cycloid, which
is ufeful in forming the teeth of rack-woi'k, is generated
precifely in the fame manner, with this difference only,
that the bafe on which the generating circle rolls muft
be a ftraight line.
In order that the teeth may not cmbarrafs one an- ?raAieii
other before their adftlon commences, and that one tooth Mechanics,
may begin to a6t upon its correfponding leaf of the pi- fV -
nion, before the preceding tooth lias ceafed to a£t upon0f the * U
the preceding leaf, the height, breadth, and diftance of teeth,
tire teeth muft be properly proportioned. For this pur-
pofe the pitch-line or circumference of the wheel, which
is reprefented in fig. 2. and 3. by the dotted arches,
muft be divided into as many equal fpaces as the num¬
ber of teeth which the wheel is to carry. Divide each
of thefe fpaces into 16 equal parts •, allow 7 of thefe for
the greateft breadth of the teeth, and 9 for the dif¬
tance between each j or the diftance of the teeth may
be made equal to their breadth. If the wheel drive a
trundle, each fpace firould be divided into 7 equal parts,
and 3 of thefe allotted for the thicknefs of the tooth,
and 34 for the diameter of the cylindrical Have of the
trundle. If each of the fpaces already mentioned, or
if the diftance between the centres of each tooth, be
divided into three equal parts, the height of the teeth
muft be equal to two of thefe. Thefe diftances and
heights, however, vary according to the mode of aftion
which is employed. The teeth ftiould be rounded off
at the extremities, and the radius of the wheel made a
little larger than that which is deduced from the rules
in Art. 400, 404. But when the pinion drives the
wheel, a fmall addition ftiould be made to the radius
of the pinion.
On the Nature of Bevelled Wheels, and the method of
giving an epicycloidalform to their Teeth.
407. The principle of bevelled -wheels was pointed out Ecvcllei
by De la Hire, fo long ago as the end of the 17th cen-wheels,
tury. It confifts in one fluted or toothed cone aiding upon
another, as is reprefented in fig. 8. where the cone OD Fig. 8,
drives the cone OC, conveying its motion in the direc¬
tion OC. If thefe cones be cut parallel to their bafes
as at A and B, and if the two fmall cones between
AB and O be removed, the remaining parts AC and
BD may be confidered as two bevelled wheels, and
BD will adt upon AC in the very fame manner, and
with the fame effect, that the whole cone OD a died
upon the whole cone OC. If the fection be made
nearer the bafes of the cones, the fame effedt will be
produced : this is the cafe in fig. 9. where CD and DE
are but very fmall portions of the imaginary cones ACD
and ADE.
408. In order to convey motion in any given diredtion,
and determine the relative fize and fituation of the
wheels for this purpofe, let AB, ,hg. 10. be the axis Fig. 1$.
of a wheel, and CD the given diredtion in which it is
required to convey the motion by means of a wheel
fixed upon the axis AB, and adling upon another wheel
fixed on the axis CD, and let us fuppofe that the axis
CD muft have four times the velocity of AB, or muft
perform four revolutions while AB performs one.
Then the number of teeth in the wheel fixed upon AB
muft be four times greater than the number of teeth in.
the wheel fixed upon CD, and their radii muft have
the fame proportion. Draw c d paraUel to CD at
any convenient diftance, and draw a b parallel to AB
at four times that diftance, then the lines 1 m and i n
drawn perpendicular to AB and CD refpedtively, will
mark the fituation and fize of the wheels required. In
4
pra&ical
Mechanics.
On the for¬
mation of
their teeth.1
Fig. 8.
©n crown
wheels.
Fig. II.
tills cafe the cones are O n l and O m i, and s r n i,
rjj m i, are the portions of them that are employed.
The formation of the teeth of bevelled wheels is
more difficult than one would at firft imagine. The teeth
of fuch wheels, indeed, mull be formed by the fame rules
which have been given for other wheels •, but lince dif¬
ferent parts of the fame tooth are at different dirtances
from the axis, thefe parts muff have the curvature of their
afting furfaces proportioned to that diftance. Thus, in
fig. 10. the part of the tooth at r muff be more incurya-
ted than the part at /, as is evident from the infpection
of fig. 9. and the epicycloid for the part i muff be
formed by means of circles whole diameters are im and
r/, while the epicycloid for the part r muff be gene¬
rated by circles whofe diameters are C n and D d.
409. Let us fuppofe a plane to pafs through the points
O, A, D •, the lines AB, AO, will evidently be in this
plane, which may be called the plane of centres. Now,
when the teeth of the wheel DE, which is fuppofed to
drive CD the fmalleft of the two, commence their a£Hon
on the teeth of CD, when they arrive at the plane of
centres, and continue their action after they have paffed
this plane, the curve given to the teeth of CD at C,
fliould be a portion of an interior epicycloid formed by
any generating circle rolling on the concave fuperficies
of a circle whofe diameter is twice C n perpendiculat
to CA, and the curvature of the teeth at 1 ffiould be
part of a fimilar epicycloid, formed upon a circle, whofe
diameter is twice im. The curvature of the teeth of
the wheel DE at D, ffiould be part of an exterior epi¬
cycloid formed by the fame generating circle rolling
upon the concave circumference of a circle whofe dia¬
meter is twice D d perpendicular to DA \ and the
epicycloid for the teeth at F is formed in the fame way,
only inftead of twice D d, the diameter of the circle
muff be twice Ff. When any other mode of action is
adopted, the teeth are to be formed in the fame manner
that we have pointed out for common wheels, with
this difference only, that different epicycloids are ne-
ceffary for the parts F and D. It may be fufficient,
however, to find the form of the teeth at F, as the re¬
maining part of the tooth may be fliaped by dire&ing
a ftraight ruler from different points of the epicycloid
at F to the centre A, and filing the tooth till every
part of its acting furface coincide with the fide of the
ruler. The reafon of this operation will be obvious by
attending to the ffiape of the tooth in fig. 8. When
the fmall wheel CD impels the large one DE, the
epicycloids which were formerly given to CD muff be
given to DE, and thofe which were given to DE muff
be transferred to CD.
410. The wheel reprefented in fig. 1 r. is fometimes
called a crown wheel, though it is evident from the figure
that it belongs to that fpecies of wheels which we have
juft been confidering ; for the acting furfaces of the
teeth both of the wheel MB and of the pinion EDG
are dire£ted to C the common vertex of the two cones
CMB, CEG. In this cafe the rules for bevelled
wheels muft be adopted, in which AS is to be confider-
ed as the radius of the wheel for the profile of the tooth
at A, and MN as its radius for the profile of the tooth
at M j and the epicycloids thus formed will be the fec-
tions or profiles of the teeth in the direction MP, at
right angles to MC the furfaces. of the cone. When
MECHANICS. 117
the vertex C of the cone MCG approaches to N till it PraAical^
be in the fame plane with the points M, G, fome of Mcc
the curves will be cycloids and others involutes, as in
the cafe of rack-work, for then the cone CEG will re¬
volve upon a plane furface. Appendix to Fergufon's
LeBlures.
Sect. II. On the Wipers of Stampers, <b’c. the Teeth of
Rack-xvork, is’e. is'e.
41T. In fig. 12. let AB be the wheel which is employ- Fig. 1
ed to elevate the rack C, and let their mutual a&ion not
commence till the a cling teeth have reached the line
of centres AC. In this cafe C becomes as it were the
pinion or wheel driven, and the adting faces of its teeth
muft be interior epicijcloids formed by any generating
circle rolling within the circumference p q ; but p q
is a ftraight line, thefe interior epicycloids will be cy¬
cloids, or curves generated by a point in the circum¬
ference of a circle, rolling upon a ftraight line or plane
furface. The acting face 0p, therefore, will be part of
a cycloid formed by any generating circle, and m n, the
ailing face of the teeth of the wheel, muft be an ex¬
terior epicycloid produced by the lame generating circle
rolling on m r the convex furface of the wheel. If it
is required to make op ?l ftraight line, as in the figure,
them m n muft be an involute of the circle in r formed
in the manner reprefented in fig. 5.
412. Fig. 12. likewife reprefents a wheel depreffing
the rack c when the third mode of aflion is ufed. In
this cafe alfo c becomes the pinion, and DE the wheel j
e h therefore muft be part of an interior epicycloid form¬
ed by any generating circle rolling on the concave fide
ex oi the wheel, and b c muft be an exterior epicy¬
cloid produced by the fame generating circle rolling
upon the circumference of the rack. The remaining
part c d of the teeth of the wheel muft be an exterior
epicycloid deferibed by any generating circle moving
upon the convex fide e x, and b a muft be an interior
epicycloid engendered by the fame generating circle
rolling within the circumference of the rack. But as
the circumference of the rack is in this cafe a ftraight
line, the exterior epicycloid b c and the interior one b a
will be cycloids formed by the fame generating circles
which are employed in deferibing the other epicy¬
cloids. Since it would be difficult, however, as has
already been remarked, to give this compound curva¬
ture to the teeth of the wheel and rack, we may ufe a
generating circle whofe diameter is equal to D a? the
radius of the wheel, for deferibing the interior epicy¬
cloid e h, and the exterior one be; and a generating
circle whofe diameter is equal to the radius of the rack, .
for deferibing the interior epicycloid a b, and the ex¬
terior one de ; ab and e h, therefore, will be ftraight
lines, and b c will be a cycloid, and de Tax involute of
the circle e x, the radius of the rack being infinitely
great.
413. In the fame manner may the form of the teeth
of rack-work be determined, when the fecond mode of
aftion is employed, and when the teeth of the wheel
or rack are circular or rettilineal. But if the rack be
part of a circle, it muft have the fame form for its teeth
as that of a wheel of the fame diameter with the circle •
of which it is a part.
In
Proper
form of
wipers.
Fig- 13-
M E C H
In machinery, where large weights are to be railed,
fuch as fulling-mills, mills for pounding ore, &c. or
where large pi lions are to be elevated by the arms of
levers, it is of the greateft confecpience that the power
Ihould raife the weight with an uniform force and velo¬
city ; and this can be efretfed only by giving a proper
former to the wiper.
Now there are two cafes in which this unifor¬
mity of motion may be required, and each of thefe de¬
mands a different form for the communicating parts,
i. When the weight is to be raifed vertically, as the
pillon of a pump, &c. 2. When the weight to be
raifed or depreffed moves upon a centre, and rifes or
falls in the arch of a circle, fuch as the fledge hammer
in a forge, &c.
4x4. 1. Let AH be a wheel moved by any power
•which is fufficient to raife the weight MN by its extre¬
mity O, from O to e, in the fame time that the wheel
moves round one-fourth of its circumference, it is re¬
quired to fix upon its rim a wing OBCDEH which
fhall produce this efleft with an uniform effort. Di¬
vide the quadrant OH into any number of equal parts
O w, m n, &c. the more the better, and 0 e into the
fame number 0 b,b c,c d, &c. and through the points
wz, n,p, H draw the indefinite lines AB, AC, AD, AE,
and make AB equal to Ab, AC to Ac, AD to A z/,
and AE to Ac; then through the points O, B, C, D, E,
draw the curve OBCDE, which is a portion of the
fpiral of Archimedes, and will be the proper form for
the wiper or wing OHE. It is evident that when the
point m has arrived at O, the extremity of the weight
will have arrived at b; becaufe AB is equal to
A and for the fame reafon, when the points «, p, H
have fucceffively arrived at O, the extremity of the
weight will have arrived at the correfponding points
t, d, e. The motion therefore will be uniform, becaufe
the fpace deferibed by the weight is proportional to
the fpace deferibed by the moving power, O b beino- to
Oc as O m to O n. If it be required to raife the
weight MN with ^n accelerated or retarded motion,
we have only to divide the line O c according to the
law of acceleration or retardation, and divide the curve
OBCDE as before.
When the qr 5. 2. When the lever moves upon a centre, the
in^ he'arch * we*g^lt r^e t^ie arc^ °f a circle, and confequent-
of a circle, if a new f°rm mu ft be given to the wipers or wings.
Fig. 14. Let AB, fig. 14. be a lever lying horizontally, which
it is required to raife uniformly through the -arch EC
into the pofition AC, by means of the wheel BFH
furniflied with the wing BNOP, which axSs upon .the
extremity C of the lever ; and let it be required to
raife it through BC in the fame time that the wheel
BFH moves through one-half of its circumference 5
that is, while the point M moves to B in the dire&ion
MFB. Divide the chord CB into any number of
equal parts, the more the better, in the points 1, 2, 3,
and draw the lines la 2b 3c parallel to AB, or a
horizontal line pafling through the point B, and meet¬
ing the arch CB in the points a, b, c. Draw the lines
A N I C S.
CD, a D, £ D, a D, and BD cutting the circle BEK Pra&icai
in the points m, n, 0,p. Mechanics.
Having drawn the diameter BM, divide the fe- ' 
micircle BEM into as many equal parts as the chord
CB, in the points q, s, u. Take B m, and fet it from q
to r: Take B n and fet it from r to / : Take B 0 and
fet it from u to v, and lallly fet Bp from M to E.
Through the points r, /, v, E, draw the indefinite lines
DN, DO, DP, D(£, and makeDN equal to Dc; DO
equal to D b; DP equal to Da; and D£ equal to
DC. Then through the points (£, P, O, N, B, draw
the fpiral B, N, O, P, £), xvhieh will be the proper
form for the wing of the wheel when it moves in the
direction EMB.
I hat the fpiral BNO will raife the lever AC,
with an uniform motion, by afting upon its extremity <r,
will appear from the flighted attention to the conltruc-
tion of the figure. It is evident, that when the point
q arrives at B, the point r will be in wz, becaufe B m
is equal to q r, and the point N will be at c, becaufe
DN is equal to D c; the extremity of the lever, there,,
fore, will be found in the point a, having moved
through B c. In like manner, when the point s has
arrived at B, the point t will be at «, and the point
O, in b, where the extremity of the lever will now be
found ; and fo on with the reft, till the point M has ar¬
rived at B. The point E will then be in p, and the
point £) in C j fo that the lever will now have the po¬
fition AC, having moved through the equal heights
Be, cb,ba, a c, (f) in the fame time that the power
has moved through the equal fpaces q B, s q, us, M zz.
rIhe lever, therefore, has been raifed uniformly, the ra- v
tio between the velocity of the power, and that of the
weight, remaining always the fame.
416. If the wheel D turn in a contrary dire&ion, ac¬
cording to the letters MHB, we muft divide the femi-
circle BH EM, into as many equal parts as the chord
c B, viz. in the points e,g, h. Then, having fet the arch
B m from e to d, the arch B n from g to f, and the
reft in a fimilar manner, draw through the points d,f,
A, E, the indefinite lines DR, DS, DT, D(£ : make DR
equal to D<r; DS equal to DA; DT equal to Da,
and DQ equal to DC 5 and through the points B, R, S,
T, £, deferibe the fpiral BRSTQ, which will be the
proper form for the wing, when the wheel turns in the
direftion MEB. For, when the point ^ arrives at B,
the point d will be in in, and R in c, where the extre¬
mity of the lever will now be found, having moved
through B c in the fame time that the power, or wheel,
has moved through the divifion e B. In the fame man¬
ner it may be fhewn, that the lever will rife through the
equal heights c A, A a, a C, in the fame time that the
power moves through the correfponding fpaces e g, g i,
i M. The motion of the lever, therefore, and alfo that
of the power, are always uniform. Of all the politions
that can be given to the point B, the moft difadvanta-
geous are thofe which are neareft the points F, H j and
the moft advantageous pofition is when the chord B c
is vertical, and pafles, when prolonged, through D, the
centre
(f) The arches B c,c b, &c. are not equal; but the perpendiculars let fall from the points c, a. A, &c. upon
the horizontal lines, pafling through ab, &c. are equal, being proportional to the equal lines ci, 1,2.
Fuel. VI. 2.
MECHANICS.
Practical centre of the circle (g). In this particular cafe the two
Mechanic?. curves have equal bales, though they differ a little in
L_” v ' point of curvature. The farther that the centre A is
diffant, the nearer do thefe curves referable each other j
and if it were infinitely diffant, they would be exactly
fimilar, and would be the fpirals of Archimedes, as the
extremity c would in this cafe rife perpendicularly.
It will be eafily perceived that 4, 6, or 8 wings may
be placed upon the circumference of the circle, and
may be formed by dividing into the fame number of
equal parts as the chord £C, £, or -f- of the circum¬
ference, inftead of the femicircle BFM.
That the wing UNO may not aft upon any part of
the lever between A and C, the arm AC fhould be
bent ; and that the friftion may be diminiflied as much
as poflible, a roller fhould be fixed upon its extremity
C. When a roller is ufed, however, a curve muff al¬
ways be drawn parallel to the fpiral deferibed accord¬
ing to the preceding method, the diilance between it
and the fpiral being everywhere equal to the radius of
the roller.
If it fhould be required to raife the lever with an ac¬
celerated or retarded motion, we have only to divide
the chord BC, according to the degree of retardation
or acceleration required, and the circle into the fame
number of equal parts as before.
417. As it is frequently more convenient to raife or
deprefs weights by the extremity of a conftant radius,
furnifhed with a roller, inftead of wings fixed upon the
periphery of a wheel 5 we fhall now proceed to deter¬
mine the curve which muft be given to the arm of the
lever which is to be raifed and depreffed, in order that
this elevation or depreflion may be effefted with an u-
niform motion.
Let xAB be a lever, which it is required to raife
uniformly through the arch BC, into the pofition AC,
by means of the arm or conftant radius 1)E, moving
upon D as a centre, in the fame time that the ex¬
tremity E deferibes the arch E <? F. From the point
C draw CH at right angles to AB, and divide it into
any number of equal parts, fuppofe' three, in the points
1, 2 and through the points 1, 2, draw 1 a 2 b, paral¬
lel to the horizontal line AB, cutting the arch CB in
the points a,b, through which draw a A, b A. Upon
D as a centre, with the diftance DE, deferibe the arch
IT9
E zVF, and upon A as a centre, with the diftance Praftical
AD, deferibe the arch e OF), cutting the arch E ieF ^cchanie?.
in the point e. Divide the arches E 1 e, and F r <?, each ' v—
into the fame number of equal parts as the perpendi¬
cular c FI, in the points k, i, s, m, and through thefe
points about the centre A, defenbe the arches ig,.
q m n. Take s x and fet it from k to /, and take
g f and fet it from i to h. Take r q aifo, and fet it
from s to t, and fet n m from 0 to 71, and dc from f to
O. Then through the points E, /, hy O, and O, /,y>, F,
draw the two curves E / h O, and. O tp F, which will
be the proper form, that muft be given to the arm of
tire lever. If the handle DE moves from E towards
F, the curve EO muft be ufed, but if in the contrary,
direftion, we muft employ the curve OF.
It is evident, that when the extremity E of the
handle DE, has run through the arch E£, or rather
E/, the point / will be in k, and the point s$ in v, be¬
came x* is equal to £/, and the lever will have the po¬
fition Ab. For the fame reafon, when the extremity
E of the handle has arrived at z, the point h will be in
h and the point g in/, and the lever will be raifed to
the pofition Art. Thus it appears, that the motion of
the power and the weight are always proportional.
When a roller is fixed at E, a curve parallel to EO, or
OF, muft be drawn as formerly. See Appendix to Fer-
gufon's Lectures.
Chap. VI* On the Firjl Movers of Machinery,
418. The powers which are generally employed as
the firft movers of machines are water, wind, fleam, and
animal exertion. The mode of employing water as an
impelling power has already been given at great leng th
in the article Hydrodynamics. I he application of
wind to turn machinery will be difeufled in the chapter
on Windmills ; and what regards fleam will be more
properly introduced into the article STEAM-Engine.
At prefent, therefore, we fliall only make a few general
remarks on the ftrength of men and horfes; and con¬
clude with a general view of the relative powers of the
firft movers o{ machinery. The following table con¬
tains the weight which a man is able to raife through
a certain height in a certain time, according to differ¬
ent authors..
Table of the Strength of Men, according to diferent authors.
Number of pound
raifed.
IOOO
6o7 4
5
£
1000
1000
30
29 or 30
Height to which
theweight is raifed.
180
a
220 y c
11 £
33°
225
34
2.45 feet
Time in which
it is raifed.
60. minutes
1 fecond
145 feconds
1 fecond
60 minutes
60 minutes
I fecond
1 fecond
Duration of the
Work.
8 hours
half an hour
10 hours
Names of the
authors.
Euler
Bernouilli
Amontons
Coulomb
Defaguliers
Smeaton
Emerfon
Schulze
419.
. (g) In the figure we have taken the point B in a diiadvantageous pofition,
cafe more diftinft. s E >
becaufe the interfeftions are in this
*
MECHANICS.
Practical 419, According to Amontons, a man weighing 133
Mechanics, pQUnc|s prench, afcended 62 feet French by tteps in 34
ForcJof 1 feconds, but was completely exhaufted. The fame au-
mcn ac- thor informs us that a fawer made 200 ftrokes. of 18
cording to inches French each, with a force of 25 pounds, in 145
Amontqns, pecori(js . ijuj that he could not have continued the ex¬
ertion above three minutes.
According 420. It appears from the obfervations of Defaguliers,
to Defa- that an ordinary man can, for the fpace of ten hours,
goiters, turn a winch with a force of 30 pounds, and with a ve¬
locity of two feet and a half per fecond j and that two
men working at a windlafs with handles at right angles
to each other can raife 70 pounds more eafily than one
man can raife 30* rlhe reafon of this is, that when
there is only one man, he exerts variable efforts at dif¬
ferent pofitions of the handle, and therefore the motion
of the windlafs is irregular j whereas in the cafe of
two men, with handles at right angles, the effeft of the
one man is greateft when the effedt of the other is
leaft, and therefore the motion of the machine is more
uniform, and will perform more work. Defaguliers alio
found, that a man may exert a force of 80 pounds with
a fly when the motion is pretty quick, and that by
means of a good common pump, he may raife a hogfhead
of water 1 o feet high in a minute, and continue the ex¬
ertion during a whole day.
llefults of 42I. A variety of interefting experiments upon the
Coulomb s force u£ men were made by the learned M. Coulomb,
ments." He found that the quantity of adtion of a man who af-
fcended flairs with nothing but his own weight, was
double that of a man loaded with 223 pounds avoirdu¬
pois, both of them continuing the exertion for a day.
In this cafe the total or abfolute effeB of the unloaded
man is the greateft poflible •, but the tfeful effeB which
he produces is nothing. In the fame way, if he were
loaded to fuch a degree that he was almoft incapable of
moving, the ufeful effedt would be nothing. Hence
there is a certain load with which the man will produce
the greateft ufeful effedt. This load M. Coulomb
found to be 173.8 pounds avoirdupois, upon the fuppo-
fltion that the man is to afcend flairs, and continue the
exertion during a whole day. When thus loaded, the
quantity of adtion exerted by the labourer is equivalent
to 183.66 pounds avoirdupois raifed through 3282 feet.
This method of working is however attended with a lofs
of tliree-fourths of the total adtion of the workman.—It
appears alfo from Coulomb’s experiments, that a man go¬
ing up flairs for a day raifes 205 chiliogrammes (a chi-
liogramme is equal to three ounces five drams avoirdu¬
pois) to the height of a chiliometre (a chiliometre is
equal to 39571 Englifh inches) •, that a man carrying
wood up ftairs raifes, together with his own weight, 109
chiliogrammes to one chiliometre 5—that a man weigh¬
ing 150 pounds French, can afcend by ftairs three feet
French in a fecond, for the fpace of 15 or 20 feconds $
—that a man cultivating the ground performs as
much labour as a man afcending ftairs, and that his
quantity of adtion is equal to 328 pounds avoirdupois
raifed through the fpace of 3282 feet j—that a man
with a winch does as much as by afcending ftairs
and that in a pile-engine, a man by means of a rope
drawn horizontally, raifed for the fpace of five hours
55^. pounds French through one foot French in a fe-
C^nd.—When men walk on a horizontal read, Cou¬
lomb found that the quantity of adtion was a maximum Pra&icai
when they were loaded, and that this maximum quanti- Mechanic*,
ty of adtion is to that which is exerted by a man loaded ' » —1
with 190.25 pounds avoirdupois as 7 to 4.—The weight
which a man ought to carry in order that the ufeful ef¬
feB may be a maximum, is 165.3 pounds avoirdupois.
When the workman, however, returns unloaded for
a new burden, he muft carry 200.7 pounds avoirdu¬
pois.
422. According to Dr Robifon a feeble old man
raifed feven cubic feet of water—437.5 pounds avoir¬
dupois, Ilf feet high, in one minute, for eight or ten
hours a day, by walking backwards and forwards on a
lever }—and a young man weighing 135 pounds, and
carrying 30 pounds, raifed 9F cubic feet of water
—578.1 pounds avoirdupois, 1feet high, for 10 hours
a day, without being fatigued.
423. From the experiments of Mr Buchanan, it ap¬
pears that the forces exerted by a man pumping, atting
at a winch, ringing and rowing, are as the numbers
1742, 2856, 3883, 4095.
424. According to Defaguliers and Smeaton, the Qn ^
power of one horfe is equal to the power of five men. ftrength ^ ’
Several French authors fuppofe a horfe equal to feven horfes.
men, while M. Schulze conliders one horfe as equiva¬
lent to 14 men.—Two horfes, according to the experi¬
ment of Amontons, exerted a force of 150 pounds
French, when yoked in a plough. According to De-’
faguliers, a horfe is capable of drawing, with a force of
200 pounds, two miles and a half an hour, and of con¬
tinuing this aftion eight hours in the day. When the-
force is 240 pounds he can work only fix hours. It
appears from Smeaton’s reports, that by means of.
pumps a horfe can raife 250 hoglheads of water, 10 feet
high, in an hour.—The moft difadvantageous way of
employing the power of a horfe is to make him carry
a load up an inclined plane, for it was obferved by
De la Hire, that tliree men, with 100 pounds each,
will go fafter up the inclined plane than a horfe with
300 pounds. When the horfe walks on a good road,
and is loaded with about two. hundred weight, he may
eafily travel 25 miles in the fpace of feven or eight
hours.
425. When a horfe is employed in raifing coals by
means of a wheel and axle, and moves at the rate of
about two miles an hour, Mr Fenwick found that he
could continue at work 12 hours each day, two and a
half of which were fpent in ftiort intervals of reft, when
he ^aifed a load of iaoo pounds avoirdupois, with a
velocity of 13 feet per minute •,—and that he will exert
a force of 75 pounds for nine hours and a half, when
moving with the fame velocity. Mr Fenwick alfo found
that 230 ale gallons of water delivered every minute on
an overftiot water wheel, 10 feet in diameter’, that a
common fleam-engine, with a cylinder eight inches in
diameter, and an improved engine with a cylinder 6.1 2
inches in diameter, will do the work of one horfe, that
is, will raife a weight of icoo pounds avoirdupois,
through the height of 13 feet in a minute. It appears from
Mr Smeaton’s experiments, that Dutch fails in their com¬
mon pofition with a radius of nine feet and a half,—that
Dutch fails in their beft pofition with a radius of eight
feet, and that his enlarged fails with a radius of feven
feet, perform the fame work as one man j or perform
OK**
M E C H
pra&iea one-fifth part of the work of a horfe. Upon thefe fa£b
Mechanics. we have conitruiled the following table, the four firft
A N I C S.
121
columns of which are taken from Mr Fenwick’s Effay*
on Pra&ical Mechanics.
Practical
Mechanic®.
TABLE Jhevoing the relativeJlrength of Overjhot Wheels, Steam Engines, Horfes, Men, and Wind-mills of
v different kinds.
Number of
ale gallons
delivered on
an overfliot
wheel, to
feet in dia¬
meter, every
minute.
230
390
528
660
79O
97O
II70
1445
!584
1740
1900
2100
2300
2500
2686
2870
3°55
3240
3420
3750
4000
4460
4850
5250
Diameter of
the cylinder
in the com¬
mon ftcam-
engine, in
inches.
8.
9-5
10.5
ir-5
12.5
I4‘
I5-4
16.8
17-3
18.5
I9-4
20.2
21.
22.
23.1
23-9
24.7
25-5
26.25
27‘
28.5
29.8
31*1
32.4
33-6
Diameter of
the cylinder
of the im¬
proved
fteam-engine,
in inches.
6.12
7.8
8.2
8.8
9-35
10- 55
11- 75
12.8
13.6
14.2
14.8
15.2
16.2
I7*
17.8
18.3
19.
19.6
20.1
20.7
22.2
23-
23-9
24.7
25-5
Number of
horfes work¬
ing 12 hours
per day, and
moving at
the rate of
two miles
per hour.
Z
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
J3
J4
J5
16
!7
18
!9
20
22
24
26
28
3°
Number of
men work¬
ing 12 hours
a-day.
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
5°
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
95
100
no
120
130
140
150
Radius of
Dutch fails
in their com¬
mon polition
in feet.
21.24
30.04
36.80
42.48
47-50
52.03
56.90
60.09
63-73
67.17
70.46
73-59
76-59
79-49
82.27
84.97
87.07
90.13
92.60
95.00
99.64
104.06
108.32
112.20
ij6-35
Radius of
Dutch fails
in their beft
pofition,
in feet.
Radius of
Mr Smea-
ton’s en¬
larged fails,
in feet.
17.89
25-30
30.98
35-78
40.00
43-8 2
47-33
50.60
53-66
56.57
59-33
61.97
64-5
66.94
69.28
7r-55
73-32
75-9°
77.98
80.00
83.90
87.63
91.22
94.66
97.98
15-65
22.13
27.11
3*-3°
35-oo
38-34
4I-4I
44.27
46.96
49-50
5I-9I
54.22
56.43
58.57
60.62
62.61
64.16
67.41
68.23
70.00
73-42
76.68
79.81
82.82
85-73
Height to
which thefe
different
powers will
raife 1000
pounds avoir¬
dupois in a
minute.
13
26
39
52
65
78
9°
104
217
130
M3
156
169
182
J9S
208
221
234
247
260
286
312
338
364
39°
426. Dutch fails are always conftrufted fo that the
angle of weather may diminifh from the centre to the
extremity of the fail. They are concave to the
wind, and are in their common poftion when their ex¬
tremities are parallel to the plane in which they move,
or perpendicular to the direftion of the wind. Dutch
fails are in their hefl poftion when their extremities
make an angle of feven degrees with the plane of their
motion. Mr Smeaton’s enlarged fails are Dutch fails
in their beft polition, but enlarged at their extremi¬
ties.
427. It appears from M. Coulomb’s experiments on
Dutch wind-mills, with rectangular fails, that when the
diftance between the extremities of two oppofite fails is
66 feet French, and the breadth of each fail fix feet,
a wind moving at the rate of 20 feet per fecond will
produce an effect equivalent to icoo pounds raifed
through the fpace of 218 feet in a minute.
According to Watt and Boulton, one of their
‘fleam-engines, with a cylinder 31 inches in diameter,
and which makes 17 double ftrokes per minute, is equi¬
valent to 40 horfes working day and night; that is, to
101 horfes working nine hours and a half, the time of
conftsmt exertion in the preceding table. When the
Vol. XIII. Part I.
cylinder is 19 inches in diameter, and the engine make*
25 ftrokes of four feet each per minute, its power
is equivalent to twelve horfes working conftantly, or
thirty horfes working nine hours and a half;—and
when the cylinder is 24 inches in diameter, and the
engine makes 22 ftrokes, of five feet each, in a mi¬
nute, ’ I s power is equal to that of 20 horfes working
conftantly, or 50 horfes working nine hours and a
half.
Chap VII. On the ConfruBion of Wind-mills.
428. A WIND-MILL is reprefented in fig. 1. w-here MN Plate
is the circular building that contains the machinery, E CCCXX.V.
the extremity of the windlhaft, or principal axis, which I"
is generally inclined from 8 to 15 degrees to the hori¬
zon } and EA, EB, EC, ED four reditangular frames
upon which fails of cloth of the fame form are ftretch-
ed. At the lower extremity G of the fails their fur-
face is inclined to the axis 7 2° 5 and at their fartheft
extremities A, D, &c. the inclination of the fail is
about 83°. Now, when the fails are adjufted to the
wind, which happens when the wind blows in the di-
reflion of the windlhaft E, the impulfe of the wind
& ,
122
MECHANICS.
Practical upon the oblique fails may be refolved into two
Mechanics. £orces^ one 0f -which a(c£s at rJght angles to the
windihaft, and is therefore employed folely in giving a
motion of rotation to the fails and the axis upon which
they are fixed. When the mill is ufed for grinding
corn, a crown wheel, fixed to the principal axis E,
gives motion to a lantern or trundle, whofe axis carries
the moveable millltone.
Methods of 429. That the wind may a£l with the greateft efficacy
fells ufthe6 uPon t'16 ^le v.'indlhaft mull; have the fame direc-
wind ^on as ^v^n(a* ^ut as direction is perpetually
changing, fome apparatus is neceffary for bringing the
windfhaft and fails into their proper petition. This is
fometimes effefted by fupporting the machinery on a
ftrong vertical axis, whofe pivot moves in a brafs focket
firmly fixed into the ground, fo that the whole ma¬
chine, by means of a lever, may be made to revolve
upon this axis, and be properly adjufted to the direc¬
tion of the wind. Moll wind-mills, however, are
furnifhed with a moveable roof which revolves upon
friffion rollers inferted in the fixed kerb of the mill j
and the adjuflment is effected by the affiftance of a
fimple lever. As both thefe methods of adjuftment
require the aflifiance of men, it would be very defirable
that the fame effeft fliould be produced folely by the
aftion of the wind. This may be done by fixing a
large wooden vane or weather-cock at the extremity of
a long horizontal arm which lies in the fame vertical
plane with the windfhaft. By this means when the
lurface of the vane, and its diftance from the centre of
motion, are fufficiently great, a very gentle breeze will
exert a fufficient force upon the vane to turn the ma¬
chinery, and will always bring the fails and windfhaft
to their proper pofition. This weather-cock, it is evi¬
dent, may be applied either to machines which have
a moveable roof, or which revolve upon a vertical
arbor.
On the Form and Pojiiion of Wind-mill Sails.
430. It appears from the inveftigations of Parent, that
a maximum effeft will be- produced when the fails are
inclined 54^- degrees to the axis of rotation, or when
The inch- the angle of weather is 35^ (g) degrees. In obtain-
nation af- ing this conclufion, however, M. Parent has affirmed
Parentbe data which are inadmiffible, and has neglefted feveral
roneous. circumftances which muff materially affeft the refult of
his invefligations. The angle of inclination affigned
by Parent is certainly the moft efficacious for giving
motion to the fails from a date of reft, and for prevent¬
ing them from flopping when in motion ; but he has not
confidered that the adlion of the wind upon a fail at
reft is different from its aftion upon a fail in motion:
for fince the extremities of the fails move with greater
rapidity than the parts nearer the centre, the angle of
weather fhould be greater toward? the centre than at
the extremity, and ftiould vary with the velocity of
each part of the fail. The reafon of this is very ob¬
vious. It has been demonftrated by Boffut, and efta- PnAica!
blilhed by experience, that when any fluid a&s upon Mechanic*,
a plain furface, the force of impulfion is always exerted v
moft advantageoufly when the impelled furface is in a
ftate of reft, and that this force diminiflies as the velo¬
city of the furface increafes. Now, let us fuppofe with
Parent, that the moft advantageous angle of weather
for the fails of wind-mills is 35-i- degrees for that part
of the fail which is neareft the centre of rotation, and
that the fail has every where this angle of weather j
then, fince the extremity of the fail moves with the
greateft velocity, it will in a manner withdraw itfelf
from the aftion of the wind, or, to fpeak more proper¬
ly, it will not receive the impulfe of the wind fo ad¬
vantageoufly as thofe parts of the fail which have a lefs
degree of velocity. In order therefore to counteract
this diminution of force, we muft make the wind a.£t
more perpendicularly upon the fail, by diminifliing its
obliquity or its angle of weather. But fince the velo¬
city of every part of the fail is proportional to its di¬
ftance from the. centre of motion, every elementary por¬
tion of it muft have a different angle of weather dimi¬
nifliing from the centre to the extremity of the fail.
The law or rate of diminution, however, is ftill to be
difeovered, and we are fortunately in poffeflion of a the- ’
orem of Euler’s, afterwards given by Maclaurin, which
determines this law of variation. Let 0 reprefent the Euler’s
velocity of the wind, and c the velocity of any given theorem,
part of the fail 5 then the effort of the wind upon that
part of the fail will be greateft when the tangent of the
angle of the xvind’s incidence, or of the fail’s inclina-
• •• • / QC C 3 C
tion to the axis, is to radius, as ^ 2-4--—-p — t°
4aa 2a Fig
431. In order to apply this theorem, let us fuppofe that hxplana-
the radius or whip ED of the fail /3 2 y, is divided in- ^ alld aP'
to fix equal parts; that the point n is equidiftant from E
and D, and is the point of the fail which has the lame rcm> 1 "
velocity as the wind ; then, in the preceding theorem,
we fliall have cz=:a, when the fail is loaded to a maxi¬
mum ; and therefore the tangent of the angle, which
the furface of the fail at n makes Avith the axis, Avhen
a= 1, Avill be 2 3-56i =:
tangent of 74°
19', Avhich gives 150 41'for the angle of Aveather at
the point n. Since, at 4 of the radius c—0, and fince
c is proportional to the diftance of the correfponding
part of the fail from the centre, Ave Avill have, at ■£ of
the radius sm, c=.~-, at of the radius, c—— ; at -g,
3 3
40,50, . .
, at an<a at tae extremity of the ra¬
dius, 0=20. By fiubftituting thefe different values of
0, inftead of 0 in the theorem, and by making 0—1,
the folloAving table will be obtained, Avhich exhibits the
angles of inclination and Aveather which muft be given
to different parts of the fails.
Parts
(g) The weather of the fails is the angle Avhich the furface forms xvith the plane in which they move, and is
*qual to the complement of the angle w hich that furface forms Avith the axis.
2
Practical
Mechanics.
Befults of
Smeaton’s
experi¬
ments.
Fig. 2.
Parts of the ra
(Hus from the
centre of mo¬
tion at E.
Velocity of the
fail at theft
diftances —or
values of c.
MECHANICS. I13
Maxim i. The Velocity of wind-mill fails, whether Practical
Angle made
with the axis.
3
2 a
~
a
4 a
3
Sa
3
2 a
Deg.
69
74
77
79
81
Min.
26
54
*9
20
27
o
Angle of wea
ther.
Deg.
26
20
*5
12
10
9
Alin
34
6
4
40
33
o
Parts of the radius
E A, which is di-;
vided into 6 parts.
Angle with the
axis.
Angle of weather.
72
71
72
74
77i
83
If the radius ED of the fail be 30 feet, then the fail
will commence at £ ED, or 5 feet from the axis,
where the angle of inclination will be 720. At ED,
or 10 feet from the axis, the angle will be 710, andfo on.
On the Ejfefl; of Wind-mill Sails.
433-. The following maxims deduced by Mr Smeaton
Irotn his experiments, contain the moll accurate infor¬
mation upon this fubjeft.
432. Mr Smeaton found, from a variety of experi¬
ments, that the common praftice of inclining plane fails
from 72° to 750 to the axis, was much more efficaci¬
ous than the angle affigned by Parent, the effedt being
as 45 to 31. When the fails were weathered in the
Dutch manner, that is, when their furfaces were con¬
cave to the wind, and when the angle of inclination in-
creafed- towards their extremities, they produced a
greater effedl than when they were weathered either in
the common way, or according to Euler’s theorem.
But when the fails were enlarged at their extremities,
as reprefented at aft, in fig. 2. fo that ec (i was one-
third of the radius ED, and « D to D /3 as 5 to 3,
tneir powrer was greateft of all, though the furface a£t-
ed upon by the wind remained the fame. If the fails
be farther enlarged, the effect is not increafed in pro¬
portion to the furface ; and befides, wffien the quantity
of cloth is great, the machine is much expofed to in¬
jury by hidden fqualls of wind. In Mr Smeaton’s ex¬
periments, the angle of weather varied with the di-
flance from the axis} and it appeared from feveral
trials, that the moft efficacious angles were thofe in the
following table.
unloaded or loaded, fo as to produce a maximum effeft, ',:echa,ucs\
is nearly as the velocity of the wind, their lhape and ,, 7, A ./
pofition being the fame. wind-mill
Maxim 2. The load at the maximum is nearly, fails, ac-
but fomewhat lefs than, as the fquare of the velocity corcl,n§ W
of the wind, the ffiape and pofition of the fails beingSmeatoa*
the fame.
Maxim 3. The effects of the fame fails at a maxi¬
mum, are nearly, but fomewhat lefs than, as the cubes o£
the velocity of the wind.
Maxim 4. The load of the fame fails at the
maximum is nearly as the fquares, and their effeft*
as the cubes of their number of turns in a given
time.
Maxim 5. When fails are loaded, fo as to produce
a maximum at a given velocity, and the velocity of
the wund increafes, the load continuing the fame :
1 ft, The increafe of effedft, when the inertafe of the
velocity of the wind is fmall, will be nearly as the
fquares of thofe velocities : 2dly, When the velo¬
city of the wind is double, the effe&s will be near¬
ly as io:27f: But, 3dly, When the velocities
compared are more than double of that where the
given load produces a maximum, the effedfts increafe
nearly in the fimple ratio of the velocity of the
wind.
Maxim 6. In fails where the figure and pofitions
are fimilar, and the velocity of the wind the fame, the
number of turns in a given time will be reciprocally as
the radius or length of the fail.
Maxim 7. The load at a maximum that fails of a
fimilar figure and pofition will overcome at a given
diftance from the centre of motion, will be as the cube
of the radius.
Maxim 8. The effetfts of fails of fimilar figure and
pofition are as the fquare of the radius.
Maxim 9. The velocity of the extremities of Dutch
fails,, as well as of the enlarged fails, in all their ufual
pofitions when unloaded, or even loaded to a maxi¬
mum, are confiderably quicker than the velocity of the
wind.
434. A new mode of conftrucling the fails of wind-mills
has been recently given by Mr Sutton, and fully de-
feribed by Mr Hefleden of Barton, in a work exclufive-
ly devoted to the fubjeft.
The limits of this article will not permit us to enter
into any difeuffion refpetting the principles upon which
Mr Sutton’s gravitated fails are conftrudted ; but the
fubject ffiall be refumed under the article Windmill.
It may be proper however to remark that Mr Sutton
gives his fails the form reprefented in fig. 4. and makes
the angle of weather at the point M, equidiftant from
A. and B, equal to 2 2° 30'. The inclination of the
fail at any other point N of the fail, is an angle whofe
fine is the diftance of that point from the centre of mo¬
tion A, the radius being the breadth of the fail at that
point. Fig. 3. ftiews the angles at the different F;cr ^
points of the fail; and the apparent and abfolute 6 '
breadths of the fail at thefe points. Mr Sutton’s
mode, of regulating the velocity of the fails, and of
bringing them to a ftate of reft is particularly in¬
genious.
Q 2
On
124
Pradlical
Mechanics.
Horizontal
wind-mills.
Fig. 4.
Common
method of
feri.iging
hack the
fails againft
the wind.
leatfon’s
method.
MECHANICS.
fjn Horizontal Wind-mills.
435. Various opinions have been entertained refpeft-
ing the relative advantages of horizontal and vertical
■wind-mills. Mr Smeaton, with great juftice, gives a
decided preference to the latter 5 but when he afferts
that horizontal wind-mills have only ^ or of the
power of vertical ones, he certainly forms too low an
eftimate of their power. Mr Beatfon, on the contra¬
ry, who has received a patent for the conftruction of a
new horizontal wind-mill, feems to be prejudiced in
their favour, and greatly exaggerates their comparative
value. From an impartial inveftigation, it will proba¬
bly appear, that the truth lies between thefe two oppo-
fite opinions 5 but before entering on this difeuffion,
we muft lirft confider the nature and form of horizontal
wind-mills.
436. In fig. 4. CK is the windfliaft, which moves up¬
on pivots. Four crofs bars, CA, CD, IB, FG, are fix¬
ed to this arbor, which carry the frames APIB, DEFG.
The fails AI, EG, are ft retched upon thefe frames,
and are carried round the axis CK, by the perpendicu¬
lar impulfe of the wind. Upon the axis CK, a toothed
wheel is fixed, which gives motion to the particular
machinery that is employed. In the figure, only two
foils are reprefented } but there are always other two
placed at right angles to thefe. Now, let the fails be
expofed to the wind, and it will be evident that no mo¬
tion will enfue ; for the force of the wind upon the fail
AI, is counteracted by an equal and oppofite force up¬
on the foil EG. In order then, that the wind may
communicate motion to the machine, the force upon
the returning foil EG muft either be removed by
fereening it from the wind, or diminifhed by making it
prefent a lefs furface when returning againft the wind.
The firft of thefe methods is adopted in Tartary, and
in fome provinces of Spain \ but is objected to by Mr
Beatfon, from the inconvenience and expence of the
machinery and attendance requifite for turning the
fereens into their proper pofitions. Notwithftanding
this objection, however, I am difpofed to think that
this is the beft method of diminifhing the aftion of the
wind upon the returning fails, for the moveable fereen
may eafily be made to follow the diredtion of the wind,
and affume its proper petition, by means of a large
wooden Aveathercock, Avithout the aid either of men or
machinery. It is true, indeed, that the refiftance of
the air in the returning foils is not completely remo¬
ved j but it is at leaft as much diminifhed as it can be
by any method hitherto propofed. Betides, Avhen this
plan is reforted to, there is no occation for any move-
able flaps and hinges, Avhich muft: add greatly to the
expence of every other method.
437. The mode of bringing the fails back againft
the wind, which Mr Beatfon invented, is, perhaps, the
fimpleft and beft of the kind. He makes each fail AI
to conlift of fix or eight flaps or vanes, AP b 1, b 1 c 2,
&c. moving upon hinges reprefented by the dark lines,
AP, b 1, c 2, &c. fo that theloAver tide 1, of the firft
flap overlaps the hinge or higher tide of the fecond flap,
and fo on. When the wind, therefore, a£ts upon the
foil AI, each flap Avill prefs upon the hinge of the one
immediately beloAV it, and the Avhole furface of the fail
will be expofed to its aft ion. But when the fail AI
returns againft the Avind, the flaps will revolve round
upon their hinges, and prefent only their edges to the Practical
wind, as is reprefented at EG, fo that the refiftance Meehaucs.
occationed by the return of the fail muft be greatly di-
miniihed, and the motion Avill be continued by the
great fuperiority of force exerted upon the fails in the
pofition AI. In computing the force of the Avind upon
the fail AI, and the refiftance oppofed to it by the
edges of the flaps in EG, Mr Beatfon finds, that when
the preffure upon the former is 1872 pounds, the re¬
fiftance oppofed by the latter is only about 36 pounds,
or -ps part of the whole force j but he neglefts the ac¬
tion of the Avind upon the arms CA, &e. and the
frames Avhich carry the fails, becaufe they expofe the
fame furface in the pofition AI, as in the pofition
EG. This omiflion, however, has a tendency to mif-
lead us in the prefent cafe, as we lhall now fee, for avc
ought to compare the whole force exerted upon the
arms, as Avell as the fail, Avith the Avhole refiftance
which thefe arms and the edges of the flaps oppofe to
the motion of the Avindmill. By infpefting fig. 4. it
Avill appear, that if the force upon the edges of the flaps,
which Mr Beatfon fuppofed to be 12 in number,
amounts to 36 pounds, the force fpent upon the bars
CD, DG, GF, FE, &c. cannot be lefs than 60 pounds.
Now, fince thefe bars are afted upon Avith an equal
force, Avhen the fails have the pofition AI, 1872-I-60
=1932 Avill be the force exerted upon the fail AI, and
its appendages, Avhile the oppofite force upon the bars
and edges of the flaps Avhen returning againft the wind
Avill be 36-f-60=196 pounds, which is nearly ^ of
1932, inftead of TV as computed by Mr Beatfon.
Hence wre may fee the probable advantages of a fereen
oA'er moveable flaps, as it will preferve not only the
fails, but the arms and the frame which fupport it,
from the aft ion of the Avind.
438. We fliall noAV conclude this chapter writh acompari-
comparifon of the poAver of horizontal and vertical fons be-
AA'ind-mills. It was already ftated, that Mr Smeaton ra- tween Ter-
ther underrated the former, while he maintained that!;‘ca.1 a**“
they have only -f- or the power of the latter. He ^nd-Mlsr
obferves, that when the vanes of a horizontal and a \rer~
tical mill are of the fame dimenfions, the poAver of the
latter is four times that of the former, becaufe, in the
firft cafe, only one fail is afted upon at once, Avhile, in.
the'fecond cafe, all the four receive the impulfe of the
Avind. This, however, is not ftriftly true, fince the
vertical fails are all oblique to the direftion of the
Avind. Let us fuppofe-that the area of each fail is 100
fquare feet} then the poAver of the horizontal fail will
be 100, and the power of a vertical fail may be
called 100 X fine 70®* (70° being the common angle
of inclination) = 88 nearly j but fince there are four
vertical fails, the power of them all will be 4X 88=
352 } fo that the power of the horizontal fail is to that
of the four vertical ones as I to 3.52, and not as 1
to 4, according to Mr Smeaton. But Mr Smeaton
alfo obferves, that if we confider the farther difadvan-
tage Avhich arifes from the difficulty of getting the foils
back againft the Avind, Are need not Avonder if horizon¬
tal wind-mills have only about or the power of
the common fort. We have already feen, that the re¬
fiftance occalioned by the return of the fails, amounts
to of the Avhole force Avhich they receive } by fub-
trafting —, therefore, from —-—, avc fliall find that
5 20’ 3.52’
the
M E C H
jfechanics. the power of horizontal wind-mills is only , or lit-
’ tie more than ^ that of vertical ones. This cal¬
culation proceeds upon a fuppofition, that the whole
force exerted upon vertical fails is employed in turning
them round the axis of motion; whereas a confiderable
part of this force is loft in prefling the pivot of the axis
or windfhaft againft its gudgeon. Mr Smeaton has
overlooked this circumftance, otherwife he could never
have maintained that the power of four vertical fails
was quadruple the power of one horizontal fail, the di-
menfions of each being the fame. Taking this circum¬
ftance into the account, we cannot be far wrong in fay¬
ing, that in theory at leaft, if not in practice, the
power of a horizontal wind-mill is about y or ^ of the
power of a vertical one, when the quantity of furface
and the form of the fails is the fame, and when every
part of the horizontal fails has the fame diftance from
the axis of motion as the correfponding parts of the ver¬
tical fails. But if the horizontal fails have the pofition
A I, EG, in fig. 4. inftead of the pofition C A w,
CD 0 «, their power w’ill be greatly increafed, though
the quantity of furface is the fame, becaufe the part
CP 3 m being transferred to BI 3 has much more
power to turn the fails.
Chap. VIII. On the ConJlrnBion of Wheel Car¬
riages.
On the fire 439* ^ evident from Art. 60. that when a wheel
•f carriage furmounts an obftacle, it a£ls as a lever of the firft kind,
wheels. arid that its power to overcome fuch refiftances in-
CCCXXV crea^es ^th its diameter. The power of the force P,
6 ' for example, to raife the wheel NB over the eminence
C, is proportional to the vertical lever FC, which
increafes with the diameter of the wheel, while the
lever of refiftance FA, by which the weight of
the wheel aifts, remains unchanged 5 hence we fee
the advantages of large wheels for overcoming fuch
©bftacles as generally refift the motion of wheel car¬
riages. There are fome circumftances, however, which,
independent of the additional weight and expence of
large wheels, prefcribe limits to their fize. If the ra¬
dius AC of the wheel exceeds the height of that part
•f the horfe to which the traces are attached, the line
«f tradtion DA will be oblique to the horizon, and
part of the power P will be employed in prefling the
wheel upon the ground. A 'wheel exceeding four and
a half feet radius, which is the general diftance from
the ground of that part of the horfe to which the traces
are attached, has ftill the advantage of a fmaller
wheel 5 but when we confider that the traces or poles
ef the cart will, in this cafe, rub againft the flanks of
the horfes, fo that the power of the wheel is diminiftied
by the increafe of its weight, we ftiall be convinced that
no power is gained by making the radius of the
wheels greater than four and a half feet. Even this
fize is too great, as (hall be afterwards fttown, when we
treat of the line of tr aft ion, fo that we may fafely af-
fert, that the diameter of wheels ftiould never be great¬
er than fix feet. The fore wheels of our carriages are
ftill unaccountably fmall, and it is not uncommon to
fee carts moving upon wheels fcarcely 14 inches in dia¬
meter. The convenience of turning is urged as the rea-
ton for diminilhing the fore wheels of carriages, and
I
A N I C S. 125
the facility of loading the cart is confidered as a fuffi- Practical
cient reafon for ufing wheels fo fmall as 14 inches. ,Mec^amc3;
The firft of thefe advantages, however, may be obtain- *
ed by going to the end of a ftreet, or to a proper place
for turning the carriage 5 and a few additional turns of
a windlafs will be fufficient to convey the heavieft loads
into carts mounted on high wheels.
440. The next thing to be determined is the fliape
of the wheels. Now it is certainly a matter of furprife
how the unnatural fliape which is at prefent given to
them could ever have been brought into ufe. A cy¬
lindrical wheel, with the fpokes perpendicular to the
naves, is undoubtedly the form which every mechanic
would give to his wheels, before he had heard of the
pretended advantages of concave or difhing wheels, or
thofe which have inclined fpokes and conical rims. It
has been alleged, indeed, that the form reprefented in
fig. 5. when A r, B r is the conical rim, and 0 A,joB ,
the inclined fpokes, renders the wheel ftronger than it *
would otherwife be j that by extending the bafe of the 0' “
carriage it prevents it from being overturned 5 that it
hinders the fellies from rubbing againft the load or th©
fides of the cart j and that when one wheel falls into a
rut, and therefore fupports more than one half of the
load, the fpokes are brought into a vertical pofition,'
which renders them more capable of fuftaining the ad¬
ditional weight. Now it is evident that the fecond of
thefe advantages is very trifling, and may be obtained,
when required, by interpofing a piece of board between
the wheel and the load.
441. The other two advantages exift only in very
bad roads ; and if they are neceflary, which we much
queftion, in a country like this, where the roads are fo
excellently made and fo regularly repaired, they caw
eafily be procured, by making the axle-tree a few inches
longer, and increafing the ftrength of the fpokes. But
it is allowed on all hands that perpendicular fpokes are
preferable on level ground. The inclination of the
fpokes, therefore, which renders concave wheels advan¬
tageous in rugged and unequal roads, renders them dis¬
advantageous when the roads are in good order •, and
where the good roads are more numerous than the bad
ones, as they certainly are in this country, the difad-
vantages of concave wheels muft overbalance their ad¬
vantages. It is true indeed that in concave wheels,
the fpokes are in their ftrongeft pofition, when they arc
expofed to the fevereft ftrains, that is, wrhen one wheel
is in a deep rut, and fuftains more than one half of the
load : but it is equally true that on level ground, where
the fpokes are in their weakeft pofition, a lefs fever©
ftrain, by continuing for a much longer time, may be
equally if not more detrimental to the 'wheel.
Upon thefe obfervations we might reft the opinion
which wre have been maintaining, and appeal for its
truth to the judgment of every intelligent and unbiaf-
fed mind ) but we ftiall go a ftep farther, and endea¬
vour to fliow that concave difhing wheels are more ex-
penfive, more injurious to the roads, more liable to be
broken by accidents, and lefs durable in general, than
thofe wheels in which the fpokes are perpendicular to
the naves. By infpefting fig. 5. it will appear that the
whole of the preffure which the wheel AB fuftains is
exerted along the inclined fpoke p r, and therefore afts
obliquely upon the level ground n D, whether the rims
afe conical «r cylindrical. This oblique aftion muft
neceflarily
126 MECHANICS.
Practical ftecefTarily injure tire roads, by loofening the ftones more
Meciamcs.^between B and D than between B and n, and if the
load were fuffieiently great, the itones would flart up
between s and D. The texture of the roads, indeed,
is fufficiently firm to prevent this from taking place j
but in confequenee of the oblique preffure, the Itones
between r and D will at lealt be loofened, and by ad¬
mitting the rain the whole of the road will be materially
damaged. But when the fpokes are perpendicular to the
nave as /?//, and when the rims mA, nB are cylindrical,
or parallel to the ground, the weight fuftained by the
wheel will a£l perpendicularly upon the road •, and how¬
ever much that weight is inereafed, its adlion can have
~tn tendency to derange the materials of which it is
compofed, but is rather calculated to confolidate them,
and render the road more firm and durable.
442. It was obferved that concave wheels are more
expenfive than plane ones. This additional expence
arifes from the greater quantity of wood and workman-
Ihip which the former require •, for in order that dilhing
wheels toay be of the fame perpendicular height as
plane ones, the fpokes of the former muft exceed in
length thofe of the latter, as much as the hypothenufe
oA of the triangle oAn exceeds the fide om 5 and there¬
fore the weight and the refiftance of fuch wheels muft
be proportionably great. The inclined fpokes, too,
cannot be formed nor inferted with fuch facility as per¬
pendicular ones. The extremity of the fpoke which is
fixed into the nave is inferted at right angles to it, in
the dire&ion op, and if the rims are cylindrical, the
other fpoke Ihould be inferted in a fimilar manner j
w hile the intermediate portion has an inclined pofition.
There are therefore two flexures or bendings in the
fpokes of concave wheels, which requires them to be
formed out of a larger piece of wood than if they had
no fuch flexures, and renders them liable to be broken
by any hidden ftrain at the points of flexure.
443. We fliall now difmifs the fubjeft of concave
W'heels with one obfervationmore, and we beg the reader’s
attention to it, becaufe it appears to be decifive of the
queftion. The obftacles which carriages have to
encounter, are almoft never fpherical protuberances that
permit the elevated wheel to refume by degrees its hori¬
zontal pofition. They are generally of fuch a nature,
that the wheel is inftantaneoufly precipitated from their
top to the level ground. Now the momentum with
which the wheel ftrikes the ground is very great, arifing
from a fucceflive accumulation of force. The velocity
of the elevated wheel is confiderable when it reaches
the top of the eminence, and while it is tumbling
into the level ground, it is receiving gradually that
proportion of the load which was transferred to the
other wheel, till having recovered the whole, it impin¬
ges againft the ground with great velocity and force.
But in concave wheels the fpoke which then ftrikes the
ground is in its weakeft pofition, and therefore much
more liable to be broken by the impetus of the fall,
than the fpokes of the lowed; wheel by the mere tranf-
ferenee of additional weight. Whereas, if the fpokes
be perpendicular to the nave, they receive this hidden
ftiock in their ftrongeft pofition, and are in no danger
of giving way to the ftrain.
444. In the preceding obfervatkms we have fuppo-
fivj the rims of the wheels to be cylindrical. In con¬
cave wheels, however, the rims are uniformly made of Practical
a conical form, as A r, B s, fig. 5. which not only in- Mechanics,
creafes the difadvantages which we have aferibed to v~
them, but adds many more to the number. Mr Gum¬
ming, in a late Treatife on Wheel Carriages, folely
devoted to the confideration of this Angle point, haa
{hewn with great ability the difadvantages of conical
rims, and the propriety of making them cylindrical j
but we are of opinion that he has aferibed to conical rim»
feveral difadvantages which arife chiefly from an inclina¬
tion of the fpokes. He infifts much upon the injury
done to the roads by the ufe of conical rims ; yet though
we are convinced that they are more injurious to pave¬
ments and highways than cylindrical rims, we ara
equally convinced, that this injury is occafioned chiefly
by the oblique preflure of the inclined fpokes. The
defefts of conical rims are fo numerous and palpable,
that it is wonderful how they ftiould have been fo long
overlooked. Every cone that is put in motion upon a
plane furface will revolve round its vertex, and if force
is employed to .confine it to a ftraight line, the fmaller
parts of the cone will be dragged along the ground and
the friction greatly increafed. Now when a carriage
moves upon conical wheels, one part of the cone rolls
while the other is dragged along, and though confined
to a reftilineal direction by external force, their natural
tendency to revolve round their vertex occafions a great
and continued fridtion upon the linch pin, the ftioulder
of the axle-tree, and the fides of deep ruts.
445. The Ihape of the wheels being thus determined,
we muft now attend to fome particular parts of their
conftruction. The iron plates of which the rims are
compofed fhould never be lefs than three inches in
breadth, as narrow rims fink deep into the ground, and
therefore injure the roads and fatigue the horfes. Mr
Walker, indeed, attempts to throw ridicule upon the
adt of parliament which enjoined the ufe of broad wheels j
but he does not aflign any fufficient reafon for his opi¬
nion, and ought to have known that feveral excellent
and well deviled experiments were lately inftituted by
Boulard and Margueron, which evince in the molt fatil-
fadlory manner the great utility of broad wheels.
Upon this fubjedr an obfervation occurs to us, which has
not been generally attended to, and which appears to
remove all the objedHons which can be urged againft
broad rims. When any load is fupported upon two
points, each point fupports one half of the weight j if
the points are increafed to four, each will fuftain one-
fourth of the load, and fo on ; the preflure upon each
point of fupport diminilhing as the number of points
increafes. If a weight fherefore is fupported by a
broad furface, the points of fupport are infinite in num¬
ber, and each of them ivill bear an infinitely fmall por¬
tion of the load ; and, in the fame way, every finite
portion of this furface will fuftain a part of the weight
inverfely proportional to the number of fimilar portions
which the furface contains. Let us now fuppofe that a
cart carrying a load of fixteen hundred weight is fup¬
ported upon wheels whole rims are four inches in
breadth, and that one of the wheels pafles over four
ftones, each of them an inch broad and equally high, and
capable of being pulverized only by a preflure of four
hundred pounds weight. Then as each wheel fuftains
one half of the load, and as the wheel which pafles
over
MECHANICS.
Praftlcal over the flones lias four points of fupport, each ftone
Mechanics. a weight of two hundred weight, and there-
' fore will not be broken. But if the fame cart, with
rims only twro inches in breadth, fhould pafs the fame
way, it will cover only two of the ftones 5 and the
wheel having now only two points of fupport, each
ftone will be preffed with a -weight of four hundred
weight, and will therefore be reduced to powder.
Hence we may infer that narrow wheels are in another
point of view injurious to the roads, by pulverizing the
materials of which they are compofed.
446. As the rims of wheels wear fooneft at their
edges they fhould be made thinner in the middle, and
ought to be faftened to the fellies with nails of fuch a
kind that their heads may not rife above the furface of
the rims. In fome military waggons we have feen the
heads of thefe nails riling an inch above the rims, which
not only deftroys the pavements of ftreets, but oppofes
a continual reliftance to the motion of the wheel. If
thefe nails were eight in number, the wheel would ex¬
perience the fame reliftance, as if it had to furmount
eight obftacles, one inch high, during every revolution.
The fellies on which the rims are fixed fhould in carria¬
ges be three inches and a fourth deep, and in waggons
four inches. The naves fhould be thickeft at the place
where the fpokes are inferted } and the holes in which
the fpokes are placed Ihould not be bored quite through,
as the greafe upon the axle-tree would infinuate itfelf
between the fpoke and the naves, and prevent that
clofe adhefion which is neceflary to the ftrength of the
wheel.
On the Pofit ion of the Wheels.
447. It muft naturally occur to every perfon refleft-
ing upon this fubjeft, that the axle-trees Ihould be
ftraight and the wheels perfectly parallel, fo that they
may not be wider at their higheft than at their loweft
point, whether they are of a conical or a cylindrical
form. In this country, however, the -wheels are always*
made concave, and the ends of the axle-trees are uni-
verfally bent downwards, in order to make them fpread
at the top and approach nearer below. In fome car¬
riages which we have examined, where the wheels
were only four feet fix inches in diameter, the diftance
of the wheels at top was fully fix feet, and their diftance
below only four feet eight inches. By this foolifh
pra&ice the very advantages which may be derived from
the concavity of the wheels are completely taken away,
while many of the difadvantages remain •, more room
is taken up in the coach-houfe, and the carriage is
more liable to be overturned by the contraftion of its
bafe.
448. With fome mechanics it is a praftice to bend
the ends of the axle-trees forwards, and thus make the
wheels wider behind than before. This blunder has
been ftrenuoufly defended by Mr Henry Beighton,
who maintains that wheels in this pofition are more
favourable for turning, fince, whe "’ the wheels are paral¬
lel, the outermoft when turning would prefs againft the
Jinch pin, and the innermoft would reft againft the
fhoulder of the axle-tree. In reftilineal motions, how¬
ever, thefe converging wheels engender a great deal of
fri&ion both on the axle and the ground, and
muft therefore be more difadvantageous than parallel
,®nes.
I 27
On the Line of TraBion, and the Method by which ^ra<^lcal
tt r \ .7 ■ n 7 J Mechanics.
horjes exert their Jtrength. ■
449. M. Camus attempted to fhew that the line of trac¬
tion thould always be parallel to the ground on which
the carriage is moving, both becaule the horfe can
exert his greateft ftrength in this direction, and becaufe
the line of draught being perpendicular to the vertical
fpoke of the wheel, acts with the largeft pofiible lever.
M. Couplet, however, confidering that the roads are
never perfectly level, and that the wheels are conftant-
ly furmounting fmall eminences even in the belt of
roads, recommends the line of traftion to be oblique
to the horizon. By this means the line of draught
HA, (which is by far too much inclined in the figure) Fig. 6.
will in general be perpendicular to the lever AC
which mounts the eminence, and will therefore aft
with the longeft lever when there is the greateft nccef-
fity for it. We ought to confider alfo, that when a
horfe pulls hard againft any load, he always brings his
breaft nearer the ground, and therefore it follows, that
if a horizontal line of traftion is preferable to all others,
the direftion of the traces Ihould be inclined to the ho¬
rizon when the horfe is at reft, in order that it may be
horizontal when he lowers his breaft ^nd exerts his ut-
moft force. The particular manner, however, in
which living agents exert their ftrength againft great
loads, feems to have been unknown both to Camus and
Couplet, and to many fucceeding writers upon this
fubjeft. It is to M. Deparcieux, an excellent philo-
fopher and ingenious mechanic, that we are indebted
for the only accurate information with which we are
furnifhed-, and we are forry to fee that philofophers
who flourifiied after him have overlooked his important
inftruftions. In his memoir on the draught of horfes
he has fliewn in the moft fatisfaftory manner, that ani¬
mals draw by their weight, and not by the force of
their mufcles. In four-footed animals, the hinder feet
is the fulcrum of the lever by which their weight afts
againft the load, and when the animal pulls hard, it
deprefles its cheft and thus increafes the lever of its
weight, and diminifties the lever by which the load re¬
fills its efforts. Thus, in fig. 6. let P be the load, AD
the line of traftion, and let us fuppofe FC to be the
hinder leg of the horfe, and AE part of its body, A
its cheft or centre of gravity, and CE the level road.
Then AFC wall reprefent the crooked lever by which
the horfe afts, which is equivalent to the ftraight one
AC. But when the horfe’s weight afts downwards at
A, fo as to drag forward the rope AD and raife the
load P, CE will reprefent the power of the lever in
this pofition, or the lever of the horfe’s weight, and
CF the lever by which it is refilled by the load, or
the lever of refiftance. Now if the horfe lowers its
centre of gravity A, which it always does when it
pulls hard, it is evident that CE, the lever of its weight,
will be increafed, while CF the lever of its refiftance
will be diminilhed, for the line of traftion AD will
approach nearer to CE. Hence we fee the greet
benefit which may be derived from large horfes ; for
the lever AC neceffarily increafes with their fize, and
their power is always proportioned to the length cf
this lever, their weight remaining the fame. Large
horfes, therefore, and other animals, will draw more
than fmall ones, even though they have Ids mufcular
force.
1.2 o
Pradlira!
Mechanics.
Fig. 7.
M E C H
force, an3 are unable to carry fucb s. heavy burden.
, The force of the mufcles tends only to make the hoide
carry continually forward his cenire of gravity, or, in
other words, the weight of the animal produces the
draught, and the play and force of its mufcles ferve to
.continue it.
450. From thefe remarks, then, we may deduce the
proper pofition of the line of tradtion. When the line
of tradHon is horizontal, as AD, the lever of reliftance
is CF j but if this line is oblique to the horizon, as
A r/, the lever of refiflance is diminifhed to C f, while
the lever of the horfe’s weight always remains the fame.
Hence it appears, that inclined traces are much more
advantageous than horizontal ones, as they uniformly
diminilh the reliftance to be overcome. Deparcieux,
however, has inveftigated experimentally the moil fa¬
vourable angle of inclination, and found, that when the
angle DAF made by the trace A d and a horizontal
line is fourteen or fifteen degrees,, the horfes pulled
with the greateft facility and force. This value of the
angle of draught will require the -weight of the fpring-
tree bar, to which the traces are attached in four-wheel¬
ed carriages, to be one-half of the height of that part of
the horfe’s breaft to which the fore end of the traces is
connedled.
451. Whenfeveral horfes are yoked in the fame carriage
as reprefented in fig. 7. and when the declivity changes,
the length of the traces has a confiderable influence up-
,on the draught. From the point E where the traces are
faftened to the horfe next the load, draw ER to the fame
point in the fecond horfe R, and let R' be another pofi¬
tion of the fecond horfe ; it is required to find the dif¬
ference of efFetR that will be produced by placing the
fecond horfe at R or at R', or the comparative advan¬
tages of fhort and long traces. From R', the point where
the traces are fixed, draw R'F'E ; and from E draw
E m n parallel to the declivity DA. Take EF—EF'
to reprefent the power of the horfe in the direction of
the traces, which will be the fame whether he is yoked
at R or at R' •, draw E A perpendicular to DA, F w,
F'm parallel to EA, and F <p, F'^ parallel to E n.
Then fince the fecond horfe when at R pulls with a
force reprefented by FE, in the dire&ion FE, wre
may refolve this force into the two forces E «, E <p,
one of which E n is folely employed in dragging the
eart up the inclined plane DA, while the other E is
folely -employed in preffing the firfi: horfe E to the
ground. Let the horfe be now removed from R to R',
the dire<Rion of the traces becomes RF'E, and F'E=
FE is the power exerted by the horfe at R' and the di-
reRion in which it it exerted. But this force is equi¬
valent to the forces E wz, E^ the firft of which a61s
direiRly againfl: the load, while the other prefles the
horfe againfl; the ground. Hence we fee the difad-
vantages of long traces, for the force which draws
the load when the horfe is at R' is to the force when
the horfe is at R, as E m to E n, and the forces which
prefs the horfe upon the ground as E^/To E <p, or as
F' w to F «. Now E 0:r.F «zz:FE xfin. « EF $ hence
F <p=FExfin. (« E^'—FE^') (g1 E being parallel
to AB') and E nrrEFxcof. (« E^'—FE/). In like
manner we have EybrFExfin. (« E^'—F'E^'), and
E/w=EFxcof. («E/—PE/). Now fin. FE/=
fm, FL^=^|, and fin. FE/=:!|^=rbut R^
A N I C S
=R'/=BR—EQ=BR—BR x cof. « E/=BR x
(l—cof. n hL g). By fubftituting this value in the ,^'c< ^‘a‘1'c^
equations which contain the values of E<p, E «, E/, E/«, ' J
and confidering that the angles FE/, F'E/ are al¬
ways fo fmall that their arcs differ very little from their
. , __ BRx1—cof. n E p- ,
fines, we have f E  —y,   , and
PE cof.«E^-
r Z— ER'
By fubftituting thefe values in the preceding equations*
we have
BRx 1—cof. n E p-
E <p=EF x fm. (« E g  ,
E/ff^rEF X fin. (« E^-
E «=EFxcof. (« E^-
BRx 1—col. nlLg
EIT
BR x 1—cof. n E^
ER ■’
r , T* BRx I—cof. «Ef
E /n=EF X cof. (a Eg  .
If A B is horizontal, and the declivity AD=^, we Ihall
have n Eg—f 28', or in parts of the radius—0.16522,
and cof. n £^=1:0.98638. Then, if EF=:200 pounds,
BR=:34- feet, ERrrS feet, ER'—12 feet, then we
Ihall have from the preceding formulae, E ^11:31.716
pounds, E/hr.32.350 pounds, E a=r 197.470 pounds, and
E 197.404. Hence an additional length of four feet
to traces eight feet long, prefles the horfe E to the
ground with an additional force of 32.250—31.716
=0.534 pounds, and diminilhes the eflfeft of the other
horfe by 0.066 pounds.
On the Fojition of the Centre of Gravity, and the man¬
ner of difpofng the load.
452. If the axle-tree of a two-wheeled carriage pafs
through the centre of gravity of the load, the carriage
will be in equilibrio in every pofition in which it can be
placed with refpeft to the axle-tree ) and in going up and
down hill the whole load will be fuftained by the wheels,
and W'ill have no tendency either to prefs the horfe to
the ground or to raife him from it. But if the centre
of gravity is above the axle-tree, as it mull neceflarily
be, according to the prefent conftruftion of wheel-car¬
riages, a great part of the load will be thrown on the
back of the horfes from the wheels when going down a
lleep road, and thus tend to accelerate the motion of
the carriage which the animal is driving to prevent;
wfliile, in afeending fleep roads, a part of the load will
be thrown behind the wheels, and tend to raife the
horfe from the ground, when there is the greatefl: ne-
ceflity for fome weight on his back to enable him to
fix his feet in the earth, and overcome the great refin¬
ance which is occafioned by the fteepnefs of the road.
On the contrary, if the centre of gravity is below the
axle, the horfe will be prefled to the ground in going
up hill, and lifted from it when going down. In all
thefe cafes, therefore, where the centre of gravity is
either on the axle-tree or diredlly above it or below,
the
Practical tlie lioiTe will bear no part of the load in level ground.
Mechanics, jn fome fituations the animal avill be lifted from the
' ground when there is the greateft neceflity for his being
preffed to it, and he will fometimes bear a great pro¬
portion of the load when he Ihould rather be relieved
of it.
' 453- The only way of remedying thefe evils, is to af-
fign fuch a pofition to the centre of gravity, that the
horfe may bear fome portion of the weight when he
muff exert great force againit the load, that is, in level
ground, and when he is afeending fteep roads p for no
animal can pull with its greateif effort unlefs it is pref¬
fed to the ground.—Now this may be in fome meafure
Plate effe£ted in the following manner. Let BCN be the
V' wheel of a cart, AD one of the (hafts, D that part of
^ 5' it where the cart is fufpended on the back of the horfe,
and A the axle-tree j then, if the centre of gravity of
the load is placed at m, a point equidiftnnt from the two
wheels, but below the line DA. and before the axle-
tree,—the horfe will bear a certain weight on level
ground,—a greater weight when he is going up hill
and has more oceafion for it, and lefs weight when he
is going dowrn hill, and does not require to be preffed
to the ground : All this will be evident from the fi¬
gure.—When we recolleft that the (haft DA is horizon¬
tal, the centre of gravity will prefs more upon the point
of fufpenfion D the nearer it comes to it; or the preffure
upon D, or the horfe’s back, will be proportional to
the diftance of the centre of gravity from A. If
therefore, be the centre of gravity, b A will reprefent
its preffure upon D, when the (haft DA is horizontal.
When the cart is afeending a fteep road, AH will be
the pofition of the (haft, the centre of gravity will be
raifed to a, and a A will be the preffure upon D. But
if the cart is going down hill, AC will be the pofition
of the (haft, the centre of gravity wall be depreifed to
«, and c A Avill reprefent the preffure upon the horfe’s
back. The weight fuftained by the horfe, therefore,
is properly regulated by placing the centre of gra¬
vity at m. We have (fill, however, to determine the
proper length of b a and b m, the diftance of the cen¬
tre of gravity from the axle, and from the horizontal
line DA ; but as thefe depend upon the nature anil
inclination of the roads, upon the length of the (haft
DA, which depends on the fize of the horfe, on the
magnitude of the load, and on other variable circum-
ftances, it would be impoftible to fix their value. If
the load, along wfith the cart, weighs 400 pounds 5 if
the diftance DA be eight feet, and if the horfe (hould
bear 50 pounds of the weight, then b A ihould be one
foot,^ which, being one-eighth of DA, will make the
preflure upon D exaftly 50 pounds. If the road (lopes
four inches in a foot, b m mud be four inches, or the
angle b A m (hould be equal to the inclination of the
road ; for then the point m will rife to a when afeend¬
ing fuch a road, and will prefs with its greateft force on
. . the back of the horfe.
434* When carts are not made in this manner,
we may, in fome degree, obtain the fame end by judi-
cioufly difpofing the load. Let us fuppofe that the
centre of gravity is at O when the cart is loaded with
homogeneous materials, fuch as fand, lime, &c. then
if the load is to confift of heterogeneous fubftances, or
bodies of different weights, we (hould place the heaviefi:
at the bottom and neareft the front, which will not on-
Vol. XIII. Part I.
MECHANICS. i29
ly lower the point 0, but will bring it forward, and Practical
nearer the proper pofition m. Part of the load, too,
might be fufpended below the fore part of the carriage ^ *
in dry weather, and the centre of gravity wwuld ap¬
proach (till nearer the point m. When the point m is
thus depreffed, the weight on the horfe is not only ju-
dicioufly regulated, but the cart would be prevented
from overturning ; and in rugged roads the weight fuf¬
tained by each wheel would be in a great degree equa-
lifed.
Defcription of different Carriages.
455* T1 figure 8. is reprefented a carriage invented Carriages
by Mr Richard, a phyfician in Rochelle, which movesthat move
without horfes, merely by the exertion of the paffengers. ^ithout
The machinery by which this is effe&ed is placed in a AK'g
box behind the carriage, and is (hewn in figure 9. S
where A A is a fmall axis fixed into the box, and B a
pulley over which a rope paffes whofe two extremities
are tied to the ends of the levers or treddles C, D : the
other ends of the levers are fixed by joints to the crofsFig. 9.
beam MN. The cranks FF are fixed to the axle KL,
and move upon it as a centre. Each of them has a detent
tooth at F which catches in the teeth of the wheels H, H,
fo that they can move from F to H without moving the
wheel, but the detent tooth catches in the teeth of
the wheels when the cranks are brought backward, and
therefore bring the wheel along with them. When
the foot of the paffenger, therefore, is plated upon the
treddle D, it brings down the crank F and along with
it the wheel H, fo that the large wheels fixed on the
fame axis perform part of a revolution ; but when D is
depreffed, the rope DA defeends, the extremity C of the
Other treddle rifes, and the crank I1 rifing along with
it, takes into the teeth of the wheel FI, fo that when the
elevated treddle C is depreffed, the win els H, H, and
confequently the wheels I, I, perform another part of a
revolution. In this way, by continuing to work at the
treddles, the machine advances with a regular pace.
456. A carriage of this kind, where the mechanifm
is much more fimple and beautiful than that whicli we
have deferibed, has been lately invented and oonftruft-
ed by Mr Nafmyth of Edinburgh, a gentleman uhofe
mechanical genius is fcarcely inferior to his talents as a
painter. The pulley B and axle A A, are rendered un-
neceflary ; leather ftraps are fubftituted in place of the
cranks I, F, and the whole mechanifm is contained in
two fmall cyclindrieal boxes about fix inches in dia¬
meter, and one and a half broad.
475. A carriage driven by the a&ion of the wind is Fig. ic*.
exhibited in fig. 10. It is fixed on four wheels, and mo- '
ved by the impulfe of the wind upon the fails C, D,
being guided by the rudder E. Carriages of this kind
will anfwer very well in a level country where the roads
are good and the wind fair j and are (aid to be much
ufed in China. In Holland they fometimes ufe fimilar
vehicles for travelling upon the ice ; but they have a
fledge inftead of wheels, fo that if the ice (hould happen
to break, there will be no danger of finking. Stephinus,
a Dutchman, is faid to have con ft ruffed one of thefp
carriages with wheels, which travelled at the rate of 21
miles an hour with a very ftrong wind.
458. The carriage reprefented in fig. 11. is made Fig. A;
fo as to fail againft the wind by means of the fpiral fails
K E,
MECHANICS.
130
Defcription ]?, F, G, H, one of which F, is expanded by the wind.
V*- The impulfe of the wind upon the fails gives a rotatory
■ 'A ^ ‘s'. motion to the axle M, furnifhed with a cog-wheel K,
whofe trundles act upon teeth placed on the infide of
the fore-wheels.
Fig. 12. 459* carriage which cannot be overturned is repre-
fented in figure 1 2. where AB is the body of the carriage,
conlilting of a hollow globe, made of leather or wood,
at the bottom of which is placed an immoveable weight
proportioned to the load which the carriage is to bear. DefcriptloK
Two horizontal circles of iron D, E, connected with ^
bars HI, and two vertical circles F, G, furround the / ac^ine^
globe ; and the wheels are fattened by a handle K to I2>
the perpendicular bars HI. Then fince the body of
the carriage moves freely in every dire£lion within the
iron circles, the centre of gravity will always be near
C, and the carriage will preferve an upright pofitiun
even if the wheels and frame were overturned.
PART III. DESCRIPTION OF MACHINES.
CHAP. I. Machines which illiterate the doEirines of
Mechanics, or are conneEled with them.
I. Atwoodys Machine.
Atwood’s 460. THE ingenious machine invented by Mr At-
machine, wood for illuftrating the doctrines of accelerated and re-
crcxx tarded motion, is reprefented in figs. I, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6,
F- ^ 2 ' and enables us to difcover, 1. The quantity of matter
&c. moved. 2. The moving force. 3. The fpace defcribed.
4. The time of defcription j and, 5. The velocity ac¬
quired at the end of that time.
461. 1. Of the quantity of matter moved.—In order to
obferve the effects of the moving force, which is the
object of any experiment, the interference of all other
forces fhould be prevented: the quantity of matter
moved, therefore, confidering it before any impelling
force has been applied, fliould be without weight j for
though it be impoflible to abftradt weight from any
fubftance whatever, yet it may be fo countera&ed as
to produce no fenfible effeft. Thus in the machine
Fig. 1. fig- 1. A, B reprefent two equal weights affixed to
the extremities of a very fine filk thread : this thread is
ftretched over a wheel or fixed pulley abed, move-
able round a horizontal axis : the two weights A, _B
being equal, and afting againft each other, remain in
equilibrio ; and when the leaft weight is fuperadded
to either (fetting afide the effe&s of friftion), it will
preponderate. When A, B are -fet in motion by the
action of any weight m, the fum A -f- B would
conftitute the whole mafs moved, but for the inertia
of the materials which mutt necefiarily be ufed in the
communication of motion. Thefe materials confift of,
1. The wheel abed, over which the thread fuftaining
A and B pafl.es. 2. The four fri&ion wheels on which
the axle of the wheel abed refts. 3. The thread by
which the bodies A and B are connected, fo as when
fet in motion to move with equal velocities. The
weight and inertia of the thread are too fmall to have
any fenfible effeft on the experiments ; but the inertia
of the other materials conftitute a confiderable propor¬
tion of the mafs moved, and mutt therefore be taken
into account. Since when A and B are put in mo¬
tion, they mutt move with a velocity equal to that of the
circumference of the wheel abed to which the thread
is applied 5 it follows, that if the whole mafs of the
wheels were accumulated in this circumference, its in¬
ertia would be truly eftimated by the quantity of mat¬
ter moved 5 but fince the parts of the wheels move
with different velocities-, their effe&s in refitting the
3
communication of motion to A and B by their inertia
will be different •, thofe parts which are furtheft from
the axis refitting more than thofe which revolve nearer
in a duplicate proportion of thofe dittances, (fee Rota¬
tion). If the figures of the wheels tvere regular, the
diftances of their centres of gyration from their axes of
motion would be given, and confequently an equivalent
weight, which being accumulated uniformly in the
circumference abed, would exert an inertia equal t»
that of the wheels in their conftrufted form, would alfo
be given. But as the figures are irregular, recourfc
mutt be had to experiment, to affign that quantity of
matter, which being accumulated uniformly in the cir¬
cumference of the wheel abed, would refift the com¬
munication of motion to A in the fame manner as the
wheels.
In order to afeertain the inertia of the wheel abed,
with that of the friftion wheels, the weights AB being
removed, the following experiment was made.
A weight of 30 grains was affixed to a filk thread of
inconfiderable weight; this thread being wound round
the wheel abed, the weight 30 grains by defend¬
ing from reft communicated motion to the wheel,
and by many trials was obferved to deferibe a fpace of
about 38I inches in 3 feconds. From thefe data the
equivalent mafs or inertia of the wheels will be known
from this rule.
Let a weight P, fig. 2. be applied to communicate Fig. 2.
motion to a fyftem of bodies by means of a very flender
and flexible thread going round the wheel SLD1M,
through the centre of which the axis pafles (G being
the common centre of gravity, R the centre of gravity
of the matter contained in this line, and O the centre
of ofcillation). Let this weight defeend from reft
through any convenient fpace s inches, and let the ob¬
ferved time of its defeent be t feconds; then if / be
the fpace through which bodies defend. freely by gra¬
vity in one fecond, the equivalent weight fought =
W X SR X SO__ P X t*J_ p
SIP ~ -f
Here we have p=SO grains, t=$ feconds, /=I93
o-i jPxP/ d_3°X9XX93
inches,j-=t38.5inches-, and —  r — ^ 
30’= 1323 grains, or 2^ ounces.
This is the inertia equivalent to that of the wheel
abed, and the friftion wheels together : for the rule
extends to .the eftimation of the inertia of the mais con¬
tained in all the wheels.
The refiftance to motion therefore arifing from the pig. j.
wheel’s inertia* will be the fame as if they were abfo-
lutely
MECHANICS.
Dcfcription]utely removed, and a mafs o£ 2-J ounces uniformly ac-
°f cumulated in the circumference of the wheel abed.
Machines., ^ejng premifed, let the boxes A and B be re-
* placed, being fufpended by the lilk thread over the
wheel or pulley a b c d, and balancing each other : fup*
pofe that any weight rn be added to A fo that it lliall
defeend, the exa£t quantity of matter moved, during
the defeent of the weight A, will be afeertained, for
the whole mafs will be A-{-B-[-OT-j-2^ oz.
In order to avoid troublefome computations in ad-
jufting the quantities of matter moved and the moving
forces, fome determinate weight of convenient magni¬
tude may be affumed as a ftandard, to which all the
others are referred. This ftandard weight in the fub-
fequent experiments is £ of an ounce, and is reprefent-
ed by the letter m. The inertia of the wheels being
therefore —2- ounces, will be denoted by 11 m. A
and B are two boxes eonftrucled fo as to contain differ¬
ent quantities of matter, according as the experiment
may require them to be varied : the weight of each
box, including the hook to which it is fufpended,
m-J- oz. or, according to the preceding eftimation,
the weight of each box will be denoted by 6 m ; thefe
Fig. 3. boxes contain fuch weights as are reprefen ted by fig. 3.
each of which weighs an ounce, fo as to be equiva¬
lent to 4 w ; other weights of \ oz.— l m, \zzm, and
aliquot parts of w, fuch as J w, may be alfo in¬
cluded in the boxes, according to the conditions of the
different experiments hereafter deferibed.
If 4^ oz. or 197/2, be included in either box, this
with the weight of the box itfelf will be 25 m ; fo that
when the weights A and Bj each being 25 7/2, afA ba¬
lanced in the manner above reprefented, their whole
mafs will be 50 7/2, which being added to the inertia of
the wheels 11 m, the fum will be 61 m. Moreover,
three circular weights, fuch as that which is repre¬
fented at fig. 4. are conftrufted ; each of which oz.
or rn : if one of thefe be added to A and one to B, the
whole mafs will now become 63 7/2, perfectly in equili¬
bria, and moveable by the leaft weight added to either
(fetting afide the effedls of fridfion), in the fame manner
precifely as if the fame weight or force v’ere applied to
communicate motion to the mafs 63 7/2, exifting in free
fpace and without gravity.
462. 2. The moving force. Since the weight of any
fubftance is conftant, and the exa£l quantity of it eafily
eftimated, it will be convenient here to apply a weight
to the mafs A as a moving force : thus, when the fyf-
tem eonfifts of a mafs =163 //2, according to the preced¬
ing defeription, the whole being perfectly balanced, let
Fig. 5. a weight % oz. or 7/2, fuch as is reprefented in fig. 5. be
applied on the mafs A } this will communicate motion
to the whole fyftem 5 by adding a quantity of matter
m to the former mafs 63 m, the whole quantity of mat¬
ter moved will now become 64 m ; and the moving
force being =: 7/2, this will give the force which acce-
//l I
lerates the defeent of Ar=r- , or — part of the acce-
04 m 64
lerating force of gravity.
By the preceding conftruction, the moving force
may be altered without altering the mafs moved 5 for
fuppofe the three weights 7/2, two of which are placed
on A and one on B, to be removed, then will A ba¬
lance B. If the weights 3 772 be all placed on A, the
131
moving force will become 3 ?/;, and the mafs moved Defeription
64 7/2 as before, and the force which accelerates the de- !yrac<j1ijnes
feent of K—f-—= ~ parts of the force bv which gra- —v
64 772 64 1
vity accelerates falling bodies.
Suppofe it were required to make the moving force
2 772, the mafs moved continuing the fame. Let the
three weights, eacli of which —772, be removed 5 A
and B will balance each other ; and the whole mafs
will be 61 772: let 772, fig. 5. be added to A, and 772Fig. 5.
to B, the equilibrium will be preferved, and the mafs
moved will be 62/72; now let 2 m be added to A, the
moving force wull be 2 772, and the mafs moved 64 772 as
before ; wherefore the force of acceleration part
of the acceleration of gravity. Thefe alterations in the
moving force may be eafily made in the more elemen¬
tary experiments, there being no neceflity for alter¬
ing the contents of the boxes A and B : but the pro¬
portion and abfolute quantities of the moving force and
mafs moved, may be of any affigned magnitude, ac¬
cording to the conditions of the propofition to be illuf-
trated.
463. 3. Of ike fpace deferibed. The body A, fig. I. Fig. x.
defeends in a vertical line ; and a fcale about 64 inches
in length divided into inches and tenths of an inch is
adjufted vertical, and fo placed that the defeending
weight A may fall in the middle of a fquare ftage, fixed
to receive it at the end of the defeent : the beginning
of the defeent is eftimated from o on the fcale, when
the bottom of the box A is on a level with o. The de¬
feent of A is terminated when the bottom of the box
ftrikes the ftage, which may be fixed at different diftan-
ces from the point o } fo that by altering the pofition of
the ftage, the fpace deferibed from reft may be of any
given magnitude lefs than 64 inches.
464. 4. The time of defeription is obferved by a pendu¬
lum, vibrating feconds ; and the experiments intended to
illuftrate the elementary propofitions, may eafily be fo
conftrudled that the time of motion fhall be a whole
number of feconds. The eftimation of the time, there¬
fore, admits of cortfiderable exaftnefs, provided the ob-
ferver takes care to let the bottom of the box A begin
its defeent precifely at any beat of the pendulum ; then
the coincidence of the ftroke of the box againft the
ftage, and the beat of the pendulum at the end of the
time of motion, will Ihow how nearly the expex-iment
and the theory agree. There might be various devices
for letting the weight A begin its defeent at the inftant
of a beat of the pendulum W \ for inftance, let the
bottom of the box A, when at o on the fcale, reft on a
flat rod, held in the hand horizontally ; its extremity
being coincident with o, by attending to the beats of
the pendulum ; and with a little praftiee, the rod which
fupports the box A may be removed at the moment the
pendulum beats, fo that the defeent of A (hall commence
at the fame inftant.
465. 5. Of the velocity acquired. It remains only to de-
feribe in*what manner the velocity acquired by the de¬
feending weight A, at any given point of its path is
made evident to the fenfes. The velocity of A’s de¬
feent being continually accelerated wrill be the fame in
two points of the fpace deferibed. This is occafioned by
the conftant aftion of the moving force } and fince the
velocity of A at any inftant is meafured by the fpace
R 2 • which
132 MECHANICS.
J&efcription which would be defcribed by it moving uniformly for a
Madimes S^ven ^me vvith the velocity it had acquired at that in-
■ ftant, this meafure cannot be experimentally obtained,
except by removing the force by which the defeending
body’s acceleration was caufed.
In order to fhow in what manner this is eflfedted par¬
ticularly, let us again fuppofe the boxes A and B —25/72
each, fo as together to be =50 m ; this with the wheel’s
inertia i\m will make 61 now let w be added to
A, and an equal -weight m to B, thefe bodies will ba¬
lance each other, and the whole mafs will be 63 tn.
Jf a weight m be added to A, motion will be commu¬
nicated, the moving force being m, and the mafs mov¬
ed 64 in. In eftimating the moving force, the circular
weight —m was made ufe of as a moving force : but
for the prefent purpofe of {bowing the velocity acquir¬
ed, it will be convenient to ufe a flat rod, the weight
of wdiich is alfo —m. Let the bottom of the box A
be placed on a level with o on the fcale, the whole mafs
being as defcribed above =63 w, perfectly balanced.
Now let the rod, the weight of which ~m, be placed
on the upper furface of A 5 this body will defeend along
the fcale in the fame manner as when the moving force
was applied in the form of a circular weight. Suppofe
6' the mafs A, fig. 6. to have defeended by conftant acce¬
leration of the force of /?/, for any given time, or through
a given fpace: let a circular frame be fo affixed to the
fcale, contiguous to which the weight defeends, that A
may pafs centrally through it, and that this circular
frame may intercept the rod m by which the body A
has been accelerated from reft. After the moving
force m has been intercepted at the end of the given
fpace or time, there will be no force operating on any
part of the fyftem which can accelerate or retard its
motion: this being the cafe, the weight A, the inftant
after m has been removed, muft proceed uniformly with
the velocity which it had acquired that inftant : in the
fubfequent part of its defeent, the velocity being uni¬
form will be meafured by fpace defcribed in any conve- ^
nient number of feconds.
466. Mr Atwood’s machine is alfo ufeful for eftima¬
ting experimentally the velocities communicated by the
impaft of bodies elaftic and nonelaftic ; the quantity of
refiftance oppofed by fluids, as well as for various other
purpofes. Thefe ufes we {hall not infift on •, but the
properties of retarded motion being a part of the pre¬
fent fubjeft, it may be neceffary to {how in what man¬
ner the motion of bodies refifted by conftant forces are
reduced to experiment by means of the inftrument above
defcribed, with as great eafe and precifion as the pro¬
perties of bodies uniformly accelerated. A fingle in-
ftance will be fufficient : Thus, fuppofe the mafs con¬
tained in the weights A and B, fig. 6. and the wheels
to be 61 m, when perfeftly in equilibrio ; let a circular
weight m be applied to B, and let two long weights or
rods, each nr///, be applied to A, then will A defeend
by the a£!ion of the moving force /«, the mafs moved
being 64 m: fuppofe that when it has defcribed any gi¬
ven fpace by conftant acceleration, the two rods tn are
intercepted by the circular frame above defcribed, while
A is defeending through it, the velocity acquired by
that defeent is known 5 and when the two rods are in¬
tercepted, the weight A will begin to move on with
the velocity acquired, being now retarded by the con-
ftant force m ; and fince the mafs moved is 6 2 w, the
force of retardation avIII be part of that force where- Defcriptioa
by gravity retards bodies thrown perpendicularly up-
wards. Ihe weight A will therefore proceed along
the graduated fcale in its defeent, with an uniformly
retarded motion, and the fpaces defcribed, times of mo¬
tion, and velocities deftroyed by the refifting force, will
be fubjedt to the fame meafures as in the examples of
accelerated motion already defcribed.
In the preceding deferiptions, two fuppofitions have
been afiumed, neither of which is mathematically
true : but it might be eafily ffiown that they are fo in
a phyfical fenfe \ the errors occafioned by them being
infenfible in practice.
2. Machine for illujlrating the Theory of the Wedge.
467. This machine is reprefented in fig. 7. where piatc
KILM and LMNO are two flat pieces of wood joined cccxxvx.
together by a hinge at LM ; P is a graduated arch on % 7*
which thefe pieces of wood can be moved fo as to fub-
tend any angle not greater than 6c°, and a, b two (crews
for fixing them at the required angle. The back of the
wedge will therefore be reprefented by IKNO, its
tharp edge by LM, and its trvo fides by KILM,
LMNO. The weight p fufpended to the wedge by
the hook M, and the weight of the wedge itfelf, may
be confidered as the force employed to drive the wedge.
J he wooden cylinders AB, CD, have their extremities
made like two flat circular plates to prevent the Avedge
from flipping off at one fide. To the pivots of thefe cy¬
linders, tAVo of Avhich are reprefented at e and f are fatt¬
ened the cords eW^U, C\ , AX, Avhich paffing over
the pulleys U, V, X, W are fattened to the two bars
u v, x w, on Avhich any equal Aveights Y, Z may be
hung at pleafure. The tendency of thefe weights is
evidently to draAV the cylinders towards each other,
and they may1- therefore be regarded as the refiftance of
the Avood afting againft the fides of the Avedge. The
cylinders themfelves are fufpended by their pivots to the
threads E, F, G, H, Avhich may be fixed to the ceiling
of the room, or to the horizontal beam of a frame made
on purpofe.—By placing various equal weights at Y
and Z, it may be eafy to determine the proportion be-
tAveen the poAver and the refiftance Avhen the Avedge is
in equilibrio.—In this machine the impelling poAver is
the prelfure of the Aveight />, Avhereas, in the real
Avedge, the impelling power is always an impulfive
force which is infinitely more powerful.
3. Machine for illuf rating the ejfeBs of the centrifugal
force in fattening the poles of the Earth.
468. Fig. 8. reprefents this machine, Avhich confifts of
two flexible circular hoops, AB and CD, croffing one
another at right angles, and fixed to the vertical axis
EF at its lower extremity, but left loofe at the pole or
interfedtion e. If this axis be made to revolve rapidly
by means of the Avinch ot, and the Avheel and pinion
72, 0, the middle parts A, B, C, D Avill, by their cen¬
trifugal force, fAvell out and ftrike againft the frame at
F and G *, if the pole e, Avhen finking, is not {topped
by means of a pin E fixed in the vertical axis. The
hoops, therefore, Avill have a fpheroidal form j the
equatoreal being larger than the polar diameter. Fl»- s.*
Machine
4. Machine for trying the Strength of Materials. for tr>'ir,g
. the ftrength
469. The piece of wood, whofe ftrength is to be of mate-
tried,rial5.
M E C H
Dcfcription tried, is reprefented by EF, and the force is applied to
it by means of the winch A, which winds up the rope
*Mac nne.^ paffing over the pulley «, and below the pulley m,
Plate and attached to the point D of the beam EF. The
eccxxvxi. pulleys Hide on two parallel bars fixed in a frame, held
Fig- i* down by a projecting point, at G, of the lever GR,
which is graduated like a fteelyard, and meafures the
force employed. The beam EF is held by a double
vice IK with four fcrews, two of which are invifible.
When a wire is to be torn it is fixed to the crofs bar
LM; and when any body is to be crufhed, it muft be
placed beneath the lever NO, the rope BC being fix¬
ed to the hook N, and the end O being held down by
the click which ads on the double ratchet OP.—The
lever is double from O to O, and a£ts on the body by
a loop fixed to it by a pin. See, Young's Nat. Philof.
vol. i. p. '768. from which this drawing and defcription
are taken.
5. Machine in which all the Mechanical powers are
combined.
Combina- 470, lever AB, whofe centre of motion is C, is
tion of all fixed to the endlefs ferew DE, which drives the wheel
S.l’nnw" and axle FHG- Round the axle G is coiled a rope
crs. P " GHf, which palfes round the four pulleys K, L, m, n,
Fig. 2. and is fixed to a hook at tn on the lower block, which
carries the weight W. When equal weights are fu-
fpended on the lever at equal diftances from the ful¬
crum C, the lever becomes a balance, and the wedge
and inclined plane are evidently included in the endlefs
ferew DE. If the wheel F has 30 teeth, if the le-
ver AB is equal to twice the diameter of the wheel
FH, and if the diameter of the axle G is one-tenth of
the diameter of the wheel, a powder of 1 exerted at P
will raife a weight of 2400 fufpended at the lower
block of the four pulleys.
6. Tidier's Balance.
Fidler’s ba- 471, The balance reprefented in fig. 3. Avas made by
iance. Fidler for the Royal Inftitution, and does not differ
3- much from thofe which have been conftrufted by Ramfden
and I roughton. The middle column A can be railed
at pleafure by the nut B, and fupports the round ends
of the axis in the forks at its upper extremity, in order
to remove the preffure on the fliarp edges of the axis
within the forks. C and D are pillars which occafion-
ally fupport the leales, and may be elevated or deprefled
by turning the nut E. The ferew F raifes or depreffes
a weight within the conical beam, for the purpofe of
regulating the pofition of the centre of gravity. The
gi aduated arc G mealures the extent of the vibrations.
See Young's Nat. Philof. vol. i. p. -765.
7. Improvement on the Balance.
Improve- . 472. An improvement on the balance is reprefented
thtTba-H In ^ 4- where DC is a micrometer ferew fixed to the
lance. ?rm that when it is turned round by the nut D,
tig 5. it neither approaches to, nor recedes from, the centre
of motion F. 1 he ferew DC works in a female ferew
m the fmall weight 17, and by revolving in one direc¬
tion, carries this weight from S to R, and thus gives
the preponderance to the fcale G. The receffion of the
weight n from the centre F is meafured as in the com¬
mon micrometer, and a weight * placed in the fcale
A N I C S.
fufpended at A, will be in equilibrio with n placed at Befcription
S « X «
any diftance S n, when .r~—:
gufon's Le&ures.
FA
-Appendix to Ter- Machines.
8. Machine for fhewing the Compojition of Torces.
473. The part BEFC is made to draw other parts into Machine
the wooden fquare ABCD. The pulley Ft is joined to for the
BEFC fo as to turn on an axis which will be at H wrhen competition
the fquare BEFC is pufhed in, and atp tvhen it is drawn °f. forces*
out. A ball G is made to Hide on the wire k which isPl°
fixed to PEFC, and the thread tn attached to the ball
goes over the pulley to I, where it is fixed. Now,
when the piece BEFC is pulled out, the pulley, wire,
and ball, move along with it, in the dire&ion DCF,
and it is evident that the ball G will Hide gradually up
the wire k. It is therefore afied upon by two forces j
one in the direction GH, and the other in the dire&ion
GC, and will be found at the end of the motion at g,
having moved in the dire&ion G g, the diagonal of a
parallelogram whofe ffdes are GH, GC..
8. Sme a ton's Machine for experiments on Windmill Sails.
474. In the experiments with this machine, the fails Apparatus
were carried round in the circumference of a circle, fo for wind-
that the fame effect was produced as if the wind had
Itruck the fails at reft with the velocity which was then ^
given them. In the pyramidal frame ABC is fixed to
the axis DE, which carries the arm FG with the fails
GI. By pulling the rope Z, which coils round the barrel
H, a motion of rotation is given to the fails, fo that they
revolve in the circumference of a circle, whofe radius is
DI. At L is fixed a cord which paffes round the pul¬
leys M, N, O, and coils round a fmall cylinder on the
axis of the fails and raifes the fcale C, in which differ¬
ent weights are placed for trying the power of the
fails, and which, being in the direction of the axis DE,
is not affeifted by the circular motion of the arm DG.
The fcale C is kept fteady by the pillars O, R, and
prevented from fwinging by the chains S, T, which
hang loofely round the pillars. VX is a pendulum
compofed of two leaden balls moveable upon a wooden
rod, fo that they can be adjufted to vibrate in any given
time. The pendulum hangs upon a cylindrical wire, on:
which it vibrates as on a rolling axis.
9. Smeaton's Machine for experiments on Rotatory
Motion.
475. This machine is exhibited in fig. 1. where theApparatu,
vertical axis NB is turned by the rope M pafling over for rota-
the pulley R, and carrying the fcale S. The axis NBtory mo-
carries two equal leaden weights K, D, moveable attion-
pleafure on the horizontal bar HI. The upper part N of PIate
the axis is one half the diameter of the part M, fo that Figff/11**
when the rope is made to wind round N, it afts at
half the diftance from the axis, at which it afts when
coiled round M.—When the rope is wound round N,
the fame force will produce in the fame time But half
the velocity which is produced when the rope coils
round M, the fituation of the leaden weights being the
fame : But when the weights K, L are removed to a
double diftance from the axis, a quadruple force will be
required in order to produce an equal angular velocity
in a given time.
4;
Chaf,
V
134
Defcriptiofi
of
Machines.
M E C H
Chap. II. Machines for various purpofes.
i. Pronfs Condenfer of Forces.
Prony’scon- 476. The object of this machine is to obtain a maxi-
denfer of mum effe<3: from an impelling power which is fubieft to
Plate variation in its intenfity. Let us fuppofe that wind is the
cccxxvm. firft mover, and that O, O is the vertical axis of a wind-
lig. 2, 3. mill ; e, e, e, e, are feveral radii ifiuing from this axis,
and carrying a wiper b d, which afts upon the corre-
fponding wipers af and gives a motion of rotation
to the axis a, a, a, a to which they are attached.
The wipers b d, af muft be fo conftru&ed that ivhen
b d ceafes to prefs on one wiper a f it (hall at the
fame moment begin to aft upon the next wiper. Each
of the axes «, «, «, «, carries a drum 11 rr, round
which is coiled a cord t p F, pafling over the pulley p,
and fupporting a weight which can be placed at dif¬
ferent diflances from G on the lever FG. The axes
o, a, a, a alfo pafs through the pinions q q, to which
they are not fixed j but tbefe pinions carry ratchet
wheels that bear againft the teeth rr, fo that when
the weight rifes, the rope merely coils round the
drum without moving the pinion q q. But when the
wiper b d ceafes to aft upon af the weight O defeends,
and then the toothed wheel r r afts againft the ratchet,
fo that £) cannot defeend without turning the pinion
q q along with the drum. The pinion q q drives the
wheel ab, which again drives the wheel CE by means
of the bevelled teeth CD, and elevates the load at P.
Hence, when the axis OO is put in motion by the wind
afting on the fails, it will firft raife a number of weights
Q fufficient to put the machine in motion, and will
continue to raife new weights while thofe before raifed
are fallen, fo that the motion once impreffed will be
continued.
Portable 2‘ P°rta^e Stone Crane, for loading and unloading Carts.
Hone crane. 477. This crane is mounted on a wooden ftage, and
Js f0 conftrufted that it may be taken to pieces. The
frame A, A, A, A is about ten feet high, nine feet
long and nine feet wide. The wheels B, B are of iron,
and about three feet in diameter. The pinion D that
is fixed to the axis of the firft wheel B is eight inches
diameter, and the other pinion C is about the fame dia¬
meter. When the (tones are fufpended to the rope that
coils round the barrel, the workman turns a Avinch on
the axis of the wheel C, and raifes or loAvers the weight
according to the direftion in which he turns ft.
3. Portable Cellar Crane.
Portable 4/8. This crane is reprefented in fig. 5. Avhere A, A
cellar crane, are ttvo Avooden fupports about fix feet high, which are
Hg. S- jointed at E, and connefted by the iron cylinder C and
the wooden bar D. The fupports A, A are faftened
to the edge of the cellar by the iron prongs E, E, and
the tA'vo ropes Avhieh fupport the barrel and pafs round
it arc fixed to the iron clamp G, G. Thefe ropes coil
round the cylindrical bar F, Avhich is put in motion by
the winch K, driving the pinkn I about four inches dia¬
meter, Avbich gives motion to the Avheel H, about three
feet in diameter. The barrel, therefore, AA'ill rife or
fall according to the direftion in Avhieh the Avinch is
moved.
A N I C S. ?
Dcfcriptioit
4. Weighing Crane. of
479. This crane reprefented in fig. 6. Avas invented ,^Ac^‘nes\
by Mr AndreAVs, and Aveighs the body at the time that piat(,
it is railing it. The Aveight W is elevated by means of CCCXXX.
the levers M, N, O, P which coil the rope FIR round 6-_
the barrel H. The jib ED (lands on a horizontal
beam moveable in a vertical plane round the centre trane. **
FA, and the diftance of the upright beam E from the
centre of motion A is ~ of BF. The Aveight of the
body W is then afeertained by the AVreight at B, Avhich
keeps it in equilibrio. The piece of AA-ood C projefts
from the vertical beam CT, in order to preArent the
beam from riling too high.
5. Gilpin'1 s Crane.
480. In fig. I. where this machine is reprefented, oilpin’s
AB is the perpendicular (land, formed of tAVO oaken crane,
planks let into cad iron mortifes C, D : Between thefe p!ate
planks is fixed the barrel E with fpiral grooves on its
furface, on Avhich the chain RL Avinds. When the^. ’ ’ ’
Avinch N is put in motion it drives the pinion O, Avhich
again drives the Avheel P, on whofe axis is fixed the
barrel F, fo that the chain is coiled round the barrel
and the Aveight raifed. A feftion of this part of the
machinery is Ihewn in fig. 2. Figure 3. IheAvs an en¬
larged view of part of the barrel, and part of the chain
lying in its proper pofition in the fpiral grooves or
channels. In order to prevent the chain from twilling
Avhen it is wound upon the barrel, the lower edge of
one link lies in the groove, and the next link upon the
furface of the barrel. This Avill be better underllood
from fig. 4. which is a feftion of the barrel F, and
IheAvs the manner in which one link lies within it, and
the other link on its outfide. The old method of
working chains is exhibited in fig. 5. For a full ac¬
count of this ufeful invention, fee Nicholfon’s Journal,
vol. xv. p. 126.
6. Bramah'1 s Jib for Cranes.
481. The nature of this invention, for which we are Bramah
indebted to the ingenious Mr Bramah, may be eafilyjib.
underltood from a bare infpeftion of fig. 6. which re- Flg-
prefents a jib attached to the wall of a warehoufe. The
jib turns on a perforated axis or pillar. The rope by
which the Aveight is raifed after palfmg over tAvo pulleys,
goes through the perforated axis, and is condufted oArer ,
another pulley to the barrel of the crane, which is not
reprefented in the figure. In jibs of the common con-
(truftion which turn in tAvo folid gudgeons, the rope
palfes over the upper gudgeon, and is confined betAveen
tAvo vertical rollers ; but the bending of the rope oc-
cafions a great deal of friction, and produces a conftant
effort to bring the arm of the jib into a pofition parallel
to the inner part of the rope.
7. Gottlieb'1 s Carriage Crane.
482. This machine, Avhich is ufeful for carrying large
(tones where carts and horfes cannot be eafily obtained, CC1;XXI*‘
confifts of tAvo forts of crane Avheels applied to the tAvo (:.irrfagl*
fets of Avheels belonging to the carriage, fo that tAvo crane,
men, one afting at each winch A, A give motion to
the loaded carriage. The pinion B, fix inches in dia¬
meter turns the AvheebC, three feet in diameter. The
Avheel C gives motion to the pinion D one foot in dia¬
meter,
M E C H
Defcription meter, wliicli works into two wheels E, E three feet
fix inches diameter, and are fixed on the wheels of the
of
Machines.
carriage.
8. Common Jack.
Common
jack.
Fig. S.
483. The common worm jack is reprefented in fig. 8.
and is impelled by the weight W, which is fufpended to
a rope palfing through the pulleys V, R, and rolling
round the barrel £). When the barrel is put in motion
by the action of the weight, it drives the wheel KL of
60 teeth, by means of a catch fixed to AB, which lays
hold of the crofs bars in KL. The wheel KL drives
the pinion M of 15 teeth, fixed on the axis of the
wheel N of 30 teeth, which gives motion to the end-
lefs fcrew O, and the fly-wheel P. On the axis of the
wheel KL is fixed the pulley DG, which, by means of
a rope, gives motion to the Ipit. The axis ET is fixed
in the barrel AC ; and as this axis is hollow, both it
and the barrel turn round upon the axis FD, fo that
the rope may be coiled round the barrel by the winch
H without moving the wheel K.
9. Loading and Unloading Machine.
L«ding 484. This portable machine, invented by Mr Davis
and unload. 0f Windfor, is put in motion by the winch A, which
(hme™" drives the two endlefs fcrews C, C. Thefe fcrews
Pig, p. move the wheels E, E, and confequently the barrels
conne&ed with them, fo that the ropes F, F palling
over the pulleys G, G are coiled round the barrels, and
the load H which thefe ropes fupport is raifed into the
frame R, R, which (hews a part of the cart. The
barrels and wheels are contained in an iron box L, the
fides of which are removed in the figure.
10. Vauloue's Pile Engine.
Vauloue’t 485. The horfes which work this engine are yoked
at S, S, and by moving the wheel B and drum C,
cccxxx which are locked together, raife the follower GH, (car-
fig. 1. rying the ram by the handle R), by means of the
rope HH which coils round the drum. When the fol¬
lower G reaches the top of the frame, the upper legs of
the tongs H are clofed by prefling againft the adja¬
cent beams •, and their lower legs are opened, fo that
they drop the ram f), which falls and ftrikes the pile,
rig. 2. When G is at the -top of the frame, the crooked han¬
dle 6, of the follower G, preffes againlt the cords a, a.
which raife the end of the lever L (fee fig. 2.) round m
as a centre, and by deprefling the extremity N, and
confequently the bar S, S, unlock the drum C and the
wheel B, fo that the follower G falls by its weight and
AN ICS. ,35
feizes the ram R. As foon as the follower drops, the Defcription
horfes would tumble down, having no refiflance to of.
overcome, were not this prevented by the fly O, which .Machincs'.
is moved by the wheel B and trundle X, and oppofes a v
fufficient refiftance to the horles till the follower again 1
feizes the ram. When the follower tails, the weight L
(fig. 2.) pulhes up the bolt Y into the drum C, and
locks the wheel and the drum;—and the fame operation is
afterwards repeated. See Fergufon's Led. vol. i. p. 118.
11. Bunco's Pile Engine.
486. A fide view of this engine is Ihewn in fig. 3, 4.Bunce’s
It confifts of two endlefs ropes or chains A, connefted Plle engine,
by crofs pieces of iron B, B,. &c. (fig. 4.) which pafsFig- 3> 4‘
round, the wheel C, the crofs pieces falling into corre-
fponding crofs grooves, cut in the periphery of the
wheel. When the man at S, therefore, drives the
wheel m by means of the pinion p, he moves alfo the
wheel C fixed on the axis of m, and makes the double
ropes revolve upon the wheels, C, D. The wheel D is
fixed, at the end of a lever DHK, whofe centre of mo¬
tion is H, a fixed point in the beam FT. Now, when
the ram L (fig. 3, 3.) is fixed to one of the crofs pieces
B by the hook M, the weight of the ram, ading* by
the rope, moves the lever DK round FI, and brings
the wheel D to G, fo that, by turning the winch, the
ram L (fig. 3.) is raifed in the vertical line LRG.
But when it reaches R, the projeding piece R difen-
gages the ram from the crofs piece B, by ftriking the
bar £) 5 and as the weight is removed from the extre¬
mity D of the lever, the counterpoife I brings it back
from G to its old pofition at F, and the ram falls with¬
out interfering with the chain. When the hook is de-
fcending, it is prevented from catching the rope by
means of the piece of wood N fufpended from the hook
M at O ; for being fpecifically lighter than the iron
weight L, and moving with lefs velocity, it does not
come in contaft with L till the ram is flopped at the
end of its path. When N, therefore, falls upon L, it
depreffes the extremity M of the hook, and therefore
brings the hook over one of the crofs pieces B, by which
the ram is again raifed.
487. For the defcription of a great variety of ufeful
machines, the reader is referred to the fecond volume of
Mr Gregory’s Mechanics, and to Dr Young’s Natural
Philofophy, a work of great merit, which would have
been more particularly noticed if it had reached us be¬
fore the hiftorieal part of this article was printed off. 
See alfo Hydrodynamics, Marly, Machine at. Mill,
Ramsden, and WATER-Worhs.
A.
Abutments, conftruefion of, N® 336
Epmas's property of the lever,
1'Alembert's principle of dynamics,
Arches, equilibrium of,
catenarian,
of equilibration,
l Atwood's machine,
I , . B.
hlance, its properties,
64
22
316
3W
334
460
INDEX.
Balance, Kuhne’s,
Magellan’s,
Ludlam’s,
Fidler’s,
improvement on it,
Bevelled wheels,
Bore Hi, Avorks of,
c.
Cdpjlane, defcription of one,
Nc
Mi
252
I53
471
472
4° 7
*4
368
142 Carriages, wheel,on the conftru&ion of, 439
Cellar crane, N° 478
Centre of inertia, or gravity, hoiv to
find it, 4,154,201
Centrobaryc method, 206, 208
Collijion, laws of, difcovered by Wren,
&c. . I2
of hard bodies, 248—258
of elaftic bodies, 258—279
of imperfectly elaftic bodies, 279
Condenfer of forces, 476
Conical
136
Conical pendulum, N° 394
Confervution of a£Hve force3 difcover-
ed by Huygens, 19
generalifed by D. Ber-
nouilli, ib.
Coulomb on the force of torfion, 27,343—357
onfri&ion, 27,372
on the rigidity of ropes, 382
on the ftrength of men, 421
Craney carriage, 4^2
Gilpin’s, 48°
cellar, 47^
weighing, 479
Crown wheels, 410
Curves, motion of bodies along, 217
of quickeft defcent, 231
Cycloid, ifochronifm of, difcovered by
Huygens, 11
properties of it, 23 2
the proper curve for the teeth
of rack work, 411
Cycloidal pendulum, properties of, 236
Cylinders, fri&ion of loaded ones, 372
D.
Domes, equilibrium of, 339
E.
Earth, machine for explaining the flat-
nefs at its poles,
Epicycloids the proper curves for the
teeth of wheels, 393
interior, 397
exterior, ib.
method of forming them, 406
F.
Fidler's balance, 471
Fly wheels, 3^3
Forces, a£tive, difpute about them,
Fri&ion wheels, 377
Fufee of a watch, its conftruction, 99
G.
Galileo, difeoveries of, refpecting the
fcience of motion, 8
Gottlieb's antiattrition axletree, 377
Gravity, centre of, 154—201
force of, 247
Gregory, Olinthus, his Treatife on
Mechanics recommended, 28
H.
de la Hire, on the teeth of wheels, 17
Horfes, ftrength of, 423
method in which they exert it, 449
Huygens, difeoveries of, 11, 19
Jack, common, 483
Jib, Bramah’s 481
Imml/ion. See Collijion.
Inclined plane, properties of it, 69
its ufe in praftical mechanics, 83
planes, motion of bodies along, 217
Inertia, centre of, 154—201
Involutes proper for the teeth of
wheels, 405
Zt&oer, properties of
L.
33—69
MECHANICS.
Lever, various modes of deducing its
fundamental property, N° 63
vEpinus’s property of, 65
compound, 64
M.
Machine, Atwood’s, 460
loading and unloading, 477
for Ihewing the flatnefs at
the poles of the earth, 468
for trying the ftrength of
materials, 469
in which all the mechanical
powers are combined, 470
for rotatory motion, 475
for weighing, 479
Machinery, conftru&ion of, 358
Amplification of, 366
firft movers of, 418
Machines, Ample, 30
compound, 89
maximum effects of, 298, 359
Mechanics deAned, 1
hiftory of, 2
treatife on,
Mechanical powers,
machine in which they
are combined, 470
Men, ftrength of, according to various
authors, 4I8J &c.
Merfennus, problems propofed by him, 13
Mills driven by water and wind in¬
vented, 5
Motion not propagated inftantaneouf-
ly, 295, 296
N.
Newton, Sir Ifaae, his difeoveries, 18
O.
Ofcillation of pendulums, 236
P.
Parallelogram of forces difcovered by
Stevinus, 6
demonftrated by D.
Bernouilli, 20
of forces, machine for
explaining it, 473
Parent on the maximum effects of
machines, 16
on wind-mills, 430
Pendulum, conical, 394
PercuJJion. See Collijion.
Piers, conftruftion of, 336
Pile engine, Vauloue’s, 485
Bunce’s, 486
Prony's condenfer of forces, 476
Pulley, properties of it, 100
R.
Rackwork, teeth of, 411
Rejlexion of bodies after collifton, 283—*293
Rope machine, its properties, 84
Ropes, rigidity of, 382
Rotatory motion, three axes of, dif¬
covered by Segner, 26
Snaeaton’s apparatus for, 475
S.'
Screw, properties of it, N® 131
Mr Hunter’s double one, 13^
its ufe in mechanics,
Semicycloid, the curve, of fwifteft de¬
fcent, < 231
Smeaton on wind-mill fails,
Stumpers, on the wipers of, ^ r
Statera, Roman, ^
Danifti and Swedilh, 217
Steam, the power of, as a Arft mover, 425,
• • j 427
engine invented,
improved by Savary,
Newrcomen, Watt, &c. ib,
Steelyard, ^
Strength of materials, machine for try¬
ing it, 469
of men, 4jg
of horfes, 424
Sutton on wind-mill fails, 43^
Table of the ftrength of Arft movers, 425
of the ftrength of men, 4ig
Teeth of wheels, how to form them, 393
of rackwork, how to form them, 411
Tor ice Hi, labours of, 9
Tor/ion, ioxve oi, 27,443—3 0
Traffion, line of, 449
w.
Water-mills, invention of, j
Wedge, properties of it, 121
machine for Ihewing its pro¬
perties, 46)
Wheel and axle, its properties, 90
carriages, on the conftrudion
of, _ . 439
on the poAtion of their
wheels, 447
on the Aze and form of
their wheels, 439
on the poAtion of their
centre of gravity, 432
Wheels, on the formation of the teeth
of> . 395
bevelled method of forming
their teeth, 407
crown, 410
fridtion, 374
fly> 383
Wind, the power of, as a Arft mover, 425,
426
Wind-mills, invention of, 5
defeription of one, 428
fails, on the poAtion of, 430
on the effett of, 433
form given them by
Mr Sutton, 434
horizontal, 435
comparifon betwreefi hori¬
zontal and vertical ones, 43S
fails, Smeaton’s apparatus
for determining their
power, 474
Wipers of Hampers, how to form them, 419
MECHANISM,
Tt?ArWli£/zf*£
MECHANICS
WArc/iti>afd
' \ ;
PLATE CCCXX.
A
MECHANIC S.
PLATE CCCXXI.
\
mechanics.
MECHANICS
PLATE CCCXXni.
mimurnimiTOiiiini
nuininiiinniniinni
Zhfhej
1157.6.
Inches,—
154\4
t/nclie.r
(73.63.
3(f. jif./hr/rejK
Apparent Bran/A
of the Sail
5 O If Inches
dbsfolute
brjs/flh of
t/ie Sail flij]
ME CHANICS
PLATE CCCXXI
.Ejigraivd by WS f.Zzhzrj- Udmluro/i .
I
MECHANICS
J5tuj *-by WSoD.Zixarv Ecdn 7*
Fig .3 .
Fig. 2.
PI ate cccxxm.
Fig. I.
r
Kng£by W&DJizarsEdin7!.
Mechanics
rzATE rrrxv/x
Mechanics
Plate 6’6'<7_xxx:.
I /‘l/<■ A Vtc/r/t/j Aj U7>res /'rAr A.'/re/rsfe.
Pi 0.2.
T
Ane/relics Wlu///?/?</ Av-a/ie ■
Pig. 6\
It . A/Y fcA f
Mecklen
burg.
M E C [ x
kfcchanifin MECHANISM, either the conftru£Kon or the ma¬
chinery employed in any thing j as the mechanilm of
the barometer, of the microfcope, &c,
M ECHO AC AN, a province of Mexico, or New
Spain, in America, bounded on the north by Pa-
nuco and Guadalajara, on the eaft by Panuco and
Mexico Proper, on the fouth by the Pacific ocean,
and on the weft by Guadalajara and the South fea.
It is about 200 miles in circumference. The foil is
exceedingly fertile *, and the climate fo wholefome,
that the Spaniards imagine it to be poffefled of fome
peculiarly _ reftorative quality ; for which reafon the
lick and infirm flock to it from all quarters. The
commodities are fulphur, indigo, farfaparilla, faflafras,
cacao, vanelloes, ambergris, hides, wool, cotton, filk,
fugar, the root mechoacan or white jalap, and filver.
This province formed an independent kingdom at the
time Mexico was reduced by Cortez. The fovereign
had long been the inveterate enemy of the Mexicans,
and was conftdered next to the republic of Tlafcala’
as the moft formidable barrier againft the extenfion of
the imperial frontier. However, he fubmitted to Cor¬
tez without ftriking a blow, being intimidated by the
wonders he had performed with a handful of men ; and
thus Mechoacan became a province of the Spanifli em¬
pire, and a valuable addition to Mexico. The coun¬
try at that time was exceedingly populous, but the na¬
tives are now much thinned ; and that rather by the
luxury and effeminacy introduced by the Spaniards,
than by their tyranny. The capital of the province is
alfo called Mechoacan by the natives, but Valladolid by
the Spaniards.
Mechoacan, or White Jalap, in the materia me-
dica, the root of an American fpecies of convolvulus,
brought from Mechoacan, a province of Mexico, in
thin llices like jalap, but larger, and of a whitifh co¬
lour. It was firft introduced into Europe about the
year 1524 as a purgative : but fince jalap became
known, mechoacan has been little einployed.
MECKLENBURG, a duchy of Germany, con¬
taining thofe of Schwerin and Guftro, is bounded by
Pomerania on the eaft, by part of the marquifate of
Brandenburg and the duchy of Lunenburg on the
louth, the Baltic on the north, and Holftein and
Saxe Lawenburg on the weft. Their greateft length
is about 135 uiiles, and greateft’ breadth upwards of
90. With refpea to the foil, much cannot be faid in
favour of it, as it confifts in general, either of fand,
or large and defolate heaths interfperfed with moors,
woods, fens, and lakes. It yields very little wheat,
and not a great deal of oats, rye, and barley j but
breeds a confiderable number of fheep and cattle, has
plenty of fith, with ftone quarries, fait fprings, alum,
iron, and fome copper. The principal rivers here are
the Elde and Stor, which fall into the Elbe as it
glides along the borders of this country to the fouth-
weft j the Reckenitz, which difcharges itfelf into the
Baltic •, as do the Peene, the Warno, and the Stope-
nitz. This country has only one harbour on the Bal¬
tic, namely that of Roftock. In both duchies, ex-
clufive of Roftock, are 45 great and fmall cities, with
three convents, and a great number of manors and
farms, belonging either to the duke, the nobility, or
convents. The peafants are in a ftate of villenage ;
out the nobility enjoy very confxderable privileges.
VOL. XIII. Part I. 6
37 ] M E C
I he ftates are compofed of the nobility and towns ; Mecklen-
and the diets, which are fummoned annually, are held ^ur8>
alternately at Sternberg and Malehin. The duchy ;VIcconium;
of Schwerin appoints four provincial counfellors, and
that of Guilro as many; Avho rank according to fe-
nionty, with the duke’s actual privy counfellors, as
their marflials do with the colonels. The Idler com¬
mittee reprefents the whole body of the nobility and
commons, by whom the members are chofen freely
and without controul, and no edi£t relative to the
whole country can be published without their confent,
or in prejudice of their rights. The inhabitants of
this country are moltly Lutherans, under their fuper-
intendants. ihere are alfo fome Calvinifts and Ro¬
man Catholics. Befides the grammar fchools in the
towns, there is an univerfity at Roftock. The com¬
modities of the duchy are corn, flax, hemp, hops,
waxr honey, cattle, butter, eheele, wool, and wood,
a part of which is exported j but hardly any manu-
faftures.
Of the houfe of Mecklenburg, there are two lines
ftill fubfifting, viz. that of Schwerin and that of St relit z.
lire latter commenced in Duke Adolphus Frederick 11.*"
younger brother of the duke of Schwerin, and grand¬
father of Adolphus Frederick IVr. who entered on the
government in 175 2, and whofe family received a great
additional luftre by his Britannic majefty’s taking his
fecond filler for his confort, and by her own great me¬
rit and noble deportment in that high ftation. Be¬
fides the. duchy of Strelitz, to this duke belong the
principality of Ratzeburg, with the lordlhip of Star-
gard, the ancient commanderies of Miro and Neme-
ro,. and a yearly penfion of 9000 dollars out of the
Boitzenburg toll. The title affumed by both the
dukes is duke of Mecklenburg ; prince ofWenden, Schwe¬
rin, and Rat'zburg y count of Schwerin and the country
ofRoJlock, and lord ofStnrgard. By the agreement con¬
cluded at Witt flock in 14425 the eledlor of Branden¬
burg, on the extinHion of the male line of the cukes
of Mecklenburg, is entitled to their whole fucceflion.
I he duke of Schwerin has two votes both in the diet
of the empire and that of the circle. The matricular
afleffment for the duchies of Schwerin and Guftro is-
4° horfe and 67 foot, or 748 florins monthly, includ¬
ing what is paid by Sweden for Wifmar, and the bai¬
liwicks of Poll and Neul lofter. To the chamber of 1
Wetzlar, thefe two duchies pay each 243 rix dollars,
43 kruitzers. For the government of Mecklenburg,
the adminiftration of juftice, and the management of 1
the revenue, there is the privy council of regency, the
demefne chamber, the high and provincial court of ju¬
ftice to which appeals lie in moft caufes, both from the
confillory and the inferior civil courts, and which are
common to both the dukes. As to the revenues, thofe
of the Schwerin line muft be very confiderable, thofe
arifing from the demefne bailiwicks and regalia alone
amounting to 300,000 rix dollars per annum. There
is a tax on land that produces no contemptible fum,
and that called the princefds tax is fixed at 20,000 rix-
dollars: befides all thefe, there are alfo free gifts. The
whole revenues of the Strelitz branch are eftimated
at. 120,000 rix dollars. Each of thefe princes main¬
tains a body of troops.
MECONIUM, the excrement contained in the in-
teftines of an infant at its birth.
S
MEDALS.
[ i3* 1
MEDALS.
MEDAL, denotes a piece of metal in the form of
coin, fuch as was either current money among the
ancients, or ftruck on any particular occafion, in order
to preferve to poflerity the portrait of fome great per-
fon, or the memory of fome illuftrious action. Scaliger
derives the word medal from the Arabic methuha ; a
fort of coin with a human head upon it. But the opi¬
nion of Voffius is generally received \ viz. that it comes
from metallum, “ metal of which fubftance medals
are commonly made.
Sect. I. Utility of Medals in Hfory, and various other
Sciences.
There are few ftudies of more importance to hi-
ftory than that of medals } the, foie evidence we can
have of the veracity of a hiftorian being only inch
collateral documents as are evident to every body, and
cannot be falfified. In modern times, thefe are found
in public memoirs, inltrucHons to ambaffadors, and
ftate papers of various kinds. Such memorials, how¬
ever, are fubject to various accidents, and befxdes com¬
monly remain in the countries where they are £rll
publifhed, and cannot therefore give to the world
at large that perfect and entire fatisfaftion which
ought to be derived from genuine hiftory •, fo that
more durable and widely diffufed monuments are fiill
to be wilhed for. Such are public buildings, infcrip-
tions, and llatues ; but thefe, excepting a few inftances
of the two laft, are always confined to particular
countries 5 fo that medals alone remain as infallible
documents of truth, capable of being diffufed over all
countries in the world, and of remaining through the
j lateft ages.
Various The firff who fhowed the importance of medals in
writers on afeertaining the dates, and arranging the order of
Medals. events, in ancient hiftory, by means of medals, was
Vaillant, in his Hiftory of the Kings of Syria, print¬
ed at Paris in 1681. By medals alone, he has been
enabled to fix the chronology and important events of
hiftory, in the three moft ancient kingdoms of the
world, viz. Egypt, Syria, and Parthia. Many coins
have been difeovered lince his time, which confirm the
accounts he has given. He was followed in this me¬
thod by Father Hardouin, though with lefs fuccefs.
Hardouin’s beft work is his Herodiades, or Series of
Succeffors to Herod king of Judaea. The fame plan
wras purfued by Noris, in his learned Treatife on the
Syro-Macedonian princes, and by Bayer in his Hif¬
tory of Ofrhoene, as well as by Froelich, in the work
entitled Annales Regum et Rerutn Syr ice i Vien. 1754,
and another named Kevenhullers Regum veterurn Nu-
mifmata Anecdota, au&. Perrara, Vien. 1752, 4to, of
which Froelich was properly the author. Corfini and
Cary likewife publiftied works of a fimilar nature 5 the
former in 1744, De Minrnfari, aliorumque Armenice
Regum, Nummis, &c. *, the latter in 1752, Hflaire des
Rois de Thrace, et du Bofphore Cimmerien, eclaircie par
les Medai/les.
Utility of
them in Hi¬
ftory, &c.
The ftudy of the Greek coins does not ftiow the Utility 0f
dates of events, though it illuftrates the chronology d’em in Hi.
of reigns. This defeift, however, is abundantly fup- Re¬
plied by thofe of Rome, which commonly mark the
date of the prince’s confulthip, the year of his tri-Ofthe
bunieian power } giving alfo, upon the reverfe, the re- Greek
prefentation or poetical fymbol of fome grand event. COlns•
The year of the tribunician power is fometimes ima¬
gined by antiquaries to be fynonymous with that of
the emperor’s reign : but this is not the cafe , and
Mr Pinkerton is at fome pains to fet them right in
this refpecl. He finds fault with Julius Csefar, when
he affumed the fovereign authority, for taking upon
him the title of Perpetual Dictator, as being lynony-
mdus with that of king or abfolute governor, which
the Romans abhorred. “ He ought (fays our author),
under the difguife of fome fupreme magiftrate of an¬
nual election, to have lulled the people with a dream,
that they might terminate his power when they pleafed ;
or that he himfelf would refign it, when the neceflities
of ftate which had required his temporary elevation
had fubfided.” To this error Mr Pinkerton aferibes Meth))cj
the affaffination of the dictator, and commends theufedby
policy of Auguftus, who, with far inferior abilities, Auguftus
continued in poffeflion of the moft abfolute authority lecure
as long as he lived. The tribuncfhip was an office of 1S Powet*
annual election j and if put into the hands of any
others than plebeians, mult have been the fupreme
power of the ftate, as it belonged to that office to put
a negative upon every public meafure whatever. Au-
gultus, being of fenatorial rank, could not affume this
office : but he inverted himfelf with the tribunician
power, which had the advantages of appearing to be
only a temporary fupremacy, though in truth it was
continued during his whole lifetime. Towards the
end of his reign, he frequently affumed his deftined
fucceffor, Tiberius, for his colleague, though in the
beginning he had enjoyed it alone. This, with hia
artifice of refigning his power every ten years, and
reaffuming it at the defire, as was pretended, of the
fenate, fecured his fovereignty as long as he lived.—
His example was followed by his fucceffors ; fo that
moft: of them have the infeription Trihunicia Potcflate.
upon their medals, with the date affixed to it thus,
Tr. Pot. VII. Yet though this date generally im¬
plies the year of the emperor’s reign, it fometimes
happens that the emperor, by fpecial favour from a for¬
mer prince, had been endow'ed with this title before
he came to the throne, as being the fuccefl'or to that
prince, of which we have already given an inftance in
Tiberius. Befides the tribunician power, the empe¬
rors very frequently enjoyed that of the confuls j and
the date of their confulfhip is frequently expreffed in
their coins.
The office of Pontifex Maximus was likewife af¬
fumed by the Roman emperors, in order to fecure them-
felves in their authority ; which, Mr Pinkerton ob-
ferves, was one of the moft efficacious artifices they
could have fallen upon. “ In.the Greek heroic times.
(fays
2
MED
'Utility of (fays he), king and pried: were carefully united in one
them in Hi-perfon. ancl vvhen fovereigns arofe in Denmark and
ftory, &x., 3we(jenj the fame plan was followed, as appears from
Snorro, and other writers. Nothing could lend more
fecurity to the perfon of the monarch than an office
of fupreme famflity, which alfo confirmed his power
by all the terrors of fuperftition. Even the Chriftian
fyftem was afterwards debafed by a mock alliance with
government ; though it be clear from the whole New
Teftament, that fuch an alliance is fubverfivc of its
genuine inflitution, and the greatert of all its corrup¬
tions. But the Roman Catholic clergy, in the dark
ages, were the authors of ‘ no church no king,’ for
their own intereft ; wdiile the Roman emperors only
fought to ftrengthen their power by the dark awe of
fupertlition. 'The title of Pontifex Maximus was fo
important, that it was retained even by the Chriltian
emperors till the time of Gratian. Its influence in the
Rate was, indeed, prodigious. Cicero obferves, that
to this office were fubjeft, temples, altars, penates,
gods, houfes, wealth, and fortune of the people.—That
of augur is alfo borne by many emperors ; and its au¬
thority was fuch, that by the law of the twelve tables
no public bufinefs could be tranfafted without a decla¬
ration from the augur concerning its event.—The pro-
eonfular power was alfo given to Auguftus and the
other emperors. It conferred a dire6t authority over
all the provinces, and implied the emperor to be chief
proconful, or governor of each, and of all. Another
Special power affigned to the emperors, but not occur¬
ring on coins, was the Jus Re/ationis Tertice, J^uartce,
&c. or the right of making three or four motions in the
fenate on the fame day, while the fenators could only
propofe one.
Hence our author infers, that medals afford the
Jtnoft authentic documents of the Roman hiftory, in
particular, that could have been invented by man.—
The hiftories of Nerva and Trajan are much better
, -elucidated by medals than by authors 5 for the hiftory
of Suetonius ends with Domitian, and the Hijlorite
Augujhx Scriptores begin with Adrian : fo that the
reigns of the two emperors juft mentioned are almoft
unknown; and Mr Pinkerton is furprifed that none of
the learned have attempted to fupply the defeat.—
“ Capitolinus (fays he), in his life of Maximinus Ju¬
nior, is quite puzzled to know if Maximus and Pu-
pienus were two emperors, or two names for the fame.
Had he happened on any of thufe coins which bear
M. Cl. Pupienus Maximus Aug. he would have
leen at once that Maximus was only another name for
Pupienus.”
fUfeofmer Medals are ufeful in other feiences befides hiftory.
kials in geo-In geography, we find the fituation of towns detcr-
graphy. mined by their vicinity to fi>me noted river, moun¬
tain, &tc. J bus, MArNHTIiN SIIITAOT (hows that
Magnefia was fituated under Mount Sipylus. In like
manner, it is Ihown from a medal, that Ephefus flood
on the river Cayfter ; and there is extant a medal, bear¬
ing an infeription, which fignifies Alexandria on the
Scamander •, a name given to Troy by Alexander the
Great. The reverfe has upon it the famous Apollo
L natural Smintheus of Homer. In natural hiftory alfo, medals
feiilory. are ufeful chiefly from the coins ftruck on the celebra¬
tion of the fecular games, in which the figures of
various animals are preferved 5 and thus it may very
A- L S. 139
often be determined whether any animal be known to Utility >f
the ancients or not. On many of the Greek medals lhea‘ ir’
are federal uncommon plants and animals. Thus, on , ° 7’ " j
moft of the medals of Cyrene is the figure of the ce¬
lebrated Sylphium ; and on thofe of Tyre, the fliell-Lfh
from which the famous Tyrian purple was procured, 6
By means of medals, alfo, the exadl delineations of1, ardutec*
many noble edifices are preferved, though not even a L,re*
veftige of their ruins be now exifting j lo that the ufes ^
of them to the architect are very confiderable. To In the fin*
the connoiffeur they are abfolutely neoeffary ; becaule arts*
by them alone he is enabled to aferibe ancient bulls
and llatues to their proper perfous, with multitudes
of other points of knowledge which cannot be other-
wife determined. The elucidations of obfeure paf-
fages in ancient authors by means of medals are fo
numerous and well known, that it is needlefs to infill
upon them.
Mr Addifon has treated the connexion betwixt me¬
dals and poetry at confiderable length 5 but Mr Pin¬
kerton finds fault with him for preferring the Latin
to the Greek poets. He obferves alfo, that the know¬
ledge of Greek medals is moft neceifary for a fculp- s
tor, and perhaps an architect j but an acquaintance Latin me-
with Latin ones is preferable for a poet, or perhaps a dais of ufe
painter. The reafon of this difference is, that thet0 a P0*1'*
former generally have on the obverfe the head of fome
king, god, or goddefs, of exquifite relief and workman-
ftfip j but the reverfe feldom affords much fancy of
fymbol in the early Greek coins j and in the imperial
Greek coins, is chiefly impreffed with the temples of
their deities. To a perfon of poetical imagination,
however, the Roman coins afford the greateft entertain¬
ment, from the fine perfonifications and fymbols to be
found on their reveries 5 of which our author gives the
following initances :
“ Happiness has fometimes the caduceus, or wand Perforfifica-
of Mercury, which Cicero, 1. Offic. tells us wras thoughttl0n'0i! Ro-
. to procure every wilh. She has, in a gold coin of be- “anmedalss
verus, heads of poppy, to exprefs that our prime blifs
lies in oblivion ot misfortune.
“ Hope is reprefented as a fprightly girl, walking
quickly, and looking ftraight forward. With her kit
hand ihe holds up her garments, that they may not im¬
pede the rapidity of her pace j while in her right hand
ihe holds forth the bud of a flower ; an emblem infi¬
nitely more fine than the trite one of an anchor, which
is the fymbol of Patience, and not of Hope. This
perfonification, writh fome others, muff have been very
familiar to the ancients j for often in this, and in a few
more inftanoes, no name, as Spes Aug. or the like,
is infer ted in the legend.
“ Abundance is imagined as a fedate matron, with
a cornucopiae in her hands, of which the fcatters the
fruits, and does not hold up her cornucopiae and keep
the contents to herfelf as many modern poets and
painters make her do.
“ The emperor Titus, having caufe to import a
great fupply of corn during a fcarcity at Rome, that
fupply, or the Annona, is finely reprefented as a fe¬
date lady, with a filled cornucopia: in her left hand,
which the holds upright, to indicate that ihe does not,
however, mean to icatter it, as Abundance has a title
to do, but to give it to Equity to deal out. This laft
particular is fhown by her holding a little image of
S 2 Equity,
14° MED
Utility of Equity, known by her fcales, and Iwjla pur a, or point-
Vor m V'1*^8 ^Pear’ ln ^er right hand, over a balket filled with
■ / wheat. Behind the Annona is the prow of a fh'ip
decked with flowers, to imply that the corn was brought
by fea (from Africa), and that the fhips had had a pro-
fperous voyage. The beft poet in the world would not
have given us a finer train of imagery ; the beft painter
would have been puzzled to exprefs fo much matter in
fo fmall a compafs.
“ Security hands leaning upon a pillar, indicative
of her being free from all defigns and purfuits ; and
the pofture itfelf correfponds to her name. Horace, in
defcribing the wife man, mentions his being teres atque
rotundus ; round and polifiied, againft all the rules of
chance : an idea feemingly derived from the column
upon which this ideal lady reclines.
“ The emblems of Piety, Modesty, and the like,
are equally appofite and poetical.
“ The happinefs of the ftate is pictured by a fhip
failing before a profperous breeze : an image than
which the luperlative genius of Gray could find none
more exquifite; and he has accordingly ufed it in his
moft capital produftion “ The Bard,” with due fuc-
cefs.
“ The different countries of the then known world
are alfo delineated with great poetical imagery. It
affords patriotic fatisfaftion in particular to a Briton,
to fee his native ifland often reprefented upon the ear-
lieft imperial coins fitting on a globe, with a fymbol of
military power, the labarum, in her hand, and the ocean
rolling under her feet. An emblem almoft prophetic
of the vaft power which her dominion over the fea will
always give her, provided (he exerts her element of
empire with due vigour and perfeverance.
“ Coins alfo prefent us with Achaia, Africa, Ala-
mannia, Alexandria, Arabia, Armenia, Afia, Bithy-
nia, Cappadocia, Dacia, Dardank, Egypt, Gallia,
Hifpania, Italia, Judaea, Macedon, Mauritania, Pan-
nonia, Parthia, Phrygia, Sarmatia, Sicily, Scythia,
Syria, and the rivers Danube, Nile, Rhine, Tyber.
T his perfonification of provinces feems to have arifen
from the figures of provinces carried in triumphs j as
the perfonifieation of our old poets fprung from the
ideal perfons actually reprefented in the myfterial plays.
“ 1 here is one colonial medal of rude execution of
Auguftus and Agrippa, which has a high claim to
merit in difplaying the ancient poetical imagery. It
is inferibed Imp. and Divi. f. and on tire reverfe, the
conqueft of Egypt is reprefented by the metaphor of
a crocodile, an animal almoft peculiar to that country,
and at that period efteemed altogether fo j which is
chained to a palm tree, at once a native of the country,
IO and fymbolic of vidlory.
Medals ufc- “ As the reverfes are fo ufeful for knowledge of
fui to a perfonification, fymbols of countries and actions, and
jpamter. the portraits to be feen on old coins are
no lefs important to a painter 5 the high merit of a
great number of them, in every character, juftly enti¬
tling them to be regarded as the beft ftudies in the world.
Not to mention, that, to an hiftoric painter, the fei-
ence of ancient medals is abfolutely neceflary, that he
may delineate his perfonages with the features they
really bore while in fexiftence. This can only be at¬
tained in this way, or from ftatues and bulls 3 any one
5
A L S.
of which will coft as much as hundreds of medals 3 Entertain,
and indeed a collection oi fuch is only attainable by Ilienr host
princes. . ^“dying
The fame things which render the ftudy of medals
important to a painter, do ftill more fo to a leuiptor 3 ^ J
and, in this particular, the ftudy of the Greek coins is To a fcuig*
remarkably ufeful. The fkill of the Greeks in the tor‘
art of fculpture has always been admired throughout
the world 3 and on their coins the heads of feveral dei¬
ties are reprefented in the moft exquifite alto relievo.
Our author, therefore, thinks it ftrange, that the Gre¬
cian coins fhould have hitherto been fo little attended
to by men of learning and tafte- They may have been
looked upon, he fuppofes, as belonging only to the
province of the antiquary 3 but he affures us, that the
Greek medals will afford fatisfa&ion to the perfons who.
value them only as pieces of workmanlhip. In moft
refpefts, they greatly excel thofe of Rome even in its
beft times: which our author fuppofes to have been
from the days of Auguftus to Adrian. “ In the days
of Adrian, in particular (fays he), the Roman mint
feems to have been the very feat of art and genius 3
wfitnefs the vaft number of exquifite perfonifications, en¬
graven with equal, workmanftiip, which fwarm on the
medals of that prince. Yet from his time down t*
Pofthumus, coins of admirable w orkmanftiip are to be
found. Thofe of the Fauliinas and Lucilla deferve
particular mention. There is one, and not an uncom¬
mon one, of the latter, in great brals, which yields to
nothing of the kind, d he reverfe is a Venus wfith the
name around her. The portrait of the obverfe feems
to fpring from the field of the coin 3 it looks and
breathes, nay talks, if you trull your eyes. The coins
of Tarfus are extremely remarkable for a kind of per-
fpeftive in the figures, as Froelich obferves. On others
are found triumphal arches, temples, fountains, aque-
duCls, amphitheatres, circi, hippodromes, palaces, bafili-
cas, columns and obelilks, baths, fea-ports, pharofes, and
the like. Thefe furnifti much pleafure and inftrudion
to the architeft, and ferve to form his tafte to the an¬
cient manner 3 that manner which unites perfeCt fimpli-
city Avith fublimity and grace 3 that manner which
every age admires, in proportion as it has genius to imi¬
tate.”
Sect. II. Entertainment arijing from the Study of
Medals.
Besides the purpofes which the ftudy of medals
anfwers in the ufeful arts, a great variety of fources of
entertainment are to be found in it. Mr Pinkerton
obferves, that the moft barbarous nations are more
pleafed with the rudeft efforts of art, than with the
moft admirable works of nature 3 and that in propor¬
tion as the powers of the mind are large and various,
fuch are alfo the pleafures which it receives from thofe
fuperlative productions of art, which can only be the
offspring of vaft genius. Hence works of art are
agreeable both to the enlightened and to the ignorant.
The chief amufement, therefore, which attends the
ftudy of medals, originates from the ftrength and fpi-
rit, the finilh and beauty, which the engraver has dif-
played in the execution of them. It befides gives a
kind of perfonal acquaintance with the perfons of whom
the are the reprefentations. Portraits have ahvays
been
Sntcrtaio-
aient from
ftudr'ng
them.
X2
Difference
betwixt a
medallift
*nd anti-
juary.
been highly entertaining to mankind ; and our author
is of opinion, that the love of them gave rife both to
painting and fculpture. They are nowhere to be
/ found fo ancient, fo numerous, and fo well preferved as
in medals. Amufement is alfo derived even from the
reprefentations of ideal heads and perfons 5 nay, even
from the minuted: fymbols. Thus the Greek coins of
cities prefent us with heads of deities of exquifite
workmttnfliip, apparently copied from ftatues or paint-
ings $ fo that we may even guefs at the works of A-
pelles and Praxiteles from fome of the Greek medals.
Their reverfes afford dill greater variety ; there being
fcarce an objeft either in art or nature which is not
reprefented upon fome of them : and to the fatisfac-
tion arifing from a view of thefe, we may likewife add
that of beholding, in a lively manner, the drelfes, man¬
ners and cudoms, religious and civil ceremonies, of
the ancients: lo that from medals we may obtain an
intcreding hidory of manners j which, though very
lately cultivated, may perhaps afford the mod ufeful
and entertaining of all the provinces of hidory.
I here is a very confiderable difference betwixt the
dudy of medals and that of a mere antiquary. The
latter frequently feems to take delight in coins mere¬
ly in proportion to their rud and deformity ; fo that
it is often a recommendation of fome of their pieces,
that neither portrait, reverfe, nor legend, can be dif-
covered 5 at lead in fucli manner as can be intelligibly
explained. “ The delight of the antiquarid (fays Mr
Pinkerton), may be called a depraved appetite of the
mind, which feeds on trafli, and fills itfelf with empti-
nefs. It is perhaps a mere childidi curiofity mingled
with caprice and hypochondricifm. Agamd this cha¬
racter the ridicule of Severus is particularly diot, but
with little effedt 5 for our antiquids exceed in vifions
and nonfenfe. I fay antiquijls ; for the name of anti¬
quary is facred. By antiquary, in foreign countries,
is implied a man who illudrates their ancient laws,
manners, poetry ; but especially their ancient hidory.
I here, men of the mod elevated minds are antiquaries }
as Muratori, Leibnitz, Montefquieu, Du Bos. Here
men of talents will not doop, forfooth, to dudies the
mod important to their country, but leave its anti¬
quities to chance. Every thing is important but our
hidory } and we are profound in every ancient matter
that is fuperficial ; and fuperfieial in what is profound.
Even England cannot boad of one general hidorian,
but truds to the inaccuracy of Rapin, and the igno¬
rant neatnefs of Hume. It is therefore no wonder
that the dudy of antiquity is here ridiculous, though
mod important in other countries 5 none requiring
greater. talents, learning, or indudry. But the hido-
ric antiquary has the pleafure of benefiting fociety,
and enlightening whole nations, while the medallic has
only an innocent amufement. This amufement, con¬
sidered merely as rifing from antiquarian objects, has
not been explained, though felt by mod people, and
more by the learned. It feems analogical with that
which we derive from an extenfive profpedt : for as
the mind delights to expand itfelf into didant places,
10 alfo into diftant times. We eonneft ourfelves with
thefe times, and feel as it were a double exidence The
paffions are Singularly affeaed by minute circumdances,
though mute to generalities 5 and the relicks of an¬
tiquity imprefs us more than its general hidory
MEDALS*
SiLCT. III. Hijlory of Medals.
The dudy of medals is not of very ancient date :
None of the cladic writers give any account of collec¬
tions of them ; though indeed many little particulars
are paffed without notice by them. In the times of
the Greeks, a collcdtion of fuch coins as then exified
mud have been but little regarded, as confiding only
of thofe druck by the numerous little dates which at
that time ufed the Greek charaaers and language..
Hence they would have had an air of domedic coin¬
age, and no attention would have; been paid to them,
however exquifite their workmanihip might have been.
1 he little intercourfe at that time carried on betwixt
the different provinces alfo, greatly impeded any com¬
munication of knowledge to thofe who wrote hidories,
fo that it is no wonder to find any fmall colleaions
that might then have exided altogether unnoticed by
them.
Almod as foon as any communication was opened Greek coins
between the Greeks and Romans, the latter tieated*mhated by
the arts of the Greeks with all due refpedt and ap-tne
plaufe. Their coins were imitated by the Romans, manS‘
and preferved in cabinets by the fenators among their
choiced treafures. Suetonius informs us, that on fo-
lemn occafions Augudus was accudomed to prefent
his friends with medals of foreign dates and princes,
along with other valuable tedimonies of his friendfhip.
In a more advanced period of the Roman empire,
however, individuals would undoubtedly form collec¬
tions of coins peculiar to their own date 5 for Dr
Stukeley, in his Medallic Hidory of Caraufius, in¬
forms us, that a complete fenes of filver coins was
lately found in Britain, containing all the emperors
down to Caraufius inelufively. From Banduri xve
alfo know, that certain Greek coins wrere fpecially
preferved by the Romans ; and it appears from their
code, that ancient gold and filver coins were made ufe
of indead of gems j to which didinction thofe of Sicily
were particularly entitled. From the decline of the
Roman empire till towards the end of the fifth centu¬
ry, almod all branches of literature were involved in
darknefs, and the medallic fcience among the red.
While the Chridian dominion of Condantinople laded,
indeed, almod all the arts and fciences may be faid to
have been kept within its own boundaries 5 though
the Arabs and eadern nations had fome arts and fci¬
ences of their own : but after the dedrudlion of the
imperial city by the Turks, the Greeks were once more
compelled to become fathers to the European fcience.
Even before this time, indeed, fome vediges of a revi¬
val of literature had appeared in Italy ; “ and fo inti¬
mate and neceffary a connexion (fays Mr Pinkerton),
has noiv the dudy of medals with that of ancient eru¬
dition, that on the earlied appearance of a revival of
the latter, the former was alfo difclofed.”
The fird among the moderns who began to dudyr 14
the metallic fcience was Petrarch. Being defired by C.01 ,0.r8
the emperor Charles IV. to compofe a book contain-0 ^ ^
mg the lives of eminent men, and to place him in the
lid, he replied, that he would do fo whenever the em¬
peror’s life and conduct deferved it. In confequence
of this converfation, he afterwards fent the emperor a
colle&ion of gold and filver coins bearing the repre¬
fentations
142 MED
Hiftory. fentations of eminent men, with an addrefs fuitable to
1J' v his former declaration. A collection of coins was
made in the next age oy Alphonfo king of Arragon ;
but though this monarch collected all that could be
found throughout Italy, we know that there could not
have been very many, as the whole were contained in
an ivory cabinet, and carried always about with him.
A very considerable collection was made by Anthony
Cardinal St Mark, nephew to Eugene IV. who afcend-
ed the pontifical chair in (431; and foon after the
grand mufeum at Florence was begun by Cofmo de
Medici, where a collection of ancient coins and medals
had a place among other curiofities. Corvinus king of
Hungary about the fame time formed a noble collec¬
tion of coins along with ancient manufcripts and other
valuable relicks of antiquity.
Mr Pinkerton confiders Agnolo Poliziano, more
commonly known by the name of Ange/us Poiitianus,
as the firft writer who adduced medals as vouchers of
ancient orthography and cuftoms. He cites different
coins of the Medicean collection in his Mifcellanea
written about the year 1490. By means of a cabinet
of medals collected by Maximilian I. emperor of Ger¬
many, Joannes Huttichius was enabled to publiih a
book of the lives of the emperors, enriched with their
portraits, delineated from ancient coins. It is gene¬
rally fuppofed that this book, which appeared in 1525,
was the firft work of the kind \ but Labbe, in his
Bibliotheca Nummaria, mentions another named llluMiri¬
am Imagines, by one Andreas Fulvius, printed in 1517,
in which mod: of the portraits feem to be from medals.
About the year 1512 alfo, Guillaume Bude, a French
author, had written his treatifc De Affe,. though it vTas
not printed till many years afterwards. M. Grollier,
treafurer of the French armies in Italy, during part of
the 16th century, had a great collection of coins of
different kinds of metals. After his death, his brafs
medals wrere fent to Provence, and were about to be
fent into Italy ; when the king of France, having got
information of the tranfaCHon, gave orders to flop
them, and purchafe the whole at a very high price for
his own cabinet of antiquities. M. Grollier had an af-
fbrtment of gold and filver as well as of brafs medals ;
the cabinet in which they were contained fell twro
centuries afterwards into the hands of M. PAbbe de
Bothelin ; and wTas knorvn to have been that of Grol¬
lier from fome flips of paper, on which wTas his ufual
infcription for his books, Joannis Grol/ierii, et ami-
15 comm.
Number of Cotemporary with Grollier was Guillaume de Choul,
cabinets. w]10 was likewise a man of rank and fortune. He
had a good colleCfion of medals, and publifhed many
in his Treatife on the Religion of the ancient Romans
in 1 k57. In the Low Countries we knowq from the
letters of Erafmus, that the ftudy of medals was begun
about the beginning of the 16th century. About the
middle of that century, Hubertzus Goltzius, a printer
and engraver, travelled over moft countries in Europe
fearching for coins and medals, in order to publifh books
concerning them. From one of thefe works it ap-
A L S.
pea: , that there were then in the Low Countries 200
cabinets of medals j 175 in Germany, upwards of 380 v
in Italy, and 200 in France. It is probable, how¬
ever, that there are now four times as many in thefe
countries, befides 500 in Britain; but we are not to
imagine that all thefe were grand collections, for of
fuch there are not above a dozen even in Italy: moft
Hiftory.
of thofe juft mentioned were of the clafs named cajkets
of medals, containing from 100 to 1000 or 2000.
iff
There are few countries, Italy excepted, in which Number of
a greater number of coins have been found than in fcmnd
Britain ; though we are by no moans well acquainted’11 ^rita‘*‘
with the time when the ftudy of them commenced.
Mr Pinkerton fufpeCts that Camden was one of the
firft, if not the very firft Britifti author, who produced
medals in his works, and who muft have had a fmall
collection. Speed’s Chronicle, publifhed in the 17th
century, was illuftrated with coins from Sir Robert
Cotton’s cabinet. Gorlseus’s collection rvas purehafed
by Henry prince of Wales, brother to Charles I. to
Avhom he left it at his death. According to Jofeph
Scaliger, it confifted of 30,000 coins and medals. A
colleCtion of 5500 coins Avas purchafed by Archbifhop
Laud for 600I. and given to the Bodleian library.
Thomas earl of Arundel, earl-marfhal of England,
well knoAvn from the Arundelian tables and other an¬
tiquities Avhich he imported from Greece and Italy in¬
to Britain, had a rich cabinet of medals collected by
Daniel Nifum. The dukes of Buckingham and Ha¬
milton, Sir William Pafton, Sir Thomas FanfhaAV of
Ware-Park, Sir Thomas Hanmer, Ralph Sheldon,
Efq. Mr Selden, &c. are enumerated by Evelyn as
collectors of medals. Charles I. as well as his hifto-
rian the earl of Clarendon, Avere alfo collectors. The
king had a very fine cabinet •, which, howrever, Avas
diftipated and loft during the civil commotions. Oliver
CromAvell had a fmall collection ; and the cabinet of
Charles II. is mentioned by Vaillant in the preface to
his treatife entitled “ Nummi in Colonm” &c. This
branch of magnificence has not been much attended to
by fucceeding Britifti monarchs ; though his prefent
majefty has a very good collection of ancient gold
coins.
A great number of fine cabinets have been formed
in Britain fince the time of Evelyn. About the year eabmets.
1720, Haym makes mention of thofe of the duke of
Devonihire, the earls of Pembroke and Winchelfea,
Sir Hans Sloane, Sir Andrerv Fontaine, Mr Sadler,
Mr Abdy, Mr Wren, Mr Chicheley, and Mr Kemp.
At prefent there are many remarkable collections 5
but that of fhe late Dr William Hunter is defervedly
efteemed the moft remarkable in Europe, excepting
that of the late French king. It Avas not only formed at
a great expence, but Avith much care and ability ; many
foreign medals offered to it having been rejeCted
(a). The other remarkable collections are thofe of the
duke of Devonftiife, the earl of Pembroke, Earl Fitz-
Avilliam, formerly the marquis of Rockingham’s, the
honourable Horace Walpole, the reverend Mr Crach-
rode, the reverend Mr Southgate, Mr Townlev, Mr
R. P.
(a) This collection, as Avell as the reft of Dr Hunter’s
Glafgow, to Avhich it Avas bequeathed by the doctor’s wilh
Mufeum, is norv in the poffeflion of the univerfny of
MED
Of what R. P. Kniglit, Mr Edward Knight, Mr Tyfon, Mr
fonftruded JJarker, Mr Brown, and feveral others. 1 he Britifh
W~'v mufeum and univerfities in England have alfo collec¬
tions ; as well as the Advocates library, the Antiquarian
Society, and the univerlities in Scotland.
Sect. IV. Materials of which Medals are confruBed.
18
Ancient Medals are formed of gold, filver, and tlie various
gold coins. modifications of copper. The gold ufually made ufe
of in coinage is about the finenefs of 22 carats ; and
as the art of purifying this metal was very much un¬
known in former times, the moft ancient medals are
for this reafon much more impure than the modern
coins. Gold is never found in its native ftate above
22 carats fine j and the very ancient medals are much
under that ftandard. Many of them are compofed of
a mixture of gold and filver, called by the ancients
cleclrum. The gold medals were made of much finer
metal after Philip of Macedon became poffeffed of the
gold mines of Philippi in Thrace,' and the medals of
his fon Alexander the Great are equally fine ; as well
as thofe of fome other princes of that age. Thofe of
the Egyptian Ptolemies are of the finenefs of 23
carats three grains, with only one grain of alloy. The
Roman coins are very pure even from the earlieft times j
the art of refining gold being well known before any
was coined at Rome. Some authors are of opinion,
that the Roman coins begin to fall Ihort of their pu¬
rity after the time of Titus •, but Mr Pinkerton de¬
nies that any thing of this kind takes place till the
time of the emperor Severus ; and even then only in
a very few inflances. Moft of the Roman gold was
brought from Dalmatia and Dacia, where that metal
is ftill to be met with. A very remarkable eircum-
ftance is obferved in the eaftern part of Plungary,
which belonged to the ancient Dacia. It germinates
in the vines of Tokay, and is found in their Items ; as
it is elfewhere in the ftraw of corn.
MrtaUall- Pliny informs us, and indeed it is generally known,
f.d elec- that gold and filver are found mixed together in the
trum. earth. Where the filver amounted to one-fifth part of
the gold, the metal was called cleBrum ; but fometimes
the quantity of filver was added artificially. The gold
was in thofe days as well as at prefent refined by means
of mereury : and the ancient artifts had certainly at¬
tained to great perfection in this branch of metallurgy ;
as Bodin tells us, that the goldfmiths of Paris upon
melting one of Vefpafian’s gold coins found only
part of alloy.
Ancient fil-. tlxe ancient filver, particularly that of Greece,
Er. 'is lefs pure than that of fucceeding times ; even the
Roman filver is rather inferior to the prefent ftandard,
and that from the very beginning 5 but in the time of
Severus, the filver appears very bad, and continues fo
until the time of Dioclefian. Many writers upon this
fubjecl have miftaken the denarii cerei, “ coins of brafs
walhed with filver,” for filver currency. Silver coins
are extremely fcarce from the time of Claudius Gothi-
cus to that of Dioclefian, or from the year 270 to
284 : in which ftiort fpace no fewer than eight empe¬
rors reigned. Silver at that time was found moftly in
Spain } and the commerce with that country was di-
fturbed by the ufurpers who arofe in Gaul ; and fuch
were the troubles of the times, that not only the filver
A L S. 143
but alfo the gold coins of thofe eight emperors, are what
extremely fcarce. There is ftill, however, lome filverconftmCtecl.
extant of thefe eight emperors ; and it is certain, that v—
cooper walhed was never ufed as filver currency, but
was entirely a diftinft coinage. Occafional deprava¬
tions of iilver had taken place long before ; as Pliny
tells us, that Mark Antony mixed iron with his filver
denarii ■, and Mr Pinkerton informs us, that he had
feen a denarius of Antony, which was attracted by a
magnet. _ aI
The ancient brafs coins confift of two kinds : the Ancient
red or Cyprian, which indeed is no other than copper jbrafs.
and the common yellow brafs. Our author obferves,
that in the Roman coinage brafs ivas of double the
value of copper, and he is of opinion, that it was the
fame among the Greeks ; and the latter is the metal
moft commonly made ufe of in the Greek coinage.
The Roman feftertii was always of brafs : the middling-
fized kind are partly copper and partly brafs ; the for¬
mer being double the value of the latter, which are
the afes.
Mr Pinkerton next proceeds to give an account <>f viixed me.
the mixed metals ufed among the Romans. In Bri- tab.
tain all kinds of coins made of mixed metal are with¬
out hefitation alleged to be forgeries 5 although it is
certain that the variety of mixed metals ufed in coin¬
age was very confidcrable. The moft valuable mix¬
ture was that of gold or filver, already mentioned, na¬
med elecirum ; the filver commonly amounting to one-..
fifth part of the gold made ufe of, or perhaps more.
Of this mixture are many of the early coins of Lydia,
and fome other Afiatic ftates ; alfo thofe of the kings
of the Bofphorus Cimmerius, during the imperial ages
of Rome. Next to the eleclrum were the coins of
Corinthian brafs : but Mr Pinkerton informs us, that .23 _
not a Angle coin was ever ftruck of this metal by the ^or'ntlliai!l
ancients ; it having been conftantly employed only in
the fabrication of vafes or toys. It was in ufe at any
rate only for a very ftiort time 5 being altogether un¬
known in the days of Pliny the Elder. Our author
therefore ridicules thofe who pretend not only to find
out imperial coins of this metal, but to difeover three
kinds of it ; viz. one in which the gold predominates,
another in which the filver prevails, ana a third where-
the brafs is moft confpicuous. He gives /Eneas Vico,
one of the moft ancient writers on medals, as the au¬
thor of this idea ; but whofe opinions were confuted
by one Savot, a writer in the 17th century. Vico
mentions a coin of this kind ft ruck under Auguftus,
another of Livia, and a third of Claudius. The mif-
take, he is of opinion, arofe from the circumftance of
the. fir ft propagator not being able to account for the
various mixtures and modifications of brafs obfervable
in ancient eoins of the large fize ; and which in fo
common a metal appear very .. dd to the moderns.
Befides the authority of Pliny and other antiquaries of
more modern a date, who all declare that they never law
a • fingle medal of Corinthian brafs, or of that metal
mixed with filver and gold, our author adduces another
evidence which he looks upon to be fuperior to either •
viz. that thofe who have given into this fuppofiiion,
imagine, that the large pieces called fefertii, and others
called dupondiarii, worth about twopence or a penny,
are faid to have been compofed of this precious metal.
It is unreafonable to think, that any proportion of
gold
144 MED
Ancient gcild or filret coul(f liave been made ue of in thefe.
■ > °>C'' ■ The coins laid to have been (truck upon Corinthian
orals arc only done upon a modification of common
brafs •, of which we know, that in proportion to the
quantity of zinc made ufe of in conjunction with the
copper, the metal aiTumes a variety of hues. On the
authority of Pliny he informs us, that the coins mif-
taken for Corinthian brafs were no other than prince’s
24 metal.
Egyptian The Egyptian iilver coins (truck under the Roman
nlvtr coins, emperors are at firlt of tolerably pure filver •, but af-
terwards degenerate into a mixture of copper and tin
with a little filver. They are very thick, but many
of them arc elegantly (truck, with uncommon reverfcs.
There are like wife three fets of brafs coins belonging
to this country from the earliclt times of the Roman
emperors there. Some of thefe are of bell-metal or
pot-metal; and after the time of Gallienus and Vale¬
rian, the coinage of brafs rvith a fmall addition of fil¬
ver, becomes authorifed by the (late j the coins (truck
upon it, being called denarii cerei. Thofe of lead or
copper plated with (ilver have been fabricated by Ro¬
man forgers. Some coins of lead, however, have been
met with of undoubted antiquity : and an ancient wri¬
ter informs us, that tin money was coined by Diony-
(ius 5 but none has been found. The lead coins of
Tigranes king of Armenia, mentioned as genuine by
Jobert, are accounted forgeries by Mr Pinkerton and
other modern medallifts. Plautus, however, makes
mention of leaden coins, and feveral of them have been
found ; but our author looks upon them to have been
chiefly effay pieces, (truck in order to let the artift
judge of the progrefs of the. die. Others are the plated
kind already mentioned, fabricated by ancient forgers,
but having the plating worn off. A great number of
leaden coins are mentioned by Fricorini in a work en¬
titled Piambi Antichi, in which he fuppofes them to
have ferved as tickets for guefts } and coins of the
fame kind are alfo mentioned by Pafleri. <In the work
entitled Notitia Imperii Romani, there is mention of
coins made of leather, but none of them have ever been
found.
Sect. V. Of Ancient Money.
In confide ring the differerit fizes, values, &c. of the
Greek and Roman coins, our author treats of the me¬
dals as money ; a knowledge of which, he fays, is ef-
fentially neceffary to every reader of the daffies ; info-
much that it may almoft difpute the preference with
Knowledge the (tudies of ancient geography and chronology. Not-
of ancient withftanding all that has been written upon the fub-
mLf\Xim" je^> however, our author is of opinion, that the fcience
P ' is (till in its infancy, in as far as it relates to the real
money of the ancients. “ The ideal (fays he), which
is indeed the mod important province of difeuflton, has
bem pretty clearly afeertained 5 and we are almofl: as
well acquainted with the Attic mna or mina, and the
perplexing progrefs of the Roman fcjlertia, as with our
own 'pound*. But with the adtual coin of the ancients
the cafe is different ; and the ignorance even of the
learned in this point is wonderful.”
Our author now goes on, with great afperity of
language, to particularize the ignorant manner in which
modern authors have treated' the fubject of medals.
A L S.
“ Arbuthnot and Clarke (fays he), are, if poflible, more Ancient
ignorant of medals than Budaeus the very firft. The Money,
latter profeffes his love of medals, but quotes a con-
fular coin with the head of Cicero ; and looks upon
one of the 30 pieces of filvet, the reward of the treach¬
ery of Judas, and which was (aid to be preferved a-
mong fome relicks at Paris, to be worthy of reference
and commemoration. Arbuthnot, if we may judge
from his book, had never feen any ancient coins ; and
Clarke, it is well known, was quite ignorant of them.
The latter, with all his labour, Teems even to have
known nothing'of the theoretic part of the real ancient
money. Indeed Dr Mead’s catalogue feems to have
been almofl: the only booh on medals which had under¬
gone his perufal. On the other hand, the ignorance
of medallifts on this Tcore is no lefs profound. To
this day they look upon the didrachms of AEgina, fo
celebrated in antiquity, as tridrachms of TEgium ; and
upon the early obolus as a brafs coin. In the Roman
clafs the large brafs is efteemed the as, while it (hall
be proved that it is the fejlertius, and worth four afes.
The den arms is reckoned at ten afes even in the impe¬
rial times ; whereas it only went at that rate for the
firft 90 years after the coinage of filver at Rome.
The denarius aereus is taken for filver currency $ with
other miftakes, which evince that medallifts are as ig¬
norant of the theory, as the others are of the prac-
tice.”
In his account of the ancient Greek money, Mr Money fit#
Pinkerton obferves, that the light of fcience, like thatcoined in
of the fun, has proceeded from eaft to weft. “ It istheeaft>
moft probable (fays he), that the firft invention of
money arofe like the other arts and fciences 5 and
fpread from thence into the weftern parts of the world.
In its firft (hape it appeared as mere pieces of metal its firft
without any dated form or impreftion ; in lieu of rudft date,
which, it was regulated by weight. Even down to
the Saxon government in England, large fums were
regulated by weight j and in our own times every fingle
piece is weighed in gold j though with regard to filver
this nicety is not minded, nor indeed does it feem
practicable. Among the ancients, whofe commercial
tranfa&ions were lefs important and extenfive than
thofe of the moderns, filver was weighed as well as
gold ; nay even brafs, in fome cafes.
In Greece, large fums were determined by mna
mina ; and the moft capital fums by talents* In every ney.
country the mina is fuppofed to have contained 100
drachmae, or fmall (ilver coins, of that country, and
the talent 60 minae. The mina is fuppofed to be a
pound weight of the country to which it belonged.
The Attic pound, according to Dr Arbuthnot, con¬
tained 16 ounces, equal to our avoirdupois pound :
but Mr Pinkerton looks upon this as a very ahfurd
opinion, and accufes the do&or of having adopted it
merely that he may explain a paffage in Livy. He is
of opinion, that the Attic pound is very nearly the
fame with the pound Troy. The mina of Athens had
at firft 73 drachms j but by Solon it was fixed at 100.
The ancient drachm weighed the fame which it does
at prefent in medical weight, viz. the eighth part of
an ounce. The mina or pound of 12 ounces had con-
fequently 96 of thefe drachms •, but four of them were
given to the round fum to fupply defers in the alloy j
“ and indeed (fays our author), in confequence of a
common
Ancient
Money.
19
Df the an-
:ient ta-
’mtt.
MED
common practice in all ages and in all countries, of
giving fome addition to a large weight. Thus the
pound in weight had but 96 drachmae in fa£t, while
the pound in tale had ico ; as the Roman libra in
weight had but 84 denarii, in tale 108 j and as our
pound in tale, by an inverfe progrefs, is not a third of
our pound in common weight.
Notwithflanding the very fevere criticifm on Dr
Arbuthnot juft , mentioned, however, we find our au¬
thor adopting his account of the talents ufed in coin¬
age in feveral countries. Thus, according to the
dodftor,
The Syrian talent had
Ptolemaic
Antiochian
Euboean
Babylonian
Larger Attic
Tyrian
Egyptian
Aiginean
Rhodian
15 Attic minae
.20
60
60
70
80
80
80
100
100
Notwithftanding the conceflion made here by Mr
Pinkerton to the docftor, he tells us, that he very much
queftions this lift of talents, and that many ancient
writers are little to be relied upon. “ Writers on
this fubjeft confefs, that the numbers in all ancient
manufcripts are the parts moft fubjeft to error, as^ be¬
ing almoft always contrafted. They ought to allow
that the authors themfelves muft often be liable to
wrong information.
“ Herodotus mentions, that King Darius ordered
gold to be paid into his treafury by the Euboic ta¬
lent, and filver by the Babylonian.* The Euboic is
efteemed the fame with that called afterwards the At¬
tic ; and as we eftimate gold by carats, fo it is natu¬
ral to fuppofe, that the moft precious metal would be
regulated by the moft minute weight. But I con¬
fefs, I take the Babylonic talent to be the fame with
that of TEgina. Mr Raper has proved the firft coins
of Macedon to be upon the ftandard of /Egina. Now
the early Perfian coins are upon that very fcale, the
largeft tetradrachms weighing from 430 to 440 grains.
Hence it follows, that the Perfian filver coins were of
the /Eginean ftandard j and the payment was certainly
to be made according to the ftandard of the money.
The larger Attic talent was of 80 lefler minae \ becaufe
the larger Attic mina was of 16 ounces. The Alex¬
andrian talent, according to Feftus, confifted of 12,000
denarii, being the fame with that ufed by the Egyp¬
tian kings in their coins; and is ftiown by Mr Raper
to have been the fame with the talent of iEgina. Per¬
haps the whole of the ancient coins of Afia, Africa,
Greece, Magna Graecia, and Sicily, are reducible to
three talents or ftandards. 1. lhat of ^Egina, ufed in
moft of the more ancient filver coinages ; as would
feem in even the later of Egypt, Carthage, Cyrene,
&c. 2. 1 he Attic (being the Afiatic gold ftandard,
afterwards ufed by Phidon king of Argos in eftimat-
mg gold, and called Euboic from Euboea, one of the
quarters of the city of Argos), ufed in Athens and
the greater part of the world as the ftandard both of
gold and filver. 3. The Doric or Sicilian talent of
24 nummi, each worth an obolus and a half; whence
Vol. XIII. Part I.
30
A L S.
the talent is eftimated at fix Attic drachms or three
darics. Thefe weights continued to be the ftandard o
money after it began to be diftinguiftied by impreflion 7
nay, to the fall of Greece and prevalence of the Roman
empire.” ^
Coinage, according to Herodotus, w'as firft invent-Coinage
ed by the Lydians, from whom the Greeks quickly re_ originates
ceived it. The former could not have received it from
the Perfians, whofe empire did not begin till 570 B. C.
though our author fuppofes that it might have pro¬
ceeded from the Syrians, who carried on commerce in 31
very ancient times. The moft ancient Greek coins of^0^ anci"
filver have an indented mark upon one fide, and a tor-^
toife upon the other 5 and thofe of the greateft antiquity icribecL
have no letters upon them. Thofe of later date have
A in marked upon them, which medallifts interpret of
^Egium in Achaia j being led into that fuppofition by
the tortoife, which they look upon as the fure mark of
the Peloponnefus. But though our author agrees that
the tortoife was fo, he thinks that they are otherwife
very far wrong in their conclufions. iEgium in Achaia
was a place, of no confequence till the times of Aratus
and the Achaean league $ but there are n of thefe
. coins in Dr Hunter’s cabinet, which Ihow that they
muft have been ftruck in times of the moft remote
antiquity, and that the place where they were ftruck
was rich and flourifliing at the time. The coins we
fpeak of are not common j but thofe which have the
name AIFETflN at full length, and which may perhaps
belong to iEgium in Achaia, are extremely fcarce j
infomuch that in all Dr Hunter’s vaft colleftion there
are not above one or two. They are likewife con-
ftmoled upon a fcale quite different from all other
Grecian money; being of 8, 13, 15*-, 90, and about
186 grains. I he Grecian drachma at an average is
66 grains ; and Mr Pinkerton thinks it would have
been ftrange if. pieces had been ftruck of eight-tenths
of an obolus, of an obolus and a half, or of a drachma and
a half. /Egium being originally an obfeure village,
could not be the firft which coined money : fo that
Mr Pinkerton fuppofes the name AI FI to have flood
for Atgialus, the ancient name of Sicyon, a wealthy
and powerful city ; or rather iEgina, the mint of
which was much celebrated, and perhaps the moft ancient
in Greece.
Other arguments in favour of thefe coins being de¬
rived from Atgina, are drawn from their weight as well
as their workmanfhip, which are quite different from
thofe bearing the name of ^Egium at full length.
The coinage of ^Egina is known to have been different
from that of the reft of Greece ; infomuch that its
drachma was worth 10 Attic oboli, while the Attic
drachma was valued only at fix. Hence the drach¬
mas of iEgina were named by the Greeks irctxuxr, or
thick ; a name very applicable to the coins in queftion.
From thefe obfervations, our author is of opinion, that
we may even diftinguilh the precife weight of the an¬
cient coins of iEgina. According to the exadl pro¬
portion, the drachma of this place fhould weigh ex¬
actly no grains ; and one of them very much rubbed
weighed above 90. The others of larger fize, which
feem to be didrachms of ^Egina, weigh from 181 to
194 Kra^ns 5 but the latter being the only one he could
meet with in good prefervation, it was impoffible to
form any juft medium. Even in thofe beft preferved,
T he
146
MEDALS.
Ancient
Money.
32
The drach
lie thinks that 10 grains may be allowed for a wafte
of the metal in fo long a time as 2400 years, which
would bring the drachma of ./Egina near its proper
ftandard. The obolus of iEgina was in proportion
to its drachma of fix oboli. It is the piece of 151-
grains, and 13 when very much rubbed. The hemi-
obolon is that of eight, but when rubbed it falls Ihort
of this weight.
The general denomination of the Greek money is
ma the moft the drachma, or eighth part of an ounce j which to this
general de- day is retained in the medical weights, the Grecian
nomination. co;ns receiving their names from the weights they bore j
though in fome inftances the weights received their
appellations from the coins. The tilver drachma, ac¬
cording to Mr Pinkerton, was about ninepence fter-
iing and he finds fault with thofe who make the
drachma and denarius both equal to one another, the
latter being no more than eightpence. The didrachm
of filver, according to the fame calculation, was worth
l8d. ; but the tridrachm occurs very rarely : and Mr
Pinkerton is even of opinion, that medallifts give this
name to the didrachm of /Egina. The largeft of all
the Grecian coins is the tetradrachm, which on the
./Eginean flandard is worth five Ihillings } but in thofe
of the other flates only four. There are, however,
many fubdivilions in the filver drachma j the higheft
being the tetraobolion or coin of four oboli 5 being in
proportion to the drachma as our groat to a fixpence,
weighing about 44 grains, and being in value about
fixpence. The hemidrachm or triobolion comes next
in value, weighing about 33 grains, and worth four-
pence halfpenny. The filver diobolion, or third of
the drachma, weighs about 22 grains, and is worth
threepence. The obolus of filver weighs about 11
grains, and is worth only three halfpence. There is
likewife a hemiobolion in filver, or half the obolus,
of five grains and a half, value three farthings : and
another called tetraobolioa dichalcos or quarter obolus,
which is the moft minute coin yet met with ; and by
reafon of its extreme fmallnels, weighing only two
grains and a quarter, is now very fearce : but there
is- one in the cabinet of Dr Hunter, and fome more
have been lately brought from Athens by Mr Stuart.
Some of them are likewife met with at Tarentum.
It would appear, however, that there were fome ftill
fmaller, and of value only three-fourths of a farthing.
None of thefe have been met with ; and the fmallnefs
' of the fize renders it improbable that any will ever be
met with; as the peafants, who commonly difeover
coins, would probably either not obferve them at all,
or, if they did, would neglebt them as things of no
value.
Many different names have been impofed on the
coins belonging to the different ftates of Greece : thus
K*£», the maiden, wTas a name often applied to the te¬
tradrachm, and which would feem to apply to thofe
of Athens ; though there are coins of other cities with
the head of Proferpine, and the word to which
it would appear more applicable in our author’s opi¬
nion. XiAwss, the Jheli, was the name of another coin,
from its type. A Sicilian coin was named
from Gelon’s wife. A tetradrachm was named
K^a7rxTuyw<;, and had eight ivhtxg or hemidrachms.
The TgoKDjuiov, fo called from its country Troizene,
had Pallas on one fide and a trident on the reverfe.
33
Different
names of
Greek
The hemiobolion was the of Lacedaemon; and Ancku;
the is fuppofed to have been equal to the Money.
Roman feftertius or quarter drachma. The cyjlophori"*' 'i"m*
were coins with the myftic cheft or hamper of Bacchus
upon them, out of which a ferpent rifes 5 and are much
celebrated in antiquity. We are told by Livy, that
Marcus Acilius, in his triumph over Antiochus and
the yEtolians, carried off 248,000 of them 5 Cneius Man¬
lius Vulfo in that over Gallo-Graeeia had 250,000 •,
and Lucius Emilius Regillus, in his naval triumph over
the fleets of Antiochus, had 131,300. Cicero like-
vufe mentions his being poffeffcd of a vaft firm in them.
The moft probable opinion concerning them feems to
be-, that they are all filver tetradrachms j fuch as be¬
long to the cities of Apamea and Laodicea in Phry¬
gia ; Pergamus in Myfia 5 Sardis and Tralles in Ly¬
dia ; and Ephefus: but it is a miftake to aferibe any
to Crete. Mr Pinkerton thinks it abfurd to imagine
that Crete, a fmall ifland, fliould ftrike fuch vaft num¬
bers of coinsthough Cicero mentions his being in
poffeflion of an immenfe treafure in them at the time
he was governor of Afia Minor. “ It is moft likely
(fays Mr Pinkerton), that his wealth (hould be in the
coin of the country to which he belonged. But what
had thefe triumphs of Cicero’s government to do with
Cretan money ? But indeed the coins themfelves, as
above noticed, eftabliftr the facl.” t ^
Another fet of coins famous in antiquity were thofe Coins of
of Cyzicus in Myfia, which were of gold 5 but they Cyzicus.
arc now almoft entirely vaniftied by being recoined in
other forms. T he Agituoixoi ntpirpat, or money of Ary-
andes, who was made governor of Egypt by Cam-
byfes, is made mention of by Hefychius; but none of
them, as far as is known, have reached our times.
They muft have been marked with Perfian char afters,
if with any. The coin of Queen Philijiis is mentioned
by the fame writer, and many of thefe pieces are ftill
extant; but we know not where this queen reigned,
nor does there feem to be any method of finding it
out. Mr Pinkerton inclines to believe, that Ihe pre-
fided over Sicily; and as a confirmation of that fup-
pofition, mentions’ fome inferiptions of BASIAIDSAS
<MAISTIAO£ on the Gradim of the theatre at Syracufe j
but which appear not older than the Roman times.
Some authors are of opinion, that fhe reigned in Cof-
fara or Malta 5 which our author thinks much more
improbable.
The moft particular attention with regard to the Athenian
names and ftandard of coins is due to thofe of Athens 5 c°ins-
and it is remarkable, that moft of them which have
reached us are of a very late period, with the names of
magiftrates inferibed upon them. Some of thefe bear
the name of Mithridates ; and few are older than the
era of that prince; who, it is well known, took the
city of Athens in his war with the Romans. I fufpeft:
(fays Mr Pinkerton), that no Athenian coins of filver
are pofterior to Sylla’s infamous deftruftion of that city j
an event the more remarkable, as Salluft tells us, that
Sylla was learned in Greek. Indeed Caligula, Nero,
and moft of the pefts of fociety, have been learned men,
in fpite of a noted axiom of Ovid,
Sed ingenuas didiciffe feliciter artes
Emollit mores, nee fnit effe feros.
It is ftill mere remarkable, that the fabric of Athe¬
nian
/
MEDALS.
Ancient man coins is almoft univerfally very rude ; a fingular
Money, circumftance, if tve reflecl how much the arts flourifh-
ed there. It can only be accounted for from the ex
cellence of their artifts being fuch as to occafion all
the good ones to be called into other countries, and
none but the bad left at home. In like manner, the
coins ftruck at Rome in the imperial times are excel¬
lent, as being done by the beft Greek artifts j while
thofe of Greece, though famous at that time for pro¬
ducing miraculous artifls*, are during that period com¬
monly of very mean execution. The opulence of A-
thens in her days of glory was very great *, owing in
an eminent degree to her rich commerce with the king¬
doms on the Euxine fea, carried on chiefly from Delos,
which belonged to Athens, and was the grand centre
of that trade.” Hence it has become matter of fur-
prife to Neumann, that when there are fo many coins
of Mycene, an iiland even proverbially poor, there
fhould ft'e none of Delos. But Mr Pinkerton accounts
for this from Mycene’s being a free ftate, and Delos
fubjecl to Athens. “ It may be well fuppofed (fays
lie), that Athens had a mint at Delos •, and fuch A-
theaian coins as have fymbols of Apollo, Diana, or La-
tona, were llruck in this illand.”
Greek cop- coPPer money of the Greeks is next in anti-
jxr money, quity to the filver. Mr Pinkerton is of opinion, that
it was not ufed at Athens till the 26th year of the Pe-
loponnefian war ; about 404 years before Chrift, and
300 after filver was firfl: coined there. The firfl: cop¬
per coins were thofe of Gelo of Syracufe, about 490
B. C.
Of the dial- The chalcos of brafs, of which eight went to the
cos, filver obolus, fee ms to have been the firfl: kind of
Greek coin. At firfl: it was looked upon as of fo little
confcquence, that it became proverbial; and to fay
that a thing was not worth a chalcos, was equivalent to
faying that it was worth nothing. As the Greeks be¬
came poor, however, even this diminutive coin was fub*
divided into two, four, nay eight or fmall coins ;
but our author cenfures very feverely thofe who have
given an account of thofe divifions. “ Pollux, and Sui-
das copying from him (fays he), tell us, that there were
leven lepta to one chalcos *, a number the moft unlikely
that can be, from its indivifibility and incapacity of pro-
* portion.
“ Pollux lived in the time of Commodus, fo was too
late to be of the fmalleft authority : Suidas is four or
five centuries later, and out of the queftion. Pliny tells
us, that there were ten cha|ci to the obolus \ Diodo¬
rus and Cleopatra that there were fix ; Ifidorus fays
there were four : and if fuch writers differ about the
larger denomination, we may well imagine that the
fmaller equally varied in different ftates ; an idea fup-
ported by thefe undeniable witneffes, the coins which
remain. Moil of the Greek copper coin which has
reached our times confifts of chalci ; the lepta being
fo final! as to be much more liable to be loft.” In Dr
Hunter’s cabinet, however, there are feveral of the di-
lepta of Athens: and from being ftamped with the
reprefentation of two owls, .feem to be the fame with
the filver diobolus : “ a circumftance (fays Mr Pinker¬
ton), of itfelf fufficiefft to Confute Pollux ; for a dilep¬
ton can form no part of feven 5 a number indeed which
never appeared in any coinage of the fame metals, and
is contradictory to common fenfe. It may be obferv-
*47
ed, that the whole brafs coins of Athens publifhed Ancient
by Dr Combe are reducible to four fizes, which may , wr'ncy- ,
be the lepton, dilepton, tetralepton or hemichalcos, and ^
chalcos. The firft is not above the fize of one of King Lepton,
James I.’s farthing tokens*, the laft about that of our dilepton,
common farthing.” The lepta was alfo called &cc*
as being change for the poor. The >u<}x/3»s, perhaps
fo called from the figure of a wolf upon it, was the coin
of a particular Hate, and if of brafs muft have weighed
three chalci. The other names of the copper coins of
Greece are but little known. Lycurgus ordered iron
money to be coined at Sparta •, but fo peri Arable is this
metal, that none of that kind of money has reached our
times.
After the conqueft of Greece by the Romans, moft:
of the coins of that country diminiftred very much in
their value, the gold coinage being totally difeonti-
nued : though fome of the barbarous kings who ufed
the Greek charafler were permitted to coin gold,
but they ufed the Roman model j and the llandard
ufed by tire few cities in Afia who fpoke the Greek
language in the times of the emperors is entirely un¬
known. Copper feems to have been the only metal
coined at that time by the Greeks themfelves 5 and
that upon the Roman ftandard, then univerfal through
the empire, that there might be no impediment to the
circulation of currency. They retained, however, fome
of their own terms, ufing them along wfith thofe of
the Romans. The aJJ'arion or ajfarium of Rome, the
name of the diminilhed as, being 16 to the drachma
or denarius, the obolus was fo much diminifhed in va¬
lue as to be ftruck in brafs not much larger than the
old chalocs, and valued at between two and three af-
faria j which was indeed its ancient rate as to the
drachma. This appears from the copper coins of f
Chios, which have their names marked upon therm
The brafs obolus, at firft equal in fize to the Roman
feftertius or large brafs, leffens by degrees to about the
fize of a filver drachma. From the badnefs of the
imperial coinage in Greece alfo, it appears that brafs
was very fcarce in that country, as well as in all the
cities ufing the Greek characters ; being found moftly
in the weftern countries of the Roman empire. The Era of the
time of this declenfion in fize of the Greek coins is declenfion
by Mr Pinkerton fuppofed to have been from Au- ^ ^
guftus down to Gallieiius. He is of opinion, however, " 1
that the copper obolus, at firft above the fize of large 13
brafs, was ufed in Greece about the time of its firft fub-
jeCtion to Rome *, and that the lepta ceafing, the chalci
came in their room, with the dichaleus and the hemio-
bolion of brafs. 40
With refpeft to the gold coins of the G reeks, Mr Gold caioi
Pinkerton is of opinion that none of that metal was Greecc'
coined before the time of Philip of Macedon, as none
have reached our times prior to the reign of that mo¬
narch. From a paffage in Thucydides our author con¬
cludes, that in the beginning of the Peloponnefian wrar
the Athenians had no gold coin. Mentioning the
treafure in the Acropolis or citadel of Athens, at the
commencement of that wrar, the hiftorian mentions
filver coin, and gold and filver in bullion ; and had
any of the gold Seert in coin, he would certainly have
mentioned it. Philip began his reign about 68 years
after the beginning of the Peloponnefian war *, and
we can - fcarce fuppofe that any city would have pre-
T 2 ceded
148
MED
the elegant and wealthy Athens in the coining of
Notwithftanding, however, this deficiency of gold
Gold coin, coin among the Greeks, it is certain that the coinage
ed early in oi gold had taken place in Sicily long before j as we
have gold coins of Gelo about 491 B. C. of Hiero I.
478, and of Dionyfius I. in 404, all ufing the Greek
charafters ; though not to be ranked among the gold
coins of Greece, as Philip caufed his to be. Gold
coins of Syracufe even appear of the third clafs of an-
tiquity, or with an indented fquare, and a fmall figure
in one of its fegments. Gold coins are ufed in the
cities of Brettium, Tarentum, and throughout Magna
Graecia ; alfo in Panticapaea in Thrace, and likewife
Cofa in that country 5 but not in Tufcany, as is com¬
monly believed, though Neumann proves that they were
ftruck by Brutus, and are unqueftionably as ancient as
the Greek coins. Ihe 1 hebans and Athenians pro¬
bably coined the firft gold after Philip had fet them
the example, and when they were attempting to refill;
the projects of that enterpriling monarch. The ALto-
lians probably coined their gold during the time of
their greateft power, about a century after Philip, and
when they were combating the power of Aratus and
the Achaean league. “ There is (fays Mr Pinkerton)
but one of Thebes, much worn, in Dr Hun¬
ter s cabinet, and weighing but 59 grains ; and per¬
haps not above two or three or gold didrachms
of Athens in the world j one of which is alfo in the
colleaion of Dr Hunter, and weighs 132^ grains.
It appears to be more modern than the reign of Phi¬
lip. That monarch having got poffeflion of the mines
of Philippi in Thrace, improved them fo much, that
they produced him annually above a thoufand talents
of gold, or 2,88o,oool. of our money. From this
gold the firft coins named from the monarch, Philippi
were ftruck. They were marked with his portrait •
and for many ages after wrere fo numerous, that they
were common in the Roman empire j whence the
name Philippi became at length common to gold, fil-
yer, and at laft even brafs coins of their fize. Even
in the time of Philip gold was very fcarce in Greece •
but after the Phocians had plundered the temple of
Delphos, this precious metal which had been valu¬
ed as gems, and confecrated only to the decoration
of the temples of the gods, began to be known among
the Greeks. The comparative value of gold and fil-
ver, however, feem to have been at that time very dif¬
ferent from what they are now. Herodotus values
gold at 13 times its weight in filver; Plato in his
Hipparchus at 12 ; and even the low value of 10 to 1
feems to have been the ftated value in Greece, though
m Rome the plenty of filver from the Spanifh mines
made the value of gold to he much higher j and there
is no reafon to think that it was ever valued in that
city at lefs than j 2 times its weight in filver. The
Philippus x^vros, gold piece, ox Jlater, is a didrachm,
and is the molt common of all the ancient coins. Mr
Pinkerton B of opinion that it went for 20 filver
drachms on its firft appearance ; but in latter limes
for 25 Greek drachmae or Roman denarii. There are
proofs of the Philippi being didrachms, both from the
writings of ancient authors and from numbers of the
{joins themfelves, which remain to this day *, and that
ihe or principal gold coin of Greece, was of
A L S.
the fame weight, is alfo evident from ancient writings. Ancietv
it was anciently worth about 15s. but valuing gold Money,
now at the medium price of 4I. per ounce, it is worth «
about 20s. The or half the former coin,
icarcely occurs of the coinage of Philip and Alexander
though it does of Hiero 1. of Syracufe and of Kin^
Pyrrhus. It palled for ten filver drachmas, and was
valued only at 7s. 6d. though now worth 10s. There
was another divifion of this kind worth about cs.
1 here were befides fome lefler divifions of gold coins
which could not be worth above two drachmas. Thefe
were coined in Gyrene j and there were befides feveral
old gold coins of Afia Minor, the value of which is
now unknown. Our author fuppofes that they were
coined not with relation to their weight as parts of the
drachma, but merely to make them correfpond with fo
many filver pieces as was neceffary. There are alfo
larger coins than the xgve-os, the of Alexan¬
der and Lyfimachus being double us value. Some
others are met with of Lyfimachus, Antiochus III.
and fome of the Egyptian monarchs, weighing four
times the and now worth about 4L fterling.
Some weigh even more j but this our author fuppofes
owing to a difference in the purity of the gold.
c inn^°me\af Weli as ^reece> money was atRom4“
firft eftimated by weight 5 and the firft metal coined money
by that people was.copper,, filver being long unknown
in Rome j nor is it certainly known that anv filver
has ever been found in the Italian mines. In Rome
the firft valuation of money was by the libra gravis
certs, or pound of heavy brafs : and in the progrefs of
their conquefts, the little filver and gold that came in
their way was regulated by the fame ftandard, as ap¬
pears Trom the ftory of. Brennus. The weights made 0f the Ro
u e ° were the fame w’ith thofe which continue to this man pounfi
day. ihe pound confifted of 12 ounces of 458 grains
eac i j but the pound by which the money w as weigh¬
ed appears to have confifted only of 420 grains to the
ounce, or to have contained in all 5040 grains. This
became the ftandard of copper j and when filver came
to be coined, feven denarii went to the ounce as eight
drachms did in Greece. Gold was regulated by the
fcriptulum ox fcrupulum, the third part of a denarius,
and by the larger weights juft mentioned. The num-
er. 10 was at firft ufed by the Romans in counting
their money ; but finding. afterwards that a fmaller
number was more convenient, they divided it into
quarters ; and as the quarter of 10 is 24, they for this
reaion bellowed upon it the name oifejlertius or “ half Sefteriifc
the third ; to exprefs that it was two of any weights as> &c*
meafures, &c. and half a third ; whence the feftertius
came at laft to be the grand eftimate of Roman mo¬
ney. Ihe or being at firft the largeft, and indeed the
only Roman coin, the woxdfejlertius meansfeller tins as,
or “ two afes and a half.” On the firft coining of
filver, the denarius of ten afes was ftruck in the moft
common and convenient denary divifion of money, or
that by tens ; the feftertius being of courfe two afes
and a half. But the denarius being afterwards efti¬
mated at 16 afes, the name feftertius was ftill applied
to a quarter of the denarius, though it now contained
lour ales. Ihe texmfejlertius was applied to all fums
not exceeding 1000 feftertii, or 81. 6s. 8d. 5 but for
greater fums the mode of the feftertius was likewife
altered, though not to exclude the former. Very large
fums
MED
45
Whence
the Ro¬
mans deri
ved their
j Coinage.
Ancient fums of money were eftimated by the hundred weight
Money- 0f brafs • for the Romans tvere at firtt unacquainted
with the talent. The hundred weight, by way of
eminence, was diftingmihed by the name of pondus,
and feftertium pondus became a phrafe for two hundred
weight and a half. Mr Pinkerton is of opinion, that
we may value the as hbrahs of ancient Rome at about
eightpence Englifh. Etlimating the as therefore at a
pound weight, the fejlcrtium pondus was equal to 1000
JeJlerth, or 81. 6s. 8d.; and by coincidence which our
author fuppofes to have been the effedl of defign, as foon
as the filver coinage appeared, the fejlertium centum
denariorum was always equal to 81. 6s. 8d. alfo. The
word fejlertium itfelf, however, feems to have been un¬
known prior to the coinage of iilver money at Rome :
the pondera gravis ceris being fufficient before that time
for all the purpofes of a Rate in which money was fo
fcarce. But however this may be, the pondus or hun¬
dred weight of brafs was precifely -worth loo denarii,
or a pound of lilver. As the great feftertium was al¬
ways valued at iooo of the fmaller, or 81. 6s. 8d. we
never find one feftertium mentioned in authors, but two,
three, or more j ten thoufand of them being equal to
83»333]- 6s- 8d.
i he Hates from which the Romans may be fuppo-
fed firlf to have derived their coinage, were the Etruf-
cans and the Greek colonies in Magna Graecia and
Sicily. Jofeph Scaliger, Gronovius, &c. contend that
it was from the Sicilians that the Romans firft derived
their knowledge of money •, but Mr Pinkerton argues
that it wras from the Etrufcans. In confirmation of
his opinion, he appeals to the Rate of the Roman ter¬
ritories in the time of Servius Tullius, who is look¬
ed upon to have been the firfl who coined money at
Rome. At that time the whole Roman dominion
did not extend beyond ten miles round the city ; and
was entirely furrjunded by the Etrufcan and Latin
Rates; Cumae being the next Greek colony to it that
was of any confequence, and which was in the neigh¬
bourhood of Naples, at about the diRance of ijo
miles. Our author alks, Is it reafonable to think
that the Romans received the ufe of money from the
Etrufcans and Latins who were their neighbours, or
from the Greeks, who were at a diRance, and at that
time, as far as appears from their hiflory, abfolutely
unknown to them ? “If this argument (adds he), is
firong with regard to the nearefl Grecian colonies,
what mufl it be with refpeft to Sicily, an ifland 300
miles diflant from Rome, where it was not known, at
that time, if a boat went by land or water ?” Argu¬
ments, however, for this opinion have been derived
from the Similarity betwixt the Sicilian and Roman
coins *, which Mr Pinkerton now proceeds to examine.
The Greek pound in Sicily was called and con¬
fided, like the Roman, of 1 2 ovyxtcu, or ounces 5 and
Mr Pinkerton grants that the Roman libra was deriv¬
ed from the Greek Airg#, but denies that the as, or
libra, a coin, was from Sicilian model. The Sicilians
had indeed a coin named ; but it was of filver, and
of equal value to the A^ginean flandard, ten of which
went to the Sicilian He differs from Gro¬
novius, that the Randard of ALgina was ufed at Co¬
rinth, and of courfe at Syracufe ; and it appears from
Ariflotle, that the Sicilians had a talent or flandard of
their otvn. ihe Sicilian obolus or contained al-
A L S.
fo I 2 ounces or cha/ci, fo named at firff becaufe they
weighed an ounce weight; but the 6vyxnzt of Hiero
weigh more than a troy ounce 5 and tlie brafs coins
of Agrigentum are marked with cyphers as far as fix :
the largefl weighing only 186 grains, or about one-
third of the primitive ounce. Our author denies that
even the Roman denarius took its rile from the Sici¬
lian Jsx*A<rg«y, as many authors affert. Were this the-
cafe, it would have weighed 180 grains j whereas the
Roman denarii are not above the third part of the
quantity. _ .? 46
From all thefe confiderations, our author is of opi- origin of
nion that the Sicilians borrow'ed the divifion of their the Sicilian
Airgas from the Etrufcans, or poflibly from the Romans c0*ns-
themfelves ; which our author thinks is more probable
than that the Romans had it from Sicily. The flrong-
efl argument, however, againfl the Roman coinage be¬
ing borrowed from the Sicilian is, that though great
numbers of Sicilian coins are to be found in the cabi¬
nets of medallifts, yet none of them refemble the as li~
bra/is of the Romans in any degree. In molt cabi¬
nets alfo there are Etrufcan coins upon the exa6l fcale
of the as libralis, and feveral of its divifions \ from
whence Mr Pinkerton concludes, that “ thefe, and
thefe alone, muR have afforded a pattern to the pri¬
mitive Roman coinage.” The Etrufcans were a colony
from Lydia, to which country Herodotus aferibes the
firfl invention of coinage. “ Thofe colonifls (fays Mr
Pinkerton), upon looking round their fettlements, and
finding that no filver was to be had, and much lefs gold,”
fupplied the mercantile medium with copper ; to which
the cafe of Sweden is very fimilar, which, as late as
the lafl century, had copper coins of Rich magnitude,
that wheelbarrows w’ere ufed to carry off a fum not very
confiderable.
Some coins are found which exceed the as libralis in Of the moft
weight; and thefe are fuppofed to be prior to the time ancient Ro¬
of Servius Tullius. Some of them are met with of 3q man coins,
and of 53 Roman ounces; having upon one fide the fi¬
gure of a bull rudely impreffed, and upon the other the
bones of a fifli. They are moff commonly found at
Tudder, or Tudertum, in Umbria j but they appear
always broken at one end : fo that Mr Pinkerton is
of opinion, that perhaps fome might be Rruck of the
decufiis form, or weighing ten pounds. Thefe pieces,
in our author’s opinion, make it evident, that the Ro¬
mans derived their large brafs coins from the Etrufcans
and the neighbouring Rates : they are all caR in moulds $
and the greater part of them appear much more ancient
than the Roman afes, even fuch as are of the greateft
antiquity.-
Mr Pinkerton agrees with Sir Ifaac Newton as to the
time that Servius Tullius reigned in Rome, which he
fuppofes to be about 460 B. C. His coinage feems ta
have been confined to the as, or piece of brafs having
the imprefiion of Janus on the one fide, and the prow
of a fliip on the other •, becaufe Janus arrived in Italy
by fea. Varro, however, informs us, that the very firR
coins of Tullius had the figure of a bull or other cattle
upon them, like the Etrufcan coins, of which they
were imitations. Thofe with the figure of Janus and
the prow of a fliip upon them may be fuppofed firR
to have appeared about 400 B. C. but in a fliort 4g
time, various fubdivifions of the as were coined. The Subdivifi-
f mis, or half, is commonly Ramped with the head of0115 of the
Jupitera5'
49
Larger de
nomina¬
tions of it
ft ruck.
5° „
Decreafc of
150
Ancient Jupiter laurealed •, the iriens or third, having four cy-
4 Ml)nPv~ < phers, as being originally of four ounces -weight, has
^ the Iread of Minerva j the quadrans or quarter, marked
with three cyphers, has the head of Hercules wrapt
in the lion’s Ikin } the [extant or fixth, having only-
two cyphers, is marked with the head of Mercury
with a cap and wings ; while the uncia having only
one cypher, is marked with the head of Rome. All
thefe coins appear to have been call in moulds, by a
confiderable number at a time $ and in the Britilh mu-
feum there are four of them all united together as
taken out of the mould in which perhaps dozens were
call together. In procefs of time, however, the fmaller
divifious were llruek inftead of being call •, but the
larger ftill continued to be call until the as fell to two
ounces. Even after this time it was ftill called li¬
bra, and accounted a pound of copper *, though there
were now larger denominations of it coined, fuch
as the bi[[as or double as •, treffis and quadrujjis of three
and four afes •, nay, as far as decuffis or ten afes, mar¬
ked X. Olivieri mentions one in his owrn cabinet
weighing upwards of 25 ounces, and caft wThen the as
was about three ounces weight. There is like-wife in
tke Mufaeum Etrufcum a decuflxs of 40 Roman ounces,
call when the as was at four ounces. There was like-
wife a curious decuflis in the Jefuits library at Rome,
for which an Englifh medallift offered 20I. •, but it w-as
feized by the pdpe along with every other thing belong¬
ing to the fociety.
Mr Pinkerton conlefts the opinion of Pliny that
the as in the as continued of a pound weight till the end of
weight. the firft Punic war. His opinion (he fays), is con¬
futed by the coins which ftill remain 5 and it appears
probable to him that the as decreased gradually in
weight; and, from one or two of the pieces which
ftill exift, lie feems to think that the decreafe was
flaw, as from a pound to eleven ounces, then to ten,
nine, &c. *, but neither the as nor its .parts were ever
correctly fized. During the time of the fecond Punic
war, when the Romans wTere fore preffed by Hanni¬
bal, the as was reduced to a fingle ounce. It is faid
to have taken place in the 215th year before our era,
being about 36 years after the former change. This
as libralis, with the faces of Janus upon it, is the form
moft commonly met with previous to dts being redu¬
ced to two ounces. Our author fuppofes that the as
libralis continued for at leaft a century and a half
after this coinage of Tullius dorvn to 300 B. C. about the
year of Rome 4 $2,'between which and the 502d year
of Rome a gradual diminution of the as to two ounces
rnuft have taken place. The following table of the dates
of r.he Roman coinage is given-by Mr Pinkerton.
The libralis, coined by Tullius with the figures of
oxen, &c. about 167 years after the building of Rome,
according to Sir Ifaac Newton, or about the year be¬
fore Chriit 460
As libralis with Janus and the prow of a (hip 400
As of ten ounces - - 300
Eight - - - 290
Six - » 280
Four - - - - 270
Three - - - 260
Two, according to Pliny - - 250
One, according to the fame author - 214
About 175 B. C. alfo, we are informed by Pliny
* 2
medals.
that the as was reduced to half an ounce by the Papy- Ancient-
rian law, at which it continued till the time of Pliny Money,
himfelf, and long after. *
After the Romans began to have an intereourfe with
Greece, a variety of elegant figures appear upon the
parts of the as, though not on the as itfelf till after the
time of Sylla. Towards the latter end of the republic
alfo, dupondii, or double ales, were coined, together,
with fhe feftertii ferei, which came in place of the
quadruffes, when the denarius began to be reckoned at
16 affes •, probably at the time the latter rvas reduced to
half an ounce. In fome inftances it is to be obferved, Coins on
that the Romans accommodated their coins to the coun- the Greek
try Avhere their army was Rationed j Avhence avc have ^cale marL
many coins marked as Roman, which have been coined c<* as
in Magna Grsecia and Sicily, and are evidently upon
the Greek and not the Roman feale. In the latter part
of the republican times, alfo, the types begin to vary ;
fo that avc have a brafs coin fuppofed to be ftruck by
Sextus Pompeius in Sicily, having upon it a double
head of that warrior, reprefenting a Janus. Mr Pin¬
kerton fuppofes it to have been a dupondius ; which in¬
deed appears to be the cafe from the double head. This
coin is of copper, and ftill Aveighs an ounce, notAvith-
ftanding its antiquity. ^
The largeft imperial copper coin Avas the feftertius, Of the ft.
a piece worth about twopence of our money. Mr ftenius.
Pinkerton cenfures feverely the opinion of other me-
dallifts, all of Avhom lay that the feftertius Avas of fil~
ver. “ In fad! (fays he), it AA-ould be as rational in
any antiquary, a thoufand years hence, to contend
that the halfpenny and farthing are of filver, becaufe
they Avere fo in the reign of Henry VIII.” In con¬
firmation of his oAvn opinion, he quotes the folloAving
paffage from Pliny : “ The greateft glory of brafs is
noAV due to the Marian, called alfo that of Cordova.
This, after the Livian, moft abforbs the lapis calami-
naris, and imitates the goodnefs of native orichalcum
in our feftertii and dupondiarii, the afes being con¬
tented writh their OAvn copper.” Gronovius confeffes
that he does not know Avhat to make of this paffage,
and that it caufes him helitate in his opinion. The
Livian mine mentioned here by Pliny, is fuppofed to
have got its name from Livia the Avife of Auguftus ,
and it is probable that the pieces marked with her
portraits, entitled .Tustitia, Salus, Virtus, &c. Avere
dupondii from this very mine, the metal being ex¬
ceedingly fine, and of the kind named Corinthian brafs
by the ancient medallifts. “ Perhaps (fays Mr Pinker¬
ton), the mine received its name from this very cir-
cumftance of her coins being ftruck in the metal taken
from it.”
No change took place in the Roman coinage from Coinage
the time that the as fell tq half an ounce to the of ycilov*
days of Plinv : but Mr Pinkerton obferves, that be-ura^'
fore the time of Julius Csefar yelloAV brafs began to
be ufed, and avas ahvays looked upon to be double the
value of Cyprian or red copper. There are but feAV
coins in large brafs immediately before Julius Ccefar,
or even belonging to that emperor ; but from the time
of Auguftus dowmvard, the large coins are all found
of brafs, and not one of them copper. The largeft of
Avhat are. called the middle fize are all of yelloAV brafs ;
and the next fize, Avhich is the as, and Aveighs half an
ounce, is univerfally copper. What the ancients na¬
med
MED
Ancient med orichalcum, or what we call brafs, was always
Money- looked upon to be greatly fuperior in value to the ses
Y Cyprium. Procopius, fpeaking of a ftatue of Juftinian,
tells us, that brafs inferior in colour to gold is almolt
equal in value to filver. The mines of native brafs
were very few in number, and were owing entirely to
the Angular combination of copper and lapis calamina-
ris in the bowels of the earth, which very feldom oc¬
curs ; and the ancients were far from being well ac¬
quainted with the method of combining thefe two bo¬
dies artificially ; fo that yellow brafs was always efteem-
ed at double the value of copper ; and hence, in the
ancient coinages, the brafs and copper pieces were kept
as diilinct as thofe of gold and filver.
Mr Pinkerton challenges to himfelf the difeovery
that the imperial feftertius was of brafs; and is at con-
fiderable pains to bring proofs of it. Befides the tef-
timony of Pliny, which of itfelf would be decifive,
this is fupported by the itrongeft collateral evidence of
other authors. From a palfage in Julius Africanus,
who wrote the I«rg<«us, or Treatife on Medicine, it ap¬
pears that the nummus, or feftertius, weighed an
ounce, and of confequenee that it could not be filver
but brafs j and all the large imperial Roman coins
weigh an ounce. We know not the age in whicli Ju¬
lius Africanus lived; and as he makes the denarius to
contain 16 ales, he muft have been before the age of
Gallienus, when it had 60. Gronovius fuppofes him
to have been the fame mentioned by Eufebius. This
author fpeaks of a Julius Africanus wrho lived in the
time of Heliogabalus, and whom Mr Pinkerton fup¬
pofes to have been the fame with him above men-
^ tioned.
Diminution 1 he feilertius underwent no change till the time of
it the fe- Alexander Severus, when it was diminilhed by one-
tertius. third of its weight. Trajanus Becius was the firft
who coined double feftertii, or quinarii, of brafs; but
from the time of Trebonianus Gallus to that of Gal¬
lienus, when the firft brafs ceafes, the feftertius does
not weigh above the third part of an ounce ; the lar¬
ger coins are accounted double feftertii; and after the
time of Gallienus it totally vani'fhes. In the times
of Valerian and Gallienus we find a new kind of coin-
age, mentioned by the name of denarii ceris, or Philip¬
pi cerei. Two fizes of denarii began to be ufed in the
time of Caracalla } the larger of fix feftertii, or 24
aflaria ; the fmaller of four feftertii, or 16 aflaria as
ufual. In the time of Pupienus, the latter was re¬
duced to fuch a fmall fize as not to weigh more than
36 grains; though in Caracalla’s time it weighed $6.
After the time of Gordian III. the fmaller coin fell
into difufe, as breeding confufion. The larger dena¬
rius of fix feftertii, though diminiflied at laft to the
fize of the early denarius, ftill retained its value of fix
feftertii, or 24 aflaria. I he Philippics cereus came at
length in place of the feftertius. It was alfo called
denarius; from which we may learn not only their
fize, but that they were in value ten aflaria as the firft
denarius. In the reign of Bioclefian, the place of
the feftertius was fupplied by the follis, that emperor
iiaving reftored the lilver coin to its purity, and like-
wife given this form to the copper; but it would feem
that this reftoration of the coinage only took place to¬
wards the end of his reign •, whence we have but few
»f his filver coins, and ftill fewer of the folles, though
A L S.
the denarii cerei continue quite common down to the
time of Conftantine. The follis of Dioclefian feems*
to have weighed above half an ounce 5 and Mr Pin¬
kerton is of opinion, that Bioclefian defigned this
coin to fupply the place of the denarius aereus • which
of courfe was worth ten aflariae, and fix of them went
to the filver denarius. From this time the affarium
diminilhes to the fize of 30 grains; and foon after the
follis appeared, the denarius aereus was entirely drop¬
ped, the former having gradually fupplied its place.
Some mints appear to have retained the ufe of the de¬
narius longer than others ; and in fome the change
was preceded, arid gradually brought in, by waftiing
the follis with filver or tin, as the denarius had for-
Ancient
Money.
merly been. Pieces of this kind occur in the times
of Bioclefian, Maximian I. and II. and Conftantius I. j
that is, for about ten. years after the follis made its ap¬
pearance. Some countries, however, retained the de¬
narius aereus ; others the follis ; and fome had a me¬
dium betwixt the two, or the follis waftied in imita¬
tion of the denarius. ^
Towards the end of the reign of Conftantine I. a New coin-
new coinage was introduced throughout the whole a£e intr°-
empire. The follis coined by this prince was of half^e^y
an ounce weight; 24 of them going to the milliaren- tine L*"
fis, or larger filver coin. The word follis fignifies alfo
a purfe, in which fenfe we fometimes find it mention¬
ed in the Byzantine hiftory. The common follis of
filver, when it occurs by itfelf, means a purfe of 250
milliarenfes, as the feftertium was 250 denarii 5 and by
a law of Conftantine I. every man paid to the ftate a
follis or purfe according to his income. The method
of counting by purfes continues in Turkey to this day. ,6
. The dupondius was only half the value ef the feller-Of the du-
tius, or about one penny fterling 5 and before the pondms.
yellow brafs appeared it feems to have been ftruck up¬
on copper, and double the fize of the as. There are
fome of this coin, ftruck in the time of Julius Cgelar,
in yellow brafs, weighing half an ounce, with a head of
\ onus \ i£lrix upon one fide ; on the reverfe, a female
fignre, with lerpents at her feet : while others have a
Victory on the reverfe, with Q. Oppius Pr. After the
time of Auguftus, the dupondius was ftruck in yellow
brafs 5 which Pliny tells us was alfo the cafe in his time.
The word dupondiarius feems to have been ufed by
Pliny, and adopted, not to exprefs that the coin Was
dupondius, but that it wras of dupondiary value. Nei¬
ther was the former word confined to fignify double
weight, but was ufed alfo for double length or meafure,
as in the inftance of dupondius pes, or two feet &c!
In t he imperial times, therefore, dupondius was’ufed,
not to fignify a coin of double the weight of the as, but
of double the value. It was one of the moft common
of the Roman coins ; and feems to have been very com¬
mon even in Conftantinople. In the time of Juf-
tmian, it feems there was a cuftom of nicknaming
young Undents of the law dupondii, againft which the
emperor made a law ; but it is not known what gave
rife to the name. The dupondius, though of the
fame fize with the as, is commonly of finer workman- .
ftiip,^ the metal being greatly fuperior in value. It
continues to be of yellow brafs, as well as the fefter- '
tius, to the time of Gallienus ; but the as is always in
copper. _ 57
The imperial as, or affarium, was worth only a0jr the
halfpenny/™1'
M E D A L S.
5*
Parts of
the as.
SP
Of the
i'malleft
Roman
efioios.
60
Of the mif-
iUia.
tl
Coins of
the lower
^empire.
halfpenny. At firfl it weighed half an ounce, and
was always of copper till the time of Gallienus, when
it was made of brafs, and weighed only the eighth part
of an ounce. From the time of Gallienus to that of
Diocletian, it continued to diminilh Hill more, the fize
being then twenty to an ounce. 1 his was the fame
with the lepta, or fmalleft coins but the vwpiXy which
weighed only ten grains.
The parts of the as occur but feldom : which may,
indeed, be well expefted, confidering the low value of
it ; though there Hill occur fome of thofe called femis,
triens, quadrans, fextans, and uncia, coined in the
times of Nero and Domitian. There is no fmall brafs
from the time of Pertinax to that of Gallienus, except¬
ing that of Trajanus Decius ; but in the time of Galli¬
enus it becomes extremely common *, and the coins of
fmall brafs, as well as the larger, are always marked
S. C. fuch as want it being univerfally accounted for¬
geries j and were plated with filver, though the plating
be now worn off. The fmall pieces ftruck for flaves
during the time of the faturnalia, muff alfo be diftin-
guifhed from the parts of the as. The S. C. upon thefe
moil probably tignifies Saturni Confulto, and were ftruck
in ridicule of the true coins, as the (laves on that occa-
fion had every privilege of irony.
The feftertius diminilhes from Pertinax to Gallienus
fo faft, that no parts of the as are ftruck, itfelf being
fo fmall. Trajanus Decius, indeed, coined fome fmall
pieces, which Avent for the femis of the time. Fhe
fmall brafs coins under Gallienus were called affaria,
tixty of which went to the filver denarius. T hey are
about the fize of the denarius, and fome of them oc¬
cur of the coinage of Gallus and his family, of half
that fize, which appear to have been ftruck during the
latter part of his reign, when the affarium was dimi-
nilhed to a ftill fmaller fize. It is probable, however,
that fome of thefe very fmall coins had been ftruck in
all ages of the empire, in order to fcatter among the
people on folemn occafions. Mr Pinkerton is of opi¬
nion that they are the mijfilia, though moft other me-
dallifts think that they are medallions. “ But if fo
(fays our author), they were certainly called mijjilia d
non mittendo ; for it would be odd if fine medallions
were fcattered among the mob. It is a common cuftom
juft now to ftrike epunters to fcatter among the popu¬
lace on fuch occafions, while medals are given to peers
of the kingdom •, and we may very juftly reafon from
analogy on this occafion.”
The ajfarion or lepton of the Conftantinopolitan em¬
pire was, as we have already obferved, one of the fmall¬
eft coins known in antiquity, weighing no more than
20 grains *, and the noumia were the very fmalleft which
have reached our times, being only one half of the for¬
mer. By reafon of their extreme fmallnefs, they are
very fcarce *, but Mr Pinkerton informs us, that he has
in his poffeffion a fine one of Theodofius II. which has
on it the emperor’s head in profile. Theodofius P. F.
AV. *, on the reverfe a wreath, having in the centre
VOT. XX. : MULT. XXX.
The principal coin of the lower empire was the fol-
lis, which was divided into an half and quarter, named
iima-otpoXux; and T!T«gT«» *, the latter of which is (hown
by Du Cange to have been a fmall brafs coin, as the
other is fuppofed-to have been by Mr Pinkerton.—
Bcfides thefe, the follis was divided into eight oboli, 16
Ancient
oins.
affaria or lepta, and 32 noumia, though in common
computation it contained 40 of thefe laft. This coin,
notwithftanding fo many divifions, was of no more va¬
lue than a halfpenny.
Mr Pinkerton controverts an opinion, common among
medallifts, that the largeft brafs coin or follis of the
lower empire had 40 fmall coins, expreffed by the let¬
ter M upon it *, the next had 30, expreffed by the let¬
ter A ; the half by the letter K j and the quarter mark¬
ed I, which contained only 10. Mr Pinkerton inform*
us, that he has three coins of Anaftafius, all marked M
in large ) one of them weighs more than half an ounce j
the fecond 40 grains lefs *, and the third of 160 grains,
or one-third of an ounce j but the fize is fo very un¬
equal, that the laft, which is very thick, does not ap¬
pear above half the fize of the firft. There are pieces
of Juftinian which weigh a whole ounce 5 but the fize
of copper was increafed as the filver became fcarcer j
and the value of the coinage cannot be deduced from
the weight of the coins, as it is plain that our own coin¬
age is not of half the value with regard to the metal.
A great number of medallions were ftruck by Conftan-
tius II. but there is no other copper larger than the
half ounce, excepting that of Anaftafius, when the fol¬
lis began to be ftruck larger. All medallifts allow the
others to be medallions.
The metal employed in thefe very fmall coins,
though at firft of brafs, was always a bafe and refufe
kind ) but copper is generally made ufe of in the parts
of the as from the earlieft times to the lateft *, and if
brafs be fometimes employed, it is never fuch as ap¬
pears in the feftertii and dupondiarif, which is very
fine and beautiful, but only the refufe. “ Yellow brafs
of the right fort (fays Mr Pinkerton), feems totally
to have ceafed in the Roman coinage with the fefter-
ftius, under Gallienus, though a few fmall coins of
very bad metal appear under that hue as late as Ju¬
lian II.”
Silver was coined in Rome only as late as the 485th Roman
year of the city, or 266 B. C. Varro indeed (peaks filver.
of filver having been coined by Servius Tullius, and
the libella having been once in filver } but Pliny’s au¬
thority muft be accounted of more weight than that
of this author, as he miftakes the of Sicily for
Roman coins, having been current at Rome during
the time of the firft Punic war. Even Pliny, accord¬
ing to our author, very frequently miftakes with regard
to matters much antecedent to his own time *, and
among the moderns he criticifes feverely Erafmus and
Hume. “ Erafmus (fays he), who had been in Eng¬
land for fome time, talks of leaden money being ufed
here.” Not even a leaden token was ftruck in the
reign of HeUry VIII. ; yet his authority has been fol¬
lowed with due deference to fo great a name ; for
how could Erafmus, who muft have feen the matter
with his own eyes, affert a direft falfehood ? To give
a later inftance in a writer of reputation, Mr Hume,
in Vol. VI. of his hiftory, has thefe words, in treating
of the reign of James I. “ It appears that copper
halfpence and farthings began to be coined in this
reign. Tradefmen had commonly carried on their re¬
tail bufinefs by leaden tokens. The fmall filver penny
was foon loft ; and at this time was nowhere to be
found.” Copper halfpence and farthings were not
ftruck till Charles II. 1672 : there were fmall tokens
MED
Ancient for farthings IT ruck in copper by James I. but not one
Money. for the halfpenny. The filver farthings had ceafed
“ » with Edward VI. but the filver halfpence continued
the foie coins till Edward II. It was by copper tokens
that fmall bufinefs was carried on. The filver penny
was much ufed till the end of the reign of George I. ;
and fo far from being nowhere to be found, is fuper-
abundant of every reign fmce that period, not except¬
ing even the prefent reign of George III. From thefe
inftances the reader may judge how ftrangely writers
of all ages blunder, when treating a fubjedt of which
they are entirely ignorant.”
Denarii ’j'h6 firil filver denarii coined at Rome, are fuppofed
vhen firft by our author to have been thofe which are impreffed
153
Ancient
Money.
coined.
64
F alue of
pe dena-
us and its
jute.
with the Roma $ and he inclines to account thofe the
moft ancient that have a double female head on the
one fide, and on the reverfe Jupiter in a car, with
Viclory holding the reins, and the word Roma indent¬
ed in a rude and Angular manner. .The double female
head feems to denote Rome, in imitation of the Janus
then upon the as. There are 15 of thefe in the cabi¬
net of Dr Hunter ; one of the largeft weighs 98-J
grains : and the reft, which fcem to be of greateft an¬
tiquity, are of various weights betwixt that and 84 5
the fmaller and more modern weigh 58 or 59 grains j
but Mr Pinkerton is of opinion, that the large ones
are of the very firft Roman coinage, and ftruck during
that interval of time betwixt the coinage of the firft
filver denarius and the as of two ounces. He takes the
indentation of the word Roma to be a mark of great
antiquity ; fuch a mode being fcarcely known any
where elfe, except in Caulonia, Crotona, and other
towns of Italy 5 all of them allowed to be ftruck at
leaft 400 B. C. As thefe coins are not double denarii,
they muft have been ftruck prior to the fmall ones}
and Neumann has given an account of one of them re¬
coined by Trajan, in which the indentation of Roma is
carefully preferved. The firft denarius was in value
to afes, when the as weighed three ounces; and al¬
lowing 90 grains at a medium for one of thefe large
denarii, the proportion of copper to filver muft have
been as 1 to 160 : but when the as fell to one ounce,
the proportion was as 1 to 80 ; wdien it fell to half an
ounce, fo that 16 afes w7ent to the denarius, the pro¬
portion was as 1 to 64, at which it remained. Cop¬
per with us, in coinage, is to filver as one to 40 ; but
m actual value as 1 to 72.
At Rome the denarius -was worth 8d.; the quina-
rius 4d.; and the feftertius, w'hether filver or brafs, 2d.
The denarius is the coin from which our penny is de¬
rived, and was the chief filver coin in Rome for
600 years. According to Celfus, feven denarii went
to the Roman ounce, which in metals did not exceed
430 grains ; but as all the denarii hitherto met with
weigh at a medium only 60 grains, this would feem
to make the Roman ounce only 420 grains ; though
perhaps this deficiency may be accounted for from the
unavoidable wafte of metal even in the beft preferved
of thefe coins. According to this proportion the Ro¬
man pound contained 84 denarii ; but in tale there
was a very confiderable excefs ; for no fewer than 100
denarii went to the Roman pound. The Greek
ounce appears to have been confiderably larger than
that of Rome, containing about 528 grains; yet not-
withftanding this apparently great odds, the difference
in the coins was fo fmall, that the Greek money went
Vol. XIII. Part I.
A L S.
current in Rome, and the Roman in Greece. The
denarius at firft went for 10 afes, and was marked X : 
it was afterwards raifed to 16 ; which Mr Pinkerton ¥ ' ~
fuppofes to have been about 175 B. C. Some are
met with bearing the number XVI. nay, with every
number up to CCCCLXXVI. Jheie large numbers
are fuppofed to have been mint-marks of fome kind
or other. After being raifed to 16 afes, it continu¬
ed at the fame value till the time of Gallienus; fo
that till that time we are to look upon its conftituent
parts to be 16 afes or affaria, eight dupondii, four
brafs feftertii, and two filver quinarii. Under the
emperor Severus, however, or his fucceffor Caracalla,
denarii were ftruck of two fizes, one of them a third
heavier than the common ; which we muft of confe-
quence fuppofe to have borne a third more value. This
large piece obtained the name of ctrgenius, and argen-
teuS' Phi/ippus, or the “ filver Philip ;” the name of
Philip having become common to almoft every coin. The
common denarii now began to be termed minuti and
argenti Philippi tninutuli, &c. to exprefs their being
fmaller than the reft. Some have imagined that the
large denarii were of the fame value with the fmall,
only of worfe metal but Mr Pinkerton obferves, that
among the few which have any difference of metal,
the fmalleft are always the worft. The firft mention
of the minuti is in the time of Alexander Severus, who
reduced the price of pork from eight minuti at Rome
to two and to one. The minutus argenteus of that age
was about 40 grains ; and from the badnefs of the
metal was not worth above 4d. of our money. Thus
the price of meat was by this prince reduced firft to 8d.
and then to 4d.
. According to Zozirnus and other writers, the pu- ReiWicm
nty ef the Roman coin was reftored by Aurelian : of the pu-
but Mr Pinkerton controverts this opinion; thinking rity of the
it more probable, that he only made the attempt with- R°man
out fuccefs ; or that his reformation might be entirely C°inS'
confined to gold, on which there is an evident change
after the time of this emperor. His fucceffor Taci¬
tus is faid to have allowed no brafs to be mixed with
filver upon any account; yet the few coins of this
emperor are very much alloyed. We are certain,
however, that the emperor Dioclefian reftored the fil¬
ver to its ancient purity ; the denarii ftruck in his
reign being very fmall indeed, but of as fine filver as
the moft ancient coins of the empire. After Gor¬
dian III. the fmall denarius entirely vaniftied, while
the large one was fo much diminiftied, that it refem-
bled the tninutus, or fmall one of Caracalla, in fize.
Gallienus introduced the denarii arei inftead of thc/cf-
iertii. _ The argenteus, though reduced more than one-
third in fize, ^contained fix denarii serei, the old ftand-
ard of feftertii. . According to the writers of this pe¬
riod, and fome time afterwards, the denarius or argen¬
teus contained 60 affaria ; whence it follow's, that each
denarius aereus had 10 ; and from this it probably had
its name. The affaria are of the fize of the argentei
already mentioned ; and fhow the copper to have re¬
tained nearly its old proportion of value to the filver
viz. 1 to 60. ’
. A larger filver coin was introduced by Conftan-Reforma-
tine I. who accommodated the new money to thetion of ^
pound of gold in fuch a manner, that 1000 of the for- c?,in
mer in tale were equal to the latter in value ; fo that tinA*^8”
this new piece from thence obtained the name of the
U mlliarenjis
I54
Ancient
Money.
61
Account ol
the fmall
Jtoman
loins.
M E B
milliarenjis or “ thoufander.” Its tveight at a medi¬
um is 70 grains, or 70 to the pound of filver : but Mr
Pinkerton is of opinion, that it might have contained
72 grains, of which two have now periihed Ey the
foftnefs of the filver *, that the pound contained 7 2 j or
that two of the number might be allowed for coinage •,
while the alloy alone would pay for coining gold.
The code favs, that 60 went to the pound j but the
numbers of this are quite corrupt. The mil liar enjis was
worth about a drilling fterling. The argentei or de¬
narii, however, were llill the mod common currency ;
and having been originally rated at 100 to the
pound of filver in tale, they from thence began to be
called centenionales, or “ hundreders.” Thole of Con-
ftantine I. and II. Conftans, and Conftantius, weigh
from 50 grains down to 40 ; thofe of Julian and Jovian,
from 40 to 30 ; and of the fucceeding emperors from
that time to Juftinian, from 30 to 20. Under Hera-
clius they ceafed entirely 5 and from Juftinian to their
total abolition, had been brought down from 15 to
10 grains. A like decreafe of weight took place in
the milliarenfis 5 thofe of Conftantine and Conftans
being above 70 grains in weight ; thofe of Arcadius
not above 60 *, and the milliarenfis of Juftinian not
more than 30 grains } but, from the weight of thofe
in Dr Hunter’s cabinet, Mr Pinkerton deduces the
medium to have been exa£lly 70T%- grains. Thefe
coins were alfo called majorime.
The fmaller filver coins of Rome were, I. The qui-
narius, at firft called viciorialus, from the image of Vic¬
tory on its reverfe ; and which it continued to bear
from firft to laft. Its original value w7as five afes, but
it was afterwards raifed to eight, when the value of the
denarius increafed to 16. According to Pliny, it was
firft coined in confequence of the lex Clodia, about
the 525th year of Rome. Some are of opinion, that
it was called under the Conftantinopolitan
empire, becaufe it was worth a of gold, 144
of which went to the ounce : but this is denied by Mr
Pinkerton, becaufe, at the time that the word
firft appears in hiftory, the denarius did not weigh
above 30 grains ; and of confequence, as 25 muft have
gone to the gold folidus, of which there were fix in
the ounce, 130 denarii muft have gone to the ounce
of gold. He is therefore of opinion, that the word
Ki^xrtoi, was only another name for the denarius when
much reduced in fize ; probably owing to the great
fcarcity of filver in Conftantinople, though in the fame
city there was p’enty of gold •, and of confequence, the
gold folidus was never dimini fired. “ For Montef-
quieu (favs our author) has well obferved, that gold
muft be common where filver is rare. Hence gold
was the common regulation of accounts in the Eaftern
empire.” The met with in ancient authors,
according to Mr Pinkerton, was merely an improper
name for the milliarenjix ; when, on account of the
fcarcify of filver, the denarius was reduced, and no
milliarenfes coined : fo that the current milliarenfis of
former reigns happened to be double to the denarius
or centenionalis. The quinarius diminllhes in fize
along with the other coins : thofe of Auguftus weigh¬
ing 30 grains, of Severus 24, of Conftantine I.
20 of Juftinian 12, and of Heraclius only 5. A
new filver coinage feems to have taken place after ■ he
ilays of this emperor } as the little we then meet with,
A L S.
which in the belt cabinets fcarce exceeds a dozen of Ariclf**
coins, confifts entirely of large unftiapely pieces of ^oney.
coarfe metal. ^
2. The confular denarius had alfo four filver feftertii. n;„;rS ,
till L.he as tell to halt an ounce, when it was thought the dena-
proper fo coin the teftertius in brafs, as it continued h115-
to be ever .afterwards. “ The very laft filver fefter-
tius (fays Mr Pinkerton) which appears, is one with a
head of Mercury, and H. S. ; on the reverfe a caduceus
P. sf.pvllivs 5 who appears to be the P. sepvllivs
MACER of the denarii of Julius Ctefar. If fo, as is
moft probable, the feftertius was coined in filver down,
to Auguftus } and it is of coyrfe not to be expefted
that any of brafs can appear till Auguftus, under
Whom, they are actually quite common. I have in¬
deed feen no coin which could be a confular brafs fe¬
ftertius ; and though we have certainly brafs dupondii
of Caefar, yet it is reafonable to infer, that the brafs
feftertius wras firft coined by Auguftus. Not one filver
feftertius appears during the whole imperial period,
yet wre know that the feftertius was the moft common
of all filver coins. The confular feftertii of filver,
marked H. S. are not uncommon, nor the quinarii j
but the latter are very fcarce of all the emperors, if
we except one inftance, the ASIA RECEPTA of Au-
g11^- . . 69
“ The Roman gold coinage was ftill later than that Roman
of filver. Pliny tells us, that “ gold was coined 62gold,
years after filver ; and the fcruple went for 60 fefter-
ces. It was afterwards thought proper to coin 40*
pieces out of the pound of gold. And our princes
have by degrees diminiftied their weight to 45 in the
pound.” This account is confirmed by the pieces
which ftill remain ; for we have that very coin weigh¬
ing a fcruple, which went for 20 fefterces. On one
fide is the head of Mars, and on the other an eagle y
and it is marked xx. We have another coin of the
fame kind, but double, marked xxxx ; and its triple,
marked ipx or 60 ; the ^ being the old numeral
character for 50. Mr Pinkerton, the difeoverer of
this, treats other medailifts with great afperity. Sa-
vot and Hardouin are mentioned by name j the latter
(he fays) is “ ignorant of common fenfe 5” and nei¬
ther he nor Savot could explain it but by reading
backward \ put the f°r l-he Roman V, and thus mak¬
ing it xv. Other readings have been given by vari¬
ous medailifts, but none have hit upon the true one
excepting our author, though the coin itfelf led to it ;
being juft three times the weight of that marked xx.
We have likewfife half the largeft coin, which is mark¬
ed xxx, and which weighs 26 grains j the fmalleft is
only 174-> the xxxx weighs 34; and the LX or
drachma 53. There is alfo the didrachm of this coin¬
age, of 106 grains. y0
The aurei, or Roman gold coins, were at firft 48 in Account ol
the pound j but they were afterwards diminilhed intheaurei.
number to 40, owing to an augmentation in the weight
of each coin. In the time of Sylla, the aureus weigh¬
ed no lefs than from 164 to 168 grains, and there were
only 30 in the pound \ but fueh confufion in the
coinage was introduced by that conqueror, that no
perfon could know exactly what he was worth. Till
this time the aureus feems to have continued of the
value of 30 filver denarii, about one pound fterling j
for about that time it wras enlarged a whole third,
... MEDALS. ' S
Aivtient that it might Hill be equivalent to the full number of was equally fo in the weft •, and that rnoneyers
Money, denarii. Jiut after Sylla had taken Athens, and the muft have made a molt exorbitant profit; but m ** 1 '
arts and manners of Greece became objects of imita- on this fubjeft were partial and unjuft : and after m,
tion to the Romans, the aureus fell to 40 in the pound, fhort reign, which did not exceed five months after”1
probably when Sylla had abdicated his didlatorlhip. the alteration, the gold returned to its former courfe j
Thus, being reduced near to the feale of the Greek though a few pieces occur of Aurelian’s ftandard,
it palTed for 20 denarii, as the latter did for ftruck, as would feem, in the commencement of the
as many drachmas, being in currency 13s. 4d. fter- reign of Probus his fucceffor.
ling. This (fays Mr Pinkerton) is the more pro- From this time to that of Conftantine I. the aureus
bable, becaufe we know from Suetonius, that the weighed between 70 and 80 grains 5 but in his reign
/ great C re far brought from Gaul fo much gold, that it it was changed for the folidus, of which fix went to
fold for nine times its weight of filver : but the Gallic the ounce of gold, which went for 14 milliarenfes, and
gold was of a very bafe fort.'’ 25 denarii as before ; the value of filver being now to
In the time of Claudius, the aureus was valued at gold as 14 to 1. This new coin continued of the
iod feftertii, or 25 filver denarii, at which it conti- fame value to the final downfall of the Conftantinopo-
nued till the time of Heliogabalus, when it fell to about litan empire j gold being always very plentiful in that
92 grains at a medium, or rofe in number to 55 in the city, though filver became more and more fcarce. 1 ha
pound. In the reign of Philip, during which the city folidus was worth 12s. fterling. Here again our au-
completed its thoufandth year, the aureus was coined thor moft feverely criticifes Mr Clarke and Mr Raper :
of two or three fizes. Thefe are impreffed with a the former (he fays) with refpeft to the value of gold
head of Rome on one fide, and various figures on the in the time of Conftantine I. “ has left all his fenfes
other j but the workmanfhip is fo rude, that they are behind him. In page 267, he abfurdly alferts, that
fuppofed to have been ftruck in fome of the more un- 20 denarii went to the folidus in the time of Theo-
civijized provinces of the empire. The practice of dofius I. and proceeds with this deplorable error to
having different gold coins, however, continued under the end of his work. He then tells us, that only 14
Valerian, Gallienus, and his fucceffors. In the time denarii went to the folidus under Conftantine I.” &c.
of Gallienus, they Avere of 30, 65, and from 86 to 93 To Mr Raper, however, he is a little more merciful,
grains j the double aurei being from 172 to 183^ as he owns, that “ though he (Mr Raper) has ftrange-
grains *, but the aureus properly fo called Avas from ly confounded the milliarenfis Avith the denarius, he
86 to 93 •, thofe of 30 and 32 being the trientes aurei has yet kept common fenfe for his guide.” Mr Pin-
of the Hijlorue Augujlee Scriptores ; while the larger, kerton, indeed, argues Avith great probability, “ that
from 62 to 65, are to be accounted double trientes, had any change in the coinage taken place betAveen
and were perhaps called minuti aurei. The value of the time of Conftantine and Theodofius I. that is, in
71 thefe different fizes of aurei is not known.- lefs than 30 years, the laws of that period, Avhich are
Iteration That Aurelian made fome alteration in the coin is all in the Theodofian code, muft have noticed it.”
the gold certain 5^ but Mr Pinkerton fuppofes it to harve been To this and other arguments upon the fubject, Mr
r Aure-C on^ ^ie 8°bl j becaufe under him and his fucceffor Pinkerton adds the following obfervation upon the va¬
in. ^ robus, the common aureus Avas of 100 grains, a fize lue of gold and filver : a As a ftate advances to its
confined to thofe. emperors : there are likeAvife halves height, gold increafes in value; and as a ftate declines,
of about 50 grains j and double aurei, commonly of it decreafes, providing the metals are kept on a par as
very fine Avorkmanftiip, of upAvards of 200 grains, to purity. Hence we may argue, that gold decreafed
In the time of Gallienus, the precious metal Avas fo in its relation to filver perhaps four or five centuries,
common, that this emperor vied in magnificence with furnifhed moft European kingdoms with gold in coin,
Nero and Heliogabalus. Aurelian, Avho plundered the which otherwife would, from their want of arts and
rich city of Palniyra, and thus became mafter of the of intercourfe Avith the eaft, then the grand feminary
licaiures of the eaft, obtained fuc.h a profufion of gold, of that metal, have almoft been ignorant of what gold
that he looked upon it to be produced by nature in was. Thefe gold coins Avere called Bezants in Eu-
gieater. plenty than filver. It is remarkable that du- rope, becaufe fent from Byzantium or Conftantinople ; •
ring this emperor’s reign there Avas a rebellion among and were folidi of the old fcale, fix to the ounce. In
the money coiners, which could not be quelled but by Byzantine writers, the folidus is alfo called nomiftna,
the deftrucljon of feveral thoufands j v. hich Mr Pin- or “ the coin j” cryunos, becaule of gold ; hyperperos,
kerton afenbes to his having ordered the gold to from its being refined Avith fire, or from its being of
be reftored to its former fize, but to go for no more bright gold flaming like fire. The folidi alfo, as the
filver than it formerly did. “ So very little filver (fays aurei formerly, received names from the princes Avhofe
lie) occurs of this period, that it is plain no altera- portraits they bore j as Michelati, Manuelati. Solidus is
tion in the .filver produced the Avar Avith the mo- a term ufed alfo for the aureus by Apuleius, Avho lived
neyers ; and in the brafs he made no change ; or if in the time of Antoninus the Philofopher $ nay, as
he had, it Avere ftrange that fuch commotions fhculd early as the praetorian edicls of the time of Trajan,
arife about fo trifling a metal. But if, as appears from It Avas then a diftinGion from the femiflis or half. In
tiie coins, he ordered the aureus, Avhich had fallen to the time of Valerian, Avhen aurei of different fizes had
80 grains, to be raifed to about 100, it is no wonder been introduced, it became neceffary to diftinguifli the
that the contraGors Ihould be in an uproar ; for a particular aurei meant. Hence in the Imperial Re¬
whole quarter of their coinage, amounting as Avould feripts, publiflied by the Hijloria: Augujice Scriptores,
leern, to all their profits, Avas loft. Aurelian judged, Valerian ufes the term Philippeos nojiri vultus, for the
that when he found gold fo common in the eaft, it common aurei. Aurelian ufes the fame term aurei
U 2 Philippei,
*55
Ancient
Money*
l
i^6
. .72
Di vifion of
the aureus.
73
Account of
the Roman
method of
egining.
MED
Philippei) fuf tlie aurei 'which he had reftored to their
fizQ in fome degree. Gallienus ufes aurei Valeriani
for his father’s coins. Aurei Antomniani are likewife
put by Valerian for coins of the early Antonini, of
fuperior flandard to any then ufed.
In the firit gold coinage at Rome the aureus was
divided into four parts : the femiflis of 6o feftertii \
the tremiffis or third, of 40 j the fourth, the name of
which is not mentioned, of 30 5 and the fcrupulum of
20. But in a fliort time all of thefe fell into difufe,
except the femiffis or half, Avhich is extremely fcarce j
fo that it is probable that few have been ftruck. It
is an erroneous opinion (according to Mr Pinkerton),
that the femiffis was called a denarius aureus. The
aureus itfelf indeed had this name; but the name of
quinunus is applied to the femiffis with greater proprie¬
ty than the former. Trientes, or tremiffes of gold,
are found of Valerian and his fon Gallienus, and weigh
about 30 grains. Thofe of Salonina the wife of Gal¬
lienus weigh 33 grains. Under the Conftantinopo-
litan empire, tremifles again made their appearance ;
and from the time of Valentinian dowmvTards, the
thirds are the molt common coins of gold, being worth
about 4s. flerling. The femiffis is likewife mention¬
ed, but none occur earlier than the time of Bafilifcus.
The gold tremiffis was the pattern of the French and
Spaniffi gold coins; as the filver denarius, in its dimi-
niffied ftate, was of the Gothic and Saxon penny.
We (hall clofe this account of the Roman money
with fome remarks concerning the mint, and method
of coinage. This at firft feems to have been under
the direction of the quceftor. About the time that
filver was firft coined in Rome, viz. about 266 B. C.
the triumviri monetales were created. They were at firft
of fenatorial rank, but were by Auguftus chofen from
among the equeftrian ; and the title of triumviri was
continued till after the time of Caracalla ; but under
Aurelian there was probably but one matter of the
mint, called rationalis ; and Mr Pinkerton is of opi¬
nion that the change took place under Gallienus. He
feems alfo to have permitted the provincial cities to
coin gold and filver, as well as to have altered the form
of the mints in the capital, and to have ordered them
ail to ftrike money with Latin legends, and of the
fame forms; as in his time we firft meet with coins
with mint marks of cities and offices. The violent in-
furreftion which took place in his reign has already
been mentioned, as well as its probable caufe ; and Mr
Gibbon has drown, that the concealed enemies of Au¬
relian took fuch advantage of this infurreflion, that it
coft 7000 of his beft troops before it could be quelled.
About this time the procurator monetee feems to have
fucceeded the rationahs as direftor of the mint. In
the colonies, the direftion of the mint feems to have
been given to the decemviri, whofe names frequently
occur on colonial coins; “ which (fays Mr Pinkerton),
though generally of rude invention, and ruder execu¬
tion, are yet often interefting and important.”
Ihe engraving of the ancient dies ufed in coinage
was a work of much genius and labour ; and at Rome
Greek artifts were generally employed in it; but it
has been thought a matter of great furprife, that fcarce
any two ancient coins are to be found exadlly the
feme. Hence fome antiquaries have imagined that
silly a fingle coin was thrown off from each die. M.
3
A L S.
Beauvais informs us, that the only two Roman impe¬
rial coins of the firft times which he had feen perfect¬
ly alike were thofe of the emperor Galba. It is, howr- '
ever, the opinion of the beft judges, that a perfeft fi-
milarity betwixt two medals is a very great reafon for
fuppofing one of them to be forged. “ It muft alfo
be obferved (fays Mr Pinkerton), that the differences
in coins, apparently from the fame die, are often fo
minute as to efcape an eye not ufed to microfcopic ob-
fervations of this fort. But it would be furprifing if
any two ancient coins were now found ftruck with the
fame die ; for out of each million ifiued, not above one
has reached us. Hies foon give Avay by the violence of
the work, and the ancients had no puncheons nor ma¬
trices, but Avere forced to engrave many dies for the
fame coin. Even in our mint, upon fending for a Ihil-
ling’s Avorth of new halfpence, it will appear that three
or four dies have been ufed. Sometimes the obverfe
Anci’eat
Money.
of the die gives Avay, fometimes the reverfe ; but among
us it is renewed by puncheons, though w'ith variations
in the lettering or other minute ftrokes ; Avhile the an¬
cients Avere forced to recur to another die differently
engraven, ft'he engravers of the die Avere called colla¬
tor es; other officers employed in the mint Avere the
fpeBatorcs, expeBatorcs, or nummularii. ft'he melters
Avere ftyled. fufarii, jlatuarii, and Jlaturarii ; thofe Avho
adj lifted the Aveight Avere called oquatores monetarum ;
thofe Avho put the pieces into the die fuppojitores, and
thofe Avho ftruck them malleatores. At the head of
each office Avas an officer named primicerius, and the
foreman Avas named optio et exaBord'1
In order to affift the high relief on the coins, the
metal, after being melted and refined, Avas call into
bullets, as appears from the ancient coins not being
cut or filed on the edges, but often cracked, and al-
Avays rough and unequal. Thefe bullets Avere then
put into the die, and received the impreffion by re¬
peated ftrokes of the hammer, though fometimes a
machine appears to have been ufed for this purpofe :
for Boiterue informs us, that there wras a piflure of
the Roman mintage in a grotto near Baiae, where a
machine Avas reprefented holding up a large ftone as if
to let it fall fuddenly, and ftrike the coin at once.
None of the ancient money wras call in moulds, except¬
ing the moft ancient and very large Roman brafs,
commonly called weights, and other Italian pieces of
that fort ; all the reft being mere forgeries of ancient
and modern times. Some Roman moulds which have
been found are a proof of this ; and from thefe fome
medallirts have erroneoufly imagined that the an¬
cients firft call their money in moulds, and then damp¬
ed it, in order to make the impreffion more clear and
fharp.
ftffie ancients had fome knoAA'ledge of the method
of crenating the edges of their coins, which they did
by cutting out regular notches upon them ; and of
this kind avc find fome of the Syrian and ancient con-
fular coins, Avith a feAV others. The former were call
in this (hapo, and then ftruck; but the latter wrere cre-
nated by incifion, to prevent forgery, by ffiowing the
infide of the metal : however, the ancient forgers alfo
found out a method of imitating this ; for Mr Pin¬
kerton informs us, that he had a Roman confular coin,
of Avhich the incifions, like the reft, wrere plated Avith
lilver over the copper.
Sect..
M E
D
Sect. VI. Of the Frefervation of Medals*
74 ,
Brafs and
copper belt
prefervcd
by the ruft
that covers
them.
■f5
Different
kinds of
this ruft.
?5
Medals
how dimi-
nillicd in
value.
We now come to confider what it is that diftin-
guiihes one medal from another, and why fome are fo
highly prized more than others. This, in general,
bolides its genuinenefs, confifts in the high degree of
prefervation in which it is. This, by Mr Pinkerton,
is called the confervation of medals, and is by him re¬
garded as good and as perfeB. In this, he fays that
a true judge is fo nice, that he will rejeft even the
rareft coins if in the lead defaced either in the figures
or legend. Some, however, are obliged to content
themfelves with thofe which are a little rubbed, while
thofe of fuperior talle and abilities have in their ca¬
binets only fuch as are in the very date in which they
came from the mint; and fuch, he fays, are the ca¬
binets of Sir Robert Audin, and Mr Walpole, of
Roman filver, at Strawberryhill. It is abfolutely ne-
ceffary, however, that a coin be in what is called good
prefervation 5 which in the Greek or Roman emperors,
and the colonial coins, is fuppofed to be when the le¬
gends can be read with fome didiculty; but when the
confervation is perfeid, and the coin jud as it came from
the mint, even the mod common coins are valuable.
The fine rud, like varnilh, which covers the fur-
face of brafs and copper coins, is found to be the bed
preferver of them ; and is brought on by lying in a cer¬
tain kind of foil. Gold cannot be contaminated but by
iron mold, which happens when the coin lies in a foil
impregnated with iron } but filver is fufceptible of va¬
rious kinds of rud, principally green and red 5 both of
which yield to vinegar. In gold and filver Coins the
rud mud be removed, as being prejudicial 5 but in
brafs and copper it is prefervative and ornamental; a
circumdance taken notice of by the ancients. “ This
fine rud (fays Mr Pinkerton), which is indeed a natu¬
ral varnidi not imitable by the art of man, is fometimes
a delicate blue, like that of a turquoife ; fometimes of
a bronze brown, equal to that obfervable in ancient da-
tues of bronze, and fo highly prized ; and fometimes of
an exquifite green, a little on the azure hue, which lad
is the mod beautiful of all. It is alfo found of a fine
purple, of olive, and of a cream colour or pale yellow :
which lad is exquifite, and fhows the impredion to as
much advantage as paper of cream colour, ufed in all
^reat foreign preffes, does copperplates and printing.
The Neapolitan patina (the rud in quedion) is of a
light green ; and when free from excrefcence or blemilh
is very beautiful. Sometimes the purple patina gleams
through an upper coat of another colour, with as fine ef-
feft as a variegated filk or gem. In a few indances a
rud of a deeper green is found ; and it is fometimes
fpotted with the red or bronze diade, which gives it
quite the appearance of the Ead Indian done called the
blood-fone. Thefe ruds are all, when the real produdd
of time, as hard as the metal itfelf, and preferve it much
better than any artificial varnidi could have done ; con¬
cealing at the fame time not the mod minute particle
of the impreflion of the coin.”
The value of medals is lowered when any of the
letters of the legend are mifplaced ; as a fufpicion of
forgery is thus induced. Such is the cafe with many
of thofe of Claudius Gothicus. The fame, or even
greater, diminution in value takes place in fuch coins
A L S.
as have not been well fixed in the die, which has occa- Preferva-
fioned their flipping under the drokes of the hammer, don.
and thus made a double or triple image. Many coins * ”
of this kind are found in which the one fide is perfect¬
ly well formed, but the other blundered in the manner
jud mentioned. Another blemifti, but of fmaller mo¬
ment, and which to fome may be rather a recommen¬
dation, is when the workmen through inattention have
put another coin into the die without taking out the
former. Thus the coin is convex on one fide, and con¬
cave on the other, having the fame figure upon both its
fides. ^
The medals faid by the judges in this fcience to be Counter-
countermarked are very rare, and highly valued. They marked
have a fmall damp impreffed upon them, in fome amcdalSk
head, in others a few letters, fuch as Aug : n. pro¬
bus, &c. which marks are fuppofed to- imply an al¬
teration in the value of the coin 5 as was the cafe with
the countermarked coins of Henry VIII. and Queen
Mary of Scotland. Some have a fmall hole through
them ; fometimes with a little ring fadened in it, hav¬
ing been ufed as ornaments j but this makes no al¬
teration in their value. Neither is it any diminution
in the value of a coin that it is fplit at the edges ; for
coins of undoubted antiquity have often been found in
this date, the caufe of which has been already explain¬
ed. On the contrary, this cracking is generally con-
fidered as a great merit ; but Mr Pinkerton fufpeds
that one of thefe cracked coins has given rife to an
error with refpeCl to the wife of Caraufius who reigned
for fome time in Britain. The infcription is read
oriuna Aug : and there is a crack in the medal jud
before the O of oriuna. Without this crack Mr Pin¬
kerton fuppofes that it would have been read For-
tuna Aug.
Some particular foils have the property of giving silver^nd
filver a yellow colour as if it had been gilt. It natu- gold how
rally acquires a black colour through time, which any tarniflitd.
fulphureous vapour will bring on in a few minutes.
From its being fo fufceptible of injuries, it was al¬
ways mixed by the ancients with much alloy, in or¬
der to harden it. Hence the impreflions of the ancient
filver coins remain perfeft to this day, while thofe of
modern coins are obliterated in a few years. On this
account Mr Pinkerton exprefles a with that modern
dates wnuld allow a much greater proportion of alloy
in their filver coin than they ufually do. As gold
admits of no rud except that from iron above-mention¬
ed, the coins of this metal are generally in perfeft
confervation, and frefh as from the mint.
To cleanfe gold coins from this rud, it is bed to Hov/n.
deep them in aquafortis, which, though a very power-cleanfe
ful folvent of other metals, has no effect upon gold.thcm-
Silver may be cleanfed by deeping for a day or two
in vinegar, but more effectually by boiling in water
with three parts of tartar and one of fea fait 5 on both
thefe metals, however, the rud is always in fpots,
and never forms an entire incrudation as on brafs or
copper. The coins of thefe two metals mud never
be cleanfed, as they would thus be rendered full of
fmall holes eaten by the rud. Sometimes, however,
they are found fo totally obfcured with rud, that no¬
thing can be difcovered upon them ; in which cafe it
is bed to clear them with a graver j but it may alfo
be done by boiling them for 24 hours in water with
three
153
How to tli-
ftin^uifh
So
When an¬
cient coins
are in fueh
a high
ftate of pre-
fervation.
81
Number of
ancient
coins.
MED
three parts of tartar and one of alum ; not fea fait as in
filver coins.
The high ftate of prefervation in which ancient
coins are uiually found, is thus accounted for by Mr
Hancarville. He obferves, that the chief reafon is
the cuftom of the ancients always to bury one or more
coins with their dead, in order to pay for their paf-
fage over the river Styx. “ From Phidon of Argos
(fays he) to Conftantine I. are 36 generations: and
from Magna Grsecia to the Euphrates, from Cyrene
to the Euxine fea, Grecian arts prevailed, and the
inhabitants amounted to about 30,000,000 There
died, therefore, in that time and region, not lefs than
ten thoufand millions of people, all of whom had coins
of one fort or other buried with them. The tombs
were facred and untouched •, and afterwards neglected,
till modern curiofity or chance began to difclofe them.
The urn of Flavia Valentina, in Mr Towley’s capital
collection, contained feven brafs coins of Antoninus
Pius and Pleliogabalus. Such are generally black,
from being burnt with the dead. The beft and frefti-
eft coins were ufed on thefe ©ccafions from refpedt to
the dead *, and hence their fine confervation. At Sy-
racufe a fkeleton was found in a tomb, with a beautiful
gold coin in its mouth ; and innumerable other inftances
might be given, for hardly is a funeral urn found
without coins. Other incidents alfo confpire to furnifh
us with numbers of ancient coins, though the above-
recited circumftance be the chief caufe of perffeft
confervation. In Sicily, the filver coins with the head
of Proferpine were found in fuch numbers as to weigh
600 French livres or pounds. In the 16th century,
60,000 Roman coins were found at Modena, thought
to be a military cheft hid after the battle of Bedriacum,
when Otho was defeated by Vitellius. Near Breft, in
the year 1760, between 20 and 30,000 Roman coins
were found. A treafure of gold coins of Lyfimachus
was found at Deva on the Marus; and Strabo, lib. vii.
and Paufan. in Attic, tell that he was defeated by the
Get* \ at which time this treafure feems to have fallen
into their hands.”
Thus Mr Pinkerton, from the authority of Mr
Hancarville and others : but confidering thefe vaft
numbers of coins found in various places, it feems fur-
prifing how fo few fhould now remain in the cabinets
of the curious, as the fame author informs us that the
whole of the different ancient coins known to us
amount only to about 8o,cco, though he owns that the
calculation cannot be efteemed accurate.
Sect. VII. How to dijlinguijh true Medals from coun¬
terfeits.
The moft difficult and the molt important 'thing
in the whole fcience of medals is the method'of di-
ftinguilhing the true from the counterfeit. The value
put upon ancient coins made the forgery of them al-
moft coeval with the fcience itfelf; and as no laws in-
flict a punifhment upon fuch forgers, men of great
genius and abilities have undertaken the trade : but
whether to the real detriment of the -feience or not,
is a matter of fome doubt •, for if only exaeft copies of
genuine medals are fold for the originals, the impofi-
tion may be deemed trifling: but the cafe muft be ac¬
counted very different, if people take it upon them
to forge medals which never exifted. At firft the for-
A L S.1
geries were extremely grofs ; and medals were forged How te di.
of Priam, of Ariftotle, Artemifia, Hannibal, and moft ftinguifli
of the other illuftrious perfonages of antiquity. Moft tn‘e k00*
of thefe were done in fuch a manner, that the fraud fejtJ '
could eafily be difeovered *, but others have impofed U—
even upon very learned men. Mr Pinkerton mentions
a remarkable medal of the emperor Heraclius, repre-
fenting him in a chariot on the reverie, with Greek
and Latin inferiptions, which Jofeph Scaliger and
Lipfius imagined to have been ftruck in his own time,.<^
but which was certainly iffued in Italy in the 15th
century. “ Other learned men (fays our author) have
been ftrangely milled, when fpeaking of coins; for to
be learned in one fubjedl excludes not grofs ignorance
in others. Budseus, de Affe, quotes a denarius of
Cicero, M. TULL. Erafmus, in one of his Epiftles,
tells us with great gravity, that the gold coin ef
Brutus ftruck in Thrace, KOZDN, bears the patriarch
Noah coming out of the ark with his two fons, and
takes the Roman eagle for the dove with the olive
branch. Winkelman, in his letters informs us, that
the fmall brafs piece with Virgil’s head, reverfe EPO,
is undoubtedly ancient Roman ; and adds, that no
knowledge of coins can be had out of Rome : but
"Winkelman, fo converfant in ftatues, knew nothing
of coins. It is from other artifts and other produc¬
tions that any danger of deceit arifes. And there is
no wonder that even the Ikiif'ul are milled by fuch
artifts as have ufed this trade •, for among them appear jj
the names of Vi61 or Gambello, Giovani del Gavino, Coins for-
called the Paduan, and his fon Aleflandro Balfiano,£ed byes,
likewife of Padua, Benvenuto Cellini, Aleffandroce^cnt w'
Greco, Leo Aretino, Jacobo da Fiezzo, Federigo
Bonzagna, and Giovani Jacopo, his brother j Sebaf-
tiano Plumbo, Valerio de Vizenza, Gorlaeus, a Ger¬
man, Carteron of Holland, and others, all or moft of
them of the 16th century j and Cavino the Paduan,
who is the moft famous, lived in the middle of
that century. The forgeries of Cavino are held
in no little efteem, being of wonderful execution.
Plis and thofe of Carteron are the moft numerous,
many of the other artifts here mentioned not hav¬
ing forged above two or three coins. Later forgers
were Dervieu of Florence who confined himfelf to
medallions, and Cogornier who gave coins of the 30
tyrants in fmall brafs. The chief part of the forgeries
of Greek medals which have come to my knowledge
are of the firft mentioned, and a very grofs kind, repre-
fenting perfons who could never appear upon coin,
fuch as Priam,-ALneas, Plato, Alcibiades, Artemifia,
and others. The real Greek coins wTere very little
known or valued till the works of Goltzius appeared,
which were happily pofterior to the sera of the grand
forgers. Why later forgers have feldom thought of
counterfeiting them cannot be eafily accounted for, if
it is not owing to the mafterly workmanfLip of the ori¬
ginals, which fets all imitation at defiance. Forgeries,
hoAvever, of moft ancient coins may be met with, and
of the Greek among the reft.
“ The forgeries are more confpicuous among the Rc-Fom?.n for-
man medals than any other kind of coins j but we are fcems m°r»
not to look upon all thefe as the work of modern
„ -1 -r , , . than uiei‘JC
artifts. On the contrary, we are ailured that many
of them were fabricated in the times of the Remans
themfelves, feme of them being even held in more efli-
mation than the genuine coins themfelves, on account
of
MED
How to <1i- of their being plated, and otliertvife executed in a man-
ftinguifh ner to which modern forgers could never attain. Even
Counter™ t^e ancients held feme of thefe counterfeits in fuch ef-
feit<!. timation, that Pliny informs us there were frequently
w—y——^ many true denarii given for one falfe one.”—Caracalla
is faid to have coined Kioney of copper and lead plated
with filver ; and plated coins, the work of ancient
forgers, occur of many Greek cities and princes •, nay,
there are even forgeries of barbaric coins. “ Some
Roman coins (fays Mr Pinkerton), are found of iron or
lead plated with brafs, perhaps trials of the Ikill of the
forger. Iron is the moft common ; but one decurfio of
Nero is known of lead plated with copper. Neumann
juftly obferves, that no hiftoric faith can be put in
plated coins, and'that mofl: faulty reverfes, &c. arife
from plated coins not being noticed as fuch. Even to
the Roman confular coins not very many have ever
Denarius of been forged. The celebrated filver denarius of Brutus,
A L S.
or black, and fliines too much or too little.
159
The How to di-
8S
Imperial
medals.
Brutus. with the cap of liberty and two daggers, is the chief in-
ftance of a confular coin of which a counterfeit is known.
But it is eafily rejected by this mark : in the true coin
the cap of liberty is below the guard or hilt of the
daggers 5 in the falfe, the top of it rifes above that
hilt.”
The imperial feries of medals is the grand object of
modern medallic forgeries ; and the deception was at
firft extended to the moft eminent writers upon the
fubjeft. The counterfeits are by Mr Pinkerton divi¬
ded into fix clafles.
I. Such as are known to be imitations, but valued
on account of the artifts by whom they are executed.
In this clafs the medals of the Paduan rank highett ;
the others being fo numerous, that a complete feries
of imperial medals of almoft every kind, nay almoft of
every medallion, may be formed from among them. In
France, particularly, by far the greater part of the ca¬
binets are filled with counterfeits of this kind. They
are diftinguithed from fuch as are genuine by the fol¬
lowing marks : 1. The counterfeits are almoft uni-
verfally thinner. 2. They are never worn or damaged.
3. The letters are modern. 4. They are either defti-
tute of varnifti entirely, or have a falfe one, which is
eafily known by its being black, Aiming, and greafy,
and very eafily hurt with the touch of a needle, while
the varnifh of ancient medals is as hard as the metal
itfelf. Inftead of the greafy black varnifti above men¬
tioned, indeed, they have fometimes a light green
one, fpotted with a kind of iron marks, and is com-
pofed of fulplmr, verdigrife, and vinegar. It may
frequently be diftinguifiied by the hairftrokes of the
pencil with which it was laid on being vifible upon it.
5. The fides are either filed or too much fmoothed
by art, or bear the marks of'a fmall hammer. 6. The
counterfeits are always exaflly circular, which is not
the cafe with ancient medals, efpecially after the time
of Trajan.
. The Paduan forgeries may be diftinguiftied from
pries how thofe of inferior artifts by the following marks : x. The
rnown' former are feldom thinner than the ancient. 2. They
very feldom appear as worn or damaged, but the others
very frequently, efpecially in the reverie, and legend
of the reverfe, which fometimes, as in forged Othos,
appear as half confumed by time. 3. The letters in
moulds taken from the antique coins have the rudenefs
*i antiquity. 4. Ealfe varnifti is commonly light green
86
Paduan for
ftinguifh
true from
counter¬
feits.
fides of forged coins are frequently quite fmooth, and
indiftinguiftiable from the ancient, though to accom-
plifti this requires but little art. 6. Counterfeit me¬
dals are frequently as irregular in their form as the
genuine j but the Paduan are generally circular, though
falfe coins have often little pieces cut off, in perfeft
imitation of the genuine. 7. In caft coins the letters
do not go ftiarp down into the medal, and have no fix¬
ed outline ; their minute angles, as well as thole of
the drapery, are commonly filled up, and have not the
Iharpnefs of the genuine kind. Where the letters or
figures are faint, the coin is greatly to be fufpe&ed. 87
1 he letters form the great criterion of medals, the Letters the
ancient being very rude, but the modern otherwife ; Pnnci.pal
the reafon of which, according to Cellini, is, that the^^011^
ancients engraved all their matrices with the graver or ’
burin, rvhile the modern forgers ftrike theirs with a
punch. ... ss
According to Vico, the falfe patina is green, black, Vico’s ac-
ruflet, brown, gray, and iron colour. The green isrount of
made from verdigrife, the black is the fmoke of ful-falfe Patil13’
phur, the gray is made of chalk fteeped in urine, the
coin being left for fome days in the mixture. The ruf-
fet is next to the natural, by reafon of its being a
kind of froth which the fire forces from ancient coins j
but when falfe, it ftiines too much. To make it they
frequently took the large brafs coins of the Ptolemies,
which were often corroded, and made them red hot in
the fire 5 put the coins upon them, and a fine patina
adhered. Our author does not fay in what manner
the iron-coloured patina was made. “ Sometimes
(adds he) they take an old defaced coin, covered with
real patina, and ftamp it anew ; but the patina is then
too bright in the cavities, and too dull in the protu¬
berances. ft he trial of brafs coins with the tongue is
not to be defpifed 5 for if modern the patina taftes bitter
or pungent, while if ancient it is quite taftelefs.”
Mr Pinkerton informs us, that all medallions from
Julius Caefar to Adrian are much to be fufpedted of for¬
gery ; the true medals of the firft 14 emperors being
exceedingly valuable, and to be found only in the cabi¬
nets of princes.
II. I he fecond clafs of counterfeit medals contains Medals cafl:
thofe caft from moulds taken from the Paduan forge-froni the
ries, and others done by eminent matters. Thefe are P^uan *°r"
fometimes more difficult to be difeovered than the for-8™63'
mer, becaufe in catting them they can give any degree
of thicknefs they pleafe ; and, filling the fmall fand-
holes with maftic, they retouch the letters with a gra¬
ver, and cover the whole with varnith. The inftruc-
tions already given for the former clafs, however, are
alfo ufeful for thofe of the fecond, with this addition,,
that medals of this clafs are generally lighter than the
genuine, becaufe fire rarefies the metal in fome degree,
while that which is ftruck is rather condenfed by the
ftrokes. In gold and filver medals there cannot be
any deception of this kind ; becaufe thefe metals ad¬
mit not of patina, and confequently the varnifti be¬
trays the impofition. ft'he marks of the file on the
margin of thofe of the fecond clafs are a certain fign
of forgery 5 though thefe do not always indicate the
forgery to be of modern date, becauft the Romans
often filed the edges of coins to accommodate them to
the purpofes of ornament, as quarter guineas are fome¬
times
i6o
MED
9*
Ancu-tir
medals re-
t«ucli#d.
How to tli- times put into the bottom of punch ladles. It is com-
ftiHguifli mon t0 ;mitate the holes of medals made by time by
means of aquafortis ; but this deftroys the tides of
a coin more effeftually than if it had been eat into
naturally. The fraud, however, is not eafily diftin-
guifhed.
III. Medals cajl in moulds from an antique.—In this
from an an- mode fome forgers, as Beauvais informs us, have been
tique. f0 very careful, that they would melt a common me¬
dal of the emperor whom they meant to counterfeit,
left the quality of the metal Ihould betray them.
“ This (fays Mr Pinkerton), has been done in the fil-
ver Septimius Severus, with the reverfe of a trium¬
phal arch, for which a common coin of the fame prince
has been melted ; and in other inftances.” Putting me¬
tals in the fire or upon hot iron to cleanfe them, gives
them an appearance of being caft ; for fome fpots of the
metal being fofter than the reft will run, which makes
this one of the worft methods of cleaning medals.—
The directions given for difeovering the two former
deceptions hold good alfo in this.
IV. Ancient medals retouched and altered.—This is a
clafs of counterfeits more difficult to be difeovered
than any other. “ The art (fays Mr Pinkerton) ex¬
erted in this clafs is aftoniffiing •, and a connoiffeur is
the lefs apt to fufpeCt it, becaufe the coins themfelves
are in fadt ancient. The acute minds of the Italian
artifts exerted themfelves in this way, when the other
forgeries became common and known. With graving
tools they alter the portraits, the reverfes, and the in-
feriptions themfelves, in a furprifing manner. Of a
Claudius ftruck at Antioch they make an Otho *, of
a Fauftina, a Titiana j of a Julia Severa, a Didia
Clara •, of a Macrinus, a Pefcennius, &c. Give them
a Marcus Aurelius, he ftarts up a Pertinax, by thicken¬
ing the beard a little, and enlarging the nofe. In ffiort,
wherever there is the leaft refemblance in perfons, re¬
verfes, or legends, an artift may from a trivial me¬
dal generate a moft fcaree and valuable one. This
fraud is diftinguiffiable by the falfe varniffi which fome-
times mafks it; but, above all, by the letters of the
legend, which are always altered. Though this be
fometimes done with an artifice almoft miraculous, yet
moft commonly the characters ftraggle, are difunited,
and not in a line.”
In counterfeits of this kind fometimes the obverfe is
not touched, but the reverfe made hollow, and filled
with maftic coloured like the coin, and engraven with
fuch device and legend as was moft likely to bring a
great price 5 others are only retouched in fome minute
parts, by which, however, the value of the coin is
much diminiffied. “ Againft all thefe arts (fays Mr
Pinkerton), fevere ferutiny muft be made by the pur-
chafer upon the medal itfelf *, and the inveftigation and
opinion of eminent antiquaries had upon its being al¬
tered, or genuine as it is iffued from the mint.”
V. Medals imprejfed with new devices, or foldered.—
In the firft article of this clafs the reverfes have been
^evices, or totally filed off, and new ones impreffed with a die
toldcred. ancj hammer,. This is done by putting the face or
obverfe, whichever is not touched, upon different folds
of pafteboard, afterwards applying the die and ftrik-
ing it with a hammer. The forgery in this clafs is
very eafily difeovered, as the devices and inferiptions
'sn the counterfeits are known not to exift on true
93
Medals
with new
A L S.
medals: as the Pons iElius on the reverfe of Adrian : How to rfi.
the Expeditio Judaica of the fame emperor, &c. ftinguifh
The difference of fabrication in the face or reverfe
will be difeovered at the firft glance by any perfon of COf^er"
fkill. < 
The foldered medals confift of two halves belong¬
ing to different medals, fawed through the middle and
then joined with folder. This mode of counterfeiting
is common in filver and brafs coins. “ They will
take an Antoninus, for example, and faw off the re¬
verfe, then folder to the obverfe which they have treat¬
ed in the fame manner. This makes a medal, which,
from an unknowing purchafer, will bring a hundred
times the price of the two coins which compofe it.
When the deceit is ufed in brafs coins, they take care
that the metals be of one hue 5 though indeed fome
pretenders in this way fometimes folder copper and
brafs together, which at once reveals the deceit. Me¬
dals which have a portrait on each fide, and which
are generally valuable, are the moft liable to a fufpi-
cion of this fraud. To a very nice eye the minute
ring of folder is always vifible 5 and upon inferting a
graver, the fabrication falls into halves.”
In the fame manner reverfes are fo'metimes foldered
to faces not originally belonging to them ; as one men¬
tioned by Pere Jobert, of Domitian with an amphi¬
theatre, a reverfe of Titus joined to it. Another art
is fometimes made ufe of in this kind of counterfeits,
of which there is an inftance of the temple of Janas
upon Nero’s medals •, where the middle brafs is taken
off, and inferted in a cavity made in the middle of a
large coin of that prince. In the coins of the low er
empire, hoAvever, the reverfes of medals are fometimes
fo connected with their obverfes, that a fufpicion of
forgery fometimes occurs without any foundation.
They are met with moft commonly after the time of
Gallienus, when fuch a number of ufurpers arofe, that
it was difficult to obtain an exaft portrait of their fea¬
tures ; the coiners had not time, therefore, to ftrike
a medal for thefe as they could have done for other
emperors who reigned longer. Hence, on the reverfe
of a medal of Marius, who reigned only three days,
there is pacator 0R3IS, which Ihows that at that
time they had reverfes ready fabricated, to be applied
as occafion might require.
VI. Plated medals, or thofe which have clefts.—It has piatecf me. i
been already remarked, that many true medals are dais, &c.
cracked in the edges •, owing to the repeated ftrokes
of the hammer, and the little degree of du&ility which
the metal poffeffes. This the forgers attempt to imi¬
tate by a file ; but it is eafy to diftinguilh betwixt the
natural and artificial cleft by means of a fmall needle.
The natural cleft is wade at the extremity, and appears
to have a kind of almoft imperceptible filaments 5 the
edges of the crack correfponding with each other in
a manner which no art can imitate.
The plated medals which have been forged in an¬
cient times were long fuppofed to be capable of refift-
ing every effort of modern imitation ; but of late
years, “ fome ingenious rogues (fays Mr Pinkerton),
thought of piercing falfe medals of filver with a red-
hot needle, which gave a blacknefs to the infide of
the coin, and made it appear plated to an injudicious
eye. This fraud is eafily diftinguifiied by feraping the
infide of the metal.” It is, however, very difficult to
• diftinguifti
MED
How to dl- diftinguiili the forgeries of rude money when not caft ;
itinguilh and our author gives no other direction than to confult
true from a fl^jiful medallift. Indeed, notwithftanding all the
• COfc"tfser* direttions already given, this feems to be a refource
■ " i which cannot by any means with fafety be neglected.
94 A real and practical knowledge of coins “ is only to
Mr Pinker- acqUlred (fays he) by feeing a great number, and
to0’; ^‘cc“ comparing the forged with the genuine. It cannot
knowing therefore be too much recommended to the young
medals. connoifleur, who wilhes to acquire fome knowledge in
this way, to vifit all the fales and cabinets he can, and
to look upon all ancient medals with a very microfco-
pic eye. By thefe means only is to be acquired that
ready knowledge which enables at firft glance to pro¬
nounce upon a forgery, however ingenious. Nor let
the fcience of medals be from this concluded to be un¬
certain ; for no knowledge is more certain and imme¬
diate, when it is properly ftudied by examination of
the real objedls. A man who buys coins, trufting
merely to his theoretic perufal of medallic books, will
find himfelf wofully miftaken. He ought to ftudy
coins firft, where only they can be ftudied, in them-
felves. Nor can it be matter of wonder or implica¬
tion of caprice, that a medallift of Ikill fhould at one
perception pronounce upon the veracity or falfehood
of a medal 5 for the powrers of the human eye, em¬
ployed in certain lines of fcience, are amazing. Hence
Ia ftudent can diftinguilh a book among a thoufand fi-
milar, and quite alike to every other eye : hence a
fhepherd can difeern, &c.; hence the medallift can
fay in an inftant, ‘ this is a true coin, and this is a
falfe,’ though to other people no diftinftion be percep-
pj tible.”
Forgeries Forgeries of modern coins and medals, Mr Pinker-
of modern ton obferves, are almoft as numerous as of the ancient,
sums. q'jjg fatJric coin 0f Louis XII. PERDAM BabYLONIS
nomen, is a remarkable inftance : the falfe coin is larger
than the true, and bears date 1512. The rude coins
of the middle ages are very eafily forged, and forgeries
have accordingly become common. Forged coins of
Alfred and other early princes of England have ap¬
peared, fome of which have been done with great art.
“ The two noted Englifh pennies of Rich I. fays our
author, are of this ftamp; and yet have impofed upon
Meffrs Folkes and Snelling, who have publilhed them
as genuine in the two beft books upon Englilh coins.
But they were fabricated by a Mr White of New-
gate-ftreet, a noted colleftor, who contaminated an
otherwife fair character by fuch practices. Such for¬
geries, though eafy, require a Ikill in the hiftory and
coinage of the times, which luckily can hardly fall to
the lot of a common Jew or mechanic forger. But
the practice is deteftable, were no gain propofed: and
they wTho ftoop to it muft fuppofe, that to embarrafs
the path of any fcience with forgery and futility, im¬
plies no infamy. In forgeries of ancient coin, the
fiftion is perhaps fufficiently atoned for by the vaft
fkill required *, and the artift may plaufibly allege, that
his intention was not to deceive, but to excite his ut-
moft powers, by an attempt to rival the ancient ma¬
ilers. But no poftible apology can be made for for¬
ging the rude money of more modern times. The
, crime is certainly greater than that which leads the
common coiner to the gallows , inafmuch as it is com-
Vol.XIII. Part I.
A L S. 161
mitted with more eafe, and the profit is incomparably Value,
larger.”
Sect. VIII. Of the Value of Medals.
All ancient coins and medals, though equally ge¬
nuine, are not equally valuable. In medals as well
as in every thing elfe, the fcarcity of a coin ftamps a
value upon it which cannot otherwife be derived from
its intrinfic worth. There are four or five degrees of
rarity reckoned up j the higheft of which is called
unique. The caufe is generally aferibed to the fewnefs
of number thrown off originally, or to their having been
called in, and recoined in another form. To the for¬
mer caufe Mr Pinkerton aferibes the fcarcity of the cop¬
per of Otho and the gold of Pefcennius Niger ; to the
latter that of the coinage of Caligula j “ though this laft
(fays he) is not of Angular rarity ; which fhows that
even the power of the Roman fenate could not annihi¬
late an eftablilhed money •, and that the firft caufe of
rarity, arifing from the fmall quantity originally ftruek,
ought to be regarded as the principal.”
In the ancient cities Mr Pinkerton aferibes the fear- oi.-
city of coin to the poverty or fmallnefs of the ftate 3 the fcarcify
but the fearcity of ancient regal and imperial coins of medals
arifes principally from the fhortnefs of the reign ; and ip ancient
fometimes from the fuperabundance of money before,clUes'
which rendered it almoft unneceffary to coin any
money during the reign of the prince. An example
of this we have in the fcarcity of the {hillings of
George III. which ftiows that fhortnefs of reign does
not always occafion a fcarcity of coin : and thus the
coins of Harold II. who did not reign a year, are very
numerous, wdiile thofe of Richard I. who reigned ten,
are almoft unique.
Sometimes the rareft coins lofe their value, and be- Rar/coins
come common. This our author aferibes to the high fometimes
price given for them, which tempts the poffeffors to become
bring them to market; but chiefly to the difeovering
of hoards of them. The former caufe took place with verja.
Queen Anne’s farthings, fome of which formerly fold
at five guineas ; nay, if we could believe the newfpapers,
one of them was fome years ago fold for 960I. : the lat¬
ter with the coins of Canute, the Danifh king of Eng¬
land \ which were very rare till a hoard of them was dif-
covered in the Orkneys. As difeoveries of this kind,
however, produce a temporary plenty, fo when they
are difperfed the former fcarcity returns; vrhile, on the
other hand, fome of the common coins become rare
through the mere circumftance of neglect. ^
As double the number of copper coins of Greek Silver corns
cities are to be met with that there are of filver, thein "hat
latter are of confequence much more efteemed : but
the reverfe is the cafe with thofe of the Greek princes.
All the Greek civic coins of filver are very rare, ex¬
cepting thofe of Athens, Corinth, Meffana, Dyrrha-
chium, Maflilia, Syracufe, and fome others. Of the
Greek monarchic coins, the moft rare are the tetra-
drachms of the kings of Syria, the Ptolemies, the fo-
vereigns of Macedon and Bithynia, excepting thofe of
Alexander the Great and Lyfimachus. Thofe of the
kings of Cappadocia are of a fmall fize, and fearce to
be met with. Of thofe of Numidia and Mauritania,
the coins of Juba, the father, are common j but thofe
X of
i6a
MEDALS.
Value.
99
Greek cop¬
per coins.
xoo
Roman con-
fular coins.
ioi
!Leaden Ro
man coins.
104
Of coins
blundered
in the
mintage.
of the fon, and nephew Ptolemy, fcarce. Coins of the
kings of Sicily, Parthia, and Jtidtea, are rare •, the
laft very much fo. We meet with no coins of the
kings of Arabia and Comagene except in brafs •, thofe
of the kings of Bofphorus are in electrum, and a few
in brafs, but all of them rare •, as are likewile thofe
of Philetenis king of Pergamus, and of the kings of
Pontus. In the year 1777, a coin of Mithridates fold
for 26I. 5s. Didrachms of all kings and cities are
fearee, excepting thofe of Corinth and her colonies ;
but the gold coins of Philip of Macedon, Alexander
the Great, and Lylimachus, as has already been ob-
ferved, are common. The filver tetradrachms of all
kings bear a very high price. The didrachm of Alex¬
ander the Great is one of the fcarceft of the fmaller
Greek filver coins *, feme of the other princes are not
uncommon.
In moft cafes the copper money of the Greek mo-
narchs is fcarce ; but that of Hiero I. of Syraeufe is
uncommonly plenty, as well as that of feveral of the
Ptolemies.
The moft rare of the confular Roman coins are thofe
reftored bv Trajan : of the others the gold confular
coins are the moft rare, and the filver the moft com¬
mon •, excepting the coin of Brutus with the cap of
liberty, already mentioned, with fome others. Some
of the Roman imperial coins are very fcarce, particu¬
larly thofe of Otho in brafs •, nor indeed does he occur
at all on anv coin ftruck at Rome : but the reafon of
this may with great probability be fuppofed to have
been the fhortnefs of his reign. His portrait upon
the brafs coins of Egypt and Antioch is very bad •, as
well as almoft all the other imperial coins of Greek
cities. The beft likenefs is on his gold and filver
coins ; the latter of which are very common. The
Greek and Egyptian coins are all of fmall or middling
lizes, and have reverfes of various kinds : thofe of An¬
tioch have Latin legends, as well as moft of the other
imperial coins of Antioch. They have no other reverfe
but the SC in a wreath excepting in one inftance or
twm of the large and middle brafs, where the inferip-
tions are in Greek. Latin coins of Otho in brafs,
with figures on the reverfe, are certainly falfe 5 though
in the cabinet of D’Ennery at Paris there was an Otho
in middle brafs reftbred by Titus, which was efteemed
genuine by connoiiTeurs.
The leaden coins of Rome are very fcarce ; Moft
of them are pieces ftruck or caft on occafion of the
faturnalia ; others are tickets for feftivals and exhi¬
bitions, both private and public. The common tickets
for theatres were made of lead, as were the contorniati;
perpetual tickets, like the Englifti filver tickets for
the opera. Leaden medallions are alfo found below
the foundations of pillars and other public buildings,
in order to perpetuate the memory of the founders.
From the time of Auguftus alfo we find that leaden
feals were ufed. The work of Ticorini upon this fub-
jedl, entitled Piombi Antiochi, is much recommended by
Mr Pinkerton.
The Roman coins, which have been blundered in
the manner formerly mentioned, are very rare, and un-
defervedly valued by the connoifleurs. The blunders
in the legends of thefe coins, which in all probability
are the mere effedls of accident, have been fo far mif-
taken by fome medallifts, that they have given rife to
2
imaginary emperors who never exifted. A coin of Parchafe.
Fauftina, which has on the reverfe sousxi. S. c. puz-“v-
zled all the German antiquaries, till at laft Klotz gave
it the following facetious interpretation : Sine omm uti-
litate fe&amini tantas ineptias.. I0^
The heptarchic coins of England are generally rare, Heptarchic
except thofe called Jhjcas, which are very common, asC01ns ot'
.1 r r -r. 1 1 • i- -n/r • rr.i • , England,
well as thofe of Burgred king of Mercia. The coins
of Alfred which bear his buft are fcarce, and his other
money much more fo. Thofe of Hardyknute are fo
rare, that it was even denied that they had an exift-
ence 5 but Mr Pinkerton informs us, that there are
three in the Britilh mufeum, upon all of which the
name harthcanut is quite legible. No Englifii
coins of King John are to be met with, though there
are fome Irifh ones 5 and only French coins of Richard L
“ Leake (fays Mr Pinkerton) made a ftrange blun¬
der, in aferibing coins of different kings with two faces,
and otherwife fpoiled in the ftamping, to this prince j
in which, as ufual, he has been followed by a mifled
number.”
Coins of Alexander II. of Scotland are rather fcarce,Scottilli
but thofe of Alexander III. are more plentiful. Thofe coins,
of John Baliol are rare, and none of Edward Baliol are
to be found.
104.
Sect. IX. Of the Purchafe of Medals.
Medals are to be had at the (hops of goldfmiths-
and filverfmiths, with thofe who deal in curiofitiesr
&c. but in great cities there are profeffed dealers in
them. The beft method of purchafing medals, how¬
ever, is that of buying whole cabinets, which are every
year expofed to auction in London. In thefe the rare
medals are fold by themfelves: but the common ones
are put up in large lots, fo that the dealers commonly
purchafe them. Mr Pinkerton thinks it would be-
better that medals were fold one by one 5 becaufe *.
lot is often valued and purchafed for the fake of a.
fingle coin ; while the others feparately would fell for.
perhaps four times the price of the whole lot. “ If
any man of common fenfe and honefty (fays Mr Pin¬
kerton), were to take up the trade of felling coins in
London, he would make a fortune in a fliort time. 1 his-
profitable bufinefs is now in the hands of one or twro
dealers, wdio ruin their oum intereft by making an ele¬
gant ftudy a trade of knavery and impofition. If they
buy 300 coins for xos. they will alls. 3s. for one of the
worft of them ! nay, fell forged coins as true to the ig¬
norant. The fimpletons complain of wyant of bufinefs.
A knave is always a fool.” 10^
The gold coins of Carthage, Cyrene, and Syracufe,,Price of
are worth about twice their intrinfic value as metal yg°lcj C01IW
Car
but the other gold civic coins from 5I. to 30I. eaeh.°^c ^
The only gold coins of Athens certainly known to
exift are two lately procured by the king. One of
thefe remains in poffeflion of his majefty, but the other
was given by the queen to Dr Hunter. There was
another in the Britifti mufeum, but fufpe&ed not to
be genuine. Dr Hunter’s coin, then, if fold, would
bear the higheft price that could be expefted for a
coin. 106
The filver coins of Syracufe, Dyrrhachium, Maffi-Of filver
lia, Athens, and a few other ftates, are common ; thecoin5-
drachmas and coins of leffer fize are worth about
five
io7
Creek cop¬
per coins.
108
Gold coins
»f Philip
ind Alex-
rnder.
M E B
fnrchafe. five {Killings; the didrachms, tetradrachms, &c. from
five to ten, according to their lize and beauty 5 the
largeft, as might naturally be expefled, being more
valuable than the fmall ones. The tetradrachms, when
of cities whofe coins are common, are worth from 7s.
6d. to il. is. 5 but it is impoflible to put a value upon
the rare civic coins ; ten guineas have been given for
a Angle one.
The Greek copper coins are common, and are almoft
all of that kind called finall brafs ; the middle fize be¬
ing fcarce, and the largeft in the ages prior to the Ro¬
man emperors extremely fo. The common Greek coins
of brafs bring from 3d. to i8d. according to their pre-
fervation •, but when of cities, whofe coins are rare,
much higher prices are given. “ The want of a few
cities, however (fays Mr Pinkerton), is not thought to
injure a collection •, as indeed new names are difcover-
ed every dozen of years, fo that no affortment can be
perfect. To this it is owing that the rarity of the Gre¬
cian civic coins is not much attended to.”
The gold coins of Philip and Alexander the Great
being very common, bear but from five to ten (hillings
above their intrinfic value ; but thofe of the other
princes, being rare, fell from 3I. to 30I. each, or even
more.
The tetradrachms are the deareft of the filver mo¬
narchic money, felling from five to ten (hillings ; and
if very rare, from 3I. to 30I. Half thefe prices may
be obtained for the drachmas, and the other denomina¬
tions in proportion-.
The Greek copper coins are for the mod part fcar-
cer than the diver, except the Syro-Grecian, which
are common, and almoft all of the fize called fmall
brafs. “ They ought (fays Mr Pinkerton), to bear a
high price ; but the metal and fimilarity to the cop¬
per civic coins, which are common, keep their aftual
purchafe moderate, if the feller is not well inftrudled,
and the buyer able and willing to pay the price of
rarity.”
The name of weights given to the ancient Roman
afes is, according to our author, exceedingly improper 5
as that people had weights of lead and brafs fides,
without the lead appearance of a portrait upon them.
Thefe denote the weight by a certain number of knobs ;
and have likewife fmall f curettes engraved upon them.
According to Mr Pinkerton, whenever we meet with a
piece of metal (lamped on both fides with bulls and
figures, we may lay it down as a certain rule that it is
a coin ; but when (lightly ornamented and marked up¬
on one fide only, we may with equal certainty, conclude
it-to be a weight.
rice of the The ancient Roman afes are worth from 2s. to 2I.
aifaf'110" accorc**n8 to t^ie Angularity of their devices. Confu-
111 a lar gold coins are worth from il. to 5I. Pompey with
his fons 21I. and the two Bruti 23I. The filver coins
are univerfally worth from a (hilling to half a crown,
excepting that of the cap of liberty and a few others,
which, if genuine, will bring from 10s. to 5I. The
confular copper bears an equal price with the filver, but
is more rare 3 the confular filver coins reltored by Tra¬
jan are worth 20s. each.
With regard to the Roman imperial coins, it is to
be obferved, that feme of thole which belong to princes
whofe coins are numerous, may yet be rendered ex¬
tremely valuable by uncommon reverfes. Mr Pinker-
L 3,
163
109
"ireek cop¬
ier coins
nore rare
han the
liver.
Arrange¬
ment, &e.
ton particularly points out that of Auguftus, with the
legend C. Marivs Trogvs, which is worth three
guineas, though the filver coins of that prince in ge- Y ^
neral are not worth above a (hilling. In like manner,
the common gold coins of Trajan are not w'orth above
twenty (hillings 3 while thofe with Eafihca Ulpia, Fo¬
rum Trajan 1, Divi Nerva et Traj anus ^ Pater, Divi
Nerva et Platina Aug. Profe&io Aug. Regna AJJignata,
Rex Part/cus. and fiome others, bear from three to fix
pounds. The ticket medals belong to the Roman fe-
nate, and are worth from three to ten (hillings. The
forged coins and medallions of the Paduan fell from one
to three (hillings each. riJ.
Of the coins of other nations, thofe of Hilderic Barbaric
king of the Vandals are in filver, and worth 1 os. 3 cornu
the fmall brafs of Athanaric, 5s. ; the gold of Theo-
doric 2I. ; the fecond brafs of Theodahat 5s. 3 the
fecond brafs of Badueta rare, and worth 10s. 3 the
third brafs, 3s. The Britilh coins are very rare, and
worth from ten drillings to two guineas each, feme-
times much more. Medals with unknown charafters
are always fcarce and dear. Saxon pennies of the
heptarchy are rare, and worth from ten (hillings to
ten pounds, according to their fcarcity and preserva¬
tion. The coins of the Englidr kings are common 3
thofe of Edward the Confeflor, in particular 3 others
are rare, and worth from ten (hillings to twro guineas,
while twTo of Plardyknute are worth no lefs than ten
guineas. The gold medals of Henry, in 1545, and
the coronation of Edward, are worth 20I. each : the.
Mary of Trezzo, 31.3 Simon’s head of Thurloe in
gold is worth 12I. 3 his oval medal in gold upon
Blake’s naval vidlory at (ea is worth 30I. 3 and his
trial piece, if brought to a fale, would, in Mr Pinker¬
ton’s opinion, bring a dill higher price. The medals
of Queen Anne, which are intrinfically worth about
two guineas and a half, fell for about 3I. each 3 the
filver, of the fize of a crown piece, fell for 10s. and
the copper from five to ten (hillings. Dadier’s copper
pieces fell from two to five (hillings, and a few bear a
higher price. _ II2
The Scottilh gold coins fell higher than the Eng--Gold coins
li(h, but the others are on a par. The (hilling of Mary Scotland
with the buft is rare, and fells for no lefs than 301.3
the half 31.3 and the royal 5I. 5s. The French teftoon
of Francis and Mary brings 10I. 10s. and the Scottidr
one of Mary and Henry would bring 50I. as would
alfo the medal of James IV. The coronation medal of
Francis and Mary is worth 20I. Briot’s coronation
medal fold in 1755 only for two guineas at Dr Mead’s
fale 3 but would now bring 20I. if fold according to
rarity.
1 he Englidr coins (truck in Ireland are of much the Englilh
fame price with thofe of the native country 3 but the coins Itniek
St Patrick’s halfpence and farthings are rather fcarce, IreEnd.
and the rare crown of white metal is worth 4I. The
gun-money of James II. and all other Iridr coins are
very common.
Sect. X. Arrangement of Medals, with the Injlru&ion
to be derived from them.
Having thus given a full account of every thing in
general relative to medals, we mud now eome to (ome •.
particulars refpe&ing their arrangement, and the enter- ■
X 2 tainment
j<54 MED
Arrange- tainment wliicli a medallifl may expert from tlie trouble
mcnt, an[j eXpence he is at in making a colleftion.
It has already been obferved, that one of the prin¬
cipal ufes of medals is the elucidation of ancient hi-
flory. Hence the arrangement of his medals is the
firft thing that mull occur in the formation of a cabi¬
net. The moft ancient medals with which we are ac¬
quainted are thofe of Alexander I. of Macedon, who
began to reign about 501 years before Chrift. The
feries ought of confequence to begin with him, and to
be fucceeded by the medals of Sicily, Caria, Cyprus,
Heraclia, and Pontus. Then follow Egypt, Syria,
the Cimmerian Bofphorus, Thrace, Bithynia, Par-
thia, Armenia, Damafcus, Cappadocia, Paphlagonia,
Pergamus, Galatia, Cilicia, Sparta, Pseonia, Epirus,
Illyricum, Gaul, and the Alps, including the fpace of
time from Alexander the Great to the birth of Chrift,
and which is to be accounted the third medallic feries
of ancient monarchs. The laft feries goes down to
the fourth century, including fome of the monarchs
of Thrace, Bofphorus, and Parthia, with thofe of
Comagcne, Edefta or Ofrhoene, Mauritania, and Ju¬
daea. A moft diftinft feries is formed by the Roman
emperors, from Julius Caefar to the deftru£Hon of
Rome by the Goths 5 nay, for a much longer period,
were it not that towards the latter part of it the coins
become fo barbarous as to deftroy the beauty of the
collection. Many feries may be formed of modern po-
H4 tentatcs.
Diadem an By means of medals we can with great certainty
ancient em-(jetermine ^}ie various ornaments worn by ancient
foverda-n Princes as badges of diftinftion. The Grecian kings
authority, have generally the diadem, without any other orna¬
ment •, and though in general the fide of the face is
prefented to view, yet in fome very ancient Greek and
Roman confular coins, full faces of excellent work-
manftiip are met with. On feveral coins alfo two or
three faces are to be feen, and thefe are always account¬
ed very valuable.
The diadem, which was no more than a ribbon tied
round the head with a floating knot behind, adorns
all the Grecian princes from firft to laft, and is almoft
an infallible mark of fovereign power. In the Roman
confular coins it is feen in conjunction with Numa and
Ancus, but never afterwards till the time of Licinius,
the colleague of Conftantine. Dioelefian, indeed, ac¬
cording to Mr Gibbon, firft wore the diadem, but his
portrait upon coins is never adorned with it. So great
an averfion had the Romans to kingly power, that
they rather allowed their emperors to aflume the ra¬
diated crown, the fymbol of divinity, than to wear a
diadem *, but, after the time of Conftantine, it becomes
common. The radiated crown appears firft on the
pofthumous coins of Auguftus as a mark of deifica¬
tion, but in fomewhat more than a century became
common.
The laurel crown, at firft a badge of conqueft, was
afterwards permitted by the fenate to be worn by Ju¬
lius Caefar, in order to hide the baldnefs of his head.
From him all the emperors appear with it on their
medals, even to our own times. In the lower empire
the crown is fometimes held by a hand above the head,
as a mark of piety. Befides thefe, the naval, mural,
and civic crowns appear on the medals both of empe¬
rors and other eminent men, to denote their great ac-
I
A L S.
tions. The laurel crown is alfo fometimes worn by Arrange
the Greek princes. The Arfacidae of Parthia wear raent> &c.
a kind of fath round the head, with their hair in rows
of curls like a wig. The Armenian kings have the
tiara, a kind of cap which was efteemed the badge of
imperial power in the eaft. Conical caps are feen on
the medals of Xerxes, a petty prince of Armenia, and
Juba the father, the former having a diadem around
^* . . . . u5
The impious vanity of Alexander and his fucceflbrs Symbols 0f
in afluming divine honours is manifeft on their medals, dwinity on
where various fymbols of divinity are met with. Some ut'
of them have an horn behind their ear, either to de- ancThis foe
note their ftrength, or that they were the fucceflbrs of ceffors.
Alexander, to whom this badge might be applied as
the fon of Jupiter Ammon. This, however, Mr
Pinkerton obferves, is the only one of thefe fymbols
which certainly denotes an earthly fovereign, it being
doubted whether the reft are not all figures of gods.—
According to Eckhet, even the horn and diadem be¬
long to Bacchus, who invented the latter to cure his
headaches 5 and, according to the fame author, the
only monarch who appears on coins with the horn is
Lylimachus. We are informed, however, by Plutarch,
that Pyrrhus had a creft of goats horns to his helmet j
and the goat, we know, was a fymbol of Macedon.
Perhaps the fucceflbrs of Alexander wore this badge
of the horn in confequence. The helmet likewife fre¬
quently appears on the heads of fovereigns, and Con¬
ftantine I. has helmets of various forms curioufly orna¬
mented.
The diadem is worn by moft of the Greek queens,
by Orodaltis, daughter of Lycomedes, king of Bithy¬
nia ; and though the Roman emprefles never appear
Avith it, yet this is more than eompenfated by the va¬
riety of their headdrefles. Sometimes the bull of an
emprefs is fupported by a crefcent, to imply that fhe
was the moon, as her hulband was the fun of the ftate.
The toga, or vail drawn over the face, at firft implied
that the perfon was inverted with the pontifical office j
and accordingly avc find it on the bufts of Julius Caefar,
Avhile pontifex maximus. It likeAvife implies the au-
gurfhip, the augurs having a particular kind of gown
called lana, Avith which they covered their heads when
obferving an omen. In latter times this implies only
confecration, and is common in coins of emprefles.
It is firft met Avith on the coins of Claudius Gothicus
as the mark of confecration of an emperor. The
nimbus, or glory, now appropriated to faints, has been
already mentioned. It is as ancient as Auguftus, but
is not to be met Avith on many of the imperial medals,
even after it began to be appropriated to them. There
is a curious coin, Avhich has upon the reverfe of the
common piece, Avith the head of Rome, Urbs Roma,
in large brafs, Conftantine I. fitting amid Vi&ories
and genii, Avith a triple crown upon his head for Eu¬
rope, Afia, and Africa, with the legend Securitas
Rom;e.
In general only the buft is given upon medals, portraits
though fometimes half the body or more j in Avhich upon me-
latter cafe the. hands often appear Avith enfigns of ma-dals.
jefty in them 5 fuch as the globe, faid to have been in¬
troduced by Auguftus as a fymbol of univerfal domi-
the feeptre, fometimes confounded Avith the con-
116
fular ftaflf; a roll of parchment, the fymbol of legifla-
tive
MED
Arrange¬
ment, See.
”7 f
Reverfes or
Greek and
Roman
coins.
live power; and an handkerchief, expreflive of-the power
over the public games, where the emperor gave the
fignal. Some princes hold a thunderbolt, Ihowing that
their power on earth was equal to that of Jupiter in
heaven ; while others hold an image of Victory.
Medals like wife afford a good number of portraits
of illultrious men ; but they cannot eafily be arranged
in chronological order, fo that a feries of them is not
to be expected. It is likewife vain to attempt the
formation of a feries of gods and goddeffes to be found
on ancient coins. Mr Pinkerton thinks it much bet¬
ter to arrange them under the feveral cities or kings
whole names they bear.s A collection of the portraits
of illuftrious men may likewife be formed from medals
of modern date.
The reverfes of ancient Greek and Roman coins
afford an infinite variety of inftruClion and amufement.
They contain figures of deities at full length, with
their attributes and fymbols, public fymbols and diver-
fions, plants, animals, &c. &c. and in Ihort almoft
every objeCt of nature or art. Some have the portrait
of the queen, fon, or daughter of the prince whofe image
appears on the face obverfe ; and thefe are efteemed
highly by antiquaries, not only becaufe every coin
ftamped with portraits on both fides is accounted valu¬
able, but becaufe they render it certain that the perfon
reprefented on the reverfe was the wife, fon, or daughter
of him who appears on the obverfe ; by which means
they affift greatly in the adjufting of a feries. Some,
however, with two portraits are common, as Auguftus,
the reverfe of Caligula ; and Marcus Aurelius, reverfe
of Antoninus Pius.
We find more art and defign in the reverfes of the
Roman medals than of the Greek ; but on the other
hand, the latter have more exquifite relief and work-
manlhip. The very ancient coins have no reverfes,
excepting a rude mark ftruck into the metal, refem-
bling that of an inftrument with four blunt points on
which the coin was ftruck ; and was owing to its hav¬
ing been fixed by fuch an inftrument on that fide
to receive the impreflion upon the other. To this
fucceeds the image of a dolphin, or fome fmall |mimal,
in one of the departments of the rude mark, of in an
hollow fquare : and this again is fucceeded by a more
perfeCt image, without any mark of the hollow fquare.
Some of the Greek coins are hollow in the reverfe, as
thofe of Caulonia, Crotona, Metapontum, and fome
other ancient cities of Magna Grascia. About 500
B. C. perfedt reverfes appear on the Greek coins, of
exquifite relief and workmanlhip. “ The very muf-
cles of men and animals (fays Mr Pinkerton), are feen,
and will bear infpeCtion with the largeft magnifier as
ancient gems. The ancients certainly had not eyes
different from ours ; and it is clear that they muft have
magnified objeCts. A drop of water forms a micro-
fcope; and it is probable this was the only one of
the ancients. To Greek artifts we are indebted for the
beauty of the Roman imperial coins ; and thefe are
fo highly finiflied, that on fome reverfes, as that of
Nero’s decurfion, the adventus and progrejjio of va¬
rious emperors, the fundator pacts of Severus, the fea¬
tures of the emperor, riding or walking, are as exaCt
as on the obverfe. But though the beft Greek ar¬
tifts were called to Rome, yet the Greek coins under
A L S. 165
the Roman emperors are fometimes well executed, Arrange-
and always full of variety and curiofity. No Roman ment> &c*
or 'Etrufcan coins have been found of the globular v “*
form, or indented on the reverfe like the early Greek.
The firft Greek are fmall pieces of filver, while the
Roman are large maffes of copper. The former are
ftruck ; the latter caft in moulds. The reveries of the
Roman coins are very uniform, the prow of a ftiip, a
car, or the like, till about the year 100 B. C. when
various reverfes appear on their confular coins in all
metals. The variety and beauty of the Roman impe¬
rial reverfes are well known. The medallift much va¬
lues thofe which have a number of figures; as the
Puel/cc Faujlinianar, of Fauftina, a gold coin no larger
than a fixpence, which has 12 figures ; that of Trajan,
regna ajjignata, has four; the congiarium of Nerva five;
the allocution of Trajan feven ; of Hadrian 10; of
Probus 12. Some Roman medals have fmall figures
on both lides, as the Apolhni fanSio of Julian II. Such
have not received any peculiar name among the medal-
lifts. Others have only a reverfe, as the noted fpintri-
ati, which have numerals I. II. &c. on the ob¬
verfe.”
The names o{ the deities reprefented on the rever-
fes of Greek coins are never expreffed ; perhaps, as Mr ties repre-
Pinkerton fuppofes, out of piety, a fymbolical repre-fented upon
fentation of their attributes being all that they thought an.cient
proper to delineate ; but the Roman coins always ex-coins’
prefs the name, frequently with an adjunct, as Veneri
Victrici, &c. In others, the name of the emperor
or emprefs is added; as PudicitijE Augusts, round
an image of modefty ; Virtus Augusti, a legend for
an image of virtue.
The principal fymbols of the divine attributes to be
met with on the Greek medals are as follow :
1. Jupiter is known on the coins of Alexander the
Great by his eagle and thunderbolts; but when the
figure occurs only on the obverfes of coins, he is diftin-
guilhed by a laurel crown, and placid bearded counte¬
nance. Jupiter Ammon is known by the ram’s horn
twilling round his ear ; a fymbol of power and ftrength,
affumed by fome of the fucceffors of Alexander the
Great, particularly by Lyfimaehus.
2. Neptune is known by his trident, dolphin, or being
drawn by fea horfes; but he is feldom met with on the
Grecian coins.
3. Apollo is diftinguilhed by an harp, branch of
laurel, or tripod; and fometimes by a bow and arrows.
In the charadler of the fun, his head is furrounded with
rays ; but when the bull only occurs, he has a fair young
face, and is crowmed with laurel. He is frequent on
the coins of the Syrian princes.
4. Mars is diftinguilhed by his armour, and fome¬
times by a trophy on his Ihoulders. His head is
armed with a helmet, and has a ferocious counte¬
nance.
5. Mercury is reprefented as a youth, wuth a fmall
cap on his head, wings behind his ears and on his feet.
He is known by the cap, which refembles a fmall hat,
and the wings. He appears alfo with the caduceus,
or wand twined with ferpents, and the marfupium, or
purfe, which he holds in his hand.
6. AZffculapius is known by his bulhy beard, and
his leaning on a club with a ferpent twilled round it.
He
166 MED
Arrange- He fometimes occurs with his wife Hygeia or Health,
mcnt, Stc.^ their fon Telefphorus or Convalel'cence between
v them.
y. Bacchus is known by his crown of ivy or vine,
his diadem and horn, with a tyger and fatyrs around
him.
8. The figure of Hercules is common on the coins of
Alexander the Great, and has frequently been miilaken
for that of the prince himfelf. He appears fometimes
as a youth and fometimes with a beard- He is known
by the club, lion’s Ikin, and remarkable apparent
ftrength j fometimes he has a cup in his hand 5 and a
poplar tree, as a fymbol of vigour, is fometimes added to
the portrait.
9. The Egyptian Serapis is known by his bulky
beard, and a meafure upon his head.
10. Apis is delineated in the form of a bull, with a
flower of the lotos, the water lily of the Nile, fuppofed
by Macrobius to be a fymbol of creation 5 and Jambli-
ehus tells us, that Ofiris was thought to have his throne
in it.
it. Harpocrates, the god of Silence, appears with
his finger on his mouth ; fometimes with the fiftrum in
his left hand } a fymbol common to moll of the Egyp¬
tian deities.
12. Canopus, another Egyptian deity, appears in the
fliape of a human head placed on a kind of pitcher.
“ This deified pitcher (fays Mr Pinkerton), feems to
refer to an anecdote ®f ancient fuperltition, which, I
believe, is recorded by Plutarch. It feems fome Per-
fian and Egyptian priefts had a conteft which of their
deities had the fuperiority. The Egyptian faid, that
a fingle vafe, facred to Serapis, would extinguilh the
whole power of the Perfian deity of fire. The experi¬
ment was tried $ and the wily Egyptian, boring holes
in the vafe and Hopping them with wax, afterwards
filled the vafe with water ; which, gulhing through the
holes as the wax melted, extinguilhed the Perfian deity.
Hence the vafe was deified.”
13. The Holy Senate and Holy People, appear fre¬
quently on the Greek imperial coins, fometimes repre-
fented as old men with beards, at others as youths.
The goddefles reprefented on medals are,
1. Juno, reprefented by a beautiful young woman,
fometimes with a diadem, fometimes without any
badge, which is reckoned a fufficient diftinflion, as the
other goddefies all wear badges. Sometimes (he ap¬
pears as the goddefs of marriage j and is then veiled to
the middle, and fometimes to the toes. She is known
by the peacock, a bird facred to her from the fable of
Argus.
2. Minerva is very common on the coins of Alex¬
ander the Great; and her bull has been miftaken by
the celebrated painter Le Brun for the hero himfelf.
She is very eafily diftinguifhed by the helmet. Her
fymbols are, her armour j the fpear in her right hand,
and the aegis, with a Medufa’s head, in her left; an
owl commonly Handing by her.
3. Diana of Ephefus is commonly reprefented on the
Greek imperial coins; and appears with a great num¬
ber of breads, fuppofed to denote univerfal Nature. She
is fupported by two deer, and carries a pannier of fruit
upon her head. I he bufl of this goddefs is known by
the crefcent on her brow, and fometimes by the bow
and quiver at her fide.
A L S.
4. Venus is known by an apple, the prize of beauty, Arran?.,
in her hand. Sometimes Hie is difiinguilhed only by ^ent, &C.
her total want of drefs ; but is always to be known by '"T'—J
her extraordinary beauty, and is fometimes adorned
with pearls about the neck.
5. Cupid is fometimes met with on the Syrian coins,
and is known by his infancy and wings.
6. Cybele is known by a turreted crown and lion j
or is feen in a chariot drawn by lions.
7. Ceres is known by her garland of wrheat, and is
common on the Sicilian coins; that ifland being re¬
markable for its fertility. Sometimes Hie has two fer-
pents by her, and is fometimes drawn in a chariot by
them. She carries in her hands the torches wdth
which Hie is fabled to have gone in fearch of her
daughter Proferpine.
8. Proferpine herfelf is fijmetimes met with on
coins, with the name of ko^h, or the girl.
9. The Egyptian Ifis has a bud or flowTer on her
head ; a fymbol of the perpetual bloom of the inhabi¬
tants of heaven. She carries alfo a liflrum in her hand.
10. The Sidonian Aflarte appears on a globe fup¬
ported on a chariot with twro wheels, and drawn by
two horfes.
Thefe are the deities mofl commonly reprefented on
the Greek coins. The more uncommon are, Saturn
with his feythe, or with a hook on the Heraclian
coins ; Vulcan with his tongs on the reverfe of a coin
of Thyatira, reprefented at wmrk in the prefence of
Minerva. Adranus, a Sicilian god, is fometimes re¬
prefented on coins with a' dog. Anubis, an Egyp¬
tian deity, has a dog’s head. Atis is known by his
Phrygian bonnet; Cafior and Pollux by a flar on the
head of each; Dis, by his old face, diflievelled hair
and beard, and a hook: Flora by her crown of flow¬
ers ; Nemefis by her wheel; and Pan by his horns
and ears belonging to fome kind of beafl.
There are likewife to be found on medals many Table*of
different fymbols by themfelves ; of the moH remark-fymbol*,
able of which we ihall give the following table, with
their fignification:
Symbols.
1. Vafes w ith fprigs,
2. Small cheff or hamper, with a
ferpent leaping out,
3. Anchor on Seleucian medals,
4. Apollo on Syrian coins, on an
inverted hamper,
5. Bee,
6. Laurel, -
7. Reed, -
8. Ivy and grapes,
9. Poppy,
10. Corn, -
11. Owl and olive,
12. Dove, -
Significations.
Solemn, games.
1, Myffic rites of
! _ Bacchus.
Coin ffruck
at Antioch,
where an an-'
| eh or was dug
l UP-
Covered tripod.
T Arifleus the
■< fon of Apol-
1 lo.
Apollo.
A river,
Bacchus.
T Ceres and Pr«-
\ ferpine.
Ceres.
Minerva.
Venus.
*3’
Arrange¬
ment, 8tc>
Symbols.
13. Torch
14. Mudnis, or conic ftone,
MED
Significations.
f- Diana, Ceres,
or Profer-
1
pme.
T The fun, Belus,
\ or Venus.
15
16
I7'
18.
j9.
30.
31.
32.
23-
34.
25-
26
27
28
Symbols of Countries, &c.
, Pomegranate flowers, - Rhodes.
. Owl, - - Athens.
, Pegafus, - - Corinth.
. Wolf’s head, - - Argos.
Bull’s head, - - Boeotia.
Minotaur’s head and labyrinth, Crete.
Horfe’s head, - - Pharfalia.
Lion, - - _ Marfeilles.
Tortoife, - - Peloponnefus.
Sphinx, - - . Scio.
Three legs joined, as in the Ifle 1 c.
of Man money, - - f-^Cll7
Horfe,
The crefcent,
29. Enfign, with the letters Col.
1
3°
31
32
33'
35'
36.
37-
38.
39-
40.
41.
42.
43-
44-
45-
Bull,
Caduceus,
Cornucopiae,
Pontifical hat.
Theflaly.
Byzantium (a)
Bull, - . . J Suppofed to be
f a river.
A colony drawn
from one le¬
gion.
Apis, ftrength
or fecurity.
C Peace and con-
\ cord.
Abundance.
Priefthood.
34. Parazonium, - - f datoon of com-
l mand.
f The world pre¬
ferred by the
gods for the
three fons of
(_ Conflant. I.
Fort and gate, - - Security.
Iribuli, a kind of chevaux de f ri 1
frize, - . -5 Unknown.
Altar or tripod,
Dolphin,
Ledlifternia,
Lituus, or twilled wand,
Apex, or cap with firings,
Thenfa, or chariot employed to T Confecration of
carry images, - . | an emprefs.
Peacock, - _ . Ditto.
Eagle, - _ . Confecration of
an emperor.
Globe
liars
on an altar with three
;|Un
Piety.
Apollo.
Fellivals.
Augurfhip.
Pontificate.
A L S'. ifiy
The legends put upon medals are deligned as ex- Arrange-
planations of them ; but as the compafs of even the ment> &cc-i
largell coins does not admit of any great length of "
infcription, it has always been found neceffary to ufe Legends of
abbreviations ; and in readily decyphering thefe lies a medals,
conliderable part of the difficulty of the fcience. This,
however, is greater in the Roman than in the Greek
medals ; for the Greeks commonly infert as much of
the word as is futficient to enable us eafily to under-
lland its meaning ; but it is common for thofe who at¬
tempt to explain letters that do not often occur, to
fall into very ridiculous errors. Of this Mr Pinker-Extrawdi-
ton gives a moll remarkable inllance in Fortunius Li-narymif-
cetus, a learned man, who finding upon a coin of A-tak®ofF°r-
drian the letters, r. IA fignifying the 14th year of that tun‘us kic#>
emperor’s reign, imagined that they fignified Lucer- tUS‘
nas invenit Delta ; “ Della invented lanthorns 5” and
thence aferibed the origin of lanthorns to the Egyp¬
tians. Tables explaining the meaning of the abbrevi¬
ations found upon medals have been publilhed by Pa-
tin, Urfatus, and others-
Sect. XI. Of Medallions, Medalets, &c.
Besides the ordinary coins of the ancients, which
palfed in common circulation through the country,
there were others of a larger lize, which are now term¬
ed medallions. Thefe were llruck on the commence¬
ment of the reign of a new emperor and other folemn
occafions : frequently alfo, by the Greeks in particular,
as monuments of gratitude or of flattery. Sometimes
they were mere trial or pattern pieces 5 and thofe
abound after the time of Maximian, with the words
Tres Monet* on the reverfe. The common opinion
is, that all the Roman pieces of gold exceeding the
denarius aureus, all in lilver exceeding the denarius,
and all in brafs exceeding the fellertius, went under
the denomination of medallions : but Mr Pinkerton
thinks that many of thefe large pieces went in circula¬
tion, though not very commonly, as our five and two
guinea pieces, filver crowns, &c. do in this country.
The fineft medallions were prelented by the mint maf-
ters to the emperor, and by the emperor to his friends,
as fpecimens of fine workmanflup. The befl we have
at prefent are of brafs, and many of them compofed
of two forts of metal ; the centre being copper, with
a ring of brafs around it, or the contrary ; and the
infcription is fometimes confined to one of the metals,
fometimes not. There is a remarkable difference be¬
tween the Greek and Roman medallions in point of
thicknefs -, the latter being frequently three or four
lines thick, while the other feldom exceed one. Very
few medallions, however, were flruck by the Greeks
before the time of the Roman emperors j but the Greek
medallions of the emperors are more numerous than
thofe
(a) This appears on the early coins of Byzantium, with the legend BYZANTIN. 2J2T. “ the preferver of Ry-
zan mm. . 1 lie reafon of this rvas, that when Philip of Macedon befieged the city, and was about to ilorm it in
t C "n y nii? . » the moon flume out on a hidden and difeovered him j by which means the inhabitants had time
°?°r r tmr forces and repulfe him. The Turks on entering Conflantinople, found this badge in many places:
• n U ?fain£ ^me magical power in it, ailiimed the fymbol, and its power, to themfelves j fo that the crefcent
now the chief Turkifh enfign.
i68
M E D A L S.
Medal¬
lions, &c
122
Of meda-
lets.
thofe of the Romans themfelves. All thefe pieces,
however, are of fuch high price that few private per-
fons are able to purchafe them. In the laft century
Chriftina queen of Sweden procured about 300*
the king of France’s collection there are 1200 a num¬
ber formerly fuppofed not to exift ; and Dr Hunter’s
collection contains about 400, exclulive of the Egyp¬
tian.
Belides thefe large pieces, there are fmaller ones, of
a fize fomewhat larger than our half-crowns 5 and by
Italian medallifts are called medaglion cim, or fmall
medallions. They are itill fcarcer than the large
kind.
There is ftill a third kind, which have almoft efca-
ped the notice of medallilts, viz. the fmall coins or
mijjilia fcattered among the people on lolemn occa-
fions ; fuch as thofe {truck for the {laves on account
of the faturnalia ) counters for gaming } tickets for
baths and feafts ; tokens in copper and in lead, &c.
Thefe are diftinguilhed by Mr Pinkerton by the name
of medolets. Many, or perhaps almolt all, of thofe
{truck for the faturnalia were fatirical; as the {laves
had then a licenfe to ridicule not only their matters
but any perfon whatever. Mr Pinkerton mentions
one of the mo ft common pieces of this kind, which
has on the obverfe the head of an old Avoman veiled,
with a laurel crown 5 the reverfe only s. c. within a
wreath. Baudelot is of opinion that it is the head .of
Acca Laurentia, the nurfe of Romulus, to whom a
feftival was ordained. “ Perhaps (fays Mr Pinkerton),
it was {truck in ridicule of Julius Gee far •, for the man¬
ner of the laurel crown, and its high appearance over
the head, perfectly refemble that of Julius on his coins.”
Some have a {hip upon one fide 5 on the reverfe T,
or a crofs, which was the image of Priapus •, and oc-
cafioned many falfe inveCtives againft the firft Chrif-
tians, who paid fuch refpeCt to the crofs. Some pieces
have the heads of the emperors upon one fide *, on
the reverfe only numerals, III. IV. V. &c, and the
noted fpintriati of Tacitus. Both thefe kinds appeal-
tickets for the baths, as the number feems to denote the
particular bath. Some have the head of a girl with
a veffel ufed at the baths in her hand. The fpintriati
are fo immodeft, that few will bear mention. But
fome are merely ludicrous ) as one which has an afs
with a bell about his neck, and a foldier riding him ;
another with two figures hoifting a woman in a balket
into the air. Of thofe that will juft bear mention, is
a man with titles around him, as chief of the games 5
and a woman in ridicule of the modeft bath-girl above
mentioned. There is alfo one marked xix, on which
appears an imperator triumphing in a car : this car is
placed on the back of a camel *, and behind the impe-
rator is a monkey mimicking him.
©f the con- A fourth clafs of medals are called contorniati from
tomiati. the Italian contorniato, “ encircled 5” becaufe of the
hollow circle w'hieh commonly runs around them.
They are diftinguilhed from medallions by their thin-
nefs, faint relief, reverfes fometimes in relief, fome-
fimes hollow 5 and in general by the inferiority in
their workmanlhip. The opinions of medallifts con¬
cerning thefe pieces are very various 5 fome fuppofe
them to have been ftruck by Gallienus to the memory
of illuftrious men and celebrated athletes, at the time
that he caufcd all the confecration coins of his pre- Meda!-
decefibrs to be reftored 5 others aferibe their invention ^°ns, 5cr.
to Greece, &c. but Mr Pinkerton is of opinion that
they were only tickets for places at public games.
Many of them, notwithftanding their inferior work¬
manlhip, are very valuable on account of their pre-
ferving the portraits of fome illuftrious authors of an¬
tiquity, nowhere elfe to be found. Much depend-
ance, however, cannot be put on the portraits of
Greek authors and eminent men found upon fome of
them ; for though we know that the bulls of Salluft,
Horace, &c. mull have been ftruck when their per-
fons were frelh in the memory of the artifts, yet it
was otherwife with Homer, Solon, Pythagoras, &e.
which are to be found on fome of them. Even thefe,
however, are valuable, as being ancient and perhaps
traditional portraits of thefe great men. The laft
Avhofe portraits are fuppofed to have been delineated
in this Avay, are Apollonius Tyaneus Avho flourifhed
in the time of Domitian, and Apuleius in that of
Marcus Antoninus. ' Mr Pinkerton thinks it a con¬
firmation of his opinion concerning thefe medals, that
the reverfes ahvays contain fome device alluding to
public games, as that of a charioteer driving a cha¬
riot, &c.
Sect. XII. DireBions for making Cabinets.
We muft iaoav proceed to the laft part of our fub-
ject, viz. that of giving direftions for the formation
of cabinets. As avc have already feen that the forma¬
tion of any one muft be attended with very confider-
able expence, it is neceflary for every one Avho at¬
tempts this to proportion the cabinet to his own cir-
cumftances. There are, properly fpeaking, three kinds
of cabinets. 1. Thofe meant to contain a coin of
every fort that has been iflued from the mint in every
age and country •, but this Avhich may be called the
large and complete cabinet, is not to be purchafed by
private perfons. That of Dr Hunter already men¬
tioned is perhaps one of the belt private cabinets ever
knoAvn 5 and coll 23,000!. but as many duplicates
Avere fold as coft 2000I. by which means the expence
Avas reduced to 2i,oool. The vaft colleflion made by
the king of France coft upAvards of 100,cool. 2. The
fmaller cabinet may be fuppofed to confift only of
middle and fmall Roman brafs, Englifti pennies, groats,
&c. Avith a feAv medals of the more valuable kind, and
may be fuppofed to incur an expence of from 200I. to
1600I. 3. The fmalleft kind is called a cajket of me¬
dals, and does not confift of above 1000 at moft of va¬
rious kinds 5 and eonfequently the expence muft depend
on the pleafure of the proprietor.
In the formation of the grand cabinet, it muft be
obferved that the Greek medals of every denomina¬
tion do not admit of any arrangement by the metals
like the Roman ; not any regular feries of this kind
being met with even in the moft opulent cabinets.
Hence in all colleflions the civic coins are ranged ac¬
cording to an alphabetical order •, and the monarchic
in a chronological one. The fame rule is to be ob¬
ferved in the Roman confular medals -, they are ranged,
like the coins of the Greek cities, in an alphabetical
feries of the families. The Roman imperial coins are
only
M E D
ftireAIons only thofe capable of being arranged according to fizes
Cabinets^anc^ meta^s- ^ven from this rauft be excepted the
. >‘i‘ana*', minimi, or very fmalleft coins 5 which are fo fcarce,
that tlie only regular feries of them in the world is that
belonging to the king of Spain, which was formed by
a moft fkilful French medaliift, and confifts of all the
metals. The arrangement of a grand cabinet, according
to Mr Pinkerton, is as follows.
“ I- The coins of cities and of free dates in alpha¬
betical order: whether riling Greek, Roman, Punic,
Etrufcan, or Spanilh characters.
“ II. Kings in chronological feries, both as to foun¬
dation of empire and feniority of reign.
“ III. Heroes, heroines, founders of empires, and
cities.
“ IV. Other illuftrious perfons.
“ V. Roman afes.
“ VI. Coins of families, commonly called confular.
“ VII. Imperial medallions.
“ VIII. Imperial gold.
“ IX. Imperial minimi of all metals.
X. Imperial filver.
“ XI. Imperial firft brafs.
“ XII. Second brafs.
“ XIII. Third brafs.
‘4 XIV. Colonial coins, which are all of brafs.
** XV. Greek cities under the emperors, of all me¬
tals and fizes. In a fmaller cabinet they may be put
with the Roman, according to their metal and fize.
Thofe without the emperor’s head go to elafs I. though
ftruck in Roman times.
“ XVI. Egyptian coins ftruck under the Roman
emperors, of all metals and fizes. I hey are moftly of
a bafe metal called by the French paiin ; it is a kind
wf pot-metal or brittle brafs.
“ XVII. Contorniati, or ticket medals.
“ XVIII. Coins of Gothic princes, &c. inferibed
with Roman chara&ers.
? ^^°^ns fouthern nations ufing uncommon
alphabets j as the Perfian, Punic, Etrufcan, and Spa¬
nilh. 1
“ XX. Coins of northern nations ufing uncommon
chara&ers, as the Runic and German.
“ In the modern part no feries can be formed of
copper that will go back above two centuries ; but fe-
quences (chronological feries) of gold and filver may
be arranged of all the different empires, kingdoms, and
ftates, as far as their feveral coinages will allow. Thole
of England and France will be the moft perfect. Mo¬
dern filver is commonly arranged in three fequences :
the dollar, the groat, and the penny fizes. The me¬
dals of each modern country ought of courfe to be
leparated ; though it is beft to arrange each fet in
chronological order, let their fize of metal be what they
will. It may be remarked here, that our modern me¬
dals, of the fize of a tea-faucer, are only fo many mo¬
numents of barbarifm. The ancient medallions are al-
rnoft umverfally but little larger than our crown-piece,
though three or four of them may extend to about two
inches diameter, but very many modern medals to four
inches and. more. A large medal always declares an
ignorant prince or an ignorant artift. Into the fize of
a crovvn-piece the ancients threw more miracles in this
lions” WlU ln thefe monftrous produc-
Vol. XIII. Part I.
A L S.
_ Thefe direftions will likewife apply to the forma¬
tion of a cabinet of the fecond kind : but if the col¬
lector means to form a feries of large Roman brafs, he
v ill find the coins of four or five emperors fo fcarce
as not to be attainable in that feries, even at any*
price. He muft therefore fupply their places with
middle brafs, as is allowed with regard to Otho, even
in the beft cabinets ; there not being above three coins
of that emperor in large brafs known in the world :
whereas of the middle brafs, two or three hundred
may exift. For this reafon Mr Pinkerton concludes,
that in cabinets of the fecond clafs, the colleger may
mingle the large and fecond brafs together as he
thinks proper, in order to fave expence •, though it
would not do fo well to unite fuch difproportionate
nzes as the large and fmall. “ In the fmall fequence,
however (fays he), there can be no harm in his mix-
mg gold, iiiver, and brafs, as chance or curiofity may
lead him to purchafe any of thefe metals. And though
your ftarched bigotted medaliift may fneer becaufe fuch
a feq.uen.ee would controvert his formal and narrow way
of thinking, common fenfe wfill authorize us to laugh
at the pedant in our turn, and to pronounce fuch a
fenes more various, rich, and interefting, than if the
colleClor had arranged only one metal, and rejected a
curious article becaufe he did not colleft gold or filver.
In like manner,, if, in the modern part of the fmaller
cabinet, any coin of a feries is of high price, or of
bad impreffion, there can be no impropriety in putting
another of the fame reign, which is cheaper, or bet¬
ter executed, though of a different denomination or of
a little larger fize. In fhort, the colkdor has no
rules but in the Greek cities and Roman families, to
ob erve alphabetical order and chronology in every
thing elfe.” J
TABLES of Ancient Coins.
1 he moft ancient coins, according to Froelich, are
diftinguifiled by the following marks, which he ac¬
counts infallible. 1. Their oval circumference, and
globiftous fwellmg fliape. 2. Antiquity of alphabet.
3- 1 he characters being retrograde, or the firft divi-
fion of the legend in the common ftyle, while the next •
is retrograde. 4. Ihe indented fquare already defiuib-
ed. 5. The Ample ftruCture of the mintage. 6. Some
of the very old coins are hollowed on the reverfe, with
the image impreffed on the front. 7. The drefs’ fym-
bols, &c. frequently of the rudeft defign and exe¬
cution.
Table I. Ancient Greek Coins.
1. Thofe without impreflkm.
2. With one or more hollow indented marks on one
fide, and an irnpreftion in relief on the other. Of Chal-
cedon on the Hellefpont, Lebos, Abdera in Thraee
Acanthus m Maeedon, thofe faid to belong to Enum
m Achaia. This clafs continues from about goo to
700 B. C. '
3. With an indented fquare divided into fegments
having a fmall figure in one of them ; the reft blank’
with a figure in relief on the obverfe.—Of Syracufe
mid^other places adjacent.—Continue from 700 to 600
^ 4. Coins
169
Ancient
Coins.
170
Ancient
(,'oins
MED
4. Coins 'hollow on the reverfe, with figures in relief
on the obverfe.—Ot Caulonia, Crotona, IVletaponluni,
&c. Suppofed by fome to be a local coinage of Mag¬
na Graecia 5 but probably of equal antiquity with the
former.
Coins in which a fquare die is ufed on one or both
fides.—Of Athens, Cyrene, Argos,&c.—Of Alexander
I. a. d Archelaus I. of Macedon. Difufed in the reign
of the jailer about 42 ' B. C.
6. Complete coins, both in obverfe and reverfe, oc-
eur firil in Sicily in the time of Gelo, about 491
B. C. ' r ^
7. Coins of Alexander the Great and his fucceliors.
About the time of this hero the Greek coins began to
attain to perfection, and were itruck of uncommon
beauty. It is remarkable, that on the coins of this
monarch his own image feldom occurs. The only
one yet found of Alexander with his portrait upon it,
and ftruck during his reign, is a filver hemidrachm
in Dr Hunter’s cabinet, which is reprefented Plate
CCCXXXI. N° 3. After his death many coins bear
his portrait. Trebellius Pollio informs us, that fome
coins, particularly thofe of Alexander, ufed to be worn
as amulets •, and many medals are met with in cabinets,
bored feemingly with that intention.
8. Coins of the Succeffors of Alexander.—Thofe of
the Syrian monarchs almoft equal the coins of Alex¬
ander himfelf in beauty. Thofe of Antiochus VI. are
fuppofed to be the moft perfeft patterns of male beauty
to be met with any where. The Egyptian Ptolemies
are fomewhat inferior.
9. The coins of the Arfacidae of Parthia done by
Greek workmen.
10. The Greek imperial coins, being fuch as have
the head of an emperor or emprefs : fuch as have not
thefe impreffions being clafled with the civic coins,
though ftruck under the Roman power. None of the
imperial coins occur in gold. Of filver there are thofe
©f Antioch, Tyre, Sidon, Tarfus, Berytus, Csefarea,
Egyptian filver coins of bafe metal, Syrian filver coins,
which fometimes bear on the reverfe the club of Her¬
cules, or the Tyrian fhell-fifh. Thofe of Sidon bear
the image of the goddefs Aftarte, or her chariot.
Thofe of Csefarea in Cappadocia of better work than
the Syrian. Lycian coins of good workmanfhip : on
the reverfe two harps and an owl fitting upon them.
Silver coins of Gelon in Sarmatia refembling the Sy¬
rian. The fituation of this town is very much un¬
known. It feems to have been fituated on the north
of the Euxine fea, where fome Sarmatic or Sclavonic
tribes were mingled with the Scythians or Goths.
The Greek imperial brafs coins are very numerous.
A feries of almoft all the emperors may be had from
thofe of Antioch, with a Latin legend on the obverfe
and Greek on the reverfe. Thofe of Bithynia and
Phrygia remarkable for good workmanftiip. The coins
of Tarfus remarkable for their curious views of ob-
jefts, almoft in pei-fpeftive. The Egyptian coins,
from the time of Auguftus to Nero, are worfe exe¬
cuted than afterwards. From Nero to Commodus
they are frequently of admirable workmanftrip, and in
a peculiar ftyle, diftinfl both from the Greek and Ho¬
man. From the time of Commodus they decline, and
are loft after the reign of Conftantius I. The Egyp¬
tian brafs coins of the Roman period are likewife of ex-
A L S.
cellent workmanfliip, efpecially in the time of Antoni- Ancient
nus Pius. t C(”ns-
Table II. Roman Coins.
I. The confular coins, called alfo the coins of families,
and arranged alphabetically in cabinets, according to
the names of the families which appear on them. They
are,
1. Brafs Coins.—Thefe confift chiefly of large pieces
of rude workmanfhip without any interefting imagery.
In cabinets they are generally kept in boxes apart by
themfelves. The as bears the head of Janus j the fe-
mis oi Jupiter with S ; the triens of Minerva with four
cyphers j the quadrans of Hercules with three cyphers 5
the fextans of Mercury with two cyphers*, and the
uncia bears the head of Rome with one cypher. In all
thefe pieces the prow of a {hip is conftantly the figure
on the reverfe, with very few exceptions. Sometimes
indeed they have a {hell, two heads of barley, a frog,
an anchor or a dog, on the reverfe. About the time of
Julius Caefar both the obverfes and the reverfes of the
coins began to be altered.
2. Silver.—Of this the denarius was the firft and
principal coin. It was ftamped originally with X,
denoting that the value was ten afes. On the reverfe
was Caftor and Pollux, or a chariot of Victory. Af¬
terwards the bulls of various deities make their appear¬
ance 5 and in the feventh century of Rome the por¬
traits of illuftrious perfons deceafed are met with : but
till the time of Julius Caefar no figure of any living
perfon is to be met with *, Julius himfelf being the firft
who affumed that honour. The workmanfhip on the
beft and worft filver is much the fame. The reverfes
are very curious, and point out many remarkable events
in Roman hiftory *, but none of theie occur till about a
century before the Chriftian era. The large denarii,
with Roma, are the moft ancient *, and fome of thefe
bear the Pelafgic A, not the Roman. The filver fef-
tertii have a head of Mercury, with a caduceus on the
reverfe. The qumarii have always a head of Jupiter^
with a ViiSlory on the reverfe.
3. Gold.—Moft of thefe are of great value. The
number of thefe exceeds not too *, thofe of brafs 200 ;
and of filver 2000. The aureus is the general gold
coin ; but two or three gold femiffes of families likewife
occur.
II. Roman imperial coins.
1. Brafs.—This is of three fizes j large, middle,
and fmall. The firft forms a moft beautiful feries,
but very expenfive. The various colours of the pati¬
na have the fineft effefl. It is the moft important of
all the Roman coins, and exceeds even the gold in
value.
The middle brafs is next in value to the former 5
and in it are many rare and curious coins, particular¬
ly interefting to Britons, as elucidating the hiftory of
the ifland. Of thefe are the triumphal arch of Clau¬
dius *, the ExERC. Britannicus of Adrian *, the
coins of Antoninus Pius, Commodus, Severus, with
a Vittory, Victoria Britan. : but efpecially thofe
perfonifying the country Britannia. “ '1 he num¬
ber of Roman coins relating to Britain (fays Mr Pin¬
kerton) is remarkable, more than 20 having been ftruck
at various times ; while thofe perfonifying Italy, Gaul,
Spain,
MED
Ancient Spain, and other regions of the empire, exceed not four
Coins. wr at moft for each country.” Only one country
vjes with Britain, and that is Dacia on the extreme
north-eaif of the empire, as Britain on the extreme
north-weft. No doubt this circumftance of remote-
nefs in thefe two countries recommended them to this
particular attention, as more expreflive of the Roman
power.
The fmall brafs feries abounds alfo with curious
coins. They are fcarce till the time of Valerian and
Gallienus, but very common afterwards. Mr Pinker¬
ton recommends, therefore, to form a feries in filver
as well as brafs •, both being the cheapeft of all the
Roman coins, “ In this feries (fays he), it is a com¬
mon fault to arrange many Coins which have been plat¬
ed with gold or filver, the forgeries of ancient times,
but which time has worn off either wholly or in part.”
All real brafs coins have the s. c. till the time of Gal¬
lienus ; as the fenate alone had the power of ftriking
brafs, while the emperor himfelf had that of gold and
filver. When the s. c. therefore, is wanting, the
coin was certainly once plated; as, in general, the
different type and fabric, being thofe of gold and
filver, fufficiently ftiow themfelves. With Pertinax,
A. D. 192, there is a temporary ceffation of fmall
brafs j nor after him do any princes occur in that feries
till Valerian, A. D. 254, excepting Trajanus Decius,
A. D. 250 only. After Valerian the feries is conti¬
nuous and common. The brafs coinage gradually de¬
clined in fize from the time of Severus 5 fo that parts
of the as could not be ftruck, or at leaft it was held
unneceffary to ftrike them. Trajanus Decius attempt¬
ed in vain to reftore the coinage ; and Valerian and
Gallienus were forced to iffue denarii terei and fmall
affaria. The feries of large and of middle brafs are of
two fixed and known fizes 5 the former about that of
our crown, the latter of the half crown : though after
Severus they gradually leffen. But the fmall brafs
takes in all parts of the as ; and every brafs coin not
larger than our (hilling belongs to this feries. The
minimi, indeed, or very fmalleft, it is proper to keep
apart. The coins of Julius Csefar in this fize are of
peculiarly fine workmanfhip. They bear his portrait
reverfe of Auguftus, or the reverfe has a crocodile
Egypto capta. There are feveral with Mark An¬
tony, and fome with Cleopatra \ but the more common
pieces are thofe with only numerals on the obverfe,
which go the length of XIII. *, probably tickets for the
baths. A great many occur in the time of Nero ; of
which Mr Pinkerton particularizes one which has “ on
the reverfe a table ornamented with griffins and other
devices. Upon it is placed a wreath of laurel and a
beautiful vafe, of which the emboffed human figures
are fo minute, and finiftied fo furprifingly, as to ftamp
thefe coins the moft exquifite produdtions of the an¬
cient mint,” From the time of Nero to that of Ve-
fpafian no fmall brafs occurs : but there are many of
this emperor, and of his fon Titus 5 while Domitian
has as many as Nero, and Domitia his wife has al-
moft as many. Succeeding emperors to the time of
Pertinax have alfo many brafs coins; but from his
time to that of Valerian there are no real fmall brafs
excepting thofe ^ Trajanus Decius. After Gallienus
there are a grem many coins of this kind ; and Mr
Pinkerton mentions one in Dr Hunter’* cabinet, of
A L S. 171
an unknown perfon named Nigrianus. The coin feems Anc:<-nt
to have been ftruck at Carthage j and our author con- ('o n5'j
eludes that he was an African ufurper, faiher to Nigri- v
nianus.
2. Silver.—This feries is very complete, and the
cheapeft of any } efpecially as the fmall brafs becomes
a fine fupplement to it: the latter being had in plenty
when the filver become fcarce, and the lilver being
plentiful when the brafs is fcarce.
3. Gold.—The Roman imperial gold coins form a
feries of great beauty and perledtion •, but on account
of their great price, are beyond the purchafe of private
perfons.
4. The colonial coins occur only in brafs ; none, ex¬
cepting that of Nemaufus, having a right to coin filver.
They begin in Spain with Julius Ctelar and Antony,
and ceale with Caligula, who took away the privilege
of coinage from the Spaniftt colonies. The moft beau¬
tiful are thofe of Corinth. The other remarkable colo¬
nial coins are thofe of Emerita, Ilice, Terraco, Caffan-
dria, Babba, Berytus, Caefarea, Patrae, Emifa, Helio¬
polis or Balbec, Ptolemais, Sidon, Tyre, Deulton, Dium,
Troas, Rhefaina, Neapolis of Samaria, which bears a re-
prefentation of Mount Gerizzim with the temple on it,
Hippo in Africa, &c. On many of thefe coins we meet
with fine reprefentations of temples, triumphal arches,
gods, goddeffes, and illuftrious perfons. But coins with
thofe reprefentations, are by no means common ; the
colonial coins till the time of Trajan bearing only a
plough, or fome other fimple badge of a colony. Ca-
melodunum is the only colony in Britain of which we
have any coins.
5. The minimi.—This includes the fmalleft coins of
all denominations, moft of which do not exceed the
fize of a filver penny. They are the moft curious of
all 5 but no feries of them was ever formed by any per¬
fon except the abbe Rothelin, whofe colledlion, form¬
ed of all metals, paffed to the queen of Spain. T he
reafon of the fcarcity of thefe fmall coins is probably
their diminutive fize j by reafon of which they are
moftly loft,
It is furprifing that numbers of Roman coins are
found through all countries once fubjedl to that power¬
ful people. Some have been met with in the Orkneys,
and many in the moft remote parts of Europe, Afia,
and Africa, known to the ancients.
Table III. Coins of Other Ancient Nations.
1. The Lydians appear to have invented coinage 5
though, perhaps, this honour may be difputed with
them by the Greeks.
2. The Affyrians, Medes, Babylonians, Phoenicians,
and Egyptians, had no coins. In the mouths of the
mummies, are only thin, undamped, and round pieces
of gold, to pay Charon’s fare.
3. No Indian or Chinefe coins are to be met with
till a very late period ■, and even then fo rude as fcarce
to be worth notice. Voltaire mentions a colleflion of
ancient Chinefe and Indian coins made by the emperor
of China in 1700 ; but Mr Pinkerton fuppofes it to
have coafifted only of the Greek and Roman money
which had been introduced into thefe countries.
4. The Lydian Coins have no legends ; fo that mere
conjefture only determines the ancient coins of eledlrum
Y 2 smd
M E D
and illver found in Alia, and different from the Per-
fian, to belong- to Lydia. Croefus coined gold into a
form which he called Jlaters ; and Mr Pinkerton men¬
tions a very ancient gold coin in Dr Hunter’s cabinet,
which he iuppofes to have been one of thefe. It has a
globous figure, with indented marks on one fide, and on
the other a man kneeling, with a fifli held out in the
left hand, and a fword depending in the right. It
weighs four drachms ; which Jofephus tells us was the
weight of the Lydian gold coins. In the fame collec¬
tion are other gold coins little inferior in antiquity j the
moft ancient ot which, our author fuppofes, may have
been coined by the cities of Afia Minor, as coinage
paffed through them to Greece. They are of admirable
■work man (hip, and as much fuperior to the bell Sicilian
coins, as the latter are to all the reft in the world. Thefe
gold coins are all extremely pale ; owing to the want of
knowledge in refining gold.
5. Perfian coins.—Thefe were firft ftruck by Darius
Hyftafpes, whence they had the name of darks.
They are of gold, and generally have the figure of an
archer: they weigh about four drachms; and fome
occur with the indented mark on one fide, while
others have figures upon both. The filver coins have
generally a king in a chariot of two horfes, with a
charioteer, and fometimes another figure on foot be¬
hind, on the obverfe : while the reverfe prefents a fhip,
fumetimes a ram, bull, or other animal. The gold
coins, which only had the title of darks, are extreme¬
ly fcarce, having been melted down, as is fuppofed,
and recoined by Alexander 'the Great on his conqueft
©f Afia.
'1 here is a fecond feries of Perfian coins beginning
with Artaxares, or Artaxerxes, who overthrew the
Parthian monarchy about the year 210. Thefe are
large and thin, with the king’s bull on one fide, and
the altar of Mithras on the other ; generally with a hu¬
man figure on each fide. Thefe coins continue till the
year 636, when Perfia was conquered by the Saracens.
Thefe have only Perfian letters upon them, which have
never been explained by any antiquaries. Mr Pinker¬
ton fays that they feem to partake of the ancient Greek,
Gothic, and Alanic.
6. The Hebrew ftiekels, originally didrachms, but
after the times of the Maccabees tetradrachms, are al-
moft all forgeries of modern Jews, as well as the brafs
coins with Samaritan characters upon them. They have
all a fprig upon one fide and a vafe on the other. Mr
Pinkerton fays, that the admiftion of one of them into
a cabinet would almoft be a difgrace to it.
7. Phoenician and Punic coins are very interefting
on account of the great power and wealth of thefe na¬
tions. The alphabets have been cleared by their rela¬
tion to the Hebrew and Syriac languages.
8. The coins of Palmyra come under the fame de¬
nomination with the former, Palmyra, being a Syrian
city.
9. The Etrufcan coins have the chara<fters of that
nation, which have been explained by their affinity to
the Pelafgic, or oldeft Greek and Latin.
10. dhe Spanilh coins are infcribed with two or
three alphabets allied to the old Greek or Punic ; but
the infcriptions have not been fufficiently explained.
11. Gaulilh coins.—Thefe are numerous, but the
Siolt ancient have no legends 5 and even after the
3.
A L S.
Greek letters were introduced into Gaul by a colony Modem
at Marfeilles, the legends are very difficult to be ex- Coins-
plained. v—
12. Britilh coins.—From a paffage in Csefar’s Com¬
mentaries, it has been inferred that the Britons ufed
fome kind of coins even in his time. Mr Pinkerton in¬
forms us, that lome rude coins of copper very much
mingled with tin are frequently found in England ;
which, he fuppofes, may be fome of the ancient Bri¬
tilh money. They are of the fize of a didrachm, the
common form of the nummus aureus among the an¬
cients. After the time of Caefar, coinage increafed
among the Britons ; and there are many found of Cu-
nobelinus mentioned in the Roman hiftory. Moft of
thefe have on one fide cuno, with an ear of wheat, a
horfe, a kind of head of Janus, or other fymbol 5 and
have frequently alfo the letters CAMU j fuppofed to
mean Camelodunum. Sometimes the word Tascia
occurs ; the meaning of which has not yet been ex¬
plained.
13. Gothic coins of France, Italy, and Spain, to the
time of Charles the Great. Thefe have the Roman
charaflers upon them. The Italian coins are moftly
of the fize of fmall brafs, and in this way we meet
with coins of Athalaric, Theodahat, Witigez, and other
Gothic princes. Many others occur, the infcriptions of
which, though meant for Roman, are fo perverted as to
be illegible.
Table IV. Modern Coins.
1. Of Japan.—Thefe are thin plates of gold and fil¬
ver, of an oval figure, with fmall marks or figures ftamp-
ed on them.
2. China.—Thefe are only copper, about the fize
of a farthing, with a fquare hole in the middle to put
them on firings. The infcriptions on them do not ex-
prefs the name of the fovereign, but the year of his
reign } as the happy year, the illujlrious year, &c.
3. The Tartarian coins are rude, having only infcrip¬
tions upon them ; and they are all pofterior to the time
of Jenghiz khan.
4. Coins of Thibet, Pegu, and Siam, are much the
fame, prefenting only infcriptions without any figures.
They are alfo of late date.
5. India.—Some old coins have been found in the
neighbourhood of Calcutta, of gold, lilver, copper, and
tin, all mixed together. Thefe have commonly a war¬
rior with a fword on one fide, and an Indian female idol-
on the other, of the fame form with the celebrated
fculptures in the ifland of Elephanta j but it is impof-
fible to tell what antiquity they are of. The modern
coins are the pagoda of gold, worth little more than
fix fhillings ; the roupee of filver upwards of two {hil¬
lings 5 and the calh, of copper. There is a remarkable
fet of roupees, which ffiow the twelve figns •, a lion on
one, a bull on another, &c. but the occafion on
which they were ftruck is unknown. The other
coins of India have generally Perfian infcriptions upon,
them.
6. Perfia.—The Perfic coins fince its conqueft by
the Arabs continue on the Arabian model.
7. Arabia.—Some coins of the petty princes of
Arabia are met with as old as the imperial ages of
Rome j but till the time of Haroun Alralhid, no re¬
gular
Mofltrn gular coinage appears in tlie vaft empire of the Sara-
Coins. cens- Even tlien the reverie has only an infcription,
'”’~v and the obverfe is copied from any Greek or Syrian
coin which happened to fall in the moneyer’s way.
The later Arabian coins are moftly lilver, with the
name and titles of the prince on one fide, and fome
infcription from the Koran on the other. The more
modern coins of this country are in the fliape of a fiih-
hook, with Arabic infcriptions.
8. Turkey.—No regular coinage was formed by
the Turks till they became mailers of Conftantinople.
They referable thofe of Perfia and Arabia, having
merely infcriptions on botli iides. J
9. The coins of the African Hates, at leail fuch as
profefs the Mohammedan religion, have merely infcrip¬
tions without any figures : thofe of the internal parts
are unknown ; and no coinage was ufed among the
Mexicans and Peruvians, the only civilized nations in
America ; but La Hontan mentions an American la¬
vage who had a fquare medal of copper depending from
his neck. Mr Pinkerton fuppofes it to have come
from Japan.
10. Modern Italic coins. Befides the Gothic prin¬
ces mentioned in the former table, the exarchs of Ra¬
venna coined money with the infcription Felix Ra¬
venna, &c. The Lombards iifued no coins, but there
are fome Hill extant of Charlemagne. The follow¬
ing lift ihows the origin of the coinage in various Ita¬
lian ftates.
Rome.—Papal coinage originates with Hadrian I.
Size of filver pennies, with the Pope’s name on
one fide, and Sees Petrus on the other. No coins
appear from 975 to 1099, excepting of Leo IX. In
I3°3 appear pennies of the fenate and people of Rome,
with Peter on the one fide and Paul on the other.
There are groats of Clement V. with his portrait
three quarters length ; but the fide-head begins with
Sixtus V. in 1470. Gold was firft coined by John
Jg XXII. in 1316. I he coins of Alexander VI.
Julius II. and Leo X. are remarkable for beauty and
elegance.
Mi/an. Coinage began with Charlemagne. The
firft coin of the family of Vifconti occurs in 1330, un¬
der Azo. The fet finiihes with Louis XII.
Naples. ' Coinage begins in 840 and 880, with
Duke Sergius and Biihop Athanafius. The next
coins are of Roger of Sicily, and Roger II. in 1130,
William I. II. and Tancred. Naples and Sicily were
fubdued in 1194 ^7 ^ie emperor of Germany j in
1255 Manfred appears ; in 1266 Charles of Provence ;
and others till Joan in 1414 : after which follow the
houfe of Arragon, and later kings.
Venice begins in the 10th century. The firft coins
are filver pennies marked Veneci. Then follow the
coins of Henrico Dandulo in 1192, of Ziani in 1205,
&.c. Gold was firft coined at Venice in 1280, and5
copper in 1471 j but the filver groats are as old as
1192.
Florence. Silver was coined here in the 12th cen¬
tury, or before ; but in 1252 the firft gold coins
ftruck in Europe after the 8th century made their ap¬
pearance, and were named florins from the flower of
the lily upon them. 1 hey were imitated by the
popes, by France, and England. They have on one
fide St John the Bap till Handing, on the other a large
MEDALS. 173
fleur de Us, and it is not doubted that the French fleurs Modern
de Us took their origin from thefe coins. They weigh c°ins.
a drachm, and are no lefs than 24 carats fine, accord- V—
ing to Italian writers, and are worth about 12 ihil-
lings.
Geneva firft began to coin money in 1129, under
the government of Conrad. Thofe of the dukes of
Savoy began in the fame century.
Aquileiu. Coins were illucd from this city by the
patriarchs from 1204 to 1440.
Ferrara. Coins of the marquifes from 1340.
11. French coins. During the race of Clovis,
from 490 till 751, the coins are chiefly gold trientes,
with fome folidi and femijjes. The former are of good
workmanlhip, with the heads of kings. The reverfe
has a crofs, with the name of the town where they
were ftruck.
The coins of the fecond race begin with Pepin in
7515 and continue till Hugh Capet in 987. The
coins of the firft race are elegant, but thofe of the fe¬
cond entirely the reverfe, being almoft all filver pen¬
nies, and feldom bearing the portrait of the king,
i hofe of Charlemagne have only Carolus in the
field •, while the reverfe bears r. f. or fome fuch in¬
fcription ; though one piece ftruck at Rome has a
rude bull of him. 1 he coins of Louis le Debonnaire
are better done.
The third race begins with Hugh Capet in 987,
and. extends to this time. The coinage did not begin
to improve till 1226 under St Louis, when the groat
appears.. Its name in Italian '^groflo, in French grofle,
in Englilh groat, or great coin ; io called from its fize
in comparifon with the penny ; and it paffed from Ita¬
ly to France, to Germany, and to England. After
the eonqueft of France by the Englilh,.1 bafe coins of
many kinds were introduced; and in the year 1574,
in the time of Henry III. copper was firft introduced
into the French coinage. Befides thefe, the other re¬
markable coins of France are, the blancs or billon
groats firft iffued in 1348 ; the ecus a la couronne, or
crowns of gold, fo called from the crmvn on one fide,
and begun by Charles VI. in 1384 ; thofe of Ann of
Bretagne in 1498: the teflon, or piece with the
king’s head, of Louis XII 5 the Henri of Henry II.
with Gaul fitting in armour, and a Vidory in her
hand. d here are many coins of Cardinal Bourbon,
ele&ed king in 15895 and in 1642, Louis Xiv!
takes the title of Catalonije Princefs. The firft
louis d'or made its appearance in 1640; but fuch
A\as tne poverty of France, if we believe certain au¬
thors, that in 17191116 duke of Orleans regent ftruck
copper for filver.
12. Spanilh coins. The moft early ferics of thefe
confills almoft entirely of trientes, finely done. On
one fide they have the head of the king with his name
and on the other a crofs, with the name of the town,*
commonly in Bcetica, or the fouth part of Spain’
where there were a great many Roman colonies, and
which was fertile to a proverb. Jhe Morefque coins
of Spain, like thofe of the reft of the Mohammedan
ftates, prefent us only rvith infipid infcriptions on both
fides. Indeed the Mohammedan religion, by its ablo-
lute refufal to allow the reprefentation of anv living
creature, has prevented the progrefs of coinage in any
degree throughout thofe regions Avhich it has over-
fpread.
MED
fpread. The infcriptions on the ancient Spaniih coins
are in the Cufic or old Arabic characters.
13. Portugal. No defcription of the coins of this
kingdom has yet appeared.
14. Germany. No account of the German coins
has been publifhed; though it is well known that not
only the emperors, but many of the cities, particularly
thofe called Tianfe-towns, iffued money } and many of
the coins iffued by the cities were luperior in elegance
even to thofe iifued by the emperors.
15. Denmark. Here the coinage begins with Ca¬
nute the Great in 1014. The pieces are at firft ex¬
tremely rude, ornamented only with rings and Runic
characters. Thefe are fucceeded by copper pieces,
fome of which have a crofs, others a paftoral itaff, on
one fide, with the letter A on the other. Later coins
have ftrokes nil, &c. all round them ; but. thofe of
Harold, Hardicanute, and Magnus Bonus, in 1041,
are of neat workmanfhip, and have the portraits of the
princes at half length. The coins of Nicolas, or Niel,
as he is called by the Danes, are rude, as well as thofe
of Waldemar I. and the celebrated Margaret. In
1376 Olaf caufed money to be ftruck with a grinning
full face, with a crowned O upon the other fide.
“ The Swedes (fays Mr Pinkerton) took thefe coins
extremely ill, as they thought they grinned at them.”
Silver was firft coined in Denmark by Philippa
queen of Eric, and daughter to Henry IV. of Eng¬
land.
16. Sweden. The coinage of this kingdom began
in 818 under Biorno, on the plan of Charlemagne.
The coins are marked with a crofs. Next follow
thofe of Olaf in 1019 ; which Mr Pinkerton fuppofes
to have been the firft true Swedifh coins ; and that
the art of coinage firft palled from England into Den¬
mark in the time of Canute the Great, and from Den¬
mark into Sweden. Thefe coins were ftruck on the
Englilh model. During the time that Sweden was
fubjeCl to Denmark, or miferably harafied by the
Danes, the coins of both kingdoms were the fame •,
but after the time of Guftavus Vafa many elegant
pieces appear. In 1634, dollars were coined with the
portrait of Guftavus Adolphus, who was killed two
years before : on the reverfe they have the arms of
Sweden, with the chemical marks of mercury and
fulphur. In 1716, 1717, and 1718, Charles XII.
being in extreme want of money, iffued fmall copper
coins with Saturn, Jupiter, Mars, &c. upon them, to
go for dollars \ and on account of this fcheme, Ba¬
ron Goertz, the fuggeftor of it, was brought to the
block.
17. Norway. The coins of this country begin with
Olaaf in 1006 * after which time there are various coins
of other princes 5 but copper was not coined till the
year 1343.
Befides the coins already mentioned, there are eccle-
fiaftic coins of France, Germany, Denmark, Sweden,
Norway, &c. Thofe of Denmark and Sweden are
numerous, but the Norwegian coins of this denomina¬
tion are rare. Mr Pinkerton deferibes a filver one in
his poffeflion as having arms and a mitre, w ith the in-
feription on one fide, SanctUS Olaws Rex Norvey j
on the reverfe, Olaws Dei Gra. Arcep. Nid’sEN,
meaning Nidrosiensis, or archbilhop of Nidros, now
Drontheim.
A L S.
18. Bohemia. The coinage of this kingdom ap- MoJcra
pears at a very early date, viz. in the year 909, under t
Duke Boleflaus I. Thefe coins are followed by others
of Boleilaus II. and Emma his wife in 9704 of Bo-
leilaus III. in 1002 ; Jarcpnir in 1020 j Udalrich in
1030, and other princes. The braEleate money of Ot-
tocar I. wras coined in 1197.
19. Poland. The coinage of this country is nearly
as ancient as that of Bohemia. The coins are on the
German model, but no particular account of them has
been publilhed.
20. Ruflia. None of the Ruffian money appears to
be more ancient than the 13th century. The firft are
the kopecks or ftlver pennies, which have upon them
rude figures of animals on one fide, and a man Handing *
with a bow or fpear on the other. There are likewife
coins of Mofcow ftruck by Ariftoteles the architedt in
1482. The roubles or dollars and their halt’s. There
are fome of the impoftor Demetrius in 1605, which are
very fcarce.
21. Pruftia. The firft Pruflian coins w-ere ftruck
at Culm by the Teutonic knights in 1230. They
were filver pennies, and upon the German plan. In
the next century wrere ftruck {hillings, groats, and
fchots ; the laft were the largeft, and are extremely
rare. They have the Pruman Ihield, an eagle fur¬
mounting a crofs, with a rofe-fnaped border, MONETA
DOMINORUM Prussia: : on the reverfe is a crofs fleu-
rie, within a border of a fimilar kind, having the in-
feription honor magistri, justitiam dihiget.—
Gold coins were ftruck in the fame century. In the
time of Copernicus the money was fo debafed,
that 12 or 13 marks were worth but one of pure
filver.
22. England. The Englifh coins are of various
kinds.
1 ft. Heptarchic. Thefe are only of two forts, viz.
the Jkeutta or penny of filver, and the Jlyca of copper.
Few of the pennies appear till after the year 700 j
though fome are met with which bear the name of
Ethelbert I. king of Kent, as old as 560. At firft
they had only rude figures of ferpents, but in latter
times legends wrere likewife added. Moft of thefe
pennies have pagan fymbols upon them. The ftyca
v'as only coined in Northumberland, and was a very
fmall piece, about the value of half a farthing.
2d. Coins of the chief monarchs of England. Mr
Pinkerton denies that an end w as put to the heptar¬
chy by Egbert in 832, as is commonly fuppofed *,
though he owns that he was chief monarch of the coun¬
try, as feveral others had been before him. Edgar,
who reigned in 9591 according to him, was the firft
king of England •, and the coins of the chief monarchs
form almoft a complete feries from the time of Eg¬
bert to Edgar, The only chief monarch of whom
there are no coins is Ethelbald, who reigned in 857.
Moft of thefe coins bear rude portraits j but the re-
verfes are fometimes curious and interefting. Some
have views of cathedrals and other buildings j particu¬
larly one of Edward the Elder in 90.0 j which has the
cathedral of York with three rows of windows, round
arched as the other Saxon and Norman buildings : the
Gothic arch being quite unknown till after the 1 2th
century. Some coins of Anlaf king of Northumber¬
land have the famous raven, the Daniftx enfign : and
4
M E D A L S.
Modern
Coins.
thofe of other princes have frequently very curious re-
verfes.
3d. Eccle/taJHc coins appear of the archbifhops of
Canterbury, Wulfred in 804, Ceolnoth, in 830, and
Plegmund in 889.
4th. Coins of the kings of England. The filver pen¬
ny, which had begun during the heptarchy, continued
to be the general coin after the kingdom had been
united under one head ; and extends in a continued
furies from Egbert almoft to the prefent reign. The
only kings wanting are Edmund Ironfide, Richard I.
and John. At firft the penny weighed 22§- grains:
but towards the clofe of the reign of Edward III. it
fell to 18 grains j and in that of Edward IV. to 12.
In the time of Edward VI. it was diminilhed to 8
grains ; and in Queen Elizabeth’s reign to 7TV ; at
which it Hill continues.
Halfpennies and farthings were firft ftruck in filver
by Edward I. in x 280 ; the former continued to tire
time of the commonwealth, but the latter eeafed with
Edward VI. The groat was introduced bv Edward
III. in 1354, and continues to this day, though not
in common circulation. The half-groat or two-pence
is of the fame date, and alfo continues to the prefent
time.
Shillings -were firft coined by Henry VII. in 1503.
At firft it was called teftoon, from the tejie, tete, or head
of the king upon it •, the name [hilling being derived
from the German fchelling ; under which appellation
coins had been ftruck at Hamburgh in 1407. The
crown wras firft coined in its prefent form by Henry
VIII. Formerly it had appeared only in gold, whence
the phrafe of crowns of gold ; though ihefe indeed
were the largeft gold coins known for a long time in
France and other countries on the continent, being
worth about 10s. fterling. They had their name from
the crown ftamped on one fide, and were firft coined
by Charles VI. in 1384, and continued till the time
of Louis XIV. The half-crown, fixpence, and three¬
pence, were coined by Edward VI. In 1558 Queen
Elizabeth coined three halfpenny, and in 1561 three
farthing pieces ; but they were difeontinued in 1 982.
From the year 1601 to the prefent time the coins of
England remain the fame.
Gold was coined in England by Henry III. in
1257 •, the piece was called a gold penny, and was lar¬
ger than the filver one ; and the execution is by no
means bad for the time. The feries of nold coinacre.
however, commences properly from Edward III. In
1344, this monarch firft ftruck florins, in imitation of
thofe in Italy; and it is remarkable, that though thefe:
coins at the time they were firft iffued bore only fix
flrRings value, they are now intfinfically worth 19s.;
fo much has the value of gold increafcd fince that
time. The half and quarter florin were ftruck at the
fame time, but only the laft has been found. The
florin, however, being found inconvenient, gave place
to the noble of 6s. 8d. value, and exadflv half a mark.
The latter had its name from being a limited fum in
accounts ; and was eight ounces in weight, two-thirds
of the money pound. It is fometimes alfo called [eli-
bra, as being one half of the commercial pound of 16
ounces. The noble had its name from the nobility of
the metal ; the gold of which it was coined being of
tlxe fineft fort. Sometimes it was called rofe noble.
from both fides being impaled in art undulating circle.
It continued with the half and quarter noble to be the
only gold coin till the angels of Edward IV. appeared
in 1465. Thefe had their name from being ftamped
with the image of Michael and the dragon. The an-
gelcts of 35. jd. value were fubftituted in their place.
In 1527 Henry VIII. added to the gold coined the
crown and half-crown at their prefent value ; and the
fame year he gave fovereigns of 22s. 6d. and njals of
ns. 3d. angels at 7s. 6d. and nobles at their old value
of 6s. 8d. In 1546 he caufed fovereigns to be coined
of the value of 20s. and half-fovereigns in proportion.
His gold crown is about the fize of our {billing, and
tne half-crown of fix-pence, but thin. All his coin®,
however, gold as well as filver, are much debafed ; and
it was not without much labour and trouble that Ed-
ward VI. brought it back to its former ftandard. On
the union of the two crowns, James gave the fovereign
the name of unite; tire value continuing of 20s. as
before. He Coined alfo rofe-ryals of 30s. value, fpur*
ryals of 15s. angels of 10s. and angelets of 5s. Un¬
der the commonwealth, the fovereign got the name of
the twcnty-Jhilling piece, and continued current till the
coinage of guineas. J'hcfe were fo called from their
being coined of Guinea gold, and were at firft only
to go for 20s. though by an univerfal but tacit confent
they always palled for 21s. Half-guineas, double
guineas, and five guinea pieces, rvere alfo coined dur¬
ing the kune reign ; which ftill continue, though the
two latter are not in common circulation. Quarter
guineas were coined by George I. and likewife by his
prefent majefty ; but they were found fo trouble-
fome on account of their fmall fize, that they were Hop¬
ped within a year or two, when received at the bank
of England, and thus are not to be met with at pre¬
fent. A few pieces of 7s. value have likewife been
coined, and are known by the lion above the helmet;
but none have been iffued. In 1688 the guinea rofe
to 21s. 6d. and continued to increafe in value till
1696, when it was as high as 30s. ; but after the re¬
coinage in 1697 and 1698 it fell by degrees, and in 1717
was at its old ftandard of 21s. and at that time filver
was fixed at its prefent ftandard value, viz. as 1 to 154.
in weight.
Though the firft money coined in Britain, as we
have already obferved, was copper, yet, excepting the
Northumbrian ftycas, no copper coin was found in
England from the time of the Saxon conqueft till the
year 1672. An averfion to a copper coinage it feems
was prevalent throughout the nation ; and Queen Eli¬
zabeth, who without hefitation uled bafe money for
Ireland, yet fcrupled at coining copper for England.
This want of fmall coin occafioned fuch an increafe of'
private tokens for halfpennies and farthings, that it be¬
came a ferious object to government; and in 1594 a cop¬
per coinage was ferioufly thought of. This year a fmall
copper coin was ftruck about the fize of a filver two¬
pence, with the queen’s monogram on one fide, and a
rofe on the other ; the running legend on both fides
being, the pledge of a halfpenny. Of this there
are patterns both in copper and filver, but both of
them foon fell into difufe. On the 19th of May 1613,
King James by royal proclamation iffued farthing
tokens. They are generally of the fame fize with the
two pence, with two feeptres in faltier furmounted
with.
I75
Modem
Coins.
176 M E D
Modem \vith a crown, atlicl the harp upon the other ; with an
u ^Qim- _ intention, as it would feem, that if they were refufed
in England, they might pafs in Ireland. In 1635
Charles I. coined thole with the rofe inltead of the
harp ; but the circulation of thefe was entirely Hopped
by the vaft number of counterfeits which appeared,
and by the king’s death in 1648. After this the pri¬
vate tokens began again to be circulated, till put a Hop to
by the coinage of farthings in 1672. The workman-
fltip of the tokens is quite contemptible. In 1672
the halfpence as well as the farthings which had been
ftruck two years before began to circulate. They
were of pure Swedifh copper, the dies engraved by'
Roettier ; and they continued till the year 1684, when
fome difputes arofe about the copper lately obtained
from the Englilh mines. Tin farthings were coined with
a ftud of copper in the centre, and infcribed round the
edge as the crown pieces, with nummorum famulus.
1685 or 1686. In 1686 halfpence of the fame kind
were coined ; and the tin coinage continued till the
year 1692, to the value of more than 65,000!. 5 but
next year the tin was all called in by government, and
the copper coinage recommenced. The farthings of
Queen Anne are all trial pieces, excepting thofe of
1714, the laft year of her reign. “ They are (fays
Mr Pinkerton) of exquilite workmanlhip, exceeding
molt copper coins either ancient or modern, and will
•do honour to the engraver Mr Croker to the end of
time.” The one, whofe reverfe is Peace in a car, pax
MISSA PER ORBEM, is the ffloft efteemed •, and next to
it the Britannia under a portal. The other half¬
pence and farthings are lefs valuable.
23. Scotland. Silver pennies of Alexander I. who
reigned in 1107, are believed to exift ; and there cer¬
tainly are fome of Alexander II. in 1214. There are
likewife coins of David in 1124; but perhaps none of
Malcom IV. his fucceflor, whofe reign was very
ihort. There are many coins of William I. in 1165 •,
and a large hoard of his pennies was found at Invernefs
in 1780.
The money of Scotland continued to be of the fame
value with that of England till the country was drain¬
ed by the vaft ranfom of David II. after which it be¬
came neceffary to reduce its fize ; and fo much did this
diminution affeft England, that Edward III. found
himfelf obliged to leffen the Englith coin alfo. The
diminution of the Scottifti coin, however, continued
ftill to go on until it became imprafticable to keep
par with that of England. In the firft year of Ro¬
bert III. it paffed only for one half of its nominal value
in England: in 1393, Richard II. ordered it only to
go for the weight of the genuine metal it contained.
In 1600 it had funk to fuch a degree as to pafs only
for a twelfth part of the Englifh money, and conti¬
nued at that low ebb till the coinage of Scotland was
Entirely cancelled by the union of the two king¬
doms.
Of filver coins we have only pennies till the year
1293, when Edward I. having coined halfpence and
farthings, Alexander III. of Scotland coined alfo
halfpence, of which we have a few, but no farthings
are to be met with •, but there are filver farthings of
Robert I. and David II. The latter introduced the
great and half-groat, which completed the fet of Scot-
tiflx filver. It continued unaltered till the time of
A L S.
Queen Mary, when they all ceafed to be coined in Motiet*
filver, on account of the high price of that metal. toins.
I533 Ihillings were firft coined, with the butt of' V”"*
the queen on one fide and the arms of France and
Scotland on the other. The filver crown wras firft
coined in 1565, which went for 30s. Scots ; lefler
pieces of 20s. and 10s. having likewife been ftruck,
and marks of filver, worth 3s. qd. Englilh, were alfo
coined about the fame time. Thefe coins have upon
them the marks xxx. xx. x. to denote their value.
They are commonly called Cruickftone dollars, from
the palm-tree upon them, miftaken for a remarkable
yew at Cruickftone near Glafgow, where Henry Darn-
ley refided. It is deferibed, however, in the asft as a
palm, with a “ Ihell-padoc” (a tortoife) crawling up.
This alludes to Darnley’s marriage with the queen, as
the motto from Propertius Dat Gloria Vires alfo
implies. The motto Nemo me impune lacesset
firft appears on the Scottilh coins in I 978, and the in¬
vention is given to the celebrated Buchanan. In 1582,
the crown of an ounce weight went for 40s. Scots,
and was accordingly marked XL. ; in 1597 the mark
was L. the Scottilh money being then only one tenth
of the Englilh: the mark was LX. in 1601, the value
being then reduced to one-twelfth, at which it has
ever fince continued. In the time of Charles I. half
marks, 40 and 20 penny pieces, were coined. In 167$
the Scottilh dollars firft appeared, in value 56s. Scots,
wdth halves and quarters of proportional value. In
1686, James VII. coined 60s. 40s. 20s. 10s. and 5s.
pieces ; but only thofe of 40s. and 10s. are known,
with thefe numbers under the bull. At the union of
the kingdoms, all the Scottilh coins w7ere called in,
and recoined at Edinburgh, with the mark E under
the bull to diftinguilh it: fince which there lias been
no coinage in Scotland. The Scottilh filver coins are
in general equal, if not fuperior, in the workmanlhip
to the Englilh.
Gold xvas firft iffued by Robert II. about 30 years
after Edward III. of England had coined the fame
metal in that country. The pieces xvere at firft called
St Andrews, from the figure of that tutelar faint
upon the crofs, and who appears on the obverfe with
the arms of Scotland, and on the reverfe a lion in a
Ihield. The lion was another name for the largeft gold
coin in Scotland, from the arms of the kingdom upon
it. The next was the unicorn, under James III.;
which were followed by the bonnet-pieces of James V.
Thefe laft are of admirable workmanlhip, being almoft
equal to the ancient coins in this refpeft. In imita¬
tion of the French, the monarch we fpeak of dimi-
nilhed the fize of the coin without leflening its weight j
an improvement not adopted by the Englifh for a
whole century. The laft gold coined in Scotland was
the piftole and half piftole, of twelve and fix pounds
Scots. Thefe coins have the fun under the head. The
gold coins of Scotland fell in the fame proportion with
the filver.
The copper coinage of Scotland is of more early
date than that of England. It was preceded by mo¬
ney of billon, or copper walhed with filver, called black
money. James III. firft coined black farthings in
1466 ; and this is recorded by hiftorians as one of his
greateft faults. This kind of coinage, however, con¬
tinued as late as the reign of James VI. In his time
the
MED
Mfxtem tlic tfue copper coinage began j but as the value of
Coins. Scottifli money had now declined almoft to the ut-
nioft, the pieces fuddenly aflumed a form almoft re-
fembling that of the French coins. The bodle, fo
called from Bothwell the mintmafter, being equal in
fize to the Hard, and worth two pennies Scottifh, -was
ftruck. The billon coin, formerly called has piece,
and Worth fix pennies Scots, wras now coined in cop¬
per, and termed the baw-bee. Thus it correfponded
with the French half fol and Englifti halfpenny, the
Scots penny being noAV equivalent to the French de¬
nier. Some pieces named Atkinfons were coined by
James VI. in 1582, when the Scottifti money was to
the Englifti as 1 to 8 j but on its being ftill farther
reduced, they went fot 8 pennies, a third more than
the value of the baw-bee. Befides thefe there were
the hardie and plack, the former being Worth three
and the latter four pennies Scots. This coinage con¬
tinued through the reigns of Charles I. and II. but
Scottifti coins of the former are, perhaps, the fcarceft
of any.
24. Ireland. The firft coins introduced into this king¬
dom feetn to have been thofe of the Danes, and which
have only a number of ftrokes around them inftead of
letters. In the tenth century, however, this coinage
had been confiderably improved ; and in 930 and 994
there are pennies ftruck in Dublin, with the infcrip-
tion ON DvflI or Dyflt, DuJHn or DijJlin being the
Danifti name of that city. Thefe are likewife coins
of the Irifti princes themfelves, and of the Englifti
monarchs, ftruck in Ireland as early as the ninth cen¬
tury •, and it is afferted by fome, that Ireland even in
thefe days had been conquered by England •, of which,
indeed, thefe coins feem to be a proof. None of the
Irifti coins of Henry 11. are to be met with, but we
have fome of the coins of John $ and from his time
to that of Henry V. the Irifti coins are known by a
triangle enclofing the king’s head, which appears alfo
Upon the coins of other nations at this period. The
harp does not appear upon the Irifti coins till the time
of Henry VIH. Till the time of this monarch, the
Englifti and Irifti coins are the fame ; but the fame de-
bafement of the coin which at that time took place in
England extended alfo to Ireland ; but in 1601 copper
halfpence and farthings were coined alfo for this king¬
dom. Thefe circulated in Ireland when James VI.
iffued his farthing-tokens of copper, the latter being
of two fizes, that if they failed in England they might
be fent to Ireland as pennies and halfpence. In 1635
a mint wras eftabliftied in Dublin by Charles I. but it
was flopped by the Irifti maffacre, and the many di-
fturbances which followed fince which time the fcheme
has not been refumed. After the maffacre, St Pa¬
trick’s halfpence and farthings were coined by the Pa-
pifts, bearing the legends Floreat Rex, and on the
reverfe Ecce Grex j on the farthing QuTESCAT
Plebs. Copper tokens were ftruck by towns and
tradefmen, as in England and Scotland. In 1680, half¬
pence and farthings were iflued by authority, with the
harp and date. In 1689, James II. having invaded
Ireland, inftituted a mint, and coined {hillings and
half-crowns of all the refufe metal he could find, par¬
ticularly fome brafs guns were employed, whence the
'coinage is commonly called gun-money. Even this
metal, however, foon became fo fcarce, that a diminu
Voi, XIII. Part I.
A L S.
tion in its fize is quite apparent from June 168910
July 1690 j and as the month of their mintage is ^
marked upon them, this decreafe is eafily perceived.
In March 1690, pennies of lead mixed with tin were
ifiued j and on the 15th of June the fame year, crowns
of white metal were coined *, but thefe are now very
fcarce. In 1722, the patent for coining halfpence a id
farthings was given to William Wood, which excited
fuch difcontent in Ireland. From the fmall fize allow¬
ed by the patent to thefe pieces, it was fuppofed that
the patentee wrould have gained 6o,0ool. but as he
caufed them to be ftruck of a fize ftill fmaller, his
gains were eftimated at 100,0001. The coins, how¬
ever, are of admirable workmanfhip, and very fine cop¬
per, bearing the beft portrait of King George I. to be
found any where. Sir Ifaac Newton, at that time at
the head of the mint, declared that they were fupe-
rior to the Englifti coins in every thing except the fize.
In 1737 Irifti halfpence and farthings, with the
harp on the reverfe, were coined, and continue to the
prefent time. In 1760, there was fuch a fcarcity of
copper coin, that fome private perfons applied for leave
to coin halfpence, which appeared with a very bad por¬
trait of George II. and the words Voce PopiTLi around
it. No gold or filver has been coined in Ireland fince
the maffacre of 1641.
TaBLE V. Modern Medals, properly fo called.
1. Scottifti medals. Thefe take the lead in the prm
fent article, the firft modem medals of gold being thofe
of David II. ftruck between the years 1330 and 1370.
'Only two of them are known to exift 5 one in the col¬
lection of Mr Barker of Birmingham, and the other
in that of Dr Hunter. In 1487, there is a medal of
James III. fent to the ftirine of St Amboife in France.
It is defcribed as of two inches and a third in diame¬
ter ; the weight near two ounces j having on the ob-
verfe a beardlefs king, with long hair, fitting on a
throne, holding in one hand a naked fword j in the
other a ftiield, with the Scottifti arms. On the bor¬
ders of the canopy above the throne is an Infcription
in Gothic letters, in mi DEFFEN, being corrupt
French for In my defence; a common motto in the
Scotfifti arms. Above the canopy is Villa BeR-
wichi : the reverfe bears St Andrew and his crofs,
SALVUM FAC POPULUM tuum domine. There is alfo
a medal of Janies IV. in the collar of St Michael, hav¬
ing on the reverfe a Doric pillar furmounted by a young
Janus, {landing on a hill, beyond which is the fea, and
land on either fide. This, however, is by fome fuf-
pefted to be a forgery. .
The rnoft remarkable Scottifti medals are thofe of
the unfortunate Mary. The firft is properly French,
having been ifiued at her coronation as queen of
France, along with her hulband King Francis II.
On the obverfe of this piece there are portraits of
Francis and Mary, face to face, with three legends
around them, the outermoft containing their titles j
the middle one the following fentende : Hora Nona
kOMINUS J. H. S. EXPIRAVIT HE’LL I CLAMANS J the
innermoft the name of the city (Paris). On the re¬
verfe are the arms of France and Scotland. Fine
teftoons were alfo coined upon the fame plan, and are
now fo rare that Dr Hunter gave ten guineas for one
Z which
177
Modern
Coins.
*78 MED
Modern which is^ in his- collection. The fame portraits appear
. Mcdals- on the fine crown of Mary and Henry, in 1565, which
' ' * is fo rare as to be efteemed a medal of the higheft va¬
lue ; and Mr Pinkerton imagines, that if offered to
fale it would bring 40 or 50 guineas.
Another remarkable medal of Mary reprefents her
full-faced, and weeping, with the infcription, O God
GRANT PATIENCE IN THAT I SVFFER VRANG. The
reverfe has in the centre, Quho can compare with
ME IN GRIEF, I DIE AND DAR NOCHT SEEK RELIEF}
with this legend around, PIourt not the (figure of
a heart) quhais joy thou art. There are alfo
many counters of this unfortunate princefs, being
thin filver pieces of the fize of a (hilling. “ They
all appear (fays Mr Pinkerton) to have been done in
France, by the direiffion of Mary, who was fond of de¬
vices. Her cruel captivity could not debar her from
intercourfe with her friends in France, who muff with
pleafure have executed her orders, as affording her a
little confolation.”
The coronation medal of Charles II. {truck at Edin¬
burgh for his inauguration, June 18. 1663, is remark¬
able as being the only one ever coined of Scottifli gold,
and the firlt in Britain {truck with a legend on the
edge. With refpeft to the workmanfhip, it is inferior
to Simon’s. Of thefe medals only three are known to
exift, of which one is in the Mufeum. It is not un¬
common in filver j in which cafe it fometimes wants
the legend on the edge.
2. Italian medals. Thefe appear in the 15th cen¬
tury, and from that time fucceflively in moil Euro¬
pean countries. Vittore Pifano, a painter of Verona,
is celebrated as the reftorer of the art, but it remains
to be accounted for how the medals of King David,
already mentioned, came to exift fo long before. Mr
Pinkerton confiders this artift rather as an inventor
than a reftorer, his medals having no refemblance to
the ancient coins, as being large, and all caft. They
were firft modelled in wax, then a mould taken from
the model in fine fand and other ingredients. After
a good caft was procured, it was touched up, and
made a model for the reft. Thefe medals of Pifano,
are almoft always infcribed Opus Pifani PiBoris. The
portraits of a great number of illuftrious men were
done by him in this manner 5 and in the Britilh Mu¬
feum is a large brafs medal of Pifano by himfelf.—
Other artifts Avere Boldu, Marefcotto, Matthasus de
Paftus, Sperandes, Mifaldone, &c. Towards the end
of the century, however, the medals began to affume
a more elegant appearance ; and the papal ones are
not only the moft elegant but the moft ancient feries
of all the modern medals. The improvement began
in the reign of Alexander VI. fo famous for his OAvn
crimes, and thofe of his nephew Caefar Borgia. His
fucceffors, Julius II. Leo X. Hadrian VI. and Cle¬
ment VII. had many of their medals defigned by Ra¬
phael, Julio Romano, and other eminent painters,
and the engraving executed by artifts of equal merit.
Among thefe were the celebrated Cellini, and the noted
Paduan forgers of Roman coins, C a vino and Baftiano.
In 1644, Cormanni, a medallic artift, was imprifoned
on account of a piece which reprefented the Pope up¬
on one fide, and Olympia Maidalchina, the relation of
his holinefs, on tne other. The unfortunate Cor¬
manni poifoned himfelf. About this time the family
a
A L S.
of the Hamerani, originally from Germany, began to Modens
engrave the papal medals 5 which they did with fur- Medals.
pnling merit for feveral generations. Each of the' ^
daughters did a fine medal, as avc are informed by
Venuti.
Befides the papal medals, many have been iffued by
the various ftates of Italy. There are medals of Fre¬
deric II. of Sicily in 1501, of feveral Venetian gene¬
rals in 1509, of Alfonfo duke of Ferrara in ijii,
and of the celebrated AndreAv Doria in 1528. ’
3. French medals. Till the reign of Louis XIV.
the medals of this country are neither fine nor nume¬
rous ; but this monarch exceeds all modern princes in
this Avay. Many of his pieces are Avell defigned and
executed, though objectionable on account of their
falfehood.
4. Daniih medals. Thefe appear of Chriftian II.
in 1516, of Frederic and Sophia in 1532, of Frede¬
ric I. and Chriftian III. in bonnets worn in the 16th
century. 1 he elephant of the houfe of Oldenburg is
frequent upon Danifli medals.
5. Swedifli medals. Thefe begin with Guftavus
Vafa ; and feveral of Chriftina are likeAidfe to be met
Avith. There arc alfo fome curious ones of Charles
XII.
6. Dutch medals. Thefe begin in 13665 and many
of them are remarkable for maps and plans, which muft
be very interefting to pofterity. “ Had the Greeks and
Romans (fays Mr Pinkerton) given us maps and plans,
Avhat a fine fyftem of ancient geography and topo¬
graphy a cabinet of medals muft have been !”
7. Medals of Spain, Portugal, and Germany. The
Spanifh medals began Avith Gonfalo in 1503, many of
which are curious and interefting. Under Charles V.
there are many curious Spanifli medals 5 but thofe of
Germany begin with Frederic in 1453. They are ex¬
tremely numerous 5 as avc may eafily fupppofe from the
greatnefs of the empire, and the various ftates which
compofe it. There is a famous medal of Sebaftian
king of Portugal, famous for his unfortunate expedi¬
tion into Africa in 1578 5 with his bull, full face, and
three quarters m length. On the reverfe is a ftiell-fifh
in the fca, Avith the moon and feven ftars, bearing the
infcription Serena Calsa favent. There is alfo a
curious lozenge-ftiaped coin of the fame, Avith the arms
of Portugal, and the king’s name and title : On the
reverfe is a crofs Avith the infcription In hoc signo
VINCES, I578.
8. Satiric medals. Thefe began almoft as foon as
the knowledge of the art of coining medals Avas revi\red.
They feem to have been almoft" unkmwn to the an¬
cients. One indeed of the emperor Gallienus is fup-
pofed to have been fatiric. It has on the front the
emperor’s buft, Avith the infcription Gallien^e aug.
the reverfe is Peace in a car, Pax Ubique 5 but this"
has been proved to be only a blundered coin. Some
other ancient medals, however, are not liable to this
obje&ion. The firft modern fatiric medal publilhed
Avas that of Frederic king of Sicily in 1501, againft
his antagonift Ferdinand king of Spain. It has on
one fide the head of Ferdinand, with the infcription
Ferdinandus r. ar. vetus vulpes orbis 5 on the
reverfe a ivolf carrying off a {heep, Jvgvm MEVM
SVAVE EST ET onvs mevm leve. Many others have
been {truck, of Avhich the Avit would notv perhaps fce
difficult
MED
MoJcrn difficult to be found out: but of all nations the Dutch
Medals. j,ave raoft diftinguiffied themfelves in this way ; and
v paid very dear for their conduct, as they brought upon
themfelves by one or two fatiric medals the whole
power of France under Louis XIV.
p. Engliffi medals. The firft of thefe is in the duke
of Devonthire’s collection. It is of a large fize, and
done on the plan of the early Italian medals. It has
on the reverie the arins of Kendal, with the inferip-
iion TEMPORE OBSIDIONIS TURCORUM, MCCCCLXXX.
On the other fide is a portrait with 10 kendal rhodi
TVRCVPERLERi vs. It was found lalt century in Knaref-
borough foreit ; but Mr Pinkerton has no doubt of
its having been done in Italy. The next is that of
Henry VIII. in 1545, and is of gold, larger than the
crown-piece, with the king’s head upon the obverfe,
and three legends within each other, including his
titles, &c. The reverfe contains two inferiptions, de¬
claring him to be the head of the church 5 the one in
Hebrew, the other in Greek. It was imitated exaftly
by Edward VI. whole coronation medal is the firft we.
have. There are two medals of Philip and Mary,
whofe execution is tolerably good ; but thofe of Eli¬
zabeth are very poor. There are good medals of
James I. and his queen j with a fine one of Charles I.
and Henrietta, though the workmanlhip is much in¬
ferior to the antique. There are many good medals
of Charles, with various devices upon their reverfes.
Under the commonwealth the celebrated Simon pro¬
duced medals which are defervedly reckoned the moll
admirable pieces of modern workmanlhip. There are
many good medals of Charles II. James II. and Wil¬
liam III. Some are alfo found of James after his ab¬
dication. Some fine gold, filver, and copper medals,
were ilfued in the time of Queen Anne ; the two lall
affording a feries of all the great aftions of the duke
of Marlborough. About the year 1740, a feries of
medals was engraved in London by Daffier, a native of
Geneva, containing all the kings of England 5 being
36 in number. They are done upon fine copper, and
■executed with great tafte. There are befides many
medals of private perfons in England ; fo that it may
jultly be faid, that this country for medals exceeds al-
moft every other in Europe.
To this account of modern coins and medals we
Ihall add that of another fet called ficgc-picces, and
which were iliued during the time of a fiege in cafes
of urgent neceffity. ^Thefe were formed of any kind
of metal; fometimes of no metal; and Patin mentions
a remarkable one ftruck at Leyden in 1574, when the
place was befieged by the Spaniards. It was of thick
paper or palleboard, having a lion rampant, with this
infeription, PVGNO PRO Patria, 1574; and on the
reverfe, Lvgdvnvm Batavorvm. There are various
fiege-pieces of Charles I. both in gold and filver, feme
of the latter being of the value of 20 (hillings.
The minimi braSIeati are a fpecies of modern coins
fomewhat between counters and money •, and have their
name from the word bractea, a fpangle or thin
bit of metal. They are commonly little thin plates
of filver, ftamped as would feem with wooden dies up-
A L S.
on one fide only, w ith the rude impreffiott of various Abbrevia-
figures and inferiptions. Moft of them are ecclefiaftic, ticm3-
and ivere ftruck in Germany, Switzerland, Denmark* ' '' ' * ~~J'
Sweden, Norway, and a few in Poland. They con¬
tinued to be in ufe in Germany till the end of the 1 ^th
century; and fome are ftill ufed in Switzerland at this
day.
Table of Abbreviations ufed in the Legends of
Medals ; from Mir Pinkerton.
GREEK COINS.
A.
A. Athens, Argos, Aulus,
Afylumy primi or firft j
as EQinuv a. Ae-^j, “
Ephefians, firft people
of Afia.
A. Abaffus, Abdera, Aby-
dus on Hellelpont
AB. Abydus in Egypt
ABY. Abydus on Hellef-
pont
A0. A©E. Athens
AIT. ftEgina
Airozno. Aigofpotamos
AI A. AElius, iElia Capito¬
lina
AIN. Hinos
AK.—AKPATAN. Agri-
gentum
AKI. Acilium
AKT. Adtium
AAE. Alexandria
AM. Amyntas
AMBP. Ambraeia
AM<I>I. Amphilochia
AN©. AnOfTracrov, Proconful
ANTIS. Antiffa
ANA. Anadloria
ANTI. Antium
AN. Ancyra
ANT. Antoninus, Antioch
AH. Axus in Crete
AON. Aonitae
AOYE. Avenio, Pell.
ATI. Appius
AllA. Apamea
A no. Apollonia
Am A. Aptara
AP. Aradus, Harma
A PTE. Argennos
APT. Argos
API. Aricanda
APIM. Ariminum
APSI. Arfinoe
APT. Aryca
APX. Afxiigsvf or Ag%;ov,
high prieft or magiftrate
ASIAPX. Afiarchae, prefi-
dents of the games of
Afia(b)
Z 2
AS. Afylum
A. S. n^orti Svpixf, Firft
of Syria
ASK. Afcalon
AT. Atabyrium
ATAP. Atarnae
ATT. Auguft us
AYPHA. Aurelius
ATT. AvTOKgASTeg, Env
peror
AYTON. AvTovopoi, enjoy¬
ing their own laws
A^I. Aphyta
A<I>P. Africanus
AX. Achaii
B
B. BayAuj, Council: Eery-
tus : Bithynia
BAPHAAO. Bagadaonia
BAA. Valerius
BH. Berytus
BITON. Bitontum
BO I. Bceotia
BPYN. Brundufium.
BY. Byzantium
T.
P. PP. PPAM. Grammati¬
cus, or keeper of the re¬
cords
P. Gaius, or Caius
PA. Gallus, Gallerius, Gal-
lienus
P. Tvag'ty.tv, IlluftrioUS
PEA. Gelas
PEP. Germanicus
PN. Gneius
POPTY. Gortyna
PPA. Gravifca
A.
A. Decimus, Dymse
AAK. Dacicus
AAM. Damafcus
AAP. Dardanum
AH. Ajj^oj, the people
AHMAPX. EHOYS. with
Tribun itian power
AE. Decelia
AE-K Decius.
AEP.
yfi) There were alfo Syriarchre, Lyciarchas, Galatarchae, Bithyniarchee, Cappadociarchce, &c. Morel. Spec.
18o
Abbrexia- AEP, Derbc in Lycaonia
, ti°ns- AH. Delos
^ AI. Diofpolxs
APE. Drepanum
ATP. Dyrrhachium
E
E. Eryce
E. EPEE. Erefus
EAET. Eleulis
EAEY© EtevOigoi, Free
EHI, Epidaurus
EPI. Eriza in Caria
EPX. Erchia
EPY. Erythrae
ET. ETO. Etovs, Year
ET. Etenna in Pamphylia
EX. Eftovo-ia, Power
ET. ETBO. Euboea
ETE. EuireSijj, Pious
ETT. Evtvx/is, Happy
E<J>. E<J>E. Ephefus
Z.
ZA. Zacynthus
ZANK.A. Zancle, Meffa-
na anciently fo called
H.
H. Elium
Hr. Prefident
HPAK. Heraclea
0
0A. Thafus
©E. Tbefpiae
©EE. Theflalonica
©E. ©HB. Thebae
I.
I. IEP. Sacred
IEPAHT. Hyerapytha
IKAP. Hiccara
IAI. Ilium
lOT. Julis, a city, or Julius
IOTA. Julia
IIIA. Hippana
IP. Irene Inf. Feller in.
IE. Ifus, Iftiaea.
K.
K. Caius 5 Kevore?, Quintus
K. KATE. Caefar
K. K. Com¬
munity of Cilicia
KAIA. Cailius
ICAA. Clialcedon
KAAAI. Callipolis
KAMA. Camara
KAN. Canata
KAJI. Capua
KAnn. Cappadocia
KAP. Carrhae
KAPT. Carthago
KAT. Caulonia
KE. Ceos
KE<X>. Cephaltedis
KI. Cianus, Cibaum
KIA. Cilbiani
XA. Claonae, Claudius
XAA. Clazoaiene
MED
KNI. Cnidus
KO. Corinth
KOIN. Konax, Community
KOA. KeAaw«f, Colony,
Colophon
KOM. Commodus
KOP. Corcyra
KP. Cragus in Lycia
KPA. Cranos
KPH. Crete
KTH. Ctemense, Fell.
KT. Cuma, Cydonium,
Cyon
KY0. Cythnus
KTH. Cyprus
KTP. Cyrene
A.
A. or L AyxaaSacxraf, Year
A. 'Lucius
AA. Lacedaemon
AAM. Lamea j Lampfacus
AAP. Larifla
AAPI. Larinum
AE- AET. Leucas
AEON. Leontium
AHM. Lemnos
AIIT. Lipara
AIYI. Liviopolis
AO. AI2K. Locri
AOT. Longone
AYr. ATK. Lyftus
M.
M. Marcus, Malea, Mega¬
lopolis, Mazaka
MA. Maronea, Maflilia,
Macedonia
MAT. Magnefia
MAKPO. Macrocephali
MAM. Mamertini
MASS. Maflilia
MAZ. Mazara
ME. Menelais, on Syrian
regal coins
MENEK. Menecrates
ME. MET. Megara, Me¬
galopolis, Melite
MET. M£y«/«5, Great
MEE. Meffana
META. Metapontum
M. MHTPO. Metropolis
MI. Miletus
MK. Maflaka of Cappa¬
docia, on coins of Mi-
thridates VI.
MOP. Morgantia
MT. Mycenae
MTP. Myrlea
MTTI. Mytilene
N.
N. Naupactos
NAS. Naxos
NATAPX. en¬
joying a fea-port
NE. Nemea
N. NEJ2K. Neocori
A L S.
NEOII. Neopolis
NEP. Nerva
NIK. Nicaeum, Nicomedia
NTS. Nyfsei, on coins of
Scythopolis, Pell.
O.
OI. Oethsei
ON. Ourcg, Being
OIIEA. Opelius
OH. Opus
OPT. Orycus
OPX. Orchomenus
OYn. or YH. Ovirctr*! or
t'xxTef, Conful
OTEP. Verus
OTH. Verus
OYEEH. Vefpafianus
OYITEA. Vitellius
O^PT. Ophrynium.
n.
n. ng#5, upon
n. nonA. Publius
n. FIA. Paphos or Paros
DAIS. Paeftum
DAN Panormus
HAP. Paropinum
HA PI. Paros
HAP©. Parthicus
HE Perinthus.
REA. Pella
REP. Pergus
REPT. Pertinax
REEK. Pefcennius
R. RH. Pelufium
RIN. Pinamytae
RAA. Plateae
RO. Pontus
ROAY. Polyrrhenum
ROE. Pofidonia
RPAS. Praffus
R. RPT. Rgyraxes, Praefeft
RP. RPES. n^arSios, Le-
gate
RPO. Proconnefus
RFOAI. ngeJ<*e?, Curator
R. RPRT. Rgoros, Firft
RT. Ptolemais
RT. Pylos
P. «
PO. Rhodes
E.
E. EA.Salamis, Samos, Sy¬
ria,
EA. Samolale
EAAAR. Salapia
SAP. Sardis
EE. Seriphus, Segefte
EEB. Eroaerej, Auguftus
EEA. Selinus, Seleuci*
EERT. Septimius
El. Siphnos
EIA. Side
EINI2. Sinope
EMT. Smyrna
ETP. ETPA. Ergartlyo;,
Praetor
ETB. Sybaris
ET. STPA. Syracufe
ETP. Syria
Eft. Solas
T.
T. Titus
TABAA. Tabala
TA. TANA. Tanagra
TAP. Tarentum, Tarfus
TAYP. Tauromenum
TE. Tementis
TEP. Terina
TH. Tenus
TI. TIB. Tiberius
TPA. Trallis
TPI. Tripolis
TPO. Troizene
TTAN. Tyana
TT. Tyndarus
TTP. 1'yre (monogram)
T.
TE. YEA. Velia
YR. YRAT. YTTfltTtff, Conful
<I>.
<J>. Philip, Phoeftus, Phi-
luntium
<I>A. Phafelis
<J>AP. Pharfalus
^>1. Vibius, Philippopolis
OINE. Phineium
«I>A. Flavius
OOK. Phocaeum
<J>OYA. Fulvia
<PT. Phycus in Cyrene
X.
X. Chios
XAA. Chalcis
XEP. Cherfonefus
XI. Chytri in Crete
Abbtevia
tions.
Greek Numerals.
A.
B.
r.
A.
E.
or 6
Z.
H.
©.
I.
K.
A.
M.
N.
10.
20.
3°*
40.
5°*
60.
r. 100.
E. or C 200.
O.
R.
q. or q 90
70.
80.
T.
T.
•ft.
X.
ft.
%
300.
400.
50°.
600.
700.
800.
900.
Example*
MED
Abbtwa- Examples. 1 is 10 : add A to I, and IA makes n :
dons. f0 I2j ir, 13, &c. K is 20, KA, 21, &c. PI A
makes Til. Tlie Engliih word AIR marks the grand
initial numerals. On coins the numerals are often pla¬
ced in retrograde order ; which makes no difference in
the value, as every letter is appropriated to its num¬
ber. Thus TAP or FAT imply the fame, 333. But
this advantage being unknown to the Roman numerals
and Arabic cyphers, is apt to puzzle the beginner.
ROMAN COINS.
A
A. AULUS : in the exergue
it implies the firfl: mint,
as ANT. A. coined at An¬
tioch in the firfl; mint
A. A. A. F. F. Auro, Ar-
gento, TEre, Flando,
Feriundo
A. or AN. Annus
A. A. Apollo Augufti
A. F. A. N. Auli filius, Au-
li nepos
ABN. Abnepos
act. Aftiacus, or AfHum
ad. FRV. EMV. Ad fruges
emundas
ADIAB. Adiabenicus
adop. Adoptatus
ADQ. Adquifita
ADV. Adventus
AED. Aides
AED. P. Aidilitia poteftate
AED. S. Aides facrae
AED. CVR. Aidilis Curulis
AED. PL. Aidilis Plebis
AEL. Ailius
AEM. or aimil. Aimilius
AET. Aiternitas
AFR. Africa, or Africanus
ALBIN. Albinus
alim. ital. Alimenta Ita-
liae
ANN. avg. Annona Au-
gufti
A. N. F. F. Annum Novum
Fauftum Felicem
ANic. Anicius
ANN. DCCCLXIIII. NAT.
vrb. p. cir. con. An¬
no 864, Natali Urbis
‘ Populo Circenfes confti-
tuti
ANT. AVG. Antonius Au-
gur
ANT. Antonius, or Anto¬
ninus
AP. Appius
A. P. F. Argento Publico
Feriundo
A. POP. FRVG. AC. A Po¬
pulo Fruges Acceptse
aq. or AQL. Aquilius
AQVA MAR. Aqua Martia
ARAB. adq. Arabia Ad¬
quifita
ARR. Arrius
AVG. Augur, Auguftus,
Augufta
avg. D. F. Auguftus Divi
Filius
AVGG. Two Augufti
avggg. Three Augufti
AVR. or AVREL. Aurelius
B.
B. The mark of the fecond
mint in any city
bon. event. Bonus Even-
tus
B. R. P. NAT. Bono Reipub-
licae Nato
BRIT. Britannicus
BRVT. Brutus
c.
c. Caius, Colonia
C. A. Caefarea Augufta
c. cae. or caes. Caefar
CAESS. Caefares
garth. Carthage
CEN. Cenfor
cens. p. Cenfor Perpetuus
cest. Ceftius, of Ceftia-
nus
CIR. CON. Circum Condi-
dit, or Circenfes Con-
ceflit
CIVIB. ET SIGN. MILIT. A.
parth. recvp. Civibus
et Signis Militaribus a
Parthis Recuperatis
CN. Cneius
coel. Coelius
con. OB. Conftantinopoli
Obfignata, or Conftan¬
tinopoli Offtcina fecun-
da, or Conflata Obryzo
COL. Colonia
con. svo. Confervatori fuo
concord. Concordia
CL. v. Clypeus Votivus
comm. Commodus
clod. Clodius
cl. or clavd. Claudius
cos. Conful
coss. Confides
a L s.
CORN. Cornelius
cvr. x. F. Curavit Deua
rium Faciendum
D.
D. Decimus, Divus, De-
fignatus
DAC. Dacicus
D. F. Dacia felix
D. m. Diis Manibus
DES. or desig. Defignatus
DlCT. Didtator
DOMIT. Domitianus
D. N. Dominus nofter
did. Didius
D. P. Dii Penates
DV. Divus
E.
EID. mar. Idus Martiae
EX. cons. D. Ex Confenfu
Decuriorum
EX. s. c. Ex Senatus Con-
fulto
EQ. ordin. Equeftris Or-
dinis
EX. a. PV. Ex Argento or
Audloritate Publica
exer. Exercitus
ETR. Etrufcus
F.
F. Filius, or Filia, or Felix,
or Faciendum, or Fecit
FEL. Felix
FELic. Felicitas
FL. Flavius
flam. Flamen
fort. red. Fortunae Re-
duci
FOVRI. Fourius for Furius
Font. Fonteius
FRVGiF. Frugiferas (Cere-
ri)
FVL. Fulvius
fvlg. Fulgerator
G.
G. Gneius, Genius, Gau-
dium
ga. Gaditanus
G. D. Germanicus Dacicus
gen. Genius
germ. Germanicus
gl. E. R. Gloria Exercitus
Romani
GL. P. R. Gloria Populi
Romani
goth. Gothieus
G. P. R. Genio Populi Ro¬
mani
G. t. a. Genius Tutelaris
Aigypti, or Africae
H.
HEL. Helvius
hel. Heliopolis
her. Herennius, or He-
rennia
I 8l
HO. Honos Abbrevia-
HS. Seftertius , tl°ns‘ ,
I. Imperator, Jovi, Julius
IAN. clv. Janum clufit for
claufit
IMP. Imperator
impp. Imperatores
1. s. M. r. Juno Sofpita,
Mater or Magna Re¬
gina
it. Italia, Iterum
ITE. Iterum
ivl. Julius or Julia
1 vst. Juftus
1-1. s. Seftertius
I. o. m. Sacr. Jovi Opti¬
mo, Maximo, Sacrum
II. vir. Duumvir
in. vir. r. p. c. Triumvir
Reipublicae Conftituen-
dae
mi. vir. a. p. f. Qua-
tuorvir, or Quatuorviri,
Auro, or Argento, or
iEre, Publico Feriundo
IVN. Junior
L.
L. Lucius
LAT. Latinus
leg. propr. Legatus Pro-
praetoris
LEG. I. &c. Legio Prima,
&c.
LEP. Lepidus
lent. cvr. x. P. Lentu-
lus Curavit Denariura
Faciundum
LIBERO P. Libero Patri
lib. pvb. Libertas Publica
Lie. Licinius
L. s. den. Lucius Sicinius
Dentatus
lvc. Lucifera
LVD. cir. Ludi Circenfes
lvd. EQ. Ludi Equeftres
LVD. saec. F. Ludos Sai-
culares Fecit
M.
M. Marcus, or Marius
MAR. CL. Marcellus Clo¬
dius
M. F. Marci Filius
M. otacil. Marcia Ota-
cilia
mag. or magn. Magnus
mac. Macellum
max. Maximus
MAR. Martia (aqua)
max. vlt. Marti Ultori
MES. Meflius
metal. Metallum
MINAT. Minatius
MINER. Minerva
Mr M. r. w
1 B 2
Abbrevia- m. l. v. Municipcs Mu-
« tl0ns' , njcipii Julii Uticenfis
mon. or monet. Moneta
N.
N. Nepos or Nofter
N. c. Nobiliffimus Csefar
NAT. VRB. Natalis Urbis
NEP. Nepos
nep. red. Neptuno Re-
duci
O.
o. Optimo
OB. c. s. Ob Gives Serva-
tos
of. Officina.
opel. Opelius
ORB. TERR. Orbis Terra-
rum
P.
P. or POT. Poteftate
PAG. ORB. TER. Pacatori
Orbis Terrarum
TAPI. Papius or Papirius
PARTH. Parthicus
perp. Perpetuus
PERT, or pertin. Pertinax
pesc. Pefcennius
P. F. Pius Felix
PLAET. Plaetonius
P. L. N. Pecunia Londini
Notata
P. LON. s. Pecunia Londi¬
ni Signata
P. M. or PONT. MAX. Pon-
tifex Maximus
POMP. Pompeius
P. P. Pater Patrise
PR. Praetor
P. R. Populus Romanus
PRAEF. CLAS. ET. OR. MA-
RIT. Praefeftus Claffis
et Orae Maritimae
PRINC. iwent. Princeps
Juventutis
PRIV. Privernum
PROG. Proconful.
PRON. Pronepos
PROP. Propraetor
PRoq. Proquaeftor.
prov. deor. Providentia
Deorum
PVP1EN. Pupienus
^
£L Qumtus, or Quaeftor
Q_. c. m. p. i. Quintus Cae-
cihus Metellus Pius Im-
perator
Q. DEsig. Quaeftor Delig-
natus
Qj P. Quaeftor Praetorius
{E PR- QuaeftorProvincialis
R.
R. Roma, Reftituit
recep. Receptis, or Re-
ceptus
MED
rest. Reftituti
ROM. et. avg, Romae et
Augufto
R. p. Rcfpublica
S.
saec. avr. Saeculum Au-
reum
saec. fel. Saeculi Felicitas
sal. Salus
BALL. Salluftia
sarm. Sarmaticus
s. c. Senatus Confulto
SCIP. ASIA. Scipio Afiati-
cus
sec. ORB. Securitas Orbis
SEC. perp. Securitas Per-
petua
sec.temp. SecuritasTem-
porum
sen. Senior
sept. Septimius
SERV. Servius
sev. Severus
sex. Sextus
sic. v. sic. x. Sicut Quin-
quennalia, lie Decenna-
lia
sig. Signis
S. M. Signata Moneta
S. p. q. r. Senatus Popu-
lufque Romanus
stabil. Stabilita (terra)
svl. Sulla 0*
T.
T. Titus, Tribunus
TER. Terentius, or Terti-
um
temp. Temporum
Ti. Tiberium
TR. or trey. Trevens
treb. Trebonianus
tr. mil. Tribunus Milita-
ris
TR. P. or TRIE. POT. Tri-
bunicia Poteftate
V.
V. Quintum
v. c. Vir Clariflimus
vesp. Vefpafianus
vib. Vibius
vict. Vidtoria
Vll. viR.EPYL. Septemvir
Epulonum
vil. pvb. Villa Publica
virt. Virtus
VN. MR. Venerandce Me¬
morise
VOT. X. MVLT. XX. Votis
Decennalibus Multipli-
catis Vicennalibus
X.
X. Decern, Denarius
XV. VIR.SARR. FAC. Quin-
decim Vir Sacris Faci-
undis
A L s.
Abbreviations
on the Exergue ; from Bouduri and Mo-
naldini. Pinkerton,
Abbfevij.
tiqns.
A. Officina Prima
ALE. Alexandria
AME. Antioelienfis Mone¬
ta Secundae Officinse
AN. ANT. ANTI. Antiochia
ANB. Antiochiae Secunda
Officina: to ANH. Anti-
ochise Odtava Officina
A. p.l. (In officina) Prima
percufla Lugduni
A£). AQL. Aquileise
aq. o. B. f. Aquileiae Of¬
ficina Secundse Fabrica
ACL R. s. Aquileise Pecu¬
nia Signata
A. ar. arl. Arelate
A. sisc. Prima (in officina)
Sifciae
B. Sirm. Secunda Sirmii
B. s. l. c. Secunda Signa¬
ta Lugduni
C. 0. Conftantinopoli No¬
na
COMOB. Conflata Moneta
Obryzo. Only on gold
or filver from a gold
die
CON. Conftantinopoli
conob. Conflata Obryzo.
Only on gold.
CONS. Conftantinopoli
kart. Carthago
K. o. Carthaginenfis Offi¬
cina
L. LC. LVC. LVG. Lucdu-
ni, Lugduni
L. LON. Londini
L. P. Lugdunenfis vel Lon-
dinenfis Pecunia
lvc. p. s. Lugduni Pecu¬
nia Signata
mdps. Mediolani Pecunia
Signata
M. K. v. T. Moneta Kar-
taginenfis Urbs (in offi¬
cina Tertia
M. L. Moneta Lugdunen¬
fis vel Londinenfis
mostt. Moneta Officinra
Secundse Treverorum
MSTR. Moneta Signata
Treveris
O. Officina
off. III. CONST. Officina
Tertia Conftantinopoli
parl. Percufla or Pecunia
Arelate
Plon. Pecunia Londinen¬
fis
plvg. Pecunia Lugdunen¬
fis
P. R. Pecunia Romana, or
Percuffa Romse
P. T. Pecunia Treverenfis
£L AR. Quindta Arelatenfis
(offieina)
R. Ro. rom. Romse
RA. Ravennse
ROPS. Romae Pecunia Sig¬
nata
s. ar. Signata Arelate
s. const. Signata Conftan¬
tinopoli
sis. Sifciae
ss. p. Sifcienfis Pecunia
sisc. v. Sifcia Urbs
sma. Signata Moneta An¬
tiochiae
S. M. her. Signata Mone¬
ta Fleraelese
s. M. N. Signata Moneta
Nicomedise
s. m. r. Signata Moneta
Romae
s. T. Signata
tesob. Teffalonicse Offici¬
na Secunda
theopo. Theopoli
TR. Treveris
trob. Treveris Officina
Secunda
A Lijl of Roman Colonies vehofe Coins remain $ and
Abbreviations on thefe Coins.
Abdera in Spain
Acci in Spain
Achulla in Africa
AZ,lia Capitolina in .Tudsea
Agrippina in Germany
Antiochia in Pifidia
    in Syria
Apamea in Eithynia
Arna in Theffaly
Aftigi in Spain
Baiba in Mauritania Tin-
gitana
Berytus in Phoenicia
Bilbilis in Spain
Boftra in Arabia
Bracara Augufta in Spain
Buthrotum in Epirus
Cabellio in Gaul
Ccefar-Augufta in Spain
Csefarea in Paleftine
Calagurris
^.bbrcvia- Calagurrls in Spain
lions. Calpe in Spain
^ Camalodunum in Britain
Carrhas in Mefopotamia
Carteia in Spain
Carthago in Africa
Carthago Nova in Spain
Cafcantum in Spain
Caifandria in Macedon
Celfa in Spain
Clunia in Spain
Coillu in Numidia
Comana in Cappadocia
Corinthus in Greece
Cremna in Pifidia
Culla in Thrace
Damafcus in Ccelefyria
Dertofa in Spain
Deulton in Thrace
Dium in Macedon
Ebora in Spain
Edefla in Mefopotamia
Emerita in Spain
Emefa in Phoenicia
Ergavica in Spain
Germe in Galatia
Graccuris in Spain
Hadrumetum in Africa
Heliopolis in Coelefyria
Hippo Regius in Africa
Iconium in Lycaonia
Ilerda in Spain
Illergavonia in Spain
Uleci in Spain
lol in Mauritania
Italica in Spain
Laelia in Spain
Laodicea in Syria
Eeptis in Africa
Lugdunum in Gaul
Neapolis in Paleftine
MEDALS.
Netnaufus in Gaul
Nefibis in Mefopotamia
Norba Caefarea in Mauri¬
tania
Obulco in Spain
Oea in Africa
Olba in Pamphylia
Ofca in Spain
Oficarda in Spain
Panormus in Sicily
Parium in Myfia
Parlais in Lycaonia
Patricia (Corduba) in
Spain
Pella in Macedon
Philippi in Macedon
Philippopolis in Arabia
Ptolemais in Phoenicia
Rhefaena in Mefopotamia
Romula (Hifpalis) in
Spain
Rufcino in Gaul
Sabaria in Hungary
Saguntum in Spain
Sebatte in Paleftine
Segobriga.in Spain
Sidon in Phoenicia
Singara in Mefopotamia
Sinope in Pontus
Stobi in Macedon
Tarraco in Spain
-Fheffalonica in Macedon
Tradu&a (Julia) in Spain
Troas in Phrygia
Turiafo in Spain
lyana in Cappadocia
Tyrus in Phoenicia
Valentia in Spain
Vienna in Gaul
Viminacium in Moefta
Utica in Africa
c. a. fi. met. sid. Coloma Amelia Pia Metropolis
Sidon
c. A. R. Colonia Amgufta Rauracorum, or Colonia Afta
Regia : Augft in Switzerland, or Aft near Xeres
de la Frontera in Spain.
C. c. A. Colonia Caefarea Augufta, Saragoja in Spain
c. c. col. lug. Claudia Copia Colonia Lugdunenfis
c. c. i. B. Colonia Campeftris Julia Baiba, in Mauri¬
tania.
c. c. i. b. D. D. Colonia Campeftris Julia Baiba, De-
creto Decurionum
c. c. i. h. p. A. Colonia Concordia Julia Hadrumetina.
Pia Augufta
C. civ. D. D. p. Corona Civica data Decreto Publico
C. c. N. A. Colonia Carthago Nova Augufta
c. c. N. c. D. D. Colonia Concordia, Norba Csefareana,
Hecreto Decurionum.
C. cor. Colonia Corinthus
c. c. t. Ducentefima RemilTa
c. c. s. Colonia Claudia Sabaria, in Hungary
c. F. p. d. Colonia Fiavia Pacenfis Develtum, Bevel-
turn in Thrace.
c. G. i. h. p. a. Colonia Gemella Julia Hadriana, Pa-
nana, Augufta
c. i. c. A. Colonia Julia Concordia, Apamea
c. i. A. d. Colonia Julia Augufta Dertona, Tortona
near Milan
C. I. av. Colonia Julia Aug. Cadiz
c. i. avg. f. sin. Colonia Julia Augufta Felix Sinope
c. I. B. Colonia Julia Baiba, m Mauritania
c. I. c. a. p. a. Colonia Julia Carthago Augufta Pia
Antiqua, or Corinth, or Carthago Nova
C. I. cal. Colonia Julia Calpe, Gibraltar
C. I. f. Colonia Julia Felix, Cadiz
c. I. g. A. Colonia Julia Gemella (c) Augufta
C. I. I. a. Colonia Inununis Illiei Augufta, E/c/ie in
Spain
c. I. N. c. Colonia Julia Norba CaTareana, or Alcan¬
tara : fometimes it means Col. Julia Nova Carthago
c. i. v. Colonia Julia Valentia, Valencia in Spain 6
c. v. T. Colonia Vidlrix Tarraco
Abbreviations on Colonial Coins.
Acer. Accitana Colonia, Guadix in Spain
adi. Adjutrix legio
ael. mvn. coel. Allium Municipium Ccela, near Sef-
tos on the Hellefpont J
AST. Aftigitana, Eceja in Andalufia
B. a. Braccara Augufti, Brogue in Portugal
C. A. Caefarea Antiochi®
c. A. a. P. or patr. Colonia Augufta Aroe Patrenfis
cab. Cabelho
c. a. BVT. Colonia Augufti Buthrotum, in Epirus
C. A. c. Colonia Augufta Caelarea
c. A. I. Colonia Augufta Julia, Cadiz
c. a. E. Colonia Aug. Emerita, Merida
CAL. Calagurris, Calahorra in Spain
C. A. o. A f. Colonia Antoniana Oea Aug. Felix, Tri¬
poli in Africa
c. L. I. cor. Colonia Laus Julia Corinthus
c. L. i. n. avg. Colonia Laus Julia Nova Augufta,
-Laus or Eodi in Lucania
c. M. L. Colonia Metropolis Laodicea, in Ccelefyria
co. DAM. METRO. Colonia Damafcus Metropolis
COHll. pret. vil. p. vi. f. Cohortes Praetorianae Sep,
timum Piae, Sextum Felices
coh. i. cr. Cohors prima Cretenfis
COH. PRET. PHIL. Cohors Praetoriana Philippenfium
col. ael. a. h. met. Colonia ^lia Augurta HadrU-
metina Metropolis, in Africa
COL. AEL. CAP. COMM. p. F. Colonia JElh Capitolina
Commodiana Pia Felix
COL. ALEX. TROAS. Colonia Alexandriana Troas
COL. AMAS. or AMS. Colonia Amaftriana, in Paphlugonia
COL. ANT. Antioch in Pifidia
COL. ARELAT. sextan. Colonia Arelate Scxtanorum,
Arles 9
COL. AST. AVG. Colonia Aftingitana Augufta, Ece/a
tn Spain
l83
Abbrevia¬
tions.
(c) Gemella implies a colony drawn from two others.
COL*. -
184
Abbrevia¬
tions.
C '"T ~
MED
COE. A\fd. F£t. ETTft. Colonia Augufta Felix Berytus
col. AVG. FIR. Colonia Aug. Firma, Eceja
COL. AVG. IVL. PHILIP. Colonia Augufta Julia Philip-
penlis
COL. AVG. PAT. TREVIR. Colonia Augufta Paterna
Trevirorum, Treves in Germany, fent from Paternum
in Italy
COL. AVR. KAR. COMM. P. F. Colonia Aurelia Karrhse
Commodiana Pia Felix, or Carneatum Commagene,
or Carrhce in AJia
col. B. a. Colonia Braccara Augufta, Prague
COL. BRYT. L. V. Colonia Berytus Legio Quinta
col. CASE. Colonia Cabellio
col. CAES. AVG. Colonia Caefarea Augufta, in Palefline
COL. caMALODVN. Colonia Camalodunum, England
COL. Casilijt. Colonia Cafilinum, CaJlcIla%o in Italy
col. cl. ptol. Colonia Claudia Ptolemais, Acre in
Phoenicia
COL. DAMAS. METRO. Colonia Damafcu* Metropolis
col. F. I. A. P. Barcin. Colonia Flavia Julia Augufta
Pia, Barcino or Barcelona
col. fl. pac. devlt. Colonia Flavia Pacenfis Deultum,
D eve hum in Thrace
COL. HA. ME. T. Colonia Hadriana Mercurialis Thae-
nitana, Mercuriali, Fermo in Italy and Thenes in
Africa
COL. H. (or HEL.) LEG. H. Colonia Heliopolis Legio
Heliopolitana
col. hel. i, o. M. H. Colonia Heliopolis Jovi Optimo
Maximo Heliopolitano
COL. IVL. AVG. c. l. F. COMAN. Colonia Julia Aiigufta
Concordia Invifla Felix Comanorum, drawn from
Concordia in Italy, andfeht to Comana in Cappadocia
COL. IVL. AVG. FEL. CREMNA. Colonia Julia Augufta
Felix Cremna, in Pamphylia
COL. IVL. CER. SAC. AVG. FEL. CAP. OECVM. ISE. HEL»
Colonia Julia Certamen Sacrum Auguftum Felix
Capitolenum Oecumenicum Ifelaftieum Heliopolita-
uum.
COL. IVL. CONC. APAM. AVG. D. D. Colonia Julia Con¬
cordia Apamea Augufta Decreto Decurionum
COL. IVL. PATER. NAR. Colonia Julia Paterna Narbo-
nenfis
COL. NEM. Colonia Nemaufus
COL. NICEP-H. cond. Colonia Nicephorium Condita, in
Mefopotamia
COL. PATR. Colonia Patrenfis or Patricia, Patras in
Greece, or Cordova in Spain
COL. P. F. AVG. F. CAES. MET. Colonia Prima Flavia
Aug. Felix Caefarea Metropolis, in Palejline
COL. P. FL, AVG. CAES. METROP.P. s. p. fame as above,
P. s. P. is Provinciae Syriae Paleftinse.
COL. PR. F. A. CAESAR. Colonia Prima Flavia Augufta
Caefarea, in Palejline
COL. R. F-. AVG. FL. C. METkOP. Colonia Romana Felix
Aug. Flavia Caefarea Metropolis. The fame
COL. ROM. Colonia Romulea, or Seville
col. ROM. LVG. Colonia Romana Lugdunum
COL. rvs. leg. vi. Colonia Rufcino Legio SeXta,
RouJJllon in France
col. sabar. Colonia Saburiae
col. sabas. Sebafte, in Palejline
Col. ser. G. NEAPOL. Colonia Servii Galbae Neapolis,
in 'Palejline
Colonls
Con (jf
Wates.
A < L S.
COL. v. I. CELSA, or COR. VIC. IVL. CFLIA.
Viftrix Julia Celfa, Kelfa in Spam
COL. Vic. IVL. LEP. Colonia Viclrix Julia Leptis,
in Africa
COL. vim. AN. I. or II. &c. Colonia Viminacium Anno
primo, Widm in Servia
COL. vlp. tra. Colonia Ulpia Trajana : Kellen, or
Warhal in Tranfylvania
CO. P. F. COE. metro. Colonia Prima Flavia Cajfarea
Metropolis
CO. P. I. a. Colonia Pacenfis Julia Augufta, or Col.
Octaviana
C. R. I. F. s. Colonia Romana Julia Felix Sinope
c. T. T. Colonia Togata Tarraco
c. v. il. Colonia Viftrix Illice, Elche in Spain
D. Decuriones
D. c. A. Divus. Caef. Aug.
DERT. Dertofa
GEN. COL. NER. PATR. Genio Colonia? Neronianae Pa¬
trenfis
G. L. s. Genio Loci Sacrum
M. A. illergavonia DYRT. Municipium Hibera Iller-
gavonia Dertofa, Tortofa in Catalonia
M. M. i. V. Municipes Municipii Julii Uticenfis
M. R. Municipium Ravennatium
MVN. CAL. IVL. Municipium Calagurris Julia, in Spain
MVN. CLVN. Municipium Clunia, Corunna in Spain
MVN. FANE. AEL. Municipium Faneftre Aelium, Fano
MVN. stob. Municipium Stobenfe, Stobi in Macedon
MV. TV. Municipium Turiafo, in Spain
N. tr. alexanDrianaE col. bostr. Nervi* Trajan*
Alexandrian* Coloni* Boftr*, in Palefhne
SEP* COL. LAVD. Septimia Colonia Laudxcea or Lao-
dicea
SEP. TYR. MET. Septima Tyrus Metropolis.
Fig. I.
а.
3-
4-
5-
б.
10.
11.
12.
I3*
14.
I5*
16.
17.
18.
20.
21.
22.
Explanation of the Plates.
Flats
A Perfian dartc cccxxxl.
A drachm of Egina an<1
A filver hemidrachm of Alexander the Great cccxnil
Tigranes the younger of Armenia, with his
fitter
One of the coins of the Arfacid* of Parthia
A coin of the Saffanid* of Perfia. Firft pub-
lilhed by Mr Pinkerton
Denarius of Cneius Pompey from Mr Pinker¬
ton. Reverfe reprefents him as received by Spain
A brafs coin of Cunobelinus
Pefcennius Niger. Struck at Antioch ; u-
nique. In Dr Hunter’s cabinet j publiflied by
Mr Pinkerton
A filver coin of Caraufius
Reverfe of Claudius in firft brafs
Reverfe of Adrian
Of Antoninus Pius
Of Commodus
Of Severus
A Saxon penny
A Saxon ftyca
19. Ancient pennies, fuppofed to be Scottift)
A penny of William of Scotland
A penny of Robert the Great
An Irilh penny
23. The
3
Medals
/ TA' rrrxxx/.
I
t
22.
M edals Pza rz: rccxscaz.
AA 7SC A A A A.n n A T\ Tr">
tx n A -L A
B § 6 ^ 6
cctfsrcv
£ EeeE6Ht
F r
G-G96^l-'k5'^6
H h.H.I I.
I I l
K .
. L t
m./vy. n. Ri. n\.^ m. Jii. t-n.
.S°. 'Fd. W. w. w\. h . u .
N'.H.
O.o• Fi
p.
R. R.R . I’/. R.O-Sl .p.fl-
5 . . “s_. S . X • E. ^
T. T.T.
v. *ir. V. n . vl . 0 . >^-
W.w.P.YY.t.F.
X . ~r .^C . <£. + ■ K •
y. y. F.~*r.'f.
yt./e.'t .
CR.CR .
i>R./a .
HE.FE .
MAE . M- E .
mo. 5 .v
<28.
Rua^ . v< .
rx .is:
TH • D. B’.p.JJ.
4.3 • P .
THE . -B .
29-
NG-hC .
TSINA/ . NP •
REX . .
/i! JMJ/r/s// Scu/jo’
%■
•-
Explana¬
tion of
Pla'es.
MED
21. The gold penny of Henry III.
24. The large noble of l he firft coinage of Edward
HI.
25. The gold medal of David II. of Scotland
A L S.
26. The ryal of Queen Mary of Scotland
27. Letters on Anglo-Saxon coins
28. Abbreviations on ditto
29. Monetarius
18S
Explana-
t t Of
Fiaies.
MED
Medals ImpreJJions of Medals. See Casting.
II MEDALLION, or Medalion, a medal of an ex-
Meu?a. traordinary lize, fuppofed to be anciently llruck by the
t,~v emperors for their friends, and for foreign princes and
ambaffadors. But, that the fmallnefs of their number
might not endanger the lofs of the devices they bore,
the Romans generally took care to damp the fubjedt of
them upon their ordinary coins.
Medallions, in rcfpcdl of the other coins, were the
fame as modern medals in refpect of modern money :
they were exempted from all commerce, and had no
other value than what was fet upon them by the fancy
of the owner. Medallions are fo fcarce, that there
cannot be any fet made of them, even though the me¬
tals and fizes fhould be mixed promifcuoufly.
MEDEA, in fabulous hiftory, a celebrated forcerefs,
daughter of /Eetes king of Colchis. Her mother’s
name, according to the more received opinion of He-
fiod and Hyginus, was Idyia, or, according to others,
Ephvre, Hecate, Afterodia, Antiope, and Neaera. She
wa- the niece of Circe. When Jafon came to Colchis
in queld of the golden fleece, Medea became enamoured
of him, and it was to her well directed labours that
the Argonauts owed their prefervation. Medea had
an interview with her lover in the temple of Hecate 5
where they bound themfelves by the molt folemn oaths
to eternal fidelity. No fooner had Jafon overcome all
the difficulties which fEetes had placed in his way,
than Medea embarked with the conquerors for Greece.
To flop the purfuit of her father, ffie tore to pieces
her brother Abfyrtus, and left his mangled limbs in
the way through which /Eetes wa* to pafs. This
add of barbaritv, fome have attributed to Jafon, and
not to her. When Jafon reached lolchos his native
country, the return and viflori. s of the Argonauts
were celebrated with univerfal rejoicings : but yffifon
tli. father of Jafon was unable to affifl at the folemni-
ty on account of the infirmities of his age. Medea,
at her huffiand’s requefl, removed the weaknefs of
/Efim ; and by drawing awav .'he blood from his veins,
. and filling fhefn again with (he juice of certain herbs,
ihe reftored him to the vigour and fprightlinefs of
youth. This hidden change in /Ffon aftonifhed the
inhabitants of lolehos; and the daughters of Pelias
were alf* defirous to fee their father reftored bv the
fame power to the vigour of youth. Medea, willing
to revenge the injuries which her hufband’s family
had fuff red from Pelia^, increafed their curiofity ;
and betraved them into the murder of their father
as repuratorv to his reiuvenefcence, which fhe afier-
waHs refufed to aeeoropliffi. This adtion greatly in i-
fated the peoo’e of lolchos 5 and Medea with her huf-
ba d fled to Corinth to av id their refen'mi nt. Here
thev lived for to years with mutual at'nrhment, when
the fee of Jafon fo Glauce the king’s daughter in-
Vol. XIII. Part I.
MED
terrupted their harmony, and Medea was divorced. Medea
Medea revenged the infidelity of Jalon, by cauiing (I
the death of Glauce, and the deftruction of her fami- ^‘a’
ly. She alfo killed two of her children in their ta-
ther’s prefence 5 and when Jafon attempted to punith
the barbarity of the mother, the fled through the air
upon a chariot drawn by winged dragons. From Co¬
rinth Medea came to Athens, where, after ffie had un¬
dergone the neceiTary purification of her murder, ihe
married King /Egeus, or (according to others) lived
in an adulterous manner with him. From her conduct
with /Egeus, Medea had a Ion who was called > er/us.
Soon after, when Thefeus wiflied to make himfelf
known to his father, Medea, jealous of his fame and
fearful of his power, attempted to poifon him at a
feafi which had been prepared for his entertainment.
Her attempts, however, failed of fuccefs, and the fight
of the fword which Thefeus wore by his fide convin¬
ced /Egeus that the ftranger againft whofe life he had
fo bafely confpired was his owrn fon. I he father and
the fon were reconciled ; and P/iedea, to avoid the
puniffiment which her wickednefs deferved, mount¬
ed her fiery chariot and difappeared through the air.
She came to Colchis ; where, according to fome, ffie
was reconciled to Jafon, who had fought her in hei na¬
tive country after her ludden departure from Corinth.
She died at Colchis, as Juffin mentions, when the had
been reftored to the confidence of her family. After
death ffie married Achilles in the Elyfian fields, ac¬
cording to the tradition mentioned by Simonides.
The murder of Mermerus and Pheres, the youngei! of
Jafon’s children by Medea, is not to be attributed to
the mother, according to Elian 5 but to the Corin¬
thians, who afiaffinated them in the temple of Juno
Acraja. To avoid the refentment of the gods, and
to deliver themleb.es from the peitilence which vi! ted
their country after fo horrid a maffacre, they engaged
the poet Euripides for five talents to write a tragedy,
which cleared them of the murder, and represented
Medea as the cruel afiaflin of her own children.. And
befidcs, that this opinio’; might he the better credited,
feflival,s were appointed, in which the medher was re-
prefented with all the barbarity of a fury murdering
her own Tons.
MEDEOLA, Clipping African Asparagus,
a genus of plants belonging to the hexandria elafs, and
in the natural method ranking under the nth order,
Sarmentacete. See Botany Index.
MEDIA, now the province of Ghilan in Perfia,
once the fiat of a potent empire, was bounded, ac¬
cording to Ptolenre, on the north by part of the Caf-
pian fea ; on the South by Perfis, So.'’ana, and Affi ria;
on the eaft by Parthia and Hyrcania ; and an the weft
bv Armenia Major. It was anciently lividc-d into fe-
veral provinces, viz. Tropatene, Charomithrene, i 'a-
A a rites.
Mcdi;
MED
^ntes, Marciane, Amariacc, and Syro-Media. By a
later aivifion, however, ail thefe were reduced to two j
tJic one called Media Magna, the other Media Atro-
patia, or limply Atropatene. Media Magna was bound¬
ed by Perils, Parthia, Hyrcania, the Hyreanian Tea,
and Atropatene, and contained the cities of Ecbatan,
Laodicea, Apamea, Raga, Rageia or Ragea, &c.
Atropatene lay between the Cafpian mountains and the
Cafpian fea.
I his country originally took its name from Madai,
the third fon of Japhet; as is plain from Scripture,
where the Medes are conftantly called Madai. Among
profane authors, fome derive the name Media, from
one Medus the fon of Jafon and Medea j others from
a. city called Media. Sextus Rufus tells us that in his
time it was called Medena, and from others we learn
that it was alfo called Aria. The mod probable hiftory
of the Medes is as follows :
This people lived in fubje&ion to the Affyrians till
the reign of Sennacherib, when they threw off the yoke,
and lived for fome time in a date of anarchy. But at
lad, rapine and violence, the natural confequences of
fuch a fituation, prevailed fo much, that they were con-
drained to have recourle to fome kind of government,
that they might be enabled to live in fafety. Accord-
ingly, about 699 B. C. one Dejoces having procured
himfelf to be chofen king, united the feattered tribes
into which the Medes were at that time divided ; and
having applied himfelf as much as podible to the civili¬
zation of his barbarous fubje&s, left the throne to his
fon Phraortes, after a reign of 53 years.
1 he new king, who was of a warlike and enterpri-
fmg difpofition, fubdued almod all the Upper Ada ly¬
ing between Mount Taurus and the river Halys which
runs through Cappadocia into the Euxine fea. Elated
with this good fuccefs, he invaded Aflyria, the empire
of which was now much declined, and greatly weaken¬
ed by the revolt of many nations which had followed
the example of the Medes. Nebuchadonofor or Chy
niladan, however, the reigning prince, having aflem-
bled what forces he could, engaged Phraortes, defeated,
took him prifoner, and put him to death ; after which,
entering Media, he laid wafte the country, took the
metropolis of Ecbatan itfelf, and levelled it with the
ground.
On the death of Phraortes, his fon Cyaxares Avas
placed on the throne. He was no lefs valiant and enter-
prifing than his father, and had better fuccefs againft
the Aflyrians. With the remains of that army which
had been defeated under his father, he not only drove
the conquerors out of Media, but obliged Chyniladan
to (hut himfelf up in Nineveh. To this place he im¬
mediately laid clofe fiege 5 but was obliged to give over
the enterprife on account of an irruption of the Scy¬
thians into his own country. Cyaxares engaged thefe
new enemies with great refolution ; but was utterly
defeated \ and the conquerors overran not only all Me¬
dia, but the greated part of Upper Afia, extending
their conquefts into Syria, and as far as the confines of
Egypt. They continued mailers of all this vaft trad of
[ 186 j
MED
country for 28 years, till at lall Media was delivered
from their yoke by a general mafiacre at the mitigation
of Cyaxares.
After this deliverance, the Medes foon repofieffed
themfelves of the territories they had loll ; and once
more extended their frontiers to the river Halys, their
ancient boundary to the weitward. After this we find
the Medes engaged in a war with the Lydians; which
however, ended without any remarkable tranfaction :
but on the conciulion of it, Cyaxares having entered
into a Uriel alliance with Nebuchaanezzar king of Ba¬
bylon, returned in conjunction with the Babylonians
before Nineveh : which they took and levelled with
the ground, putting molt of the inhabitants to the
fword.
After this victory the Babylonian and Median em¬
pires feem to have been united : however, after the
death of Nebuchadnezzar, or rather in his lifetime,
a war enfued, which w'as not extinguilhed but by the
diffolution of the Babylonian empire. The Medes, un¬
der Altyages the fon of Cyaxares I. withltood the
power of the Babylonian monarchs : and under Cyrus
and Cyaxares II. utterly deltroyed their empire by the
taking of Babylon, as is related under that article.
After the death of Cyaxares, the kingdom fell to Cy¬
rus, by whom the feat of the empire was transferred to
Persia, under which article the hiltory of Media now
falls to be confidered, as alfo the manners, &c. of the
inhabitants.
MEDIANA, the name of a vein or little veflel,
made by the union of the cephalic and bafilic, in the
bend of the elbow.
MEDIAS1INUM, in Anatomy, a double mem¬
brane, formed by a duplicature of the pleura j ferving
to divide the thorax and the lungs into two parts, and
to fultain the vifeera, and prevent their falling from
one fide of the thorax to the other. See Anatomy,
N° 117.
MEDIATE, or Intermediate, fomething that
Hands betwixt and connefts two or more terms confi¬
dered as extremes j in which fenfe it Hands oppofed to
immediate.
MEDIATOR, a perfon that manages or tranfafts
betAveen two parties at variance, in order to reconcile
them. The Avord, in Scripture, is applied, 1. To Jefus
Chrifl, Avho is the only intercefibr and peace-maker
between God and man, (1 Tim. ii. 5.) 2. To Mofes,
Avho interpofed betAveen the Lord and his people, to de¬
clare unto them his word •, (Deut. v. 5. iii. 19.).
MEDICAGO, Snail Trefoil, a genus of plants
belonging to the diadelphia clafs, and in the natural
method ranking under the 3 2d order, Papilionaceee.
See Botany Index. For the properties and culture
of Lucern, a fpecies of this genus, fee Agriculture
Index.
MEDICINAL, any thing belonging to medicine.
Medicinal Springs, a general name for any foun¬
tain, the waters of which are of ufe for removing cer¬
tain diforders. They are commonly either chalybeate
or fulphureous. See Springs and Water.
Media
Medicinal
Spiings,
MEDICINE,
[ i87 ]
MEDICINE.
Definition. TITEDICINE is the art of prerenting, curing, or
1V1; alleviating, thofe difeafes to which the human
fpecies are fubjefted.
HISTORY of Medicine.
I
Origin of The fabulous hiftory of the ancients derives this art
among'the immediately from lheir gods 5 and, even among the
Jews • moderns, fome are of opinion that it may iuftly be con-
lidered as of divine revelation. But without adopting
any fuppolition of which no probable evidence can be
given, we may conclude, that mankind were naturally
led to it from cafual obfervation on the difeafes to which
they found themfelves fubje&ed $ and that, therefore,
to a certain degree at lead, it is as ancient as the hu¬
man race. But at what period it began to be praftifed
as an art, by particular individuals following it as a
profeffion, is not known. The moll ancient phyficians
we read of were thofe who embalmed the patriarch
Jacob by order of his fon Jofeph. The facred writer
ityles thefe phyficians fervants to Jofeph : whence
we may be alfured that they were not priefs, as the
firft phyficians are generally fuppofed to have been ;
for in that age we know the Egyptian priefts were in
iueh high favour, that they retained their liberty, when,
through a public calamity, all the reft of the people
were made flaves to the prince.
It is not probable, therefore, that among the Egyp¬
tians religion and medicine were originally conjoined ;
and if we fuppofe the Jews not to have invented the art^
but received it from fome other nation, it is as little’
probable that the priefts of that nation were their phv-
ficians as thofe of Egypt.
That the Jewilh phyficians were abfolutely diftineft
from their priefts, is very certain. Yet as the Jews
relided for fuch a long time in Egypt, it is probable
they would retain many of the Egyptian cuftoms,
from which it would be very difficult to free them.
We read, however, that when King Afa was difeafed
m his feet, “ he fought not to the Lord, but to the
phyficians.” Hence we may conclude, that among
the Jews the medical art was looked upon as a mere
human invention ; and it was thought that the Deity
nevei cured difeafes by making people acquainted with
the virtues of this or that herb, but only by his mira¬
culous power. That the fame opinion prevailed among
the nations who were neighbours to the Jews, is alfo
probable from what we read of \haziah king of Judah
who having fent meffiengers to inquire of Baalzebub
god of Ekron concerning his difeafe, he did not defire
any remedy from him or his priefts, but limply to know
whether he ftiould recover or not.
. What feems moft probable on this fubjeeft therefore
is, that religion and medicine came to be mixed toge¬
ther only in confequence of that degeneracy into io-.
norance and fuperftition which took place among all
naLions. . The Egyptians, we know, came at laft to
be limk m the moll ridiculous and abfurd fuperftition :
and then, indeed, it is not wonderful that we ftiould
find their priefts. commencing phyficians, and mingling Origin of
charms, incantations, &c. with their remedies. That Medicine,
this was the cafe, long after the days of Jofeph, we are
very certain ; and indeed it feems as natural for igno¬
rance. and barbarifm to combine religion with phylic,
as it is for a civilized and enlightened people to- keep
them feparate. Hence we fee, that among all modern
barbarians their priefts or conjurors are their only phy¬
ficians. 1
We are fo little acquainted with the ftate of phyfic among the
among the Egyptians, that it is needlefs to fay much ES7I)tian-»
concerning them. They attributed the invention of
medicine, as they did alfo that of many other arts, to
Thoth, the Hermes or Mercury of the Greeks. He
is faid to have written many things in hieroglyphic
charafters upon certain pillars, in order to perpetuate
his knowledge, and render it ufeful to others. Thefe
were tranferibed by Agathodemon, or the fecond Mer-
cury, the father of Eat, who is faid to have compofed
books of them, that were kept in the moft facred places
of the Egyptian temples. The exiftence of fuch a
perfon, however, is very doubtful, and many of the
books afenbed to him were accounted forgeries as lono-
ago as the days of Galen 5 there is alfo great reafon to
fufpe£l that thofe books were written many ages after
Hermes, and when phyfic had made confiderable ad¬
vances. Many of the books attributed to him are tri¬
fling and ridiculous; and though fometimes he is allow¬
ed to have all the honour of inventing the art, he is on
other occafions obliged to {hare it with Ofiris, Ifis, and
Apis or Serapis.
After all, the Egyptian phyfic appears to have been
little.elfe than a colledlion of abfurd fuperftitions. Ori-
gen informs us, that they believed there were 36 de¬
mons, or gods of the air, who divided the human body
among them.; that they had names for each of them ;
and that by.invoking them according to the part affecl-
ed, the patient was cured. Of natural medicines we
hear none recommended by the father of Egyptian phy¬
fic ; except the herb moly, which he gave to Ulyffes in
order to fecure him from the enchantments of Circe :
and the herb mercury, of which he firft difeovered the
uie. . His fucceffors made ufe of venefedion, cathartics
emetics, and clyfters. There is no proof, however, that
this practice was eftabliffied by Hermes; on the con-
trary the Egyptjans themfelves pretended that the
flrft hint of thofe remedies was taken from fome ob-
lervations on brute animals. Venefeftion was taught
them by the hippopotamus, which is faid to. perform
this operation upon itfelf. On certain occafions. he
comes out of the river, and {trikes his kg againft a
{harp-pointed reed. As he takes care to direfr the
flroke againft a vein, the confequence muft be a con¬
fiderable effufion of blood ; and this being fuflfered to
run as long as the creature thinks proper, he at- laft
flops up the orifice with mud. The hint of clvfters
vvas taken from the Ibis, a bird which is faid to' give
itfelf clyfters with its bill, &c. They ufed venefealon,
however, but very little, probably on account of the
A a 2 wrarmth
188 MED I
Origin of warmth of the climate j and the exhibition ot the re-
iVledicine. raec!ies above mentioned, joined with abtlinence, formed
the moft of their pra&ice.
Among the The Greeks too had feveral perfons to whom they
Craeks. attributed the invention of phyfic, particularly 1 ro-
methcus, Apollo or Paean, and /Efculapius ; which
laft was the moft celebrated of any. Tut here we muft
-obferve, that as the Greeks were a very warlike people,
their phyfic fee ms to have been little elfe than what
is now Called [urgery, or the cure of wounds, frac¬
tures, &c. Hence HLfeulapius, and his pupils Chi¬
ron, Machaon, and Podalirius, are celebrated by Ho¬
mer only for their ikill in curing thefe, without any
mention of their attempting the cures of internal dif-
eafes. We are not, however, to fuppofe that they
confined themfelves entirely to furgery. They no
doubt would occafionally prefcribe for internal dilor-
ders •, but as they were moft frequently converfant with
wounds, we may naturally fuppofe the greateft part of
their (kill to have confifted in knowing how to cure
thefe. If wre may believe the poets, indeed, the know¬
ledge of medicine feems to have been very generally
diffufed. Almoft all the heroes of antiquity are. re¬
ported to have been phyficians as well as warriors.
Moft of them were taught phyfic by the centaur Chi¬
ron. From him Hercules received inftru&ions in the
medicinal art, in which he is faid to have been no lefs
expert than in feats of arms. Several plants were call¬
ed by his name j from which fome think it probable
that he found out their virtues, though others are of
opinion that they bore the name of this renowned hero
on account of their great efficacy in removing difeafes.
Ariftseus king of Arcadia was alfo one of Chiron’s
fcholars ; and is fuppofed to have difcovered the ufe of
the drug called by fome thought to be afa-
foetida. Thefeus, Telamon, Jafon, Peleus, and his fon
Achilles, were all renowned for their knowledge in the
art of phyfic. The laft is faid to have difcovered the
ufe of verdegrife in cleanfing foul ulcers. All of them,
however, feem to have been inferior in knowledge to
Palamedes, who hindered the plague from coming into
the Grecian camp after it had ravaged moft of the cities
of the Hellefpont, and even Troy itfelf. His method
■was to confine his foldiers to a fpare diet, and to oblige
them to ufe much exercife.
The pradice of thefe ancient Greek phyficians, not-
withftanding the praifes bellowed on them by their
poets, feems to have been very limited, and in fome cafes
even pernicious. All the external remedies applied
to Homer’s wounded heroes were fomentations ■, while
inwardly their phyficians gave them wine, fometimes
mingled with cheefe fcraped down. A great deal of
their phyfic alfo confifted in charms, incantations, amu¬
lets, &c. of which, as they are common to all fuperfti-
tious and ignorant nations, it is fuperfluous to take
any farther notice.
In this way the art of medicine continued among
the Greeks for many ages. As its firft profeffors knew
nothing of the animal economy, and as little of the
theory°of difeafes, it is plain, that whatever they did
muft have been in confequence of mere random trials,
or empiricifm, in the ftrift and proper fenfe of. the
word. Indeed, it is evidently impoffible that this or
almoft any other art could originate from another
fource than trials of this kind. Accordingly, we find,
CINE. Hiftory,
that fome ancient nations were accuftomed to expofe hippo,
their lick in temples, and by the tides of highways, t crates.
that they might receive the advice of every one who 'r—J
paffed. Among the Greeks, however, /Eieulapius
was reckoned the moft eminent pradlitioner of his time, pius.
and his name continued to be revered after his death.
He was ranked amongft the gods; and the principal
knowledge of the medical art remained with his family
to the time of Fiippocrates, who reckoned himfelf the
feventeenth in a lineal deicent from Atfculapius, and
who was truly the firft who treated of medicine in a re¬
gular and rational manner. ^
Hippocrates, who is fuppofed to have lived 400 Hippo,
years before the birth of Chrift, is the moft ancientcrates-
author whole writings exprefsly on the fubjeft of the
medical art are preferved j and he is therefore juftly
confidered as the father of phyfic. All the accounts
which we have prior to this time, if not evidently fa¬
bulous, are at the utmoft highly conjectural. Even
the medical knowledge of Pythagoras, fo much cele-
barted as a philolopher, can hardly be confidered as
refting on any other foundation. But from the time
of Hippocrates, medicine, feparated from philofophy
and religion, feems to have affirmed the form of a fei-
ence, and to have been pra&ifed as a profeffion. It
may not, therefore, be improper to give a particular
account of the ftate of medical fcience as tranfmit-
ted to us in his writings. The writings of Hippo¬
crates, however, it may be remarked, are even more
than preferved. Many things have been reprefented as
written by Hippocrates which are probably fpurious.
Nor is it wonderful that attempts ffiould have been 6
made to increafe the value of manuferipts, by attribut- His writ. |
ing them to a name of fueh eminence. But although “’S3*
what are tranfmitted to us under the title of his works
may have been written by different hands, yet the pre-
fumption is, that moft, if not all of them, are of nearly
as early a date, and contain the prevailing opinions of
thofe times.
According to the moft authentic accounts, Hippo¬
crates was a native of the itland of Cos, and born in
the beginning of the 88th Olympiad. In the writings
tranfmitted to us as his, we find a general principle
adopted, to which he gives the name of Nature. To
this principle he aferibes a mighty power. . “ Nature
(fays he) is of itfelf fufficient to every animal. She
performs every thing that is neceffary to them, with¬
out needing the leaft inftruftion from any one how to
do it.” Upon this footing, as if Nature had been a
principle endowed with knowledge, he gives her the
title of juft; and aferibes virtues or powers to her,
which are her fervants, and by means of which ftie
performs all her operations in the bodies of animals :
and diftributes the blood, fpirits, and heat, through
all parts of the body, which by thefe means receive life
and fenfation. And in other places he tells us, that it
is this faculty which gives nouriffiment, prefervation,
and growth, to all things. 7
The manner in which Nature a£!s, or commands herHisideaof
fubfervient power to aft, is by attrafting what is nature,
good and agreeable to each fpecies, and by retaining,
preparing, and changing it j and on the other fide in
rejecting whatever is fuperfluous or hurtful, after ffie has
feparated it from the good. This is the foundation of
the do&rine of depuration, concodion, and crifis in
fevers.
Hifrry
M E D I
189
Hippo-
cra' -
8
Of the
Icaufes of
difeafes.
9 .
I His divi-
fions of
difeafes.
fever?, fo much infifled upon by Hippocrates and many
ither phyheians. He fuppofes all’o, that every thing
has an inclination to be joined to what agrees with it,
and to remove from every thing contrary to it ; and
likewife that there is an affinity between the feveral
parts of the body, by which they mutually fympathize
with eacli other. When he comes to explain what this
principle called nature is, he is obliged to refolve it into
heat, which, he fays, appears to have fomething im¬
mortal in it.
As far as he attempts to explain the caufes of dif-
eafe, he refers much to the humours of the body, parti¬
cularly to the blood and the bile. He treats alfo of
the eiTcfts of deep, watchings, exercife, and reft, and
all the benefit or mifehief we may receive from them.
Of all the caufes of difeafes, however, mentioned by
Hippocrates, the moft general are diet and air. On
the fubject of diet he has compofed feveral books, and
in the choice of this he was exaftly careful ; and the
more fo, as his practice turned almoft wholly upon it.
He alfo confidered the air very much j he examined
what winds blew ordinarily or extraordinarily •, he con¬
fidered the irregularity of the feafons, the rifing and
fetting of ftars, or the time of certain conftellations ;
alfo the time of the folftices, and of the equinoxes 5
thofe days, in his opinion, producing great alterations
in certain diftempers.
He does not, however, pretend to explain how,
from thefe caufes, that variety of diftempers arifes
which is daily to be obferved. A.11 that can be gather¬
ed from him with regard to this is, that the different
caufes above mentioned, when applied to the different
parts of the body, produce a great variety of diftem¬
pers. Some of thefe diftempers he accounted mortal,
others dangerous, and the reft eafily curable, according
to the caufe from whence they fpring, and the parts
on which they fall. In feveral places alfo he diftin-
guiffies difeafes, from the time of their duration into
acute ox [hort, and chronical ox long. He likewife di-
ftinguiffies difeafes by the particular places where they
prevail, whether ordinary or extraordinary. The firft,
that is, thofe that are frequent and familiar to certain
places, he called endemic dileafes ; and the latter,
which raged extraordinarily fometimes in one place,
fometimes in another, which feized great numbers at
certain times, he called epidemic, that is, popular dif¬
eafes •, and of this kind the moft terrible is the plague.
He likewife mentions a third kind, the oppofite of
the former ; and thefe he calls fporadic, or draggling
difeafes : thefe laft include all the different forts of dif¬
tempers which invade at any one feafon, which are
fometimes of one fort, and fometimes of another. He
diftinguiffied between thofe difeafes which are heredi¬
tary, or born with us, and thofe which are contracted
afterwards ; and likewife between thofe of a kindly and
thofe of a malignant nature, the former of which are
cafily and frequently cured, but the latter give the phy-
ficians a great deal of trouble, and are feldom overcome
by all their care.
Hippocrates remarked four ftages in diftempers j
viz. the beginning of the difeafe, its augmentation, its
ftate or height, and its declination. In fuch difeafes
as terminate fatally, death comes in place of the decli¬
nation. In the third ftage, therefore, the change is
xnoft confiderable, as it determines the fate of the fick
4
Hippo¬
crates.
C I N E.
perfon 5 and this is moft commonly done by meaqs of a
crifis. Bv this word he underftood any hidden change
in fieknefs, whether for the better or for the worfe, —
whether health or death fucceed immediately. Such a
change, he fays, is made at that time by nature, either
abfolving or condemning the patient. Hence we may
conclude, that Hippocrates imagined difeafes to be on¬
ly a difturbance of the animal economy, with which
Nature was perpetually at variance, and ufing her ut-
rooft endeavours to expel the offending caufe. Her
manner of adling on thefe occafions is to reduce to their
natural ftate thole humours whofe difeord occafions the
difturbance of the whole body, whether in relation to
their quantity, quality, mixture, motion, or any other
way in which they become offenfive. The principal
means employed by nature for this end is wffiat Hippo- TO
crates calls concoBion. By this he underftood the His opinion
bringing the morbific matter lodged in the humours to of a crifis.
fuch a ftate, as to be eafily fitted for expulfion by what¬
ever means nature might think moft proper. When
matters are brought to this pafs, whatever is fuperflu-
ous or hurtful immediately empties itfelf, or nature
points out to phyficians the way by which fuch an eva¬
cuation is to be aecompliihed. The crifis takes place
either by bleeding, ftool, vomit, fweat, urine, tumors or
abfeeffes, fcabs, pimples, fpots, &c. But thefe evacua¬
tions are not to be looked upon as the effedls of a true
crifis, unlefs they arc in confiderable quantity ; fmall
difeharges not being fufficient to make a crifis. On
the contrary, fmall difeharges are a fign that nature is
depreffed by the load of humours, and that lire lets them
go through weaknefs and continual irritation. What
comes forth in this manner is crude, becaufe the dif-
temper is yet too ftrong ; and while matters remain in
this ftate, nothing but a bad or imperfedl crifis is to be
expedled. This ffiows that the diftemper triumphs, or
at leaft is equal in ftrength to nature, which prognofti-
cates death, or a prolongation of the difeafe. In this
laft cafe, however, nature often has an opportunity
of attempting a new crifis more happy than the for¬
mer, after having made frefti efforts to advance the
concoclion of the humours.—It muft here be obferved,
however, that, according to Hippocrates, concoclion
cannot be made but in a certain time, as every fruit
has a limited time to ripen ; for he compares the
humours which nature has digefted to fruits come to
maturity.
The time required for concodlion depends on the
differences among diftempers mentioned above. In
thofe which Hippocrates calls very acute, the digeftion
or crifis happens by the fourth day 5 in thofe which
are only acute, it happens on the 7th, nth, or
14th day 5 which laft is the longeft period generally
allowed by Hippocrates in diftempers that are truly
acute : though in fome places he ftretches it to the
20th or 21ft, nay, fometimes to the 40th or 60th day.
All difeafes that exceed this laft term are called chroni¬
cal. And while in thofe difeafes that exceed 14 days,
he confiders every fourth day as critical, or at leaft re¬
markable, by which we may judge whether the crifis
on the following fourth day will be favourable or not 5
fo in thofe which run from 20 to 40 he reckons only
the fevenths, and in thofe that exceed 40 he begins to
reckon by 20. Beyond the 120th he thinks that the
number of days has no power over the crifis. They
are
MEDICINE.
are then referred to the general changes of the feafons
fome terminating about the equinoxes j others about
the fold ices , others about the rifing or fetting of the
ftars of certain conifellations ; or if numbers have yet
any place, he reckons by months, or even whole years.
'Ihus (he fays), certain difeafes in children have their
erifis in the feventh month after their birth, and others
in their feventh or even their iqth year.
Though Hippocrates mentions the 2Jft as one of the
critical days in acute di(tempers, as already noticed j
yet, in other places of his works, he mentions alfo the
20th. The reafon he gives for this in one of thofe
places of his work is, that the days of licknefs were not
quite-entire. In general, however, he is much attach¬
ed to the odd days : infomuch that in one of his apho-
nfms he tells us, “ The fweats that come out upon the
3d, 5th, 7th, qth, nth, 14th, 17th, 2lft, 27th, 31ft,
or 34th days, are beneficial ; but thofe that come out
upon other days fignify that the fick (hall be brought
low, that his difeafe fhall be very tedious, and that he
fhall be fubjeft to relapfes.” He further fays, “ That
the fever which leaves the fick upon any but an odd
day is ufually apt to relapfe.” Sometimes, however,
he confelles that it is otherwife ^ and he gives an in-
llance of a falutary crifis happening on the fixth day.
But thefe are very rare inilances, and therefore cannot,
in his opinion, overthrow the general rule.
Befides the crifis, however, or the change which de¬
termines the fate of the patient, Hippocrates often
fpeaks of another, which only changes the fpecies of
the diflemper, without reftoring the patient to health ;
as when a vertigo is turned to an epilepfy, a tertian
fever to a quartan, or to a continued, &c.
But what has chiefly contributed to procure the
cy m prog- great refpefl generally paid to Hippocrates, is his in-
no ics, duftry in obferving the moft minute circumltances of
difeafes, and his cxactnefs in nicely deferibing every
thing that happened before, and every accident that
appeared at the fame time with them 5 and likewife
what appeared to give eafe, and what to increafe the
malady : which is what we call writing the hijlory of a
difeafe.—Thus he not only diflinguiflied one difeafe
from another by the figns which properly belonged to
each; but by comparing the fame fort of diftemper
which happened to feveral perfons, and the accidents
which ufually appeared before and after, he could
often foretel a difeafe before it began, and afterwards
give a right judgment of the event of it. By this
way of prognofticating, he came to be exceedingly
admired: and this he carried to fuch a height, that
it may juftly be faid to be his mafter-piece ; and Gel-
fus, who lived after him, remarks, that fucceeding
phyficians, though they found out feveral new things
relating to the management of difeafes, yet were obli¬
ged to the writings of Hippocrates for all that they
knew of figns.
From the The firfi; thing Hippocrates confidered, when called
look; to a patient, was his looks.—It was a good fign with
him to have a vifage refembling that of a perfon in
health, and the fame with what the fick man had be¬
fore he was attacked by the difeafe. As it varied
from this, fo much the greater danger was appre¬
hended. The following is the defeription which he
give of the looks ol a dvim? man.—“ When a pa¬
tient (fays he) has his nofe (harp, his eyes funk, his
His accura-
temples hollow, his ears cold and contra&ed, the {kin Hippo,
of his forehead tenfe and dry, and the colour of his cmes.
face tending to a pale green, or lead colour, one may
pronounce for certain that death is very near at hand •
unlefs the ftrength of the patient has been exhaufied
all at once by long watchings, or by a loofenefs, or
being a long time without eating.” This obferva-
tion has been confirmed by fucceeding phyficians
who have, from him, denominated it the Hippocratic
face. The lips hanging relaxed and cold, are like-
vdfe looked upon by Hippocrates as a confirmation of
the foregoing prognoftic. He alfo took his figns
from the difpofition of the eyes in particular. When
a patient cannot bear the light ; when he fheds tears
involuntarily; when, in fleeping, fome part of the
white of the eye is feen, unlefs he ufually fleeps after
that manner, or has a loofenefs upon him : thefe figns,
as well as the foregoing ones, prognofticate danger.
The eyes deadened, as it were with a mill fpread over
them, or their brightnefs loft, likewife prefages death,
or great weaknefs. The eyes fparkling, fierce, and
fixed, denote the patient to be delirious, or that he
foon wdll be feized with a frenzy. When the patient
fees any thing red, and like fparks of fire and lightning
pafs before his eyes, you may expect an haemorrhagy ;
and this often happens before thofe crifes which are to
be attended by a lofs of blood.
The condition of the patient is alfo ftiown by his From the
pofture in bed. If you find him lying on one fide, pofture m
his body, neck, legs, and arms, a little contra£led,bed;
which is the pofture of a man in health, it is a good
fign : on the contrary, if he lies on his back, his arms
ftretched out, and his legs hanging down, -it is a fign
of great weaknefs ; and particularly wrhen the patient
Aides or lets himfelf fall down towards the feet, it de¬
notes the approach of death. When a patient in a
burning fever is continually feeling about with his
hands and fingers, and moves them up before his face
and eyes as if he was going to take away fomething
that palled before them ; or on his bed-covering, as if
he was picking or fearching for little ftraws, or taking
away fome filth, or drawing out little flocks of wool;
all this is a fign that he is delirious, and that he will
die. Amongft the other figns of a prefent or ap¬
proaching delirium he alfo adds this : When a patient
who naturally fpeaks little begins to talk more than
he ufed to do, or when one that talks much becomes
filent, this change is to be reckoned a fort of delirium,
or is a fign that the patient will foon fall into one.
The frequent trembling or ftarting of the tendons of
the wrift, prefage likewife a delirium. As to the differ¬
ent forts of delirium, Hippocrates is much more afraid
of thofe that fun upon mournful fubjeCls, than fuch as
are accompanied with mirth.
When a patient breathes faft, and is oppreffed, it Tpromre-
a fign that he is in pain, and that the parts above thefpiration;
diaphragm are inflamed. Breathing long, or when
the patient is a great while in taking his breath, (hows
him to be delirious; but eafy and natural refpiration is
always a good fign in acute difeafes. Hippocrates de¬
pended much on refpiration in making his prognoftics ;
and therefore has taken care in feveral places to dtferibe
the different manner of a patient’s breathing. Conti¬
nual watchings in acute difeafes, are figns of prefent
pain, or a delirium near at hand.
Hippocrates
Urine.
Hiftory.
Hippocrates alfo drew figns' from all excrements,
whatever they are, that are feparated from the body
of man. His mo ft remarkable prognoitics, however,
    were from the urine. The patient’s urine, in his opi-
ous dilchar-nion, is belt when the fediment is white, foft to the
ges- touch, and of an equal confidence. If it continue fo
during the courfe of the diitemper, and till the time of
the crilis, the patient is in no danger, and will foon be
well. L his is what Hippocrates called concoffcd urine,
or what denotes the concoftion of the humours ; and
he obferved, that this concoction of the urine feldom
appeared thoroughly, but on the days of the criiis
which happily put an end to the diltemper. “ We
ought (laid Hippocrates) to compare the urine with
the purulent matter which runs from ulcers. As the
pus, which is white, and of the fame quality with the
lediment of the urine we are now fpeaking of, is a
fign that the ulcer is on the point of doling ; lb that
which is clear, and of another colour than white, and
of an ill fmell, is a lign that the ulcer is virulent, and
in the fame manner difficult to be cured : the urines
that are like this we have deferibed are only tbofe
which may be named good; all the reft are ill, and
differ from one another only in the degrees of more
and lefs. The fir ft never appear but when nature has
overcome the difeafe ; and are a fign of the conco&ion
of humours, without which you cannot hope for a cer¬
tain cure. On the contrary, the laft are made as long
as their crudity remains, and the humours continue un-
conco&ed. Among the urines of this laft fort, the beft
are reddifh, with a fediment that is foft and of an equal
confiftence ; which denotes, that the difeafe will be
fomewhat tedious, but without danger. The worft are
thofe which are very red, and at the fame time clear
and without fediment; or that are muddy and trou¬
bled in the making. In urine there is often a fort of
cloud hanging in the veffel in which it is received ; the
higher this rifes, or the farther diftant it is from the
bottom, or the more different from the colour of the
laudable fediment above mentioned, the more there is
of crudity. That which is yellow, or of a Tandy co¬
lour, denotes abundance of bile ; that which is black is
the worft, efpecially if it has an ill fmell, and is either
altogether muddy or altogether clear. That whofe fe¬
diment is like large ground wheat, or little flakes or
leaks fpread one upon another, or bran, prefages ill,
efpecially the laft. J?he fat or oil that fometimes fwims
upon the top of the urine, and appears in a form
fomething like a fpider’s web, is a fign of a confump-
tion of the flelh and folid parts. The making of a great
quantity of urine is the fign of a crifis, and fometimes
the quality of it fhows how the bladder is affe&ed. We
muft alfo obferve, that Hippocrates compared the ftate
of the tongue with the urine 5 that is to fay, when the
tongue was yellow, and charged with bile, the urine he
knew muft of courfe be of the fame colour ; and when
the tongue was red and moift, the urine was of its na¬
tural colour.
Among his prognoftics from the excretions by ftool
are the following Thofe that are foft, yellowifti, of
iome confiftence, and not of an extraordinary ill fmell,
that anfwer to the quantity of what is taken inwardly,
and that are voided at the ufual hours, are the beft of
a . ! iiey ought alfo to be of a thicker confiftence
when the diftemper is near the crifxs 5 and it ought to
ipi
Hippo¬
crates.
MEDICINE.
be taken for a good prognoftic, when feme worms, par¬
ticularly the round and long, are evacuated at the fame
time with them. The prognofts, however, may ftill be v
favourable, though the matter excreted be thin and
liquid, provided it make not too much noife in coming
out, and the evacuation be not in a fmall quantity nor
too often.-, nor in fo great abundance, nor fo often, as
to make the patient faint. All matter that is watery,
white, of a pale green or red colour, or frothy and
vifeous, is bad. That which is blackilh, or of a livid
hue, is the moft pernicious. That which is pure black,
and nothing elfe but a difeharge of black bile, always
prognofticates very ill; this humour, from what part
foever it comes, fhowing the ill difpofition of the intef-
tines. T he matter that is of feveral different colours,
der otes the length of the diftemper ; and, at the fame
time, that it may be of dangerous confequence. Hip¬
pocrates places in the fame clafs the matter that is bilious
or yellow, and mixed with blood, or green and black,
or like the dregs or ferapings of the guts. The ftools
that confift of pure bile, or entirely of phlegm, he alfo
looks upon to be very bad.
_ Matter ejected by vomiting ought to be mixed with
bile and phlegm ; where one of thefe humours only is
obferved, it is w-orfe. That which is black, livid, green,
or of the colour of a leek, indicates alarming confe-
quences. The fame is to be faid of that which fmells
very ill 5 and if at the fame time it be livid, death is
not tar off. I he vomiting of blood is very often a mor¬
tal fymptom.
The ipittings which give eafe in difeafes of the lungs Expecto
and in pleurifies, are thofe that come up readily and ration,
without difficulty ; and it is good if they be mixed at
the beginning with much yellow : but if they appear of
the fame colour, or are red, a great while after the be¬
ginning of the diftemper, if they are fait and acrimoni¬
ous, and caufe violent coughings, they are not good.
Spittings purely yellow are bad 5 and thofe that are
white, vifeous, and frothy, give no eafe. Whitenefs is
a good fign of concodlion in regard to fpittings 5 but
they ought not at all to be vifeous, nor too thick, nor
too clear. We may make the fame judgment of the
excrements .of the nole according to their concoiftion.
and crudity. Spittings that are black, green, and red,
are of very bad confequence. In inflammations of the
lungs, thofe that are mixed with bile and blood prelage
well if they appear at the beginning, but are bad if
they arife not about the feventh day. But the worft
fign in thefe diftempers is, when there is no expe&ora-
tion at all, and the too great quantity of matter that is
ready to be difeharged this way makes a rattling in the
breaft. After fpitting of blood, the difeharge of puru¬
lent matter often follows, which brings on a confump-
tion, and at laft death.
A kind good fweat is that which arifes on the day Sweat,
of the crifis, and is difeharged in abundance all over
the body, and at the fame time from all parts of the
body,, and thus carries off the fever : A cold fweat is
alarming, efpecially in acute fevers, for in others it is
only a fign of long continuance. When the patient
fweats no where but on the head and neck, it is a
fign that the dileafe will be long and dangerous.
A gentle fweat in fome particular part of the head
and bieaft, for inftance, gives, no relief, but denotes
the feat of the diitemper, or the weaknefs of the part.
This
192 M E D I
Hippo- This kind of fweat was called by Hippocrates ephidro-
. crates- fu.
The hypochondria, or the abdomen in general ought
always to be foft and even, as well on the right tide as
on the left. When there is anv hardnefs or unevernefs
in thofe parts, or heat and fwellings, or when the patient
cannot endure to have it touched, it is a fign the intef-
tines are indifpofed.
From the Hippocrates alfo inquired into the date of the pulfe,
pulfe. or Seating 0f t]ie arteries. The mod ancient phy-
dcians, however, and even Hippocrates himfelf, for a
long time, by this word underdood the violent pulfa-
tion that is felt in an indamed part, without putting
the fingers to it. It is obferved by Galen, and other
phyficians, that Hippocrates touches on the fubjedl of
the pulfe more dightly than any other on which he
treats. But that our celebrated phyfician underdood
fomething even on this fubjedd, is eafily gathered from
feveral paffages in his writings j as when he obferves,
that in acute fevers the pulfe is very quick and very
great •, and when he makes mention, in the fame place,
of trembling pulfes, and thofe that beat dowly. He
likewife obferves, that in fome difeafes incident to wo¬
men, when the pulfe drikes the finger faintly, and in a
languithing manner, it is a fign of approaching death.
He remarks alfo, in the Coacce Pranotiones, that he
whofe vein, that is to fay, whofe artery of the elbow,
beats, is jud going to run mad. or elfe that the perion
is at that time very much under the induence of anger.
From this account of Hippocrates, it will appear,
that he was not near fo much taken up Avith reafoning
on the phenomena of difeafes, as with reporting them.
He was content to obferve thefe phenomena accurately,
to didinguilh difeafes by them, and judged of the event
by comparing them exacdly together. For his Ikill in
prognodics he was indeed very remarkable, as we have
already mentioned, infomuch that he and his pupils
Avere looked upon by the vulgar as prophets. What
adds very much to his reputation is, that he lived in an
age Avhen phyfic Avas altogether buried in fuperdition,
and yet he did not fuffer himfelf to be carried aAvav by
it •, on the contrary, on many occafions, he expreffes his
abhorrence of it.
Having thus feen in Avhat Hippocrates makes the
difference between health and ficknefs to confid, and
likewife the mod remarkable figns from whence he
dreAV his prognodics, avc mud noAV confider the means
he preferibed for the prefervation of health, and the
His maximscure difeafes. One of his principal maxims Avas
for the pn-this, 'That, to preferve health, we ought not to over-
fervation charge ourfelves Avith too much eating, nor ncgleft
of hearth. j.]!e upe 0p exertqfe and labour. In the next place. That
we ough1 bv no means to accudom ourfelves to too
nice and exaiff a method of living ; becanfe thofe who
have once begun to a<d by this rule, if they vary in the
lead from it, find themfelves very ill 5 Avhich does not
happen to thofe Avho take a little more liberty, and
live foraeAvhat more irregularly. NotAvithdanding this
he does not negleft to inquire diligentlv into the articles
which thofe Avho Avere in health ufed for food in his
time. Here AA’e cannot help taking notice of the pro¬
digious difparity between the delicaev of the people in
our days and in thofe of Hippocrates : for he takes great
pains to tell the difference between the flelh of a dog,
CINE. Hiftory
a fox, a horfe, and an afs; which he would not have 1L 0.
done if at that time they had not been uft d for victuals, r fes.
at lead by the common people. Beddes thefe, how-" *
ever, Hippocrates fpeaks of all other kinds of providon
that are norv in ufe } for example, falads, milk, Avhey,
cheefe, deth as well of birds as of four-footed beads,
fredi and fait fiih, eggs, all kinds of pulfe, and the dif¬
ferent kinds of grain rve feed on, as well as the different
forts of bread that are made of it. He alfo fpeaks very
often of a fort of liquid food, or broth, made of barley-
meal, or fome other grain, Avhich they deeped for fome-
time, and then boiled in Avater. With regard to drink,
he takes a great deal of pains to didinguilh the good
Avaters from the bad. The bed, in his opinion, ought
to be clear, light, without fmell or tade, and taken cut
of the fountains that turn toAvards the ead. The fait
Avaters, thofe that he calls hard, and thofe that rife out
of fenny ground, are the Avord of all ; he condemns alfo
thofe that come from melted fnoAv. But though Flip-
pocrates make6 all thofe didindlions, he advifes thofe
who are in health to di ink of the fird Avater that comes
in their Avay. He fpeaks alfo of alum Avaters, and lliofe
that are hot •, but does not enlarge upon their qualities.
He advifes to mix wine Avith an equal quantity of Avater:
and this (he fays) is the jud proportion; by udng
Avhich the wine Avill expel what is hurtful to the body,
and the Avater will ferve to temper the acrimony of the
humours.
For thofe that are in health, and likeAvife for fuch Exercifc,
as are fick, Hippocrates adAufes exercife. The books,
hoAvever, Avhich treat on this tub-eft, M. Le Clerc
conjeftures to have been Avritten by Herodieus, Avho
fird introduced g[ymnadic exercife into medicine, and
who is faid by Hippocrates himfelf to have killed feAre-
ral people by forcing them to Avalk while they were af-
difted Avith fevers and other indammatory diforders.
The advices given in them confid chiefly in direftions
for the times in which we ought to Avalk, and the con¬
dition we ought to be in before it 5 when avc ought to
Avalk doAvly, and Avhen to run, &e. ; and all this Avith
defign to bring the body down, or didipate the hu¬
mours. Wredling, although a violent exercifb, is
numbered Avith the red. In the fame place alfo
mention is made of a plav of the hands and dngers,
Avhieh was thought good for health, and called chi*
ranomie ; and of another diverdon Avhich was perform¬
ed round a fort of ball hung up, which they called
corycns, and which they druek forward Avith both their
hands.
With regard to thofe things Avhieh ought to be fe- Excretioesi
parated from, or retained in the human body, Hippocra¬
tes obferves, that people ought to take great eare not
to load themfelves with excrements, or keep them in
too long ; and befides the exercife above mentioned,
Avhich carries off one part of them, and which he pre-
feribes chiefly on this account, he advifes people to
excite and roufe up nature Avhen die flagged, and did
not endeavour to expel the red, or take care of the im¬
pediments bv which (he was redded. For this reafon
he preferibed meats proper for loofening the belly *, and
when thefe were not fufficient, he directed the ufe of
elvders and fuppodtories. For thin and emaciated
perfons he direfted ftyders compofed or 1v of milk and
oily unftuous fubitances, which they mixed with a de-
coftion
Hiftory. MED!
Hippo- co&ion of chick-peafe ; but for fucb as were plethoric,
they only made ufe of fait or fea-water.
As a prefervative againft diftempers, Hippocrates
alfo advifed the ufe of vomits, which he directed to be
taken once or twice a month during the time of winter
and fpring. The molt limple of thefe were made of a
deco&ion of hyffop, wdth an addition of a little vine¬
gar and fait. He made thofe that were of a ftrong and
vigorous conftitution take this liquor in a morning fail¬
ing } but fuch as were thin and weakly took it after
fupper.—Venery, in his opinion, is wholefome, pro¬
vided people confult their ftrength, and do not pur-
fue it to excefs; which he finds fault with on all ocea-
fions, and would have excefs avoided alfo in relation to
fleep and watching. In his writings are likewxfe to
be found feveral remarks concerning good and bad air •,
and he makes it appear that the good or bad difpofition
of this element does not depend folely on the difference
of the climate, but on the fituation of every place in
particular. He fpeaks alfo of the good and bad effects
of the pafllons, and recommends moderation in regard
to them.
From what we have already related concerning the
opinions of Hippocrates, it may naturally be concluded,
that for the moll part he would be contented with obfer-
ving what the ftrength of nature is able to accompliftx
without being a (lifted by the phylician. That this was
really the cafe, may be eafily perceived from a perufal
of his books entitled, “ Of epidemical diftempers j”
which are, as it were, journals of the practice of Hippo¬
crates : for there we find him often doing nothing more
than deferibing the fymptoms of a diftemper, and in¬
forming us what has happened to the patient day after
day, even to his death or recovery, without fpeaking a
word of any kind of remedy. Sometimes, however, he
did indeed make ufe of remedies; but thefe wrere ex¬
ceedingly fimple and few, in comparifon of what have
been given by fucceeding practitioners. Thefe remedies
we (hall prefently confider, after we have given an
abridgement of the principal maxims on which his prac¬
tice was founded.
Hippocrates afferted in the firft place, That contra¬
ries, or oppofites, are the remedies for each other ; and
this maxim he explains by an aphorifm ; in which he
fays, that evacuations cure thofe diftempers which come
from repletion, and repletion thofe that are caufed by
evacuation. So heat is deftroyed by cold, and cold by
heat, &c. In the fecond place, he afferted that phylic
is an addition of what is wanting, and a fubtraCHon or
retrenchment of what is fuperfluous : an axiom which is
thus explained, that there are fome juices or humours,
which in particular cafes ought to be evacuated, or
driven out of the body, or dried up 5 and fome others
which ought to be reftored to the body, or caufed to be
produced there again. As to the method to be taken
for this addition or retrenchment, he gives this general
caution, That you ought to be careful how you fill up,
or evacuate, all at once, or too quickly, or too much 5
and that it is equally dangerous to heat or cool again on
a fudden ; or rather, you ought not to do it: every
thing that runs to an excefs being an enemy to nature.
In the fourth place, Hippocrates allowed that we ought
fometimes to dilate, and fometimes to lock up : to dilate,
or open the paffages by which the humours are voided
naturally, when they are not fufficiently opened, or when
Vgl. XIII. Part I.
*3
is maxims
pr the
are of dif-
C I N E»
they are clofed 5 and, on the contrary, to lock up or
ftraiten the paifages that are relaxed, when the juices
that pafs there ought not to pafs, or when they pais in
too great quantity. He adds, that we ought fometimea
to fmooth, and fometimes to make rough 5 fometimes
to harden, and fometimes to foften again; fometimes to
make more fine or fupple j fometimes to thicken j
fometimes to rbufe up, and at other times to ftupify or
take away the fenfe; all in relation to the folid parts
of the body, or to the humours. He gives alfo this far¬
ther leflon, That we ought to have regard to the courfe
the humours take, from whence they come, and whi¬
ther they go ; and in confequence of that, when they
go where they ought not, that we make them take a
turn, about, or carry them another way, almoft like the
turning the courfe of a river : or, upon other occalions,
that we endeavour if poffible to recal, or make the fame
humours return back again *, drawing upward fuch as
have a tendency downward, and drawing downward
fuch as. tend upward. We ought alfo to carry off, by
convenient ways, that which is neceffary to be carried
off j and not let the humours once evacuated enter into
the veffels again. Hippocrates gives alfo the following
inftrudlion, I hat when we do any thing according to
reafon, though the fuccefs be not anfwerable, we ought
not eafily, or too haftily, to alter the manner of adling,
as long as. the reafons for it are yet good. But as this
maxim might fometimes prove deceitful, he gives the
following as a corre&or to it : “ We ought (fays he)
to mind with a great deal of attention what gives cafe,
and what creates pain } what is eafily fupported, and
what cannot be endured.” We ought not to do any
thing ralhly 3 but ought often to paufe, or wait, with¬
out doing any thing : by this way, if you do the pa¬
tient no good, you will at lead do him no hurt.
Thefe are the principal and moft general maxims of
the pra&ice of Hippocrates, and which proceed up¬
on the fuppofition laid down at the beginning, viz.
that nature cures difeafes. We next proceed to con¬
fider particularly the remedies employed by him, which
will ferve to give us further inftructions concerning his
pradlice. r ^
Diet was the firft, the principal, and often the only Bis maxims
remedy made ufe of by this great phyfician to anfwer refPe(fting
moft of the intentions above mentioned : by means ofdiet°
it he oppofed the moift to dry, hot to cold, &c. 3 and
what he looked upon to be the moft confiderable point
was, that thus he fupported nature, and aflifted her to
overcome the malady. The dietetic part of medicine
was fo much the invention of Hippocrates himfelf, that
he was very defirous to be accounted the author of it 3
and the better to make it appear that it was a new re¬
medy in his days, he fays exprefsly, that the ancients
had wrote almoft nothing concerning the diet of the
fick, having omitted this point, though it was one of
the moft effential parts of the art. " r-
I he diet preferibed by Hippocrates for patients la- Diet 111
bouring under acute diftempers, differed from thatacfedif“
which he ordered for thofe afftidled with chronical eS’
ones. In the former, which require a more particular
exadnefs in relation to diet, he preferred liquid food
to that which was folid, efpecially in fevers. For thefe
he ufed a fort of broth made of cleanfed barley ; and
to this he gave the name of ptifan. The manner in
which the ancients prepared a ptifan was as follows :
B b They
194-
Hippo- They fir ft ftecped the barley in water till it was plump-
crates. ec[ Up ^ ancl afterwards they dried it in the fun, and
U”’v beat it to take off the hulk. They next ground it ;
and having let the flour boil a long time in the wa¬
ter, they put it out into the fun, and when it was dry
they preffed it clofe. It is properly this flour fo pre¬
pared that is called ptifan. They did almoft the fame
thing with wheat, rice, lentils, and other grain : but
they gave thefe ptifans the name of the grain from
whence they were extradited, as ptifan of lentils, rice,
&c. while the ptifan of barley was called Amply ptifan,
on account of the excellency of it. When they wanted
to ufe it, they boiled one part of it in 10 or i j of wra-
ter •, and when it began to grow plump in boiling,
they added a little vinegar, and a very fmall quantity
of anife or leek, to keep it from clogging or filling
the ftomach with wind. Hippocrates preferibed this
broth for wromen that have pains in their belly after
delivery. “ Boil fome of this ptifan (fays he), with
fome leek, and the fat of a goat, and give it to the
woman in bed.” This will not be thought very
Angular, if we refledft on what has been hinted above
concerning the indelicate manner of living in thofe
times. He preferred the ptifan to all other food in
fevers, becaufe it foftened and mciftened much, and
was befides of eafy digeftion. If he was concerned in
a continual fever, lie -would have the patient begin
with a ptifan of a pretty thick confiftence, and go on
by little and little, leffening the quantity of barley-
flour as the height of the diftemper approached •, fo
that he did not feed the patient but with what he
called juice of the ptifan; that is, the ptifan ft rained,
where there was but very little of the flour remaining,
in order that nature being difeharged in part from
the care of digefting the aliments, fhe might the more
eafily hold out to the end, and overcome the diftem¬
per, or the caufe of it. With regard to the quantity,
he caufed the ptifan to be taken twice a-day by fueh
patients as in health ufed to take two meals a-day, not
thinking it convenient that thofe who were fick ftiould
eat oftener than when they were well. He alfo would
not allow eating twice a-day to thofe who ate but once
in that time when in health. In the paroxyfm of a
fever he gave nothing at all 5 and in all diftempers
where there are exacerbations, he forbade nourifhment
while the exacerbations continued. He let children eat
more •, but thofe who were grown up to man’s eftate, or
were of an advanced age, lefs ; making allowance, how¬
ever, for the cuftom of each particular perfon, or for
that of the country.
But though he was of opinion that too much food
ought not to be allowed to the fick, he did not agree
with fome phyficians who preferibed long abftinence,
efpecially in the beginning of fevers. The reafon he
gave for this was, that the contrary practice weakened
the patients too much during the firft days of the di¬
ftemper, by which means their phyficians were obliged
to allow them more food when the illnefs Avas at its
height, which in his opinion was improper. Befides,
in acute diftempers, and particularly in fevers, Hippo¬
crates made choice of refrefhing and moiftening nou¬
rifhment •, and amengft other things preferibed orange,
melon, fpinach, gourd, &c. This fort of food he gave
to thofe that were in a condition to eat, or could take
fomething more than a ptifan.
Hiftory,
The drink he commonly gave to his patients was Hippo.
made of eight parts of water and one of honey. In crates.
fome diftempers he added a little vinegar j but be-'
fides thefe, they had another fort named nvy-iav, or mix- Dr
lure. One prefeription of this fort we find intended
for a confumptive perfon 5 it confifted of rue, anife,
celery, coriander, juice of pomegranate, the rougheft
red wine, water, flour of wheat and barley, with old
cheefe made of goats milk. Hippocrates did not ap¬
prove of giving plain water to the fick 5 but though
he generally preferibed the drinks above mentioned,
he did not abfolutely forbid the ufe of wine, even in
acute diftempers and fevers, provided the patients were
not delirious nor had pains in their head Befides,
he took care to diftinguifti the wines proper in thefe
cafes 3 preferring to all other forts white wine that was
clear and had a great deal of water, with neither fweet-
nefs nor flavour. ^
Thefe are the moft remarkable particulars concern-jyct: :n
ing the diet preferibed by Hippocrates in acute di- chronic <E
ftempers 3 in chronical ones he made very much ufe cafes,
of milk and whey 3 though we are not certain whe¬
ther this was done on account of the nourifhment
expesfted from them, or that he accounted them me¬
dicines.
There were many difeafes for which he judged the^ ^ .
bath was a proper remedy 3 and he takes notice of
all the circumftances that are neceffary in order to bathing,
caufe the patient receive benefit from it, among which
the following are the principal. The patient that
bathes himfelf muft remain ftill and quiet in his place
without fpeaking while the afliftants throw water over
his head or are wiping him dry 5 for which laft pur-
pofe he defired them to keep fponges, inftead of that
inftrument called by the ancients frigil, which ferved
to rub off from the fkin the dirt and naftinefs left upon
it by the unguents and oils with which they anointed
themfelves. He muft alfo take care not to catch cold 3
and muft not bathe immediately after eating and
drinking, nor eat or drink immediately after coming
out of the bath. Regard muft alfo be had whether
the patient has been accuftomed to bathe while in
health, and whether lie has been benefited or hurt by
it. Laftly, he muft abftain from the bath w'hen the
body is too open, or too coflive, or when he is too
Aveak 3 or if he has an inclination to vomit, a great
lofs of appetite, or bleeds at the nofe. The advantage
of the bath, according to Hippocrates, confifts in moi¬
ftening and refreflung, taking aAvay Avearinefs, making
the fkin foft and the joints pliant; in provoking urine,
and opening the other excretories. He alloAVS two baths
in a day to thofe Avho have been accuftomed to it in
health. ,5
In chronical diftempers Hippocrates approved very H;s maxim
much of exercife, though he did not allow it in acute retpeding
ones : but even in thefe he did not think that a pa- exercife.
tient ought always to lie in bed ; but tells us, that “ xve
muft fometimes pufh the timorous out of bed, and roufe
up the lazy.” ^
When he found that diet and exercife Avere not ^ maxims
fufficient to eafe nature of a burden of corrupted hu- refpe&ing
mours, he was obliged to make ufe of other means, of purgatM)!!’
Avhich purgation was one. By this Avord he underftood
all the contrivances that are made ufe of to difeharge
the ftomach and bowels 3 though it commonly fignifies
only
MEDICINE.
MEDICINE.
Hiftory.
Hippo- only the evacuation by itool. This evacuation he ima-
c:f‘ltfcS- , gined to be occasioned by the purgative medicines at-
trading the humours to themfelves. When firit taken
into the body, he thought they attraded that humour
which was moft fimilar to them, and then the others,
one after another—Mod of the purgatives ufed in Ins
time were emetics alfo, or at lead were very violent in
their operation downwards. Thefe were the white and
black hellebore ; the fird of which is now reckoned
among the poifons. He ufed alfo the Cnidian berries,
cneorum peplium, thapfia *, the juice of hippophae, a
fort of rhamnus 5 elaterium, or juice of the wild cu¬
cumber ; flowers of brafs, coloquintida, fcammony, the
magnefian done, &c.
As thefc purgatives were all very drong, Hippo¬
crates w^as extremely cautious in their exhibition. « He
did not preferibe them in the dog-days ; nor did he
ever purge women with child, and very feldom chil¬
dren or old people. He principally ufed purgatives in
chronical didempers •, but was much more wary in
acute ones. In his books entitled “ Of Epidemical
Didempers,” there are very few patients mentioned to
whom he gave purgative medicines. He alfo takes
notice exprefsly, that thefe medicines having been given
in cafes of the didempers of which he was treating,
had produced very bad effefts. We are not, however,
from this to conclude, that Hippocrates abfolutely con¬
demned purging in acute didempers ; for in fome places
he exprefsly mentions his having given them with fuc-
cefs. He was of opinion, for indance, that purging
was good in a pleurify when the pain was feated be¬
low the diaphragm ; and in this cafe he gave black
hellebore, or fome peplium mixed with the juice of In-
J'erpitium.
The principal rule Hippocrates gives with relation
to purging is, that we ought only to purge off the
humours that are concocted, and not thofe that are
yet crude, taking particular care not to do it at the
beginning of the didemper, led the humours fnould
be didurbed or dirred up, which happens pretty often.
He was not, however, the fird who remarked that
it would be of ill confequence to dir the humours in
the beginning of an acute didemper. The Egyptian
phyficians had before obferved the fame thing. By
the beginning of a didemper, Hippocrates underdoo'd
all the time from the fird day to the fourth com¬
plete.
Hippocrates imagined that each purgative medicine
was adapted to the carrying off fome particular hu¬
mour y and hence the didinftion of purgatives into hy-
dragogue, cholagogue, &c. which is now judly explo¬
ded. In confequence of this notion, he contended that
we knew if a purgative had drawn from the body what
was fit to be evacuated according as the patient was found
Well or ill upon it. If we found ourfelves well, it was a
lign that the medicine had effectually expelled the offend¬
ing humour. On the contrary, if wu were ill, he
imagined, whatever quantity of humour came away,
that the humour which caufed the illnefs dill remain¬
ed y not judging of the goodnefs or badnefs of a
purge by the quantity of matters that were voided by
it, but by their quality and the effect that followed
after it.
Vomits were alfo pretty much ufed as medicines by
Hippocrates. We have already feen what thofe were
which he preferibed to people in health by way of
preventives. "With regard to the bek, he fometimes
advifed them to the fame, when his intentions were
only to cleanfe tiie domach. But when he had a mind
to recal the humours, as he termed it, from the inmoft
recedes of the body, he made ufe of brificer remedies.
Among thefe was white hellebore ; and this indeed he
mod frequently ufed to excite vomiting. Ele gave
this root particularly to melancholy and mad people :
and from the great ufe made of it in thefe cafes by
Hippocrates and other ancient phyficians, the phrafe
to have need of hellebore, became a proverbial expredion
for being out of one’s fenfes. He gave it alfo in de-
duxions, which come, according to him, from the
brain, and throw themfelves on the nodrils or ears, or
fill the mouth with faliva, or that caufe dubborn pains
in the head, and a wearinefs or an extraordinary hea-
vinefs, or a weaknefs of the knees, or a fvvelling all over
the body. He gave it to confumptive peril ns in broth
of lentils, to fuch as were affiicded with the di.pfy
called leucophleg mail a, and in other chronical dilorders.
But we do not find that he made ufe of it in acute di¬
dempers, except in the cholera morbus, where he fays
he preferibed it with benefit. Some took this medi¬
cine fading j but mod took it after luppcr, as was com¬
monly praffifed with regard to vomits taken by way
of prevention. The reafon why he gave this medicine
mod commonly after eating was, that by mixing with
the aliments, its acrimony might be fomewhat abated,
and it might operate with lefs violence on the mem¬
branes of the domach. With the fame intention alfo
he fometimes gave a plant called Jefamoides, and fome¬
times mixed it with hellebore-. Lallly, in certain
cafes lie gave what he called foft or fweet hellebore.
1 his term had fome relation to the quality of the hel¬
lebore, or perhaps the quantity he gave.
When Hippocrates intended only to keep the bofty
open, or evacuate the contents of the intedines, he
made ufe of fimples ; as for example, the herb mer¬
cury, or cabbage , the juice or deeoflion of which he
ordered to be drank. For the fame purpofe he fifed
whey, and alfo cows and affes milk ; adding a little fait
to it, and fometimes letting it boil a little. If he gave
aifes milk alone, he caufed a great quantity of it to be
taken, fo that it mud of neceff.ty loofen the body. In
one place he preferibes no lefs than nine pounds of it
to be taken as a laxative, but does not fpecify the
time in which it was to be taken. With the fame in¬
tention he made ufe of fuppofitories and clyders. The
former were compounded of honey, the juice of the
herb mercury, of nitre, powder of colocynth, and other
lharp ingredients, to irritate the anus. Thefe they
formed into a ball, or into a long cylindrical mafs like
a finger. J he clyders he made ufe of for dek people
were fometimes the fame with thofe already mention¬
ed as preventives for people in health. At other times
he mixed the decodiion of herbs with nitre, honey, and
oil, or other ingredients, according as he imagined he
could by that means attradi, wadi, irritate, or foften.
I he quantity of liquor he ordered was about 156 ounces 5
from which it is probable he did not intend that it
diould all be ufed at one time.
On fome occafions Hippocrates propofed to purge
the head alone. I his practice he employed after pur¬
ging the red of the body, in an apoplexy, inveterate
B b 2 pains
iq6
J
Hippo¬
crates.
20
His maxims
refpedling
blood-lct-
/ting.
M E D I
pains of the head, a certain fort of jaundice, a con-
fumption, and the greatelf part of chronical diftem-
pers. For that purpofe he made ufe of the juices of
feveral plants, as celery ; to which he fometimes added
aromatic drugs, making the patients fnuff up this mix¬
ture into their noftrils. He ufed alfo powders com¬
pounded of myrrh, the flowers of brafs, and white
hellebore, which he caufed them put up into the nofe,
to make them fneeze, and to draw the phlegm from
the brain. For the fame purpofe alfo he uied what
he calls tetragonon, that is, “ fomething having four
angles j” but what this w as, is now altogether un¬
known, and wras fo even in the days of Galen. The
latter phyfician, however, conjectures it to be antimo¬
ny, or certain flakes found in it.
In the diftemper called empyema (or a collection of
matter in the breaft), he made ufe of a very rough me¬
dicine. He commanded the patient to draw in his
tongue as much as he was able ; and when that wxas done,
he endeavoured to put into the hollow of the lungs a
liquor that irritated the part, which railing a violent
cough, forced the lungs to difcharge the purulent
matter contained in them. The materials that he ufed
for this purpofe were of different forts 5 fometimes
he took the root of arum, which he ordered to be
boiled wdth a little fait, in a fufficient quantity of v7a-
ter and oil j diffolving a little honey in it. At other
times, when he intended to purge more ftrongly, he
took the flowers of copper and hellebore 5 after that
he fhook the patient violently by the {boulders, the
better to loofen the pus. This remedy, according to
Galen-, he received from the Cnidian phyficians j and
it has never been ufed by the fucceeding ones, probably
becaufe the patients could not fuft'er it.
Blood-letting was another method of evacuation
pretty much ufed by Hippocrates. Another aim he
had in this, befides the mere evacuation, w-as to divert
or recal the courfe of the blood when he imagined it
was going where it ought not. A third end ox bleed¬
ing was to procure a free motion of the blood and fpi-
rits.
Hippocrates had alfo a fourth intention for bleed¬
ing, and this was refreflnnent.. So in the iliac paflion,
he orders bleeding in the arm and in the head ; to the
end, fays he, that the fuperior venter, or the breaft,
may ceafe to be overheated. With regard to this eva¬
cuation, his conduft was much the fame as to purging,
in refpeft of time and perfons. We ought, fays he,
to let blood in acute difeafes, when they are violent,
if the party be lufty and in the flower of his age. We
ought alfo to have regard to the time, both in refpe6t
to the difeafe and to the feafon in which w7e let blood.
He alfo informs us, that blood ought to be let in great
pains, and particularly in inflammations. Among thefe
he reckons fuel! as fall upon the principal vifeera, as
the liver, lungs, and fpleen, as alfo the quinfy and
pleurify, if the pain of the latter be above the dia¬
phragm. In thefe cafes he would have the patients
blooded till they faint, efpecially if the pain be very
acute j or rather he advifes that the orifice fhould not
beclofe dtill the colour of the blood alters, fo that from
livid it turn red, or from red livid. In a quinfy he
blooded in both arms at once. Difficulty of breathing
he alfo reckons among the diftempers that require
kleeding y and he mentions another fort of inflamma-
CINE. _ Hiflory
tion of the lungs, which he calls a fwelling or tumor Hipp0.
of the lungs arifing from heat; in which cafe he ad- rrates.
vifes to bleed in all parts of the body j and direfts it
particularly by the arms, tongue, and noftrils. To
make bleeding the more ufeful in all pains, he direfted
to open the vein neareft the part affedled 5 in a pleurify
he directs to take blood from the arm of the fide affec¬
ted j and for the fame reafon, in pains of the head, he
diredls the veins of the nofe and forehead to be opened.
When the pain w7as not urgent, and bleeding w-as ad-
vifed by way of prevention, he diredled the blood to
be taken from the parts fartheft off, with a defign to
divert the blood infenfibly from the feat of pain. The
higheft burning fevers, which {how neither figns of in¬
flammation nor pain, he does not rank among thofe
diftempers which require bleeding. On the contrary,
he maintains that a fever itfelf is in fome cafes a reafon
againft bleeding. If any one, fays he, has an ulcer in
the head, he muft bleed, unlefs he has a fever. He fays
further, thofe that lofe their fpeech of a hidden muft
be blooded, unlefs they have a fever. Perhaps he was
afraid of bleeding in fevers, becaufe he fuppofed that
they wrere produced by the bile and pituita, w-hich
grew hot, and afterwards heated the whole body,
which is, fays he, what w7e call fever, and which, in
his opinion, cannot well be evacuated by bleeding. In
other places alfo he looks upon the prefence or abun¬
dance of bile to be an objedlion to bleeding y and he
orders to forbear venefedlion even in a pleurify, if there
be bile. To this wre muft add, that Hippocrates di-
ftinguifhed very particularly between a fever which
followed no other diftemper, but wras itfelf the original
malady, and a fever which came upon inflammation.
In the early ages of phyfic, the firft only wrere proper¬
ly called fevers : the others took their names from the
parts affedted 5 as pleurify, peripneutnony, hepatitis, ne¬
phritis, &cc. which names fignify that the pleura, the
lungs, the liver, or the kidneys, are difeafed, but do
not intimate the fever which accompanies the difeafe.
In this latter fort of fever Hippocrates conftantly or¬
dered bleeding, but not in the former. Hence, in his
books on Epidemic Diftempers, we find but few di-
redlions for bleeding in the acute diftempers, and par¬
ticularly in the great number of continual and burning
fevers there treated of. In the firft and third book
w7e find but one Angle inftance of bleeding, and that
in a pleurify y in which, too, he ftaid till the eighth
day of the diftemper. Galen, howrever, and moft 0-
ther commentators on Hippocrates, are of opinion
that he generally blooded his patients plentifully in the
beginning of acute diforders, though he takes no no¬
tice of it in his writings. But had this been the cafe, he
wrould not perhaps have had the opportunity of feeing'
fo many fevers terminate by crifes, or natural evacua¬
tions, wrhich happen of themfelves on certain days.
Hippocrates, in fadl, laid fo much w-eight upon the
afliftance of nature and the method of diet, which w7as
his favourite medicine, that he thought if they took
care to diet the patients according to rule, they might
leave the reft to nature. Thefe are his principles,
from which he never deviates y fo that his writings
on Epidemical Difeafes feem to have been compofed
only with an intention to leave to pofterity an ex-
adl model of management in purfuance of thefe prin¬
ciples.
With
Hiftory.
Hippo- With regard to the rules laid down by Hippocrates
crates. for bleeding, we muft farther take notice, that in all
  1 difeafes which had their feat above the liver, he blood¬
ed in the arm, or in fome of the upper parts of the
body ; but for thofe that were lituated below it, he
opened the veins of the foot, ankle, or ham. If the
belly was too loofe, and bleeding was at the fame time
thought neceffary, he ordered the loofenefs to be Hop¬
ped before bleeding.
Almoft all thefe inftances, however, regard fcarcely
any thing but acute diftempers ; but we find feveral
concerning chronical difeafes. “ A young man com¬
plained of great pain in his belly, with a rumbling
while he was falling, which ceafed after eating : this
pain and rumbling continuing, his meat did him no
good j but, on the contrary, he daily walled and grew
lean. Several medicines, as well purges as vomits,
were given him in vain. At length it was refolved to
bleed him by intervals, firft in one arm and then in the
other, till he had fcarcely any blood left, and by this
method he was perfectly cured.”
Hippocrates let blood alfo in a dropfy, even in a
tympany •, and in both cafes he prefcribes bleeding in
the arm. In a difeafe occafioned by an overgrown
fpl een, he propofes bleeding feveral times repeated at
a vein of the arm which he calls the fplenetic ; and in
one fpecics of jaundice, he propofes bleeding under the
tongue. On fome occalions he took away great quan¬
tities of blood, as appears from what we have already
obferved. Sometimes he continued the blooding till
the patient fainted : at other times he would blood in
both arms at once •, at others, he did it in feveral pla¬
ces of the body, and at feveral times. The veins he
opened were thofe of the arm, the hands, the ankles
on both fides, the hams, the forehead, behind the head,
the tongue, the nofe, behind the ears, under the breafts,
and thofe of the arms 5 befides which, he burnt others,
and opened feveral arteries. He likewife ufed cupping-
Veflels, with intent to recal or withdraw the humours
which fell upon any part. Sometimes he contented
himfelf with the bare attraftion made by the cupping-
veffels, but fometimes alfo he made fcarifications.
His maxims When bleeding and purging, which were the prin-
refpe-ting cipal and moll general means ufed by Hippocrates
diuretics for taking off a plethora, proved infufficient for that
and ludori- j)urp()fCj ]ie ]ia<j j-ecourfe to diuretics and fudorifics.
The former were of different forts, according to the
conflitution of the perfons : fometimes baths, and
fometimes fweet wine, were employed to provoke
urine j fometimes the nourilhment which we take con¬
tributes to it : and amongfl thofe herbs which are
commonly eaten, Hippocrates recommends garlic, leeks,
onions, cucumbers, melons, gourds, fennel, and all other
things which have a biting tafle and a flrong fmell.
With thefe he numbers honey, mixed with water or
vinegar, and all fait meats. But, on fome oecafions,
he took four cantharides, and, pulling off their wings
and feet, gave them in wine and honey. Thefe reme¬
dies were given in a great number of chronical di-
flempers after purging, when he thought the blood
was overcharged with a fort of moiflure which he calls
ichor; or in fuppreffions of urine, and when it was
made in lefs quantity than it ought. There were alfo
&me cafes in which he would force fweat as well as
r97
urine } but he neither mentions the difeafes in which Hippo-
fudorifics are proper, nor lets us know what medicines crates‘
are to be ufed for this purpofe, except in one tingle' '' _v
palfage, where he mentions fweating, by pouring upon
the head a great quantity of water till the feet fweat j
that is, till the fweat diffufes itfelf over the whole body,
running from head to foot. After this he would have
them eat boiled meat, and drink pure wine, and being
well covered with clothes, lay themfelves down to reft.
The difeafe for which he propofes the above-mention¬
ed remedy is a fever j which is not, according to him,
produced by bile or pituita, but by mere laflitude, or
fome other fimilar caufe ; from whence we may con¬
clude that he did not approve of fweating in any other
kind of fever.
Other remedies which Hippocrates tells us he made
ufe of were thofe that purged neither bile nor phlegm,
but aft by coaling, drying, heating, moiftening, or by
clofing and thickening, refolving and diflipating. Thefe
medicines, however, he does not particularly mention 5
and it is probable they w’ere only fome particular kinds
of food. To thefe he joined hypnotics, or fueh things
as procure fleep ; but thefe lail were ufed very feldom,
and, it is moft probable, w'ere only different prepara¬
tions of poppies. 22
Laftly, befides the medicines already mentioned, The ufe he
which acted in a fenfible manner, Hippocrates made muleofipc-
ufe of others called fpecijics ; whofe afiion he did not mcs
underltand, and for the ufe of which lie could give no
reafon but his own experience, or that of other phyfi-
cians. Thtfe he had learned from his predeet ifors the
defeendants of iEfculapius, who, being empirics, did
not trouble themfelves about inquiring into the opera¬
tion of remedies, provided their patients were cured.
Of the external remedies preferibed by Hippo- His exter-
crates, fomentations were the chief. Thefe were ofnal apptica
two kinds. The one was a fort of bath, in which the
patient fat in a veffel full of a deco&ion of fimpies
appropriated to his malady ; fo that the part aftetted
was foaked in the decosftion. This was chiefly uled
in diftempers of the womb, of the arms, the bladder,
the reins, and generally all the parts below the dia¬
phragm. The feeond way of fomenting was, to take
warm water and put it into a Ik in or bladder, or even
into a copper or earthen veffel, and to apply it to the uons.
part afiecled ; as, for example, in a pleurify. They
uftd likewife a large fponge, which they dipped in the
water or other hot liquor, and fqueezed out pait of
the liquor before they applied it. The fame ufe they
made of barley, vetches, or bran, which were boiled
in fome proper liquor, and applied in a linen Lag.
Thefe are called mnj} fomentations. The dry ones
were made of fait or millet, heated confiderably, and
applied to the part. Another kind of fomentation
was the vapour of fome hot liquor j an inftance of which
we find in his firft book of the Diftempers of Women.
He call, at feveral times, bits of red-hot iron into
urine, and, covering up the patient clofe, caufed her
to receive the fleam below. His defign in theft- kinds
of fomentations was to warm the part, to refolve or
diflipate, and draw out the peccant matter, to mollify
and affuagt pain, to open the paffages, or even to (hut
them, according as the fomentations were emollient or
aitringent.
MEDICINE.
Fumigations
193
Hippo¬
crates.
^5
Fumiga-
tioiii.
26
Gargles.
Oils and
•intments.
sS
Cataplafms.
29
t'ollyria.
M E D I
Fumigations were likewlfe very often ufed by Hip¬
pocrates. In the quinfy, he burned hyffop with
fulphur and pitch, and caufed the fmoke to be drawn
into the throat by a funnel; and by this means he
brought away abundance of phlegm through the
mouth and through the nofe. For this purpofe he
took nitre, marjoram, and crefs-feeds, which he boiled
in water, vinegar, and oil, and, while it was on the
fire, caufed the patient to draw in the fleam by a pipe.
In his works we find a great number of fumigants for
the diftempers of wmmen, to promote the menftrual
flux, to check it, to help conception, and to eafe pains
in the matrix, or the fuffocation of it. On thefe oc-
cafions he ufed fuch aromatics as .were then known,
viz. cinnamon, caflia, myrrh, and feveral odoriferous
plants ; likewife fome minerals, fuch as nitre, fulphur,
and pitch, and caufed the patient to receive the va¬
pours through a funnel into the uterus.
Gargles, a kind of fomentations for the mouth,
were alfo known to Hippocrates. In the quinfy he
ufed a gargle made of marjoram, favory, celery, mint,
and nitre, boiled with water and a little vinegar.
When this was drained, they added honey to it, and
walhed their mouths frequently with it.
Oils and ointments were likewife much ufed by
Hippocrates, with a view to mollify and abate pain,
to ripen boils, refolve tumours, refrefh after wearinefs,
make the body fupple, &c. For this purpofe, fome-
times pure oil of olives was ufed ; fometimes certain
fimples were infufed in it, as the leaves of myrtle and
rofes 5 and the latter kind of oil was in much requeft
among the ancients. There were other forts of oils
fometimes in ufe, however, which were much more
compounded. Hippocrates fpeaks of one named Sufi-
num, which was made of the flowers of the iris, of fome
aromatics, and of an ointment of narcilius made with
the flowers of narciffus and aromatics infufed in oil.
But the molt compounded of all his ointments was
that called netopon, which he made particularly for
women •, and confifted of a great number of ingredi¬
ents. Another ointment, to which he gave the name
of ceratum, was compofed of oil and wax. An oint¬
ment which he recommends for the foftening a tu¬
mor, and the cleanfing a wound, w7as made by the
following receipt: “ Take the quantity of a nut of the
marrow or fat of a Iheep, of maftic or turpentine the
quantity of a bean, and as much wax ; melt thefe over
a fire, with oil of rofes, for a ceratum.” Sometimes
he added pitch and wrax, and, W'ith a fufficient quantity
of oil, made a compofition fomewhat more confiftent
than the former,,which he called cerapijfus.
Cataplafms w'ere a fort of remedies lefs confillent
than the two former. They were made of powders
or herbs fteeped or boiled in water or fome other li¬
quor, to which fometimes oil was added. They were
ufed w'ith a view to foften or refolve tumors, ripen ab-
feefies, &c. though they had alfo cooling cataplafms
made of the leaves of beets or oak, fig or olive-trees,
boiled in w'ater.
Laftly, To complete the catalogue of the external
remedies ufed by Hippocrates, wre lhall mention a fort
of medicine called collyrium. It was compounded of
pow'ders, to which was added a fmall quantity of
fome ointment, or iuice of a plant, to make a folid or
dry mafs 5 the form of which was long and round,
CINE. i Hiftq.v
which was kept for ufe. Another liompofition of much Hippo. ’
the fame nature w'as a fort of lozenge of the bignefs of ciates.
a fmall piece of money, which was burnt upon coals '-"■“v'—»'
for a perfume, and powdered for particular ufes. In
his works we find likewife deferiptions of powders for
feveral ufes, to take off fungous flclh, and to blow into
the eyes in ophthalmies, &.c.
Thefe w'ere almoft all the medicines ufed by Hip¬
pocrates for external purpofes. The compound me¬
dicines given imvardly were either liquid, folid, or
lambative. The liquid ones were prepared either by
decoction or infufion in a proper liquor, which, when
Itrained, W'ere kept for ule j or by macerating certain
powders in fuch liquors, and fo taking them toge¬
ther, or by mixing different kinds oi liquors toge¬
ther. The folid medicines confided of juices infpif-
fated 5 of gums, refins, or powders, made up with
them or with honey, or fomething proper to give the
neceffary confiftence to the medicine. Thefe were
made up in a form and quantity fit to be fwallowed
with eafe. The lambative was of a confiftence be-
tween folid and fluid ; and the patients were obliged
to keep it for fome time to diffolve in the mouth, that
they might fwallow it leifurely. This remedy was
ufed to take off the acrimony of thofe humours which
fometimes fall upon this part, and provoke coughing
and other inconveniences. The bafis of this laft com¬
pofition W'as honey. It is worth our obfervation, that
the compound medicines of Hippocrates w'ere but very
fewr, and compofed only of four or five ingredients at
moil •, and that he not only underitood pharmacy, or
the art of compounding medicines, but prepared fuch
as he ufed himfelf, or caufed his fervants prepare them
in his houfe by his directions.
We have thus given fome account of the ftate of
medicine as praftifed and taught by Hippocrates, w'ho,
as we have already obferved, has for many ages been
juftly confidered as the father of phytic. For when
avc attend to the ftate in which he found medicine, and
the condition in which he left it, we can hardly beftow
fufficient admiration on the judgment and accuracy of
his obfervations. After a life fpent in unwearied induf-
try, he is faid to have died at Lariffa, a city in Thef-
faly, in the 101ft year of his age, 361 years before the
birth of Chrift.
After the days of Hippocrates, medicine in ancient
Greece gradually derived improvement from the la¬
bour of other phyficians of eminence. And we may
particularly mention three to whom its future progrefs
Teems to have been not a little indebted^ viz. Praxago-
ras, Erafiftratus, and Herophilus.
The firft phyfician of eminence who differed confi p^gcras.
derably in his practice from Hippocrates was Praxa-
goras. Ccelius Aurelianus acquaints us, that he made
great ufe of vomits in his practice, infomuch as to ex¬
hibit them in the iliac pafflon till the excrements
were difeharged by the mouth. In this diftemper he
alfo advifed, when all other means failed, to open the
belly, cut the inteftine, take out the indurated fseces,
and then to few up all again ; but this praftice has
not probably been followed by any fubfequent phyfi¬
cian.
Erafiftratus was a phyfician of great eminence, ErafiftraW*
and flourilhed in the time of Seleueus, one of the
fucceffors of Alexander the Great. According to
Galen,
Hiftory. M E D I
Erafiftra- Galen, he entirely banifhed venefeftion from medi-
tus. cine ; though fome affirm that he did not totally dif-
1 'r~~J card it, but only ufed it lefs frequently than other
phyiicians. His reafons for difapproving of venefec-
tion are as follow : It is difficult to fucceed in vene-
fe£lion, becaufe we cannot always fee the vein we in¬
tend to open, and becaufe we are not fure but we
may open an artery in dead of a vein. We cannot
afcertain the. true quantity to be taken.. If we take
too little, the intention is by no means anfwered : if
we take too much, ive run a rifle of dellroying the
patient. The evacuation of the venous blood alfo is
fucceeded by that of the fpirits, which on that occa-
fion he fuppofes to pafs from the arteries into the veins.
It mud like wife, he contends, be obferved, that as the
inflammation is formed in the arteries by the blood
coagulated in their orifices, venefeclion muft of courfe
be ufelefs and of no effeff.
As Erafillratus did not approve of venefeftion, fo
neither did he of purgatives, excepting very rarely,
but exhibited clyfters and vomits 5 as did alfo his ma¬
iler Chryfippus. He was of opinion, however, that
the clyllers ffiould be mild ; and condemned the large
quantity and acrid quality of thole ufed by preceding
practitioners. The reafon why purgatives were not
much ufed by him was, that he imagined purging and
venefeClion could anfwer no other purpofe than dimi-
nilhing the fulhefs of the velfels and for this purpofe
he alferted that there were more effectual means than
either phlebotomy or purging. He afferted that the
humours difeharged by cathartics were not the fame in
the body that they appeared after the difeharge ; but
that the medicines changed their nature, and produced
a kind of corruption in them. This opinion has fince
been embraced by a great number of phyficians. He
did not believe that purgatives aCted by attraction
but fubftituted in the place of this principle what Mr
Le Clerc imagines to be the fame with Ariftotle’s
fuga vacui. The principal remedy fubftituted by him
in place of purging and venefeCtion was abitinence.
When this, in conjunction with clyfters and vomits,
was not fufficient to eradicate the difeafe, he then had
recourfe to exercife. All this was done with a view
to diminiffi plenitude, which, according to him, was
the molt frequent caufe of all difeafes. Galen alfo in¬
forms us, that Erafiftratus had fo great an opinion of
the virtues of fuccory in difeafes of the vifeera and lower
belly, and efpecially in thofe of the liver, that he took
particular pains to deferibe the method of boiling it,
■which was, to boil it in water till it was tender 5 then
to put it into boiling water a fecond time, in order to
deftroy its bitternefs ; afterwards to take it out of the
water,^ and preferve it in a veffel with oil ; and laftly,
when it is to be ufed, add a little weak vinegar to it.
Nay, fo minute and circumftaniial was Erafiftratus with
regard to the preparation of his favourite fuccory, that
he gave orders to tie feveral of the plants together, be¬
caufe that was the more commodious method of boil¬
ing them. ^ The reft of Erafiftratus’s practice confifted
almoft entirely of regimen 5 to which he added fome
topical remedies, fuch as catapfalms, fomentations, and
unCtions. In ftiort, as he could neither endure com¬
pounded medicines, nor fuperftitious and fine-fpun rea-
fonings, he reduced medicine to a very fimple and com¬
pendious art.
c
I N E.
With regard
, . 199
_ to furgery, Erafiftratus appears to Heropbilus.
have been very bold j and as an anatomift he is faid to '   '
have been exceedingly cruel, infomuch that he is re-
prefented by fome as having diffeCted criminals while
yet alive*. In a feirrhous liver, or in tumors of*SeeAra-
that organ, Coelius Aurelianus obferves, that Erafiftra-tomy, Hijl,
tus made an incifion through the Ikin and integu¬
ments, and having opened the abdomen he applied
medicines immediately to the part affeCted. But though
he was thus bold in performing operations on the liver,
yet he did not approve of the paracentefis or tapping in
the dropfy ; becaufe (faid he) the waters being eva¬
cuated, the liyer, which is inflamed and become hard
like a Itone, is more preffed by the adjacent parts
which the waters kept at a diftance from it, fo that
by this means the patient dies. He declared alfo
againft drawing teeth which were not loofe ; and ufed
to tell thofe who talked with him on this operation,
1 hat in the temple of Apollo there was to be feen an
inftrument of lead for drawing teeth ; in order to infi-
nuate that we muft not attempt the extirpation of any
but fuch as are loofe, and call for no greater force for
their extirpation than what may be fuppofed in an in¬
ftrument of lead.
Herophilus, the difciple of Praxagoras, and eontem-Herophiks.
porary of Erafiftratus, followed a lefs fimple practice :
he made fo great ufe of medicines both fimple and
compound, that neither he nor his difciples would un¬
dertake the cure of any diforder without them. He
feems alfo to have been the firft who treated accurately
of the dodtrine of pulfes, of which Hippocrates had but
a fuperficial knowledge. Galen, however, affirms, that
on this fubjedt he involved himfelf in difficulties and ad¬
vanced abfurdities; which indeed we are not greatly to
wonder at,* confidering the time in which lie lived.
He took notice of a difeale at that time pretty rare,
and to which he aferibes certain fudden deaths. He
calls it apai/y of the hearty and perhaps it may be
the fame dileafe with what is now termed the angina
pe St or is.
According to Celfus, it was about this time that
medicine was firft divided into three branches, viz. the
dietetic, the pharmaceutical, and the cbirurgical medi¬
cine. 1 he firft of thefe employed a proper repimen
in the cure of difeafes j the fecond, medicines } and
the third, the operation of the hands. Ihe fame au¬
thor informs us, that thefe three branches became
non the bufinefs of as many diftmdt claffes of men j
fo that from this time we may date the origin of the
three profeffions of phyficians, apothecaries, and fur-
geons.—Before this divition, thofe called physicians dif¬
eharged all the feveral offices belonging to the three
profeffions ; and there were only two kinds of them,
viz. one called osgg;m>cT«»«c0<, who gave only their ad¬
vice to the patients, and directions to thofe of an infe¬
rior clafs, who were called and worked with
their hands either in the performing operations, or in
the compofition and application of remedies.
Tdie firft grand revolution which happened in the The Lnipi-
mcdicinal art, after the days of Herophilus and Erafi-r*cs*
ftratus, was occafioned by the founding of the empiric
feCt by Serapion of Alexandria about 287 years before
Chrift. ihe diyifion into dogmatifts and empirics Serapwn.
had indeed fubfifted before ; but about this time the
latter party began to grow ftrong, and to have cham¬
pions
MEDICINE.
200
Serapion pions publicly aflerting its caufe. Galen informs us,
' v“ ' ' that Serapion ufed Hippocrates very ill in his writ¬
ings, in which he difcovered an excefs of pride, felf-
fufficiency, and contempt for all the phyficians that
went before him. We have fome Iketches of his
practice in Coelius Aurelianus, from which we may
infer that he retained the medicines of Hippocrates
and the other phylicians who went before him, though
he rejeaed their reafoning. We know not what argu¬
ments he advanced for the fupport of his lentiments,
fmce his works are loft, as well as thofe of the other
empirics } and we Ihould know nothing at all of any
of them, if their adverfaries had not quoted them in
order to confute them.
The empirics admitted only one general method of
obtaining Ikill in the medical art, which was by ex¬
perience, called by the Greeks t/nru^x. From this
word they took their name, and refuted to be called
after the founder or any champion of their feft.
They defined experience a knowledge derived from
the evidence of fenfe. It w’as either fortuitous, or
acquired by defign. For acquiring praftical fkill they
recommended what they called Trains, or one’s own
obfervation, and the reading of hiftories or cafes faith¬
fully related by others. Hence they thought that
we might be enabled to know a difeafe by its refem-
blance to ethers •, and, when new difeafes occurred, to
conclude what was proper to be done from the fymp-
toms they had in common with others that were before
known. They afferted, that obfervation ought princi¬
pally to be employed in two different ways j firft in
difcovering what things are falutary, and what are of
an indifferent nature *, and, fecondly, what particular
difeafe is produced by a certain concurrence of fymp-
toms •, for they did not call every fymptOm a difeafe,
but only fuch a combination of them as from long ex¬
perience they found to accompany each other, and pro¬
duced fuch diforders as began and terminated in the
fame manner.
On the other hand, the dogmatift affirmed, that
there was a neceffity for knowing the latent as well
as the evident caufes of difeafes, and that the phyfi-
cian ought to underftand the natural adlions and func¬
tions of the human body, which neceffarily prefup-
pofes a knowledge of the internal parts. By fecret
or latent caufes they meant fuch as related to the ele¬
ments or principles of which our bodies are compofed,
and which are the origin of a good or bad ftate of
health. They afferted that it wras impoffible to know
how to cure a difeafe without knowing the caufe
whence it proceeded •, becaufe undoubtedly it behoved
difeafes to vary prodigioufly in themfelves according to
the different caufes by which they w^ere produced.
The next remarkable perfon in the hiftory of phyfic
is Afclepiades, who flouriftied in the century immedi¬
ate1 y preceding the birth of Chrift. He introduced
the philoffiphy of Democritus and Epicurus into me¬
dicine, and ridiculed the doflrines of Hippocrates.
He afferted, that matter conftdered in itfelf was of an
unchangeable nature ; and that all perceptible bodies
were compofed of a number of fmaller ones, between
which there were interfperfed an infinity of fmall fpaces
totally void of all matter. He thought that the foul
itfelf was compofed of theft- fmall bodies. He laughed
at the principle called Nature by Hippocrates, and
35
*Lfclepi-
ides.
Hiftory
alfo at the imaginary faculties faid by him to be fub- Afclepj. *
fervient to her j and ftill more at what he called At- ades.
traEiion. This latt principle Afclepiades denied in
every inftance, even in that of the loadftone and fteel,
imagining that this phenomenon proceeded from a
concourfe of corpufcles, and a particular difpofitien or
modification of their pores. Fie alfo maintained, that
nothing happened or was produced without fome caufe;
and that what was called nature was in reality no
more than matter and motion. From this laft prin¬
ciple he inferred that Hippocrates knew not what lie
faid when he fpoke of Nature as an intelligent being,
and afcribed qualities of different kinds to her. lor
the fame reafon he ridiculed the doftrine of Hippo¬
crates with regard to crifes ; and afferted that the
termination of diieafes might be as well accounted for
from mere matter and motion. He maintained, that
we were deceived if we imagined that nature always
did good ; fince it was evident that (lie often did a
great deal of harm. As for the days particularly
fixed upon by Hippocrates for crifes, or thofe on
which we ufually obferve a change either for the bet¬
ter or the worfe, Afclepiades denied that fuch altera¬
tions happened on thofe days rather than on others.
Nay, he afferted that the crifis did not happen at any
time of its own accord, or by the particular determi¬
nation of nature for the cure of the diforder, but that
it depended rather on the addrefs and dexterity of tire
phyfician ; that we ought never to wait till a diftem-
per terminates of its own accord, but that the phyli-
cian by his care and medicines muft haften on and ad¬
vance the cure.—According to him, Hippocrates and
other ancient phyficians attended their patients rather
with a view to obferve in Avhat manner they died
than in order to cure them ; and this under pretence
that Nature ought to do all herfelf, without any affift-
ance.
According to Afclepiades, the particular affemblage
of the various corpufcles above mentioned, and repre-
fented as of different figures, is the reafon why there
are feveral pores or interftices within the common
mafs, formed by thefe corpufcles ; and why thefe pores
are of a different fize. This being taken for granted,
as thefe pores are in all the bodies we obferve, it muft
of courfe follow that the human body has fome pecu¬
liar to itfelf, which, as well as thofe of all other bo¬
dies, contain certain minute bodies, which pafs and re-
pafs by thofe pores that communicate with each other ;
and as thefe pores or interftices are larger or fmaller,
fo the corpufcles which pafs through them differ pro-
portionably as to largenefs and minutenefs. The blood
confifts of the largeft of thefe corpufcles, and the fpirits,
or the heat, of the fmalleft.
From thefe principles he infers, that as long as the
corpufcles are freely received by the pores, the body
remains in its natural ftate ; and on the contrary, it
begins to recede from that ftate, when the corpufcles
find any obftacle to their paffage. Health therefore
depends on the juft proportion between the pores and
the corpufcles they are deftincd to receive and tranfmit;
as difeafes, on the contrary, proceed from a difpropor-
tion between thefe pores and the corpufcles. The moft
ufual obftacle on this occafion proceeds from the cor-
puffiles embracing each other, and being retained in
fome of their ordinary paffages, whether thefe corpuf-
chs
ades.
Hiftory. M E D I
Afclepi- cles arrive in too large a number, are of irregular fi¬
gures, move too faft or too flow, &c.
Among the difeafes produced by the corpufcles flop¬
ping of their own accord, Afclepiades reckoned phren-
fies, lethargies, pleurifies, and burning fevers. Pains,
in particular, are clafled among the accidents which
derive their origin from a ftagnation of the largeft of
all the corpufcles of which the blood confifls. Among
the diforders produced by the bad date and difpofition
of the pores, he placed deliquiums, languors, extenua¬
tions, leannefs, and dropdes. Thefe kit diforders he
thought proceeded from the pores being too much re¬
laxed and opened : the dropfy in particular, he thinks,
proceeds from the flefh being perforated with various
fmall holes, which convert the nourifhment received
into them into water. Hunger, and efpecially that
fpecies of it called fames ccinina, proceeds from an open¬
ing of the large pores of the ftomach and belly j and
third from an opening of their fmall ones. Upon the
fame principles he accounted for intermittent fevers.
According to him, quotidian fevers are caufed by a
retention of the larged corpufcles, thofe of the tertian
kind by a retention of corpufcles fomewhat fmaller,
and quartan fevers are produced by a retention of the
final led corpufcles of all.
The practice of Afclepiades was fulled to remove
thefe imaginary caufes of diforders. He compofed a
book concerning common remedies, which he princi¬
pally reduced to three, viz. gedation, fridtion, and
the ufe of wine. By various exercifes he propofed to
render the pores more open, and to make the juices
and fmall bodies, which caufe difeafes by their reten¬
tion, pafs more freely ; and while the former phylicians
had not recourfe to gedation till towards the end of
long continued diforders, and when the patients, though
entirely free from fever, were yet too weak to take
fufficient exercife by walking, Afclepiades ufed geda¬
tion from the very beginning of the mod burning fe¬
vers. He laid it down as a maxim, that one fever was
to be cured by another ; that the drength of the pa¬
tient was to be exhauded by making him watch and
endure third to fuch a degree, that, for the two fird
days of the diforder, he would not allow them to cool
their mouths with a drop of water. Celfus alfo obferves,
that though Afclepiades treated his patients like a but¬
cher during the fird days of the diforder, he indulged
them fo far afterwards as even to give directions for
making their beds in the fofted manner. On feveral
occafions Afclepiades ufed friCHons to open the pores.
I he dropfy wras one of the didempers in which this re¬
medy was ufed 5 but the mod lingular attempt was,
by this means, to lull phrenetic patients adeep. But
though he enjoined exercife fo much to the lick, he
denied it to thofe in health 5 a cor.duCl not a little fur-
prifing and extraordinary. He allowed wine freely to
patients in fevers, provided the violence of the didem-
per was fomewhat abated. Nor did he forbid it to
thefe who were afflicted with a phrenfy : nay, he or¬
dered them to drink it till they were intoxicated, pre¬
tending by that -means to make them fleep; becaufe,
he laid, wine had a narcotic quality and procured deep,
which he thought abfolutely neceffary for thofe who
lab' Hired under that diforder. To lethargic patients he
ufed it on -purpofe to excite them, and roufe their fen-
Vol. XIII. Part I.
CINE. 20,;
fes : he alfo made them fmell ftrong-feented fubfomces, Afdepi-
fuch as vinegar, cador, and rue, in order to make them , ades» &c*,
fneeze j and applied to their heads cataplafxns of mud- ' 'r~~J
ard made up with vinegar.
Beddes thefe remedies, Afclepiades enjoined his pa¬
tients abdinence to an extreme degree. For the fird
three days, according to Celfus, he allowed them no
aliment whatever, but on the fourth began to give
tliem victuals. According to Ccelius Aurelianus, how¬
ever, he began to nourifh his patients as foon as the ac-
ceffloa of the difeafe was diminilhed, not wailing till
an entire remiffion ; giving to fome aliments on the
fird, and fome on the fecond, to fome on the third,
and fo on to the feventh day. It feems almod incredi¬
ble to us, that people diould be able to fad till this lad-
mentioned term 5 but Celfus allures us, that abdinence
till the feventh day was enjoined even by the predecef-
fors of Afelepiades.
The next great revolution which happened in the
medicinal art, was brought about by Themifon, the
difciple of Afclepiades, who lived not long before the
time of Celfus, during the end of the reign of Auguf-
tus, or beginning of that of Tiberius. The feCl found¬
ed by him was called methodic, becaufe he endeavoured Methodic
to find a method of rendering medicine more eafy than feed,
formerly.
_ maintained, that a knowledge of the caufes ofThcnnfon,
difeafes was not necefiary, provided we have a due re¬
gard to what difeafes have in common and analogous to
one another. In confequence of this principle, he di¬
vided all. difeafes into two, or at moll three, kinds.
] he firft included difeafes arifing from ItriCture 5 the
fecond, thofe arifing from relaxation 5 and the third,
thofe of a mixed nature, or fuch as partook both of
ItriCture and relaxation.
1 hemifon alfo alferted, that difeafes are fometimes
acute, and fometimes chronical ; that for a certain time
they increafe *, that at a certain time they are at their
height; and that at la ft they were obferved to dimi-
nilh. Acute difeafes, therefore, according to him,
muft be treated in one way, and chronical difeafes in
another ; one method muft be followed with fuch as are
in their augmentation, another with fuch as are at their
height, and a third with fuch as are in their deelen-
fion. He afferted that the whole of medicine confided
in the obfervation of that fmall number of rules which
are founded upon things altogether evident. Fie faid,
that all diforders, whatever their nature was, if includ¬
ed under any of the kinds above mentioned, ought to
be treated, precifely in the fame way, in whatever coun¬
try and with whatever fymptoms they happen to arife.
Upon thefe principles, lie defined medicine to be a me¬
thod of conducting to the knowledge of what difeafes
have in common with each other.
Themifen was old when he laid the foundation of
the methodic fed 5 and it -was only brought to perfec- §
tion by Fhefialus, who lived under the emperor Nero. Theffaluj.
Galen and Pliny, accufe this phyfician of intolerable in-
felence and vanity, and report that he gave himfelf
the air of defpifing all other phyficians ; and fo intole¬
rable was his vanity, that he afi'umed the title of the
conqueror of phyficians, which he caufed to be put up¬
on his tomb in the Appian way. Never was moun- '
tebank (fays Pliny) attended by a greater number of
C c fpeClaters
202 ' M’E D I
Tiieffiuus, fpe^lators tlian ThelTalus laad generally about him j
, ^ at^d this circuniitance is the lefs to be wondered at. if
wc confider that he promifed to teach the whole art of
medicine in lefs than fix months. In reality, the art
might be learned much fooner if it comprehended no
more than what the methodics thought neceffary : for
they, cut off the examination of the caufes of difeafes
followed by the dogmatics ; and fubllitutcd in the
room of the laborious obfervations of the empirics, in¬
dications drawn from the analogy of difeafes, and the
mutual refemblance they bear to each other. The
35 moft fkilful of all the methodic fed!, and he who put
Sotanus. the lad hand to it, was Soranus. He lived under
the emperors Trajan and Adrian, and was a native of
40 Tphefus.
Cdfiis. One of the moft celebrated medical writers of an¬
tiquity was Celfus, whom we have already had oc¬
casion to mention. Mod writers agree that he lived
in the time of Tiberius, but his country is uncertain.
It is even difputed whether or not he was a profeffed
phyfician. Certain it is, however, that his books on
medicine are the mod valuable of all the ancients next
to thofe of Hippocrates. From the latter, indeed, he
has taken fo much, as to acquire the name of the La¬
tin Hippocrates; but he has not attached himfelf to
him fo clofely as to reject the affidance of other au¬
thors. In many particulars he has preferred Afcle-
piades. With him he laughs at the critical days of
Hippocrates, and aferibes the invention of them to
a foolifh and fuperditious attachment to the Pythago¬
rean doftrine of numbers. He alfo rejected the doc¬
trine of Hippocrates with regard to venefeftion, of which
he made a much more general ufe ; but did not take
away fo much blood at a time, thinking it much better
to repeat the operation than weaken the patient by too
great an evacuation at once. He ufed cupping alfo
much more frequently, and differed from him with re¬
gard to purgatives. In the beginning of - diforders, he
laid, the patients ought to endure hunger and third :
but afterwards they were to be nouridied with good
aliments; of which, however, they were not to take
too much, nor fill themfelves fuddenly, after, having
faded long. He does not fneeify how long the pa¬
tient ought to praflife abdinence ; but affirms, that in
this particular it is neceffary to have a regard to the
difeafe, the patient, the feafon, the climate, and other
circumdances of a like nature. Fhe figns drawn from
the pulfe he looked upon to be very precarious and un¬
certain. “ Some (fays he) lay great drefs upon the
beating of the veins or the arteries; which is a deceit¬
ful circumdance, fince that beating is flow or quick,
and varies very much, according to the age, fex, and
conditution of the patient. It even fometimes happens
that the pulfe is weak and languid when the domach is
difordered, or in the beginning of a fever. On the
contrary, the pulfe is often high, and in a violent com¬
motion, when one has been expofed to the fun, or
comes out of a bath, or from ufing exercife ; or when
one is under the influence of anger, fear, or any other
paffion. Befides, the pulfe is eafily changed by the
arrival of the phyfician, in confequence of the patient’s
anxiety to know what judgment he will pafs upon his
cafe. To prevent this', the phyfician mud not feel the
patient’s pulfe on his fird arrival: he mud fird fit down
by him, affume a cheerful air, inform himfelf of his con-
CINE.- Hiftory:
dition 5 and if he is under any dread, endeavour to re^Celfus, &e.
move it by encouraging difeourfe ; after which he may —v——
examine the beating of the artery. This, neverthelefs,
does not hinder us from concluding, that if the light
of the phyfician alone can produce fo remarkable a
change in the pulfe, a thoufand other caufes may pro¬
duce the fame effedd.” But although,Celfus thought
for himfelf, and in not a few particulars differed from
his predeceffors, yet in his writings, which arc not only
ft ill preferved, but have gone through almoft innu¬
merable editions, we have a compendious view of the
practice of almoft all his predeceffors : and he treats
of the healing art in all its branches, whether per¬
formed manu, viBu, vel medicamentis. His writings,
therefore, will naturally be confulted by every one
who wiffies either to become acquainted with the
pradtice of the ancients prior to the fall of the Roman
empire, or to read medical Latin in its greateft pu-
rity.
About the 131ft year aider Chrift, in the reign of Gaki
the emperor Adrian, lived the celebrated Galen, a na¬
tive of Pergamus, whole name makes fuch a confpicu-
ous figure in the hiftory of phyfic. At this time the
dogmatic, empiric, methodic, and other fetfts, had
each their abettors. The methodics were held in
great efteem, and looked upon to be fuperior to the
dogmatics, who were ftrangely divided among them¬
felves, feme of them following Hippocrates, others
Erafiftratus, and others Afclepiades. The empirics
made the leaft confiderable figure of any. Galen un¬
dertook the reformation of medicine, and reftored
dogmatifm. He feems to have been of that feet
which was called eclcBic, from their choofing out of
different authors what they efteemed good in them,
without being particularly attached to any one more
than the reft. This declaration lie indeed fets out
with ; but, notwithftanding this, he follows Hippocrates
much more than any other, or rather follows nobody
elfe but him. Though before his time feveral phyft-
cians had commented on the works of Hippocrates, yet
Galen pretends that none of them had underftood his
meaning. His firft attempt, therefore, was to explain’
the works of Hippocrates 3 with which view he wrote
a great deal, and after this fet about compofing a fyf-
tem of his own. In one of his books entitled, “ Of
the eftabliffiment of medicine,” he defines the art to be
one which teaches to preferve health and cure difeafe?.
In another book, however, he propofes the following
definition : “ Medicine (fays he) is a fcience which
teaches what is found, and what is not fo ; and what
is of an indifferent nature, or holds a medium between
what is found and what is the reverfe.” He affirmed,
that there are three things which eonftitute the obiect
of medicine, and whieh the phyfician ought to confider
as found, as not found, or of a neutral and indifferent
nature. Thefe are the body itfelf, the figns, and the
caufes. He efteems the human body found, when it is
in a good ftate or habit with regard to the fimple parts
of which it is compofed, and when befides there is a
juft proportion between the organs formed of thefe fim¬
ple parts. On the contrary, the body is reckoned to
be unfound, when it recedes from this ftate, and the
juft proportion above mentioned. It is in a ftate of
neutrality or indifference, when it is in a medium be¬
tween foundnefs and its oppofite ftate. The falutary
Hiftory. M E L> I
Galen, figns are filch as indicate prefent health, and prcgnofti-
'U' cate that the man may remain in that ftate for fome
time to come. The infalubrious figns, on the contrary,
indicate a prefent difordcr, or lay a foundation for fuf-
pecfxng the approach of one. The neutral figns, or
fuch as are of an indifferent nature, denote neither
health nor indifpofition, either for the prefent, or for
the time to come. In like manner he fpeaks of caufes
falutary, unfalutary, and indifferent.
I nefe tliree difpofitions of tlie human body, that is,
foundnefs, its reverfe, and a neutral ftate, comprehend
all the differences between health and diforder or in¬
difpofition : and each of thefe three ftates or difpofi¬
tions has a certain extent peculiar to itfelf. A found
habit of body, according to,the definition of it already
given,. is very rare, and perhaps never to be met with;
but this does not hinder us to fuppofe fuch a ^lodel for
regulating our judgment with refpect to different con-
ftilutions. On this principle Galen eftabliihes eight
other principal conftitutions, all of which differ more
or lefs from the perfect model above mentioned. The
fom firft are fuch as have one of the four qualities of
hot, cold, moift, or dry, prevailing in too great a
degree •, and accordingly receive their denomination
from that quality which prevails over the reft. The
• four other fpecies of conftitutions receive their deno¬
minations from a combination of the above mentioned •
fo that, according to his definition, there may be a hot
and dry, a hot and moift, a cold and moift, and a
cold and drv, confutation. Befides thefe differences,
there are certain others which refult from occult and
latent caufes, and which, by Galen, are faid to arife
from an idiofyncrafy of conftitution. It is owing to this
idiofyncrafy that fome have an averfion to one kind
of aliment and fome to another ; that fome cannot en¬
dure particular fmells, &c. But though thefe eight laft-
mentioried canrtitu!ions fall fhort of the perfection of
the firft, it does not thence follow, that thole to whom
they belong are to be claffed among the valetudinary
an 1 difeafed. A dif’eafe only begins when the devia¬
tion becomes fo great as to hinder the due aCtion of
fome parts.
Galen deferibes at great length the figns of a good
bad conftitution, as well as thofe of what he calls a
keufra ' h'lbit. Thefe figns are drawn from the origi-
qualities of cold, hot, raoift, and dry, and from
their juft proportion or disproportion with refpeCf to
tlie bulk, figure, and fituation, of the organical parts.
With TT ppocratcs he eftablifhes three principles of an
anirail bodv ; the parts, the humours, and the fpirits.
Bv the parts he properly meant no more than the fo-
lid parts ; and thcfl' he divided into fimilar and orga-
nica.l. Like Hippocrates, he alfo acknowledged four
humours •, the blood, the phlegm, the vellow bile and
black bile. He eftablifhed three different kinds of
foil its-, the natural, the vital, and the animal. The
firft of thefe are, according to him, nothing elfe but
a fubtlc vapour arifing from the blood, which draws its
orHin from the liver, the organ or inftrument of fan-
guiflea1 Son. After thefe fpirits are conveyed to the
hi art, they, in conjunction with the air we draw into
the lungs, become the matter of the feoond fpecies,
that is, of the vital fpirits, which are again changed
i«to thofe of the animal kind in the brain. He fuppo-
fed that thefe Three fpecies. of fpirits ferved as-inftru-
C I N E.
ments to three kinds of faculties, which refide in the
refpeCtive parts where thefe faculties are formed. The
natural faculty is the firft of thefe, which he placed in
the liver, and imagined to prefide over the nutrition,
growth, and generation, of the animal. The vital fa¬
culty he lodged in the heart, and fuppofed that by
means of the arteries it communicated warmth and life
to all the body. The animal faculty, the nobleft of
all the three, and with which the reafening or go¬
verning faculty was joined, according to him, has its
feat in tire brain 5 and, by means of the nerves, dif-
tributes a powrer of motion and fenfation to all the
parts, and prefides over all the other faculties. The
original fource or principle of motion in all thefe fa¬
culties, Galen, as well as Hippocrates, defines to be
Nature.
Upon thefe principles Galen defined a difeafe to be
“ buch a preternatural difpofition or affeCtion of the
parts of the body, as primarily, and of itfelf, hinders
their natural and proper aCtion,” He eftablifhed three
principal kinds of difeafes : the firft relates to the fi¬
milar parts; the fecond, to the organical ; and the
third is common to both thefe parts. The firft kind
of difeafes confifts in the intemperature of the fimilar
parts ; and this is divided into an intemperature with¬
out matter, and an internperatiire with matter. The
firft difeovers itfelf when a part has more or lefs heat
or cold than it ought to have without that change of
quality in the part being fupported and maintained by
any matter, i has, for inftance, a per fen’s head may
be overheated and indifpofed by being expofed to the
heat of the fun, without that heat being maintained by
the continuance or congertion of any hot humour in
the part. Hie fecond fort of intemperature is when
any part is not only rendered hot or cold, but alfo fill¬
ed with a hot or cold humour, which are the caufes
of the heat or cold felt in the part. Galen alfo ac¬
knowledged a Ample intemperature: that is, when one
of the original qualities, fuch as heat or cold, exceeds
the natural ftandard alone and feparatelyj and a com¬
pound in temperature, when two qualities are joined to¬
gether, fuch as heat and drynefs, or coldnefs and hu¬
midity. He alio eftablifhed an equal and unequal tem¬
perature. The former is that which is equally in all
the body, or in any particular part of it, and which
creates no pain, becaufe it is become habitual, fueh as
drynefs in the hectic conftitution. The latter is diltin-
guifhed from the former, in that it does not equally
fubfift in the whole of the body, or in the whole of 'a
part. Of this kind of intemperature we have ex¬
amples in certain fevers, where heat and cold, equally,
and a 1 mo ft at the fame lime, attack the fame part ; or
in other fevers which render the furfaee of the body
cold as ice, while the internal parts burn with heat j
or, laflly, in cafes where the ftomaeh is cold and the
liver hot.
I he fecond kind of diforders, relating to the oro-a-,
nical parts, refults from irregularities of thefe parts,
with re;peel to the number, bulk, figure,-fituation, &c!
as when one has fix fingers, or only four; when one has
any part larger or fmaller than it ought to be, &c.
f lie third kind, which is common both to the iin ilay
aiui toe organical parts, is a folution of continuity,
which happens when any fimilar or compound part is
cut, bruifed, or corroded.
C C 2-
MEDICINE.
Like Hippocrates, Galen diftinguifhed difeafes into
acute and chronic al j and, with refpeft to their nature
and genius, into benign and malignant; alfo into epi¬
demic, endemic, and fporadic.
After having diftinguilhed the kinds of difeafes, Ga¬
len comes to explain their caufes 5 which he divides into
external and internal. The external caufes of difeafes,
according to him, are fix things, which contribute to
the prefervation of health when they are well difpofed
and properly ufed, but produce a contrary eflfetd when
they are imprudently ufed or ill difpofed. Thefe fix
things are, the air, aliments and drink, motion and
reft, fleeping and watching, retention and excretion,
and laftly the paffions. All thefe are called the pro-
calar€iic or beginning caufes, becaufe they put in mo¬
tion the internal caufes; which are of two kinds, the
antecedent and the conjunB. The former is difcover-
ed only by reafoning j and confifts for the moft part
in a peccancy of the humours, either by plenitude
or cacochymy, i. e. a bad ftate of them. When the
humours are in too large a quantity, it is called a
plethora ; but we muft obferve, that this word equally
denotes too large a quantity of all the humours to¬
gether, or a redundance of one particular humour
which prevails over the reft. According to thefe prin¬
ciples, there may be a fanguine, a bilious, a pituitous,
or a melancholy plenitude : but there is this difference
between the fanguine and the three other plenitudes,
that the blood, which is the matter of the former, may
far fuvpafs the reft : whereas, if any of the three laft-
mentioned ones do fo, the cafe is no longer called pleni¬
tude, but cacochymia ; becaufe thefe humours, abound¬
ing more than they ought, corrupt the blood. The
caufes he alfo divides into fuch as are manifeft and evi¬
dent, and fuch as are latent and obfcure. The firft are
fuch as fpontaneoufly come under the cognizance of
our fenfes when they aft or produce their effefts : the
fecond are not of themfelves perceptible, but may be
difcovered by reafoning : the third fort, i. e. fuch as
he calls occult or concealed, cannot be difcovered at all.
Among this laft he places the caufe of the hydro¬
phobia.
He next proceeds to confider the fymptoms of dif¬
eafes. A fymptom he defines to be “ a preternatural
affeftion depending upon a difeafe, or which follows it
as a ftiadow does a body.” He acknowledged three
kinds of fymptoms: the firft and moft confiderable of
thefe confifted in the action of the parts being injured
or hindered ; the fecond in a change of the quality of
the parts, their aftions in the mean time remaining
entire : the third related to defefts in point of excre¬
tion and retention.
After having treated of fymptoms, Galen treats of
the Jigns of difeafes. Thefe are divided into dia-
gnoftic and prognojlic. The firft are fo called becaufe
they enable us to know difeafes, and diftinguifh them
from each other. They are of two forts, pathognomonic
or adjunB. The firft are peculiar to every difeafe,
make known its precife fpecies, and always accom¬
pany it, fo that they begin and end with it. The
fecond are common to feveral difeafes, and only ferve
to point out the difference between difeafes of the
lame fpecies. In a pleurify, for in fiance, the natho-
gnomonic figns are a cough, a difficulty of breathing, a
pain of the fide, and a continued fever 5 the adjunct
3
Hiftory,
figns are the various forts of matter expe&orated, Oribafim,
which is fometimes bloody, fometimes bilious, &c. 
The diagnoftic figns -were drawn from the defe&ive' * “J
or difordered difpofition of the parts, or from the
difeafes themfelves ; fecondly, from the caufes of dif¬
eafes thirdly, from their fymptoms ; and laftly, from,
the particular difpofitions of each body, from things
which prove prejudicial and thofe that do fervice,
and from epidemical difeafes.—The prognoftic figns
he gathered from the fpecies, virulence, and peculiar
genius of the difeafe : but as we have already fpoken fo
largely concerning the prognoftics of Hippocrates, it
is fuperfluous to be particular on thofe of Galen. 
His method of cure differed little from that of Hip¬
pocrates : but from the fpecimen already given of
Galen’s method of teaching the medical art, it is evi¬
dent that his fyftem was little elfe than a collection of
fpeculations, diftindtions, and reafonings 5 whereas that
©f Hippocrates was founded immediately upon facts,
which he had either obferved himfelf, or had learned
from the obfervation of others.
1 he fyftem of Galen, however, notwithftanding its.
defcCts and abfurdities, remained almoft uncontradiCted
for a very long period. Indeed it may be confider-
ed as having been the prevailing fyltem till the inun¬
dation of the Goths and Vandals put an almoft entire
flop to the cultivation of letters in Europe. But du¬
ring the general prevalence of the fyftem of Galen,,
there appeared fome writers to whom medicine was in¬
debted for improvements, at leaft in certain particulars.
Among the moft diftinguiffied of thefe we may men¬
tion Oribafius, iEtius, Alexander, and Paulus.
Oribafius flourilhed about the year 360, and was Oribtfue.
phyfician to the emperor Julian. He fpeaks very
fully of the effeCts of bleeding by way of fcarification,
a thing little taken notice of by former ivriters ; from
his own experience he affures us that he had found it
fuccefsful in a fuppreffion of the menfes, defluxions
of the eyes, headach, and ftraitnefs of breathing even
when the perfon was extremely old. He tells his own
cafe particularly, when the plague raged in Afia and
he himfelf was taken ill. On the fecond day he fcari-
fied his leg, and took away two pounds of blood ; by
which means he entirely recovered, as did feveral
others who ufed it. In this author alfo we find the
firft; defeription of a furprifing and terrible difiemper,
which he termed Xvx.xi6^iu7rei, a fpecies of melancholy
and madnefs, which he deferibes thus. “ The per-
fons affeCted get out of their houfes in the night-time,
and in every thing imitate wolves, and wander among
the fepulchres of the dead till day-break. You may
know them by thefe fymptoms: Their looks are pale ;
their eyes heavy, hollow, dry, without the leaft moif-
ture of a tear ; their tongue exceedingly parched and
dry, no fpittle in their mouth, extreme thirft ; their
legs, from the falls and the bruifes they receive, full
of incurable fores and ulcers.”
iEtius lived very near the end of the fifth, or in thejEtiu^
beginning of the fixth century. Many paffages in
his writings ferve to Ihow us how much the aChial and
potential cautery were ufed by the phyficians of that
age. In a palfy, he fays, that he ffiould not at all
hefitate to make an efehar either way, and this in fe¬
veral places ; one in the nape, where the fpinal mar¬
row takes its rife, two on each fide of it j three ©r
four
Hiftory. MED
,A!eMndf,r; f'olir m tlie t0P o£ tIie iiead, one juft In the middle,
' and three others round it. He adds, that in this cafe’
if the ulcers continue running a confiderable time, he
fliould not doubt of a perfeft recovery. He is ’ftill
more particular when he comes to order this applica¬
tion for an inveterate afthma, after all other remedies
have been tried in vain. One, he fays, fhould be made
on each fide near the middle of the joining of the cla¬
vicle, taking care not to touch the wind-pipe : two
other little ones are then to be made near the carotids
under the chin, one on each fide, fo that the cauftic
may penetrate no further than the fkin ; two others
under the breafts, between the third and fourth ribs j
and again, twm more backwards towards the fifth and
fixth ribs. Befides thefe there ought to be one in the
middle of the thorax, near the beginning of the xiphoid
cartilage, over the orifice of the ftomach j one on each
fide between the eighth and ninth ribs 5 and three others
in the back, one in the middle, and the two others juft
below it, on each fide of the vertebree. Thofe below
the neck ought to be pretty large, not very fuperficial,
not very deep : and all thefe ulcers ihould be kept open
for a very long time.
./Etius takes notice of the worms bred in different
parts of the body, called dracunculi, which were un¬
known to Galen. He feems alio to be the firft Greek
writer among the Chriftians, who gives .us any fpeci-
men of medicinal Ipells and charms 5 fuch as that of
a finger of St Blafius for removing a bone v'hich flicks
in the throat, and another in relation to a fiftula.
He gives a remedy for the gout, which he calls the
grand drier ; the patient is to ufe it for a whole year,
and obferve the following diet each month. “ In
September, he muft eat and drink milk : In O&ober
he. muft eat garlic ; in November, abftain from ba¬
thing ; in December, he muft eat no cabbage ; in Ja¬
nuary, he is to take a glafs of pure wine in the morn¬
ing; in February, to eat no beet ; in March, to mix
fweet things both in eatables and drinkables ; in April,
not to eat horfe-radilh, nor in May the fifh called poly¬
pus ; in June, he is to drink cold water in a morning ;
in July, to avoid venery ; and laftly, in Auguft, to eat
no mallows.” This may fwfticiently fliow the quackery
of thofe times, and how fuperftition was beginning- to
mix itfelf with the art.
Alexander. _ Alexander, who flourifhed in the reign of Juftinian
is a more original author than either of the two for¬
mer. He confines himfelf dire&ly to the deferibino-
the figns of difeafes, and the methods of cure, with-
out meddling with anatomy, the materia medica, or
furgery, as all the reft did. He employs a whole
book in treating of the gout. One method he takes
of relieving this difeafe is by purging ; and in moft of
the purges he recommends hermoda&yls, of which he
has a great opinion. In a caufus, or burning fever,
where the bile is predominant, the matter fit for eva¬
cuation,^ and the fever not violent, he prefers purging
to bleeding, and fays that he has often ordered purging
in acute fevers with furprifing fuccefs. In the caufus
alfo, it a fyncope happens from crude and redundant
humours, he recommends bleeding. In a fyncope fuc-
ceeding the fuppreffxon of any ufual evacuation, he re¬
commends bleeding, with frhftions. The diagnoftics
upon which he founds this praftice are the following :
viz. a face paler and more fwelled than ufual, a bloated
x 205
habit of body, with a fmall fiuggifh pulfe, having long Arabian
intervals between the ftrokes. In tertian, and much t>h\ticians.
more in quartan fevers, he recommends vomits above »
all other remedies, and affirms that by this remedy
alone he has cured the moft inveterate quartans. On
the bulimus, or canine appetite, he makes a new ob-
fervation, viz. that it is fometimes caufed by worms.
He mentions the cafe of a woman who laboured under
this ravenous appetite, and had a perpetual gnawing at
her Itomach and pain in her head : after taking hierat
ffie voided a worm above a dozen of cubits long, and
was entirely cured of her complaints.—He is abb the
firft author who takes notice of rhubarb ; whicli he re¬
commends in a weaknefs of the liver and in dylentery.
-—Alexander is recommended by Dr Freind as one of
the beft practical writers among the ancients, and well
worthy the perufal of any modern.
Paulus w-as born in the ifland yffigina, and lived in Paulas,
the 7th century. He tranferibes a great deal from
Alexander and other phyiicians. His deferiptions are
ffiort and accurate. He treats particularly of women’s
diiorders 5 and feems to be the firft inftance upon record
of a profeffed man-midwife, for fo he was called by the
Arabians . and accordingly he begins his book with
tne ditorders incident to pregnant women. He treats
alfo very fully of furgery 5 and gives fome direaions,
according to Dr Freind, not to be found in the more
ancient xvriters.
After the downfal of the Roman empire, and when Arabian
the inundation of Goths and Vandals had almoft phyficiaus,
completely exterminated literature of every kind in
Europe, medicine, though a practical art, {hared the
fame fate with more abftraxft fciences. Learning in
general, baniffied from the feat of arms, took refuge
among the eaftern nations, where the arts of peace
ftill continued to be cultivated. To the Arabian phy-
ficians, as they have been called, we are indebted both
for the prefervation of medical fcience, as it fubfifted
among the Greeks and Romans, and likewife for the
deicription of fome new difeafes, particularly the fmall-
pox. Among the moft eminent of the Arabians, we
may mention Rhafes, Avicenna, Albucafis, and Aven- RhafcJ
zoar. But of their writings it would be tedious, and
is unneceffary, to give any particular account.—They
weie for the moft part, indeed, only copiers of the
Greeks. We are, however, indebted to them for fome
improvements. They were the firft who introduced
chemical remedies, though of thefe they ufed but few,
nor did they make any confiderable progrefs in the
chemical art. Anatomy was not in the leaft improved
by them, nor did furgery receive any advancement till
the time of Albucafis, who lived probably in the 12th
century. They added a great deal to botany and the
materia medica, by the introduction of new drugs, of
the aromatic kind especially, from the eaft, many of
which are of confiderable ufe. They alfo found out
the way of making fugar j and by help of that, fyrups ;
which two new materials are of great ufe in mixing up
compound medicines. 6 r
With regard to their practice, in fome few particu¬
lars they deviated from the Greeks. Their purging
medicines were much milder than thofe formerly in
ufe ; and even when they did preferibe the old ones,
they gave them in a much lefs dofe than the Greek and
Roman phyficians. The fame reflection may be made
concerning
206
M E D I
Arabian concerning , their manner of bleeding, which was never
Phyficians. tjiat exce{|iVe degree praftifed by the Greeks. I hey
deviated from Hippocrates, however, in one very trivial
circumftance, which produced a violent controverly.
The queftion was, Whether blood in a pleurily ought
to be drawn from the arm of the affected tide or the
opposite ? Hippocrates had directed it to be drawn
’ from the arm of the affe£te.d fide j but the Arabians,
following feme other ancient phyficians, ordered it to
be drawn from the oppofite one. Sucn was the igno¬
rance of thofe ages, that the univerfity of Salamanca
in Spain made a decree, than no one fhould flare to let
blood but in the contrary arm ; and endeavoured to
procure an edift from the emperor Charles V. to fecond
it ; alleging that the other method was of no lefs per¬
nicious confequence to medicine, than Luther s herefy
x had been to religion.
In confequence of the general decay of learning in
the weftern parts of the world, the Greek writers were
entirely negledled, becaufe nobody could read the lan¬
guage ^ and the Arabians, though principally copiers
from them, enjoyed all the reputation that was due to
the others. The Arabian phyfic was introduced into
Europe very early, with the molt extravagant ap-
plaufe : and not only this, but other branches of their
learning, came into repute in the weft j infomuch that
in the i ith century, the ftudies of natural philofophy
and the liberal arts were called the Jludies of the Sara¬
cens. This was owing partly to the crufades under¬
taken again ft them by the European princes} and
partly to the fettlement of the Moors in Spain, and
the intercourfe they and other Arabians had with the
Italians. For, long before the time of the crufades,
probably in the middle of the 7th century, there were
Hebrew, Arabic, and Latin profeffors. of phyfic fettled
at Salernum : which place foon grew into fuch credit,
that Charles the Great thought proper to found a
college there in the year 802; the only one at that
time'in Europe. Conftantine the African flourifhed
there towards the latter end of the 1 ith century. He
was a native of Carthage ; but travelled into the eaft,
and {’pent 30 years in Babylon and Bagdad, by which
means he became mafter of the oriental languages and
learning. He returned to Carthage *, but being in¬
formed of an attempt againft his life, made his efcape
into Apulia, where he was recommended to Robert.
Guifcard, created in i'-6c duke of that country, who
made him his fecretarv. He was reputed to be very
well verff d in the Greek, as well as in the eaftern
tongues ; and feems to have been the firft who intro¬
duced either the Greek or Arabian phyfic into Italy.
His works, however, contain nothing that is new, or
material •, though he was then accounted a very learned
man.
From this time to the end of the 15th and begin-
jmedicine innfag of the 16th century, the hiffory of phyfic fur-
the 1 ,rh njqies us no interefting particulars. This period,
however, is famous for the introduOhm of chemiftry
into medicine, and the defeription of three new dif-
tempers, the fweating fickneis, the venereal difeafe,
and the feurvy. The fweating ficknefs began in 1485
in the army of Henry VII. upon his landing at Mil-
ford-haven, and fpread itfelf at London from the 21ft
of September to the end of Oclobcr. It returned there
five times, and always in fumtner j firff in 1495, then
4*
College of
Salernum.
49
Con ft an
tine;
So
State of
und (6th
Centuries.
5*
sweating
fickneis in
England.
CINE. Hiftory.
in 1506, afterwards in 1517, when It was lb violent McKtcms.
that it killed many in the {’pace of three hours, fo that '"“■’"V**"’1
numbers of the nobility died, and of the commonalty
in feveral towns often the one-half perillied. It ap¬
peared the fourth time in 1528, and then proved mor¬
tal in fix hours; many of the courtiers died of it, and
Henry VIII. himfelf wras in danger. In 1329, and
only then, it infeited the Netherlands and Germany,
in which lail country it did much mifehief. The lall
return, of it was in 1551, and in Weftmifilter it carried
oft’ 120 in a day. Dr Caius deferibes it as a peiiilent
contagious fever, of the duration of one natural day j
the fvveat he reckoned to be only a natural fymptom,
or crifis of the diftemper. It fir It afiefted fome par¬
ticular part, attended with inward heat and burning,
* unquenchable thirft, reitleffnefs, ficknefs at ftomach,
but feldom vomiting, headach, delirium, then faint-
nefs, and e.xcefllve drowfinefs. The pulfe wras quick
and vehement, and the breath Abort and laborious.—-
Children, poor and old people, were rarelv fubjeft to it.
Of others, fcarce any efcaped the attack, and molt of
them died. Even by travelling into France or Flan¬
ders they did not efcape ; and what is Hill more ftrange,
the Scots were faid not to be affeded ; abroad the
Englifin only were feized, and foreigners in England
were free. At firft the phyficians were much puzzled
how to treat this difeafe. The only cure they ever
found, however, was to carry on the fweat for a long
time ; for, if {topped, it was dangerous or fatal. '1 he
way, therefore, was for the patient to lie ftill, and not
expofe himfelf to cold. If nature was not ftrong
enough to force out the Iweat, it was neceffary to af-
fift her by art, with clothes, wine, &c. The .violence
of the diftemper was over in 15 hours ; but there was
no fecurity for the patient till 24 were paffed. In
fome ftrong conftitutions there was a negeibty to re¬
peat the fweating, even to 1 2 times. The removing
out of bed was attended with great danger; fome
who had not fweated enough fell into very bad fevers.-—
No flelh-meat was to be allowed in all the time of the
diftemper ; nor drink for the firft five hours. In the
feventh, the diftemper increafed ; in the ninth the de¬
lirium came on, and fteep was by all means,to be avoid¬
ed. However terrible this diftemper appeared at firft.
it feldom proved obftinate, if treated in the above-men¬
tioned manner. .4
In the beginning of the 16th century, the famous Paracelfy^
chemift Paracelfus introduced a new fyftem into me¬
dicine, founded on the principles of chemiftry. The
Galenical fyftem had prevailed till his time ; but the
practice had greatly degenerated, and was become quite
trifling and frivolous. The phyficians in general reject¬
ed the ufe of opium, mercury, and other efficacious re¬
medies. Paracelfus, who made ufe o{ tliefe, had
therefore greatly the advantage over them ; and now
all tilings relating to medicine were explained on ima¬
ginary chemical principles. It will ealily.be conceived
that a practice, founded in this manner could be no
other than the molt dangerous quackery. At this
time, however, it was neceffary ; for now a new dif¬
eafe overran the world, and threatened greater de-
ftruction than almoft all the old ones put together,
both by the violence of its fymptoms, and its baffling’
the molt powerful remedies at that time known.—This
was the venereal difeafe, which is fuppofed to have been
v imported
Hiftoiy. M EDI
Moderns, imported from the Welt Indies by. the companions of
' Chnftopher Columbus. Its firft remarkable ap])ear-
Appoarance ^iice 'v^s at *-he liege of Naples in 1494“* from whence
of the ve¬
nereal dii-
eafe.
. - ^ L VVIJCIiOC
it was loon after propagated through Europe, Alia,
and Africa. The fymptoms with which it made the’
attack^ at that time were exceedingly violent, much
more fo than they are at prefent } and confequently
v/ere utterly unconquerable by the Galenifts. The
quacks and chemifts, who boldly ventured on mer-
cury, though they no doubt deltroyed numbers by
their excellive ufe of it, yet Ihowed that a remedy for
this terrible diftemper was at laft found out, and that
a proper method of treating it might foon be fallen
upon. Shortly after, the Weft Indian fpecific, guaia-
cum, was difeovered : the materia medica was enriched
Avith that and many other valuable medicines, both
from the Tail and Weft Indies: which contributed
conliderably to the improvement of the practice of
phyfic. At this period, as fea voyages of confiderable
duiation were more frequent, the icurvy became a
more common diftemper, and was of courfc more ac¬
curately deferibed. But probably, from fuppofed ana¬
logy to the contagions which at that time were new in
Europe, very erroneous ideas were entertained with re¬
gard to its being of an infe&ious nature : And it is not
impoftible, that from its being attended alfo with ulcers,
it was on fome occafions confounded with fyphilitic
complaints.
r. . -t'he revival of learning, which now took place
tk‘T7Th m l^hroughout Europe, the appearance of thefe new dif-
. . . tempers, and the natural fondnefs of mankind for
novelty, contributed greatly to promote the advance¬
ment of medicine as well as other fciences. While
at the fame time, the introduftion of the art of print¬
ing rendered the communication of new opinions as
well as new practices fo eafy a matter, that to enume¬
rate even the names of thofe who have been juftly ren-
dcred eminent for medical knowledge would be a very
tedious talk. It was not, however, till 1628 that Dr
William Harvey of n,or.don demonftrated and commu¬
nicated to the public one of the molt important dif-
coveries refpecting the animal economy, the circula¬
tion of the blood. This difeovery, more effectually
than any reafoning, overturned all the fyftems which
had fubfifted prior to that time. It may juftly be rec¬
koned the molt important difeovery that has hitherto
been made, in the healing art: for there can be no
doubt that it puts the explanation of the phenomena
of the animal body, both in a ftate of health and dif-
eafe, on a more folid and rational footing than for¬
merly. It has not, however, prevented the rife of
numerous fanciful and abfurd fyftems. Thefe, though
faOiionable for a fhort time, and ftfenuoufly fupported
by blind adherents, have yet in no long period fallen
mto deferved. contempt. And notwithftanding the
abilities and induftry of Stahl, Hoffman, Boerhaave,
54
Pro^refs of
icinc
17th
and i8th
centuries
fco very
[of the cir-
i^ulation.
C I .N E.
and Cullen, we may confidently venture to affert that
no general fyftem has yet been propofed which is riot
liable to innumerable and unfurmotmtable objections.
\ ery great progrels has indeed been made in explain¬
ing, the philofophy of the human body, from afeer-
taining by decilive experiment the influence of the cir¬
culating, the nervous, and the lymphatic fyftems in
the animal economy. But every attempt hitherto
made to eftabliih any general theory in medicine, that
is, to conduct the cure of every diieafe on a few gerie-
ral principles, has equally deviated from truth with
thofe of Hippocrates and Galen 3 and has equally
tended to miflead thofe who have adopted it. Many
fyftems of our own days, fuch for example as that of
Brown, though adopted with entbuftafm by' the young
and inexperienced, have evidently been attended with
the molt pernicious confequences in practice. Indeed
we may with confidence venture to affert, that from
the very nature of the fubject itfeli, medicine does not
admit of fuch fimphcity. No one can deny that the
human body confiits of a Very great number of differ¬
ent parts, both fblids and fluids*. It is, however,
equally certain, that each of thefe is from many differ¬
ent caiifes liable to deviations from the found ftate.
And although fome flight changes may take place
without what can be called a morbid affedtion, yet
we well know, that every change taking place to a
certain degree in any one part will neceflarily and
unavoidably produce an affection of the whole. Hence
we may without hefitation venture to affirm, that every
general theory which can be propofed, attempting
to explain the phenomena, and conduct the cure of
all oifeafes on a few general principles, though for
fome time it may have ftrenuous advocates, will yet
in the end be found to be both ill-grounded and per¬
nicious.
I he art of medicine has been much more ufefully
improved.by careful attention to the hiftory, theory,
and practice of particular difeafes, and by endeavour¬
ing to aicertain from cautious obfervation the fymp¬
toms by which they are to be diftinguifhed, the caufes
by which they are induced, and the means by which
they are. to be prevented, alleviated, or cured. On
this footing, therefore, we ffiall endeavour to give a
brief account or at leaft the moft important affedlions to
which the human body is fubjeefed, delivering what ap¬
pear to us to be the belt eftablilhed fadts and obferva-
tions refpefting each.
But.before entering on the confideration of parti¬
cular dileafes, or what has commonly been ftyled the
pradnee of medicine, it is neeeffary to give a gene¬
ral view of the moft important funftions of the animal
body, and of the chief morbid affedtions to which they
aie lubjedted 3 a branch which has ufually been named .1
the 1 hvonj or Injhtutions of Medicine,
Theory of Medicine, or an Account of the principal FunUions of the
Animal Body.
. WHILE the fundlions of living animals, but par¬
ticularly of the human fpecies, are very numerous, the
accounts given of thefe both in a ftate of health and dif-
eafe are very various. Without, therefore, pretending
to enumerate the contradi&ory opinions of different au¬
thors, we lhall here prefent the reader with a view of this
fubject,
207
Moderns.
208
Fundlions
of the Body
56
Divifion of
the func¬
tions into a-
nimal, vital,
and natu¬
ral.
. .57 .
Diflinchcn
of difeafes
into Ample
and com¬
pound.
5*
Symptoms.
59
Predifpo-
»ent caufe,
M E D I
fubjeft, chiefly extra£led from the Confpcclus Medicines
Theoreticce of Dr James Gregory, who has collefted
from other writers the opinions at prefent molt gene¬
rally adopted.
In this work, which was firft publiflied in 178^
and afterwards reprinted under an enlarged form in
1782, Dr Gregory introduces his fubjed: by obfer-
'ving, that feme functions of the human body relate
to itfelf only, and others to external things. To the
latter clafs belong thofe which by phyficians are call¬
ed the animal funffions; to which are to be referred all
our fenfes, as well as the power of voluntary motion,
by which we become acquainted with the univerfe,
and enjoy this earth. Among the funfiions which
relate to the body, fome have been named vital, fuch
as the circulation of the blood and refpiration •, be-
caufe, without the conllant continuance of thefe life
cannot fublift ; others, intended for repairing the wafte
of the fyltem, have been termed the natural func¬
tions : for by the conftant attrition of the folids and the
evaooration of the fluid parts of the body, we ftand in
need of liourilhment to fupply the wafte *, after which
the putrid a d excrementitious parts muft be thrown
out by the proper paffages. The digeftion of the food,
fecretion of the humours, and excretion of the putrid
parts of the food, are referred to this clafs} which,
though neceflary to life, may yet be interrupted for
a conftderable time without danger. This divifion of
the funftions into animal, vital, and natural, is of very
ancient date, and is perhaps one of the beft that has yet
been propoled.
A difeafe takes place, when the body has fo far de¬
clined from a found ftate, that its functions are either
quite impeded, or performed with difficulty. A dif¬
eafe therefore may happen to any part of the body either
folid or fluid, or to any one of the functions: and
thofe may occur either fingly, or feveral of them may
be difeafed at the fame time 5 whence the diftindtion of
difeafes into fimple and compound.
We have examples of the moft fimple kinds of
difeafes, in the rupture or other injury of any of the
corporeal organs, by which means they become lei’s
fit for performing their offices *, or, though the organs
themfelves ffiould remain found, if the folids or fluids
have degenerated from a healthy ftate ; or if, having
loft their proper qualities, they have acquired others
of a different, perhaps of a noxious nature \ or laftly,
if the moving pow'ers {hall become too weak or too
ftrong, or diredl their force in a way contrary to what
nature requires.
The moft fimple difeafes are either produdlive of
others, or oi fymptoms, by which alone they become
known to us. Every thing in which a lick perfon
is obferved to differ from one in health is called a
fi/mptom; and the moft remarkable of thefe fymptoms,
which moft conftantly appear, define and conftitute the
difeafe.
The caufes of difeafes are various 5 often obfeure,
and fometimes totally unknown. The moft full and
perfedt proximate caufe is that which, when pre¬
fent, produces a difeafe, when taken away removes
it, and wffien changed, changes it.—There are alfo
remote caufes, which phyficians have been accuftomed
to divide into the predifponent and exciting ones. The
CINE. Theory.
former are thofe which only render the body fit for a Cauffc5 ^
difeafe, or which put it into fuch a ftate that it will, DlleitlA
readily receive one. The exciting caufe is that which ^
immediately produces the difeafe in a body already dif-
pofed to receive it. <j0
The predifponent caufe is always inherent in the Exciting
body itfelf, though perhaps it originally came fromcaufe.
without *, thus heat or cold, a very fparing or a very
luxurious diet, and many other particulars, may operate
as caufes of predifpofition, inducing plethora, inanition,
or the like. But the exciting caufe may either come
from within or without.
From the combined adlion of the predifponent and
exciting caufes comes the proximate caufe, which nei¬
ther of the two taken fingly is often able to produce.— 6l
A body predifpofed to difeafe therefore has already Proximate
declined fomewhat from a ftate of perfeft health, al-caufe.
though none of its fundi ions are impeded in fuch a man¬
ner that we can truly fay the perfon is difeafed. Yet.
fometimes the predifponent caufe, by continuing long,
may arrive at luch a height, that it alone, without the
addition of any exciting caufe, may ptoduce a real dif¬
eafe.—The exciting caufe alfo, though it Ihould not
be able immediately to bring on a difeafe j yet if it
continues long, will by degrees deftroy the ftrongeft
conftitution, and render it liable to various difeafes j
becaufe it either produces a predifponent caufe, or is
converted into it, fo that the fame thing may fometimes
be an exciting caufe, fometimes a predifponent one, or
rather a caufe of predifpofition ; of which the incle¬
mencies of the weather, floth, luxury, Stc. are ex¬
amples. ... 61
Difeafes, however, feem to have their origin from Hereditary
the very conftitution of the animal machine $ and difeafes.
hence many difeafes are common to every body when
a proper exciting caufe occurs, though fome people
are much more liable to certain dileaies than others.
Some arc hereditary 5 for as healthy parents natural¬
ly produce healthy children, fo difeafed parents as
naturally produce a dileafed offspring. Some of thefe
difeafes appear in the earlieft infancy •, others occur
equally at all ages; nor are there wanting fome
which lurk unfulpecfed even to the lateft old age, at
laft breaking out with the utmoft violence. Some dif¬
eafes are born wdth us, even though they have no pro¬
per foundation in our conftitution, as when a foetus re-
cen es fome hurt by an injury done to the mother j while
others, neither born with us nor having any foundation
in the conftitution, are fucked in with the nurfe’s
milk. Many difeafes accompany the different ftages of Difeafes
life } and hence fome are proper to infancy, youth, and
old age. Some alfo are proper to each of the fexes:ati
efpecially the female fex, proceeding, no doubt, from
the general conftitution of the body, but particularly
from the ftate of the parts fubfervient to generation.
Hence the difeafes peculiar to virgins, to menftruating
women, to women with child, to lying-in women, to Cj
nurfes, and to old women. The climate itfelf, under Difeafes
which people live, produces femes difeafes', and every
climate has a tendency to produce particular difeafes,
either from its excefs of heat or cold, or from the mu¬
tability of tlie Aveather. An immenfe number of difeafes
alfo may be produced by impure air, or fuch as is load¬
ed Avith putrid, marfhy, and other noxious vapours. The
fame
Theory-
MEDICINE.
Caufes of
Uifeafcs.
6S
Difeafes
from acci¬
dent*.
66
Difeafes
from paf-
fions of the
mind.
fame thing may happen likewife from corrupted alknent,
whether meat or drink •, though even the beft and moft
nutritious aliment will hurt if taken in too great quan¬
tity } not to mention poifons, which are endowed with
fuch pernicious qualities, that even when taken in a
very fmall quantity they produce the moft grievous
difeafes or perhaps even death itfelf. Laftly, from
innumerable accidents and dangers to which mankind
are expofed, they frequently come off with broken
limbs, wounds, and contulions, fometimes quite incu¬
rable ; and thefe misfortunes, though proceeding from
an external caufe at firft, often terminate in internal
difeafes.
Hitherto we have mentioned only the dangers which
come from without j but thofe are not lefs, nor fewer
in number, which come from within. At every breath,
roan pours forth a deadly poifon both to himfelf and
others. Neither are the effluvia of the lungs alone
hurtful: there flows out from every pore of the body a
moft fubtile and poifonous matter, perhaps of a putref-
cent nature, which being long accumulated, and not
allowed to diffufe itfelf through the air, infedls the
body with moft grievous difeafes ^ nor does it flop
here, but produces a contagion which fpreads devafta-
tion far and wide among mankind. From too much
or too little exercife of our animal powers alfo no
fmall danger enfues. By inadlivity either of body or
mind, the vigour of both is impaired ; nor is the dan¬
ger much lefs from too great employment. By mode¬
rate ufe, all the faculties of the mind, as well as all the
parts of the body, are improved and ftrengthened ;
and here nature has appointed certain limits, fo that
exercife can neither be too much negledfed, nor too
much increafed, with impunity. Hence thofe who ufe
violent exercife, as well as thofe who fpend their time
in floth and idlenefs, are equally liable to difeafes *, but
each to difeafes of a different kind: and hence alfo the
bad effedts of too great or too little employment of the
mental powers.
Befides the dangers arifing from thofe adtions of the
body and mind which are in our own power, there are
others arifing from thofe which are quite involuntary.
Thus, paffions of the mind, either when carried to too
great excefs, or when long continued, equally deftroy
the health *, nay, will even fometimes bring on hidden
death. Sleep alfo, which is of the greateft fervice in
reftoring the exhaufted ftrength of the body, proves
noxious either from its too great or too little quantity.
In the moft healthy body, alfo, many things always
require to be evacuated. The retention of thefe is
hurtful, as well as too profufe an evacuation, or the ex¬
cretion of thofe things either fpontaneoufly or artifi¬
cially which nature diredts to be retained. As the
folid parts fometimes become flabby, foft, almoft dif-
folved, and unfit for their proper offices *, fo the fluids
are fometimes infpiffated, and formed even into the
hardeft folid maffes. Hence impeded adlions of the
organs, vehement pain, various and grievous difeafes.
Laftly, fome animals are to be reckoned among the
caufes of difeafes : fuch particularly, as fupport their
life at the expence of others •, and thefe either invade
us from without, or take up their refidence within
the body, gnawing the bowels while the perfon
is yet alive, not only with great danger and diftrefs
Vol. XIII. Part I.
2cg
Animal
Solids.
to the patient, but fometimes even producing death
itfelf. i
Man, however, is not left without defence againft ^
fo many and fo great dangers. The human body is pof- v;s medica-
feffed of a moft wonderful power, by which it preferves trix na-
itfelf from difeafes, keeps off many, and, in a very ffiorttur*-
time, cures fome already begun, while others are by
the fame means more flowly brought to a happy con-
clufion. This power, called the autocrateia, or vis me¬
dic atrix nature, is well known both to phyficians and
philofophers. This alone is often fufficient for curing
many difeafes, and is of fervice in all. Nay, even the
beft medicines operate only by exciting and properly
direcling this force j for no medicine will aft on a dead
carcafe. But though phyficians juftly put confidence in
this power, and though it generally cures difeafes of a
flighter nature, it is not to be thought that thofe of
the more grievous kind are to be left to the unaffifted
efforts of the vis medicatrix. Phyficians therefore
hare a twofold error to avoid, either defpifing the
powers of nature too much, or putting too great con¬
fidence in them j becaufe in many difeafes thefe ef¬
forts are either too feeble or too violent, infomuch
that fometimes they are more to be dreaded than even
the difeafe itfelf. So far therefore is it from being the
duty of a phyfician always to follow the footfteps of
nature, that it is often neceffary for him to take a di-
reftly contrary courfe, and oppofe her efforts with all his
might. . _ . 6S
After a general view of the funftions of the animal Chemical
body, of the nature and caufes of difeafe, and of the analyfis of
powers by which thefe are to be combated, Dr Gre-
gory proceeds to treat of the folid materials of which
the body is formed. He tells us, that the animal
folid, when chemically examined, yields earth, oil, fait,
water, phlogifton or inflammable air, and a great quan¬
tity of mephitic air. Thefe elements are found in va¬
rious proportions in the different parts of the body $
and hence thefe parts are endowed with very different
mechanical powers, from the hardeft and moft folid
bone to the foft and almoft fluid retina. Nay, it is
principally in this difference of proportion between the
quantities of the different elements, that the difference
between the folid and fluid parts of the animal con-
fift, the former having much more earth and lefs
water in their compofition than the latter. The co-
hefion, he thinks, is owing to fomething like a che¬
mical attraftion of the elements for one another ; and
its caufe is neither to be fought for in the gluten,
fixed air, nor earth. This attraftion, however, is not
fo ftrong but that even during life the body tends to
diffolution; and immediately after death putrefaftion
commences, provided only there be as much moifture
in it as will allow an inteftine motion to go on. The
greater the heat, the fooner does putrefaftion take
place, and with the greater rapidity does it proceed j
the mephitic air flies off, and together with it cer¬
tain faline particles j after which, the cohefion of
the body being totally deftroyed, the whole falls in¬
to a putrid colluvies, of which at length all the vo¬
latile parts being diffipated, nothing but the earth is
left behind.
This analyfis, he owns, is far from being perfeft,
and is by no means in the language of modern chemif-
D d try.
210
Animal
Solids.
MEDICINE.
*9
Qualities of
the animal
foiids.
70
tfaufes af-
fedling the
iolids.
try. But no modem cliemift Las ever been able, by
combining the chemical principles of flelh, to repro¬
duce a compound any thing like tv hat the delh ori¬
ginally was; yet, however imperfect the analyfis may
be, it ftill has the advantage of Ihowing in fome
meafure tlie nature and caufes of certain difeafes, and
thus leads phyficians to the knowledge of proper reme¬
dies.
The folid parts are fitted for the purpofes of life in
three feveral ways; namely, by their cohefion, their
llcxibilxty, and their elafticity, all of which are various
in the various parts of the body. Moll of the functions
of life confiit in various motions. In fome the moil
violent and powerful motions are required 5 and there¬
fore fuch a degree of cohefion is necefiary in thefe
parts as will be fufficient for allowing them to perform
their offices without any danger of laceration. It is
therefore neceffary that fome of the folid parts ffiould
be more flexible than others ; and it is likewife necef¬
fary that thefe parts* along with their flexibility, fliould
have a power of recovering their former ffiape and
fituation, after the removal of the force by which they
were altered.
Thefo variations in flexibility, within certain li¬
mits, feldom produce any material confequence with
regard to the health: though fometimes, by exceed¬
ing the proper bounds, they may bring On real and
very dangerous difeafes j and this either by an excefs or
diminution of their cohefion, flexibility, or elafticity.
By augmenting the cohefion, the elafticity is alfo for
the moft part augmented, but the flexibility diminiffied;
by diminiffiing the cohefion, the flexibility becomes
greater, but the elafticity is diminiffied.
The caufe of thefe affedtions, though various, may
be reduced to the following heads. Either the che¬
mical compofition of the matter itfelf is changed ; or,
the compofition remaining the fame, the particles of
the folid may be fo difpofed, that they ftiall more or lefs
ftrongly attradt one another. As to the compofition,
almoft all the elements may exift in the body in an un¬
due proportion, and thus each contribute its lhare to
the general diforder. But of many of thefe things we
know very little ; only it is apparent, that the fluid
parts, which confift chiefly of water, and the folid,
which are made up of various elements, are often in
very different proportions : the more water, the lefs is
the cohefion or elafticity, but the greater the flexibility j
and the reverfe happens, if the folid or earthy part pre¬
dominates.
The remote caufes of thefe different ftates, whether
predifponent or exciting, are very various. In the firft
place, idiofyncrafy itfelf, or the innate conftitution of
the body, contributes very much to produce the above-
mentioned effedls. Some have naturally a much harder
and drier temperament of the body than others y men,
for inftance, more than women 5 which can with the
utmoft difficulty, indeed fcarce by any means what¬
ever, admit of an alteration. The fame thing takes
place at different periods of life 5 for, from firft to laft,
the human body becomes always drier and more rigid;
Much alfo depends on the diet made ufe of, vffiich al¬
ways produces a correfponding ftate of the folids in
proportion to its being more or lefs watery. Neither
are there wanting ftrong reafons for believing, that
not only the habit of the body, but even the difpofi-
Theory.
tion of the mind, depends very much on the diet wc Animal
make ufe of. The good or bad concodtion of the ali- Solids,
ment alfo, the application of the nourifhment prepared J
from it, and likewife the ftate of the air with regard to
moifture or drynefs, affeft the temperament of the body
not a little ; and hence thofe who inhabit mountains
or dry countries, are very different from the inhabitants
of low marlhy places. Laftly, the manner of living
contributes fome what to this eftedf : Exercife preffes
out and exhales the moifture of the body, if in too great
quantity 5 on the contrary, floth and lazinefs produce
an effedl diredlly oppofite, and caufe a redundancy of
fluid.
But, putting the chemical compofition of the folid
parts out of the queftion altogether, they may be af-
fedted by many other caufes. The condenfation, for
inftance, or compreffion of the particles, whether by
mechanical caufes or by means of cold or heat, makes
a confiderable alteration in the ftrength and elafticity
of every folid body. How much mechanical preffure
contributes to this may be underftood from the expe¬
riments of Sir Clifton Wintringham : and hence alfo
are we to deduce the reafon of many fadts of the high-
eft importance in the animal economy ; namely, the
growth, ftate, decreafe of the body 5 its rigidity
daily increafing; and at laft the unavoidable death
incident to old age from a continuance of the fame
caufes.
Perhaps the different denfity of the folids is in fome
meafure owing to Nature herfelf •, but it feems to de¬
pend more on the powers of exercife or inadlivity in
changing the ftate of the folids, the effedls of which
on the body whether good or bad, may hence be eafily
underftood.
Heat relaxes and expands all bodies, but cold ren¬
ders them more denfe and hard; the effedls of which
on the human body are well known to moft people.
Though the body is found to preferve a certain de¬
gree of heat almoft; in every fituation, yet its furface
muft unavoidably be affedled by the temperature of the
circumambient atmofphere ; and wTe have not the leaft
reafon to doubt that every part of the body may thus
feel the effedls of that temperature. What a difference
is there between one 'who, expofed to the fouth wind,
becomes lazy and languid, fcarce able to drag along his
limbs j and one who feels the force of the cold north
wind, which renders the whole body alert, ftrong, and
fit for adlion ?
That thefe various caufes, each of which is capable of
affedting the conftitution of the body when taken fing-
ly, will produce much greater effedls when combined,,
is fufficiently evident. The experiments of Bryan Ro-
binfon,Hhe effedls of the warm bath, and indeed daily ex¬
perience, (how it fully.
It is not yet certainly known what is the ultimate
ftrudture of the minuteft parts of the animal-folid ; whe¬
ther it confifts of ftraight fibres or threads, whofe length
is very confiderable in proportion to their breadth, vari-
oufly interwoven with one another, as. Boerhaave fup-
pofes 5 or of fpiral ones, admirably convoluted and in-
terrvoven with one another, as fome microfcopical ex¬
periments feem to ftiow ; or whether the cellular tex¬
ture be formed of fibres or lamina, and from thence the
great eft part of the body, as the celebrated Haller hath
endeavoured to prove. ,
The
Theory. M EDI
Animal The cellular texture is obfervcd throughout the whole
Soluls. bociy . furrounds and connects the fibres themfelves,
^ which are fiifficiently apparent in many of the organs ;
Cellular and flightly joins the different parts which ought to
texture. have any kind of motion upon the neighbouring ones.
By a condenfation of this fubftance alfo, the ftrongeft,
and what feem the thinned:, membranes are formed ;
the mod fimple of which being accurately examined,
difcover the cellular ftrudture. This cellular fubdance
fometimes increafes to a furprifing degree, and all part*
formed of it, membranes, veffels, &c. efpecially by a
gentle didenfion ; for a fudden and violent didenfion
either breaks it altogether, or renders it thinner. Some¬
times alfo it grows between neighbouring parts, and
joins thofe which nature has left free. Preternatural
concretions of this kind are often obferved after an in¬
flammation of the lungs or of the abdominal vifcera ;
and thefe new membranes are found to be truly cellu¬
lar. This fubdance, when cut, or by any other means
divided, grows together of its own accord ; but if, by
reafon of very great inflammation and fuppuration, a
large portion of the cellular texture has been dedroyed,
it is never again completely renewed, and an ugly fear
is left. It is even faid, that this fubdance, in certain
cafes, is capable of joining the parts either of the fame
body with one another, or of a foreign body-with them j
and upon this, if on any foundation, reds the art of Ta-
liacotius and that of tranfplanting teeth, lately fo much
talked of.
The cellular texture is in fome places merely a kind
of net-work, in others filled with fat. Wherever too
great bulk or compreffion would have been inconvenient
or dangerous, as in the head, lungs, eyes, eyebrows,
penis, ferotum, &c. there it colledts no fat, but is lax,
and purely reticulated ; but between the mufcles of the
body and limbs below the Ikin, in the abdomen, efpe¬
cially. in the omentum and about the kidneys, very
72 much fat is fecreted and collcfted.
Animal fat. The fat is principally a pure animal oil, not very dif¬
ferent from the expreffed and mild vegetable ones ; du¬
ring life it is fluid, but of different degrees of thick-
nefs in different parts of the body. It is fecreted from
the blood, and is often fuddenly reabforbed into it,
though pure oil is very rarely obferved in the blood.
It is indeed very probable, that oil, by d-igeftion,
partly in the prinue vise, and partly in the lungs, is
converted into gluten, and this again into oil by means
of fecretion } though no glandular organs fecreting
the fat can be fhown by anatomifts. It is, however,
probable, that there are fuch organs •, and that the
cellular texture lias fome peculiar ftruclure in thofe
parts which are deftined to contain the fat already
fecreted, xvithout fuffering it to pafs into other places j
for it never paffes into thofe parts which are purely re¬
ticulated, although the cellular texture is eafily per¬
meable by air or Avater over the whole body from head .
to foot.
The fat is augmented by the ufe of much animal-
food, or of any other that is oily and nourifiling, pro¬
vided the digeftion be good j by the ufe of Itrong
drink, efpeeially malt-liquor ; by much reft of body
and mind, much fleep and ina&ivity, caftration, cold,
repeated blood-letting, and in general by Avhatever di-
minifhes the vital and animal powers. Much, how¬
ever, depends on the conftitution of the body itfelf;
CINE. 211
nor is it poflible to fatten a human creature at pleafure Animal
like an ox. A certaip degree of fatnefs, according to Sohds.
the age of the perfon, is a fign and effedl of good
health ; but AA'hen too great, it becomes a difeafe of
itfelf, and the caufe of other dileafes. It mav alwavs
be very certainly removed by ftrong exercife, little
fleep, and a fpare diet. The fat commonly makes up
a eonfiderable part of the bulk of the body, and fome¬
times by far the greateft part. Its ufe feems to be to-
make the motion of the body more eafy and free, by
leffening the friction of the moving parts, and thus
preventing the abrafion of the folids, Avhich Avould
otherAvife happen. It is alfo of ufe to hinder the parts
from groAving together, which fometimes happens,
Avhen by an ulcer or any other accident a part of the
cellular texture containing the fat is deftroyed. Befides
all this, the fat contributes not a little to the beauty of
the body, by filling up the large inter ft ices betAveen
the mufcles, Avhich would othenvife give the perfon a
deformed and fhocking appearance. It is thought to
be nutritious, Avhen abforbed from its cells into the
blood •, but of this Ave have no certain proof. It feems
to have fome poAver of defending from the cold 5 at
leaft, nature has beftoAA^ed it in very great quantity on
thofe animals Avhich inhabit the colder regions, as
Avhales, bears, &c.
Thofe parts of the body Avhich enjoy fenfe and mo- Vitaifudk??.-
bility, are called living or vital folids. They are the
brain, cerebellum, medulla oblongata, fpinal marroAV,
the nerves arifing from thefe and diffufed throughout
the Avhole body, and which are diftributed through the
various organs of fenfe and through the mufcles, and
laftly the mufcles themfelves. Senfation is much more
general than mobility, as being common to all the parts
already mentioned. Mobility is proper to the mufeu-
lar fibres alone : Avherever there is fenfation, therefore,
Ave may believe that there are nerves ; and AvhereArer
there is mobility, Ave may believe that mufcular fibres
exift. Nay, even mobility itfelf feems to originate
from the connection which the mufcles ha\re Avith the
nerves 3 for loon after the nerves are compreffed, or
tied, or cut, the mufcles to Avhich they are diftributed
lofe their faculties 5 Avhich happens too Avhen the brain
itfelf, or the origin of the nerves, is affected. Some
reckon that the mufcles are produced from the nerves,
and confift of the fame kind of matter. Both indeed
have a fimilar ftructure, as being fibrous and of a Avhite
colour : for the mufcles, Avhen Avell freed from the
blood, of Avhich they contain a great abundance, are of
this colour as Avell as the nerves •, neither can the ner¬
vous fibres by any means be diftinguilhed from the muf¬
cular fibres themfelves. Both have alfo fenfation 3 and
both ftimulants and fedatives a£t in the fame manner,
whether they be applied to the mufcles themfelves or to
the nerves. Thefe circumftances have led Dr Cullen
and many others to confider the mufeular fibre as being
merely a continuation of nerve. But to this opinion
there are many ftrong objections 3 though there can.
be no doubt that the contraction of the mufcular fibre
is intimately connected with nervous influence.
It is difficult for us to difcover the origin of many
parts of the body, or to afeertain Avhether they are
produced all at the fame time or one after another :
yet it mult be oAvned, that many of the mufcular parts
are obferved to have attained a remarkable degree of
D d 2 ftrength.
212
External
Senfes.
74
Senfe of
feeling.
Pain.
75
M E D I
ftrength, while the brain is ft ill foft and almoft fluid •,
and that the adtion of thefe rnufcular^ parts is required
for the adtion and growth of the brain. 1 he mufcles
are alfo of a much firmer contexture than the nerves j
and enjoy a power of their own, namelythat of irri¬
tability, of which the nerves never participate. Of ne-
ceflity, therefore, either the mufcles mult be conftruc-
ted of fome kind of matter different from that of the
nerves $ or if both are made of the fame materials,
their organization muft be exceedingly different. But
if the fubftance of the mufcles and nerves be totally dif¬
ferent, we may eafily be convinced that much of the
one is always mixed with the other } for it is impof-
fible to prick a mufcle, even with the fmallefl needle,
without wounding or lacerating many nervous fibres
at the fame time. Since, therefore, there is fuch a
clofe connection between the mufcles and nerves both
as to their fundlions and ftrufture, they are defer-
vedly reckoned by phyfiologifts to be parts of the
fame genus, called the genus nervofum, or nervous
fyjlem.
After treating of fenfe in general, Dr Gregory pro¬
ceeds to confider particularly each of the fenfes both ex¬
ternal and internal. He begins with the fenfe of feel¬
ing, as being the mofl fimple, and at the fame time in
common to every part of the nervous fyftem. In fome
places, however, it is much more acute than in others 5
in the {kin, for inftance, and efpecially in the points of
the fingers. Thefe are reckoned to have nervous papil¬
la:, which by the influx of the blood are fomewhat erec¬
ted in the aftion of contaft, in order to give a more acute
fenfation j though indeed this opinion feems rather to
be founded on a conjecture derived from the ftruCture
of the tongue, which is not only the organ of tafte, but
alfo a moil delicate organ of touch, than upon any cer¬
tain obfervations.
From the fenfe of feeling, as wrell as all the other fenfes,
either pain or pleafure may arife •, nay, to this fenfe we
commonly refer both pain and almoft all other trouble-
fome fenfations, though in truth pain may arife from
every vehement fenfation. It is brought on by any
great force applied to the fentient part ; whether this
force comes from within or from without. Whatever,
therefore, pricks, cuts, lacerates, diftends, comprefles,
bruifes, ftrikes, gnaws, burns, or in any manner of way
ftimulates, may create pain. Hence it is fo frequently
conjoined with fo many difeafes, and is often more into¬
lerable than even the difeafe itfelf. A moderate de¬
gree of pain ftimulates the affefted part, and by degrees
the whole body } produces a great flux of blood to the
part affefted, by increafing the a£lion of its veflels 5
and it feems alfo to increafe the fenfibility of the part
affefted to future impreflions. It often ftimulates to
fuch motions as are both neceflary and healthful.
Hence, pain is fometimes to be reckoned among thofe
things which guard our life. When very violent, howr-
ever, it produces too great irritation, inflammation and
its confequences, fever, and all thofe evils which flow
from too great force of the circulation ; it diforders
the whole nervous fyftem, and produces fpafms, watch¬
ing, convulfions, delirium, debility, and fainting. Nei¬
ther the mind nor body can long bear very vehement
pain •, and indeed Nature has appointed certain limits
beyond which (he will not permit pain to be carried,
without bringing on delirium, convulfions, fyncope, or
CINE. Theory.
even death, to refcue the miferable fufferer from his External
torments.
Long-continued pain, even though in a more gentle
degree, often brings on debility, torpor, palfy, and ri¬
gidity of the affected part. But if not too violent, nor
accompanied with fever, ficknefs, or anxiety, it fome¬
times feems to contribute to the clearnefs and acutenefs
of the judgment, as fome people teftify who have been
afflicted with the gout. , . ,7fi
Anxiety is another difagreeable fenfation, quite dif- Anxiety,
ferent from pain, as being more obtufe and lefs ca¬
pable of being referred to any particular part, though
frequently more intolerable than any pain. But we
muft take care to diftinguifh between this anxiety of
which we treat in a medical fenfe, and that which is
fpoken of in common difcourfe. 1 he latter does not
at all depend on the ftate of the body, but belongs en¬
tirely to the mind •, and arifes from a fenfe of danger,
or a forefight of any misfortune. The former is truly
corporeal} and derives, no lefs than pain, its origin
from a certain ftate of the body. Notwithftandmg this
difference, however, it is very poflible for both thefe
kinds of anxiety to be prefent at the fame time, or for
the one to be the caufe of the other. A very great
bodily anxiety will ftrike fear and defpondency into
the moft refolute mind } and mental anxiety, on the
contrary, if very violent and long-continued, may in¬
duce the former, by deftroying the powers of the body,
efpecially thofe which promote the circulation of the
blood. .
Anxiety, in the medical fenfe of the word, arifes in
the firft place from every caufe difturbing or impeding
the motion of the blood through the heart and large
veffels near it. Anxiety, therefore, may arife from
many difeafes of the heart and its veflels, fuch as its
enlargement, too great conftriftion, oflification, poly¬
pus, palpitation, fyncope, inflammation, debility, and
alfo fome affeftions of the mind. It is likewife produ¬
ced by every difficulty of breathing, from whatever caufe
it may arife } becaufe then the blood paffes leis freely
through the lungs : anxiety of this kind is felt deep in
the breaft. It is faid alfo to arife from the difficult
paffage of the blood through the liver or other abdomi¬
nal vifcera.
A certain kind of anxiety is very common and
troublefome to hypochondriacal people } and arifes
from the ftomach and inteftines being either loaded
with indigefted and corrupted food, or diftended with
air produced by fermentation and extricated from the
aliments. By fuch a load, or diftention, the ftomach,
which is a very delicate organ, becomes greatly af-
feaed. Befides, the free defcent of the diaphragm is
thus hindered, and refpiration obftruaed. Anxiety of
this kind is ufually very much and fuddenly relieved
by the expulfion of the air \ by Avhich, as well as by
other figns of a bad digeftion, it is eafily known. In
thefe cafes the anxiety is ufually, though with little ac¬
curacy, referred to the ftomach.
Anxiety alfo frequently accompanies fevers of every
kind, fometimes in a greater and fometimes in a lef-
fer degree. In this cafe it arifes as well from the ge¬
neral debility as from the blood being driven from
the furface of the body and accumulated in the large
veflfels as in the beginning of an intermittent fever.
Or it may arife from an affection of the ftomach,
when
Theory.
External -when overloaded witli crude, corrupted aliment ; or di-
Senfes. ftended and naufeated with too much drink, efpe-
V“—cially medicated drink. As the fever increafes, the
anxiety of the patient becomes greater and greater 5
remarkably fo, according to the teftimony of phyfi-
cians, either immediately before the crifis or on the
night preceding it ; as before the breaking out of ex¬
anthemata, haemorrhagy, fweat, or diarrhoea, which
fometimes remove fevers. The patient feels likewife an
anxiety from the ftriking in of any eruption or critical
metaftatis. This fenfation alfo accompanies fevers and
mold other difeafes, when the vital power is exhaufted,
and death approaches, of which it is the forerunner
and the fign. It happens at that time, becaufe the
vital powers, unable to perform their funflions, cannot
make the blood circulate. But what kind of anxiety
this is, the other figns of approaching death fhow very
evidently. Moreover, even in the time of fleep, anxie¬
ty may arife from the fame caufes : hence frightful
dreams, which frequently difturb our repofe with fur-
^ prife and terror.
ftching. Itching, an uneafy fenfation, with a defire of fcratch-
ing the place affefted, is often very troublefome, al¬
though it feems to be more a-kin to pleafure than to pain.
As pain proceeds from too great an irritation, either
chemical or mechanical, fo does itching proceed from
a flight one. Titillation, or fridlion, of a woollen fhirt,
for inftance, upon the fkin of a perfon unaccuftomed
to it, and of a delicate conftitution, excites itching;
as do alfo many acrid foflils, vegetables, and animals.
Hence an itching is the firft fenfation after the appli¬
cation of cantharides, although the fame, when aug¬
mented becomes painful. The fame effe£I is produ¬
ced by any thing acrid thrown out upon the fkin; as in
exanthematic fevers, the difeafe called the itch, &c.
Lice, worms, efpecially afcarides, irritating either the
fkin or the inteftines, excite a troublefome itching.
Too acute a fenfation over the whole body is very
rarely if ever obferved. In a particular part the fenfe
of feeling is often more acute than it ought to be, either
from the cuticle itfelf being too thin and foft, or being
removed •, or from the part itfelf being inflamed, or ex-
pofed to too great heat. It becomes obtufe, or is even
quite deftroyed over the whole body, or in great part
of it, from various affeftions of the brain and nerves ;
as when they are wounded, compreffed, or defective in
vital power. This is called anccjlhejia, and fometimes
accompanies palfy.
This fenfe may be deficient in a particular part, ei¬
ther from the nerve being difeafed, or from its being
comprefled or wounded, or from the part itfelf being
expofed to too great a degree of cold ;—or from the
fcarf-fkin which covers it being vitiated, either becom¬
ing too thick or hard, by the handling of rough, or
hard, or hot bodies, as is the cafe with glafs-makers
and fmiths *, or from the elevation of the cuticle from
the fubjacent cutis, or true fkin itfelf, by the interpo-
fition of blood, ferum, or pus •, or from the cutis be¬
ing macerated, relaxed, or become torpid, which fome¬
times happens to hydropic perfons 5 or laftly, from the
whole organ being corrupted by gangrene, burning,
cold, or contufion. This fenfe is very rarely depraved,
unlefs perhaps in the cafe of delirium, when all the
functions of the brain are diflurbed in a furprifing
manner.
213
The fenfe next to be confidered is that of tafie, the External
principal organ of which is the tongue j the nearer the Senfes.
tip of it, the more acute is the fenfe, and the nearer ^
the glottis fo much the more obtufe. It muft be Xafte.
owned, however, that fome kind of acrid fubfiances,
the tafte of which is fcarcely perceived upon the tip of
the tongue, excite a moft vehement fenfation about its
roots, or even in the throat itfelf. The tongue is en^-
dowed with many large and beautiful nervous papillae,
which feem to be the chief feat of this fenfe, and in
the aft of tailing are elevated and erefted, in order to
give the more acute fenfation.
Nothing can be tailed which is not foluble in the fa-
liva, that, being applied in a fluid form, it may per¬
vade the involucra of the tongue, and affeft its nervous
pulp ; and hence infoluble earths are quite infipid.
Neither is it fufficient for a body to be foluble that it
may be tailed: it mull alfo have fomething in it faline,
or at leall acrid, in order to llimulate the nervous fub-
llance; and hence, whatever has lefs fait than the fa-
liva is totally infipid.
The tafte is rarely found to be too acute, unlefs
through a fault in the epidermis which covers the
tongue. If this be removed or wounded, or covered
with ulcers, aphthae, &c. then the talle, becoming too
acute, is painful : or fometimes, no other fenfation
than that of pain is felt. It may be impaired, as well
as the fenfe of feeling, from various difeafes of the
brain and nerves j of which, however, the inilances are
but rare. In fome people it is much more dull than in
others ; and in fuch the fenfe of fmelling is ufually de¬
ficient alfo. The talle is moll commonly deficient on '
account of the want of faliva } for a dry tongue cannot
perceive any talle: hence this fenfe is very dull in many
difeafes, efpecially in fevers, catarrhs, &c. as well on
account of the defect of faliva as of appetite, which
is of fo much fervice in a Hate of health j or by reafon
of the tongue being covered with a vifcid mucus.
The taile is frequently depraved j wrhen, for ex¬
ample, we have a perception of talle without the ap¬
plication of any thing to the tongue 5 or if any thing
be applied to it, wrhen wre perceive a talle different
from what it ought to be. This happens for the moll
part from a vitiated condition of the faliva, which is
itfelf tailed in the mouth. Hence we may perceive a
fweet, faline, bitter, putrid, or rancid talle, according
to the Hate of the faliva : which may be corrupted ei¬
ther from the general vitiated condition of the mafs of
humours, or the glands which fecrete it j of the mouth
itfelf j or even of the llomach, the vapours and eruc¬
tations of which rife into the mouth, efpecially when
the llomach is difeafed.
Befides the faults of the faliva, however, the tafte
may be vitiated from other caufes ; as, for inllance,
the condition of the nervous papillae. This, however,
is as yet but little known to us } for the talle is
fometimes plainly vitiated, when at the fame time
the faliva appears quite infipid when tailed by other
people.
Phyficians, in almolt every difeafe, but efpecially in
fevers, inquire into the Hate of the tongue j not, indeed,
without the greatelt reafon : for from this they can
judge of the condition of the llomach j of the thirlt, or
rather the occafion the patient has for drink, when, on
account of his delirium or ffupor, he neither feels his
thirli,
MEDICINE.
214
External
Senfes.
79
SmclL
So
Hearing.
M E D I
tlnrft, r.or is able to call fur drink. And, laftly, from
an infpeflion of the tongue, phyficians endeavour to
form fome judgment concerning the nature, increafe,
and remiffion of the fever.
After the fenfe of tafte, ave fliall next treat of that
of fmell. Its feat is in that very foft and delicate
membrane, filled with nerves and blood-velfels, which
covers the internal parts of the nofe, and the various
finufes and cavities proceeding from thence. This
fenfe is more acute about the middle of the feptum,
and the offa fpongiofa, where the membrane is thicker
and fofter, than in the deeper cavities, where the
membrane is thinner, lefs nervous, and lefs filled with
blood-veflels 5 although even thefe do not feem to be
altogether deftitute of the fenfe of fmelling.
As by our tafte we judge of the foluble parts of bo¬
dies, fo by our fmell we judge of thofe very volatile
and fubtile parts which fly off into the air •, and like
the organ of tafte, that of fmell is kept moift, that it
may have the more exquifite fenfation, partly by its pro¬
per mucus, and partly by the tears which defeend from
the eyes.
Some kinds of odours greatly affe& the nervous fy-
ftem, and produce the moft furprifing effe&s. Some
gratefully excite it, and immediately recruit the fpirits
when almoft finking; while fome produce fainting,
nay, as it is alleged, even hidden death. To this head
alfo are we to refer thofe antipathies, which, though
truly ridiculous, are often not to be fubdued by any
force of mind.
This fenfe is fometimes too acute, as well from
fome difeafe in the organ itfelf, which happens more
rarelv, as from the too great fenfibility of the nervous
fyftem in general, as is fometimes obferved in nervous
fevers, phrenitis, and hyfteria. It is more frequent¬
ly, however, too dull, either from difeafes of the brain
and nerves, as from fome violence done to the head, or
from fome internal caufe ; or it may proceed from a
drynefs of the organ itfelf, either on account of the
cuftomary humours being fuppreffed or turned another
way; or from the membranes being opprefled with too
great a quantity of mucus or of tears. Of both thefe
cafes we have inftances in the catarrh, where at firft:
the noftrils are dry, but afterwards are deluged with a
thin humour, or flopped up with a thick one. But
in thefe, and many other examples, the membrane of
the nofe itfelf is affe&ed with inflammation, relaxation
or too great tenfion, by which the nerves, which con-
ftitute a great part of it, muft be vitiated. It is evi¬
dent alfo, that whatever obftrudls the free entrance of
the air into the noftrils, or impedes its pafiage through
them, muft prove detrimental to the fenfe of fmell-
ing.
The fenfe of hearing is more frequently vitiated than
almoft any of the reft, as having a moft delicate or¬
gan, and one eompofed of many and very fmall parts,
of which an account is given under the article Ana¬
tomy.—It frequently becomes too acute ; either from
the general habit of the body being too irritable, fuch
as often happens'to hyfterical and lying-in-women ; or
from too great a fenfibility of the brain itfelf, which is
not unfrequently obferved in fevers, as well as in phre¬
nitis, and fometimes in the true mania ; or it may be
from a difeafe of the ear itfelf, as when it is affedled
with inflammation, pain, or too great tenfion.—It may
CINE. Theory,
be rendered dull, or even be altogether deftroyed, fo External
that the perfon fliall become totally deaf, from the fame Series,
caufes adting with different degrees of force. This
happens efpecially from the want of the external ear;
or from the meatus auditorius being flopped up w ith
mucus, wax, or other matters; or from the fides of
the canal grownng together, as fometimes happens af¬
ter fuppuration or the fmall-pox ; or by the membrane
of the tympanum becoming rigid or relaxed, or being
eroded or ruptured; or the tympanum itfelf, or the
Euftachian tube, may from certain caufes be obftrufled;
or fome of the little bones or membranes, or fome
of the mufcles of the labyrinth, may be affedted
with concretion, fpafm, palfy, or torpor; or, laftly,
it may happen from difeafes of the brain and nerves,
all the organs of hearing remaining found. Hence
deafnefs is often a nervous difeafe, coming fuddenly
on, and going off fpontaneoufly. Hence alfo it is
common in old people, all of wrhofe folid parts are
too rigid, while their nervous parts have too little fen¬
fibility.
Perfons labouring under fevers, efpecially of the
typhous kind, often become deaf. When this comes on
along with other figns of an oppreffed brain, and a
great proftration of llrength, it may be a very bad fymp-
tom; but for the moft part it is a very good one, even
though accompanied with fome degree of torpor or
fleepinefs.
A very common difeafe in the fenfe of hearing is
when certain founds, like thofe of a drum, a bell, the
falling of water, &c. are heard without any tremor
in the air, or without a found perfon’s hearing any
thing. This difeafe is called tirviitus aurium, of w hich
various kinds have been obferved. For the moft part
it is a very flight tranfient diforder ; but fometimes it
is moft obftinate, long-continued, and troublefome. It
often arifes from the flighteft caufe, fuch as any
thing partially flopping up the meatus auditorius or
Euftachian tube itfelf, fo that accefs is in part denied
to the air ; whence it happens that the latter ftrikes
the membrane of the tympanum, or perhaps the inte¬
rior parts, unequally, and with too r>.uch force. Elence
bombi, a kind of tinnitus, are heard even by the moft
healthy when they yawn.
A much more frequent and troublefome fpecies of
tinnitus accompanies many difeafes both of the febrile
and nervous kind. This is oceaftpned partly by the
increafed impetus of the blood towards the head, with
an increafe of fenfibility in the nervous fyftem itfelf,
fo that the very beatings of the arteries are heard ;
and partly from the inereafed fenfation and mobility
of the nerves and mufcles of the labyrinth : w hence it
happens, that the parts which ought to be at reft un¬
til excited by the tremor of the air, begin to move of
their own accord, and impart their motion tor other
parts which are already in a morbid ftate of too great
fenfibility.
A tinnitus fometimes arifes from any vehement af-
fedlion of the mind ; fometimes from a diforder in the
ftomach ; fometimes from a rheumatic diforder affedt-
ing the ears and head; or from a catarrh, which com¬
monly affedls the Euftachian tube. Sometimes, however,
the tinnitus alone affedls the patient ; and even this is a
difeafe of no fmall confequence. Thefe various cau¬
fes, however, both of this and other diforders of the
hearing,
Theory. MED
External hearing, are often very difficult to be diftinguifficd, as
i Senf'L's- , well on account of the inacceffible fituation of the organ,
V“—as on account of the little knowledge we have cf its ac¬
tion. But from whatever caufe it arifes, both this and
the other affedhons of the hearing can neither be cured
certainly nor eafily, but by the removal of the caufe
gj whatever it may be.
Sight. Concerning the nature of the fenfe of fight, the
reader may confult the articles Anatomy and Optics.
Of this fenfe lome flight diforders, or rather varieties,
are often obferved. Thofe perfons are called Jhort-
Jighted who cannot fee diftindlly unlels the objedf be
very near them. This diforder arifes from too great
a refraction of the rays by reafon of their being too
loon colledted into a focus by the cryftalline lens, and
diverging again before they fall upon the retina, by
which means they make an indiftindt pidture upon it.
The moft common caufe is too great a convexity of the
eye or fome of its humours, as too prominent a cor¬
nea. It is a diforder common to young people, which
is fometimes removed when they grow older. As foon
as the firft approaches of Ihort-fightednefs are obfer¬
ved, it is fuppofed it may be obviated by the perfon’s
accuftoming himfelf to view remote objedts, and keep¬
ing his eyes off very fmall and near ones ; as, on the
contrary, it may be brought on by the oppofite cu-
ftom j becaufe the eye accommodates itfelf fomewhat
to the diftances of thofe objedls which it is accuftomed
to view. But a concave glafs, which caufes the rays
of light to diverge more than naturally they would be¬
fore falling upon the cornea, is the molt Ample arid
certain remedy.
Long-ftghted people are thofe who cannot fee an
objedt diftindlly unlefs it be at a confiderable diftanee
from them. This arifes from caufes contrary to the
former j namely, the eye being too flat, fo that there
is no room for refradting the rays and bringing them
into a focus. Hence this dcfedl is common in old
people, and remedied by the ufe of convex glaffes.
Thofe are called nycia/opes who fee better with a very
weak than with a ffrong light. It is a defedt very
feldom to be met with in the human race, though
every perfon is fenfible of it who hath been long kept
in the dark and is then fuddenly brought into the
light. 1 he difeafe arifes from too great a fenfibility
of the retina, and the pupil being too open.
The fight is liable to many and grievous diforders.
It is lharpened beyond meafure, fo that the perfon
either perceives nothing diftindlly or with great pain,
from the fame caufes that induce a fimilar diforder
in the other fenfes ; namely, exeeffive fenfibility in
the general habit of body ; or a particular ftate of the
brain common in phrenitis, or even in thofe afflidled
with fevers arifing from inflammation or too great ex¬
citement ; though more frequently from the condition
of the eye itfelf, one becomes unable to bear the light.
1 he inflammation of the tunica adnata, and the fore¬
part of the fclerotica, is communicated to the back
parts of it, and from thence to the choroides and re¬
tina itfelf. Hence tire light becomes intolerable, and
vifion is attended with pain and great irritation, fome¬
times inducing or augmenting a delirium.
The fenfe of feeing is made dull, or even totally
abolifhed,. by age j the aqueous humour not being
iupplied in Efficient quantity, and the cornea and
> 2.
CINE. 2 i ;
lens, or the vitfeous humour, becoming flirivelled or External
decayed. It may likewife happen from the cornea Stnlc'f-
becoming dry and opaque j which is to be imputed to “
the languid motion of the blood, and to great numbers
of the fmall veffels being obftruefed or having their
fides concreted ;—or from the cryftalline lens becoming
yellow like amber, and the retina itfelf lefs fenfible,
for old age diminifties every fenfation. It is totally
aboliftved by injuries of the brain, the optic nerve, or
the retina, even though the ftru&ure of the organ
fhould remain found. This difeafe is called an amau-
rq/is ; and is eafily known by the dilatation and im¬
mobility of the pupil, the humours of the eye remain¬
ing clear. It is commonly owing to congeftion of
blood j and fometimes, where no congeftion of blood
can be difeovered, to mere torpor of the nerves. If it be
only a torpor of part of the retina, w^e fee black fpots
in thofe things at which we look; or flies feem to
pafs before our eyes, a very bad fign in fevers, and
aim oft always mortal. The fight is aboliftied alfo by
the obfeurity or opacity of any of the parts through
which the rays ought to pafs and be refracted ; as if
the cornea lofe its tranfparency by being covered with
fpots; or the aqueous humours become corrupted with
blood, ferum, or pus; or the lens (which often hap¬
pens and which is called a cataraff) becomes of a
gray or brown colour, or the vitreous humour be in
like manner corrupted; or laftly, when all the humours
being diffolved, confuied and mixed together, by in¬
flammation and luppuration, either do not fuffer the
light to pafs at all, or to pafs imperfectly and un¬
equally ; whence either no image is formed on the
retina, or it appears obfeure, diftorted, imperfeCt, and
ill-coloured.
The fight is alfo depraved, when things appear to
it of a colour different from their own, or even in an¬
other fituation and of another ftiape than they ought
to have. This happens from the humours being tinc¬
tured with any unufual colour, as is faid to happen in
fome inftances of jaundice; or from an extravafation
and mixture of the blood with the aqueous humour.
A furprifing depravation alfo, or conftant and perpe¬
tual defedt of vifion, is not unfrequently obferved in
men otherwife very healthy, and who fee quite clear¬
ly ; namely, that they cannot diftinguilh certain co¬
lours, green, for example, from red. Another de¬
pravation is, when, without any light being admitted
to the eyes, fparks, fmall drops of a flame or gold co¬
lour, and various other colours, are obferved to float
before us. This is generally a very flight and tran-
fient diforder, common to thofe whofe conftitutions
are very irritable ; and arifes from the flight impulfe,
as it would feem, on the retina, by the veffels beating
more vehemently than ufual. A fiery circle is ob¬
ferved by preffing the eye with the finger after the
eyelids are {hut. The fame reafon, perhaps, may be
given for thofe fparks which are feen by perfons la¬
bouring under the falling ficknefs, and increafing to
the fize of an immenfe and luminous beam before they
fall down in convulfions. A fimilar beam thofe who
have recovered from hanging or drowning teftify that
they have obferved : for by reafon of the refpiration
being fuppreffed, the veffels of the head fwell and com-
prefs the whole brain and nervous parts of the head..
Sparks of the fame kind, and thefe ton of no good.
amen*-
2 1 6
External
Senfes.
Sa
Vertigo.
M E D I
omen, are obferved in patients labouring under a fever,
where a phrenitis or fierce delirium is_at hand; and
likewife in thole who are threatened with palfy, apo¬
plexy or epilepfy.—A diftina but falfe perception,
namely of vifible things which do not exift, is to be
imputed to fome injury of the brain, to madnels or a
delirium, not to any difeafe of the eye. .
A very frequent deled of vifion remains to be men¬
tioned, namely, fquinting. A perfon is laid to Iqmnt
who has the axes of the eyes more oblique than ulual,
and direded to different points. Hence a great de¬
formity, and often an imperfed and confufed vilion by
which the objeds are fometimes feen double. It is an
evil for the moll part born with the perfon, and often
correded by thofe attempts which an infant makes to
fee more pleafantly and diflindly; and this even with¬
out being confcious of its own defeds. It is alfo ea i y
learned, efpecially in infants, even without their own
knowledge, by that kind of imitation which has a
oreat influence over the human race, efpecially in their
tender years.—It is by no means, however, fo eafily
unlearned. .
Squinting is frequently occafioned by a fpaim, pally,
rigidity, &c. of the mufcles which manage the eye ; by
epilepfy ; by certain difeafes of the head, the hydro¬
cephalus efpecially ; or by any great injury done to
the head. Sometimes, though very rarely, it comes
on fuddenly without any known caufe. It is very pro¬
bable, however, that fquinting often arifes from a fault
of the retinae, when their centra^ points, for inltance,
and thofe fimilarly placed with refped to the centre,
do not agree. In this cafe there mull be a contortion
of the eye, that the objed may not be feen double.
This feems alfo to be the reafon why fquinting is much
increafed when the perfon brings the objed near
his eye in order to view it more perfedly. _ Or if the
central point of either, or both, of the retinae be in-
fenfible, or nearly fo, it is neceffary for the perfon
to diflort his eyes that he may have any diltind
vifion of objeds." If the optic nerve had not enter¬
ed the retina obliquely, but paffed diredly through
its centre, we would all either have fquinted or feen
double.
Phyficians have referred to the fenfe of vifion that
moll troublefome fenfation which we call a vertigo;
though it feems rather to belong to that of feeling, or
of confcioufnefs ; for in many inftances the diforder is
not removed either in the dark or by fhutting the eye¬
lids. The vertigo takes place when external objeds
really at reft feem to reel, to whirl round, to tremble,
or to move in any manner of way. If the diforder
be very violent, the perfon is neither able to fee, on
account of a dimnefs of fight; nor can he ftand, as the
powers fail which ought to govern the limbs. A nau-
fea alfo ufually accompanies the vertigo, and the one
generally produces the other.
This diforder is obferved to be both the fymptom
and forerunner of fome dangerous difeafes; fuch as
apoplexy, epilepfy, hyfteria ; haemorrhages from the
nofe and other parts ; fuppreflions of the menfes ;
plethora ; fevers, as well fuch as are accompanied with
debility as thofe in which there is an increafed impe¬
tus of the blood towards the head. An injury done
to the head alfo, but rarely one done to the eyes,
unlefs as it affeds the whole head, brings on a ver-
C I
tigo
mreat and hidden
O
N E. Theory.
A vertigo may be likewife produced by a very Interna,
~ ‘ lofs of blood or other fluid ; by de-, Scnfe5-
bility ; fyncope ; various difeafes of the alimentary
canal, of the ftomach efpecially ; poifons admitted in¬
to the body, particularly of the narcotic kind, as opium,
ftramonium, wine, &c. and hence vertigo is a fymptom of
every kind of drunkennefs. Various motions alfo,
either of the head or the whole body, being toffed in
a fliip, efpecially if the veffel be fmall and the fea runs
high, produce a vertigo. In thefe and fimilar ex¬
amples, the unufual and inordinate motions of the blood
are communicated to the nervous parts which are in
the head ; or thefe being affbaed by fympathy from
the neighbouring parts, produce a confufed ienfation as
if of a rotatory motion. Nay, it is often produced
from an affbaion of the mind itfelf, as from beholding
any thing turned fwiftly round,- or a great cataraa, or
looking down a precipice, or even by intenfe thought
without looking at any thing.
Though a vertigo be for the moft part a fymptom
and concomitant of other difeafes, yet it is fometimes a
primary difeafe, returning at intervals, increafing gra¬
dually, and equally impeding and deftroying the func¬
tions of the body and mind.
After having treated of the external fenfes, we ftiall Memory,
next proceed to confider thofe properly called internal t
which are, the memory, the imagination, and ^judge¬
ment. The firft is lelTened, difturbed, or even totally
deftroyed, in many difeafes, efpecially thofe which aftbbl
the brain ; as in apoplexy, palfy, internal tumours of
the head, external violence applied, fevers, efpecially
thofe in which there is an increafed motion of the blood
towards the head, or where the brain is any other way
very much affected. It is very rarely, however, deprav¬
ed in fuch a manner that ideas are not reprefented to
the mind in their proper order ; or if at any time fuch a
diforder occurs, it is confidered rather as a diforder of the
imagination, or as a delirium, than a failure of the
memory. The mind is faid to be difordered when the
perceptions of memory or imagination are confounded
with thofe of fenfe, and of confequence thofe things
believed to be now prefent which are really pall or
which never exifted ; or when the fenfe of the perlon
concerning ordinary things is different from that of
other people. The general name for fuch diforders is
vefania : if from fei-’er, it is called delirium. A general
fury without a fever, is called mania or madnefs : but
a partial madnefs, on one or twro points, the judgment
remaining found in all other refpebls, is called melancho¬
lia. There is, however, no exabl and accurate limits
between a found mind and madnefs. All immoderate
vivacity borders upon madnefs ; and, on the other hand,
a forrowful and gloomy difpofition approaches to melan-
eholy. _ 84
Delirium accompanies fevers of many different kinds, delirium.
Sometimes it is flight, eafily removed, and fcarce to
be accounted a bad fign. Often, however, it is very
violent, and one of the very worft of figns, requiring
the utmoft care and attention.
A delirium is either fierce or mild. The fierce de¬
lirium is preceded and accompanied by a rednefs. of
the countenance, a pain of the head, a great beating
of the arteries, and noife in the ears ; tne eyes in the
mean time looking red, inflamed, fierce, ftiining, and
unable to bear the light; there is either no fleep at
fll L
Theory- M E D I
Delirium, all j or {Jeep troubled with horrid dreams • the wonted
1 v ' manners are changed j an unufual peeviflinefs and ill-
nature prevail. The depravation of judgment is firll
obferved between deep and waking, and by the per-
^.n s crediting his imagination, while the perceptions
of fenfe are neglefted, and the ideas of memory occur
m an irregular manner. 1'ury at laft takes place, and
lometimes an unufual and incredible degree of bodily
ilrength, fo that feveral attendants can fcarce keep a
Angle patient in his bed.
The mild delirium, on the contrary, is often accom¬
panied with a weak pulfe, a pale collapfed counte¬
nance, and a vertigo when the patient fits in an ereft
pofture ; he is feldoin angry, but often ftupid, and
fometimes remarkably grieved and fearful. The lofs of
judgment, as in the former kind, is firft perceived when
the patient is half awake j but a temporary recovery
enfues upon the admiflion of the light and the conver-
fation of his friends. _ The patient mutters much to
himfelf, and attends little to the things around him 5
at laft, becoming quite ftupid, he neither feels the
fenfations of hunger or thirft, nor any of the other
propennties of nature, by which means the urine and
excrements are voided involuntarily. As the diforder
increafes, it terminates in fubfultus tendinum, tremors,
convulfions, torpor, and death. X he other fpecies of de¬
lirium alfo frequently terminates in death, when the
fpirits and ftrength of the patient begin to fail.
The fymptoms accompanying either of thefe kinds
of delirium (how an unufual, inordinate, and unequal
motion of the blood through the brain, and a great
change in that ftate of it which is necefi'ary to the ex-
ercife of the mental powers. It is very probable, that
an inflammation of the brain, more or lefs violent and
general, fometimes takes place, although the lions of
univerfal inflammation are frequently flight. This we
learn from the diiTeftion of dead bodies, which often
ftiow an unufual rednefs of the brain or of fome of its
paits, or fometimes an eftufion or fuppuration.
^ ft3*6 the brain, however, may be much af¬
fected, and delirium induced, by many other caufes be-
ndes the motion 01 the blood. In many fevers ty¬
phus, for inftance, the nervous fyftem itfelf is much
fooner and more affefted than the blood’s motion : and
though the morbid affe&ions of the nervous fyftem are
as invifible to the fenfes as the healthy ftate of it the
fymptoms of its injuries plainly ftmw that its aftion, or
excitement, as fome call it, is unequal and inordinate.
85 ,p, s way.’ too> delirium is produced by feveral poifms.
1 he pathology of melancholy and mania is much
Melancho- _ - <->' ,   j *..a,na mucu
7 and ma- more obfeure ; as coming on without any fever or di-
r fturbance in the blood’s motion. Often alfo thev are
hereditary, depending on the original ftruaure of the
body, efpecially of the brain j the fault of which, how¬
ever, cannot be dete&ed by the niceft anatomift But
it is well known, that various difeafes of the brain
obltructions, tumors, either of the brain itfelf, or of
the cranium prefting upon it, any injury done to the
head and, as fome phyficians relate, the hardnefs and
drynefs of the brain, and fome peculiar irritations af¬
fixing the nervous fyftem, are capable of bringing on
nis malady. And indeed fo great are the irritations
affeftmg the nervous fyftem in mad people, that they
efren fieep JmJe or none for a long time.—Yet even
vo? <xfmvpandi,inperfeft knuwled£e of the dif'
CINE. 217
eales of the brain and nerves, is by no means tree from Idiotilm.
difficulties. For though we know that the brain, or' v——'
a certain part of it, is hurt, or that it is irritated by a
fwelling, or a pointed bone growing into it, nobody
can foretel how great, or what may be the nature of
the malady from fuch a hurt: for examples are not
wanting of people who, after lofing a large part of the
brain, have recovered and lived a long time ; there
ate many inftances alio of perlons who have perceived
no. inconvenience from a large portion of that vifeus
being corrupted, until at length they have fallen fud-
denly down and died in convulfions.
Another difeafe of the internal fenfes, quite differ-Idiotiftn*
ent from thele, is fatuity or idiotijhi. Thole are call¬
ed idiots who are deftitute either of judgment or me¬
mory, or elfe have thefe faculties unequal to the com¬
mon offices of life. A weak memory, however, is by
no means effential to idiotifm. For there are fomc in¬
ftances of idiots who have had very correct and very
extenfive memories. A kind of idiotifm is natural and
common to all infants ; neither is it to be accounted a
difeafe 5 but if it laft beyond the ftate of infancy,
it is a leal difeale, and for the moft part incurable. It
has the fame caufes with the other difeafes of the in¬
ternal fenfes ; although thefe can fcarcely be dete&ed
by the eye or by the knife of the anatomift. It fre¬
quently .accompanies, or. is the effeft of, epilepfy.
Hence,, if the epilepfy derives its origin from caufes not
ieated in the head, as from worms lodging in the in-
teftmes, the fatuity may be cured by diflodging thefe
and .removing the epilepfy. It is not unlikely that the
fatuity of children, and the dotage of old men, may
ante from the brain being in the former too foft, and in
the latter too hard 5 or perhaps in the one cafe not
evolved, and in the other fomewhat decayed.
The mufcular power may be difeafed in a great num- DiJdere in
ber of ways. Ihe mobility itfelf maybe too great j the mufeu-
but this muft be carefully diftinguiflied from vigour ^ power.
By mobility is meant the eafe with which the mufcular
fibres are excited into contraftion. The vigour, on the
other hand, is that power with which the contraction
is performed. They are fometimes joined, but more
frequently feparate, and for the moft part the exceffes
of each are owing to contrary caufes. gg
Too great mobility is when motions are excited by Mobility,
a very flight ftimulus, or when very violent motions
are produced by the cuftomary ftimulus. A certain
habit of body fometimes hereditary, renders people
hable to this difeafe. Women have a greater fiiare of
mobility than men. Infants have a great deal of mo¬
bility, often too great j youth has lefs than infancy
but more than man’s eftate ; though old age has com¬
monly too little. A lazy, fedentary life, full diet,
a luppreffion of the ufual evacuations, fulnefs of the
blood-veffels, and fometimes their being fuddenly
emptied, laxity, flacciciity of the folids in general but
fometimes too great a.tenfion of the moving fibres’ the
ule of diluents, efpecially when warm, or heat applied
m any manner, produce too great mobility. And this
mav be either general or particular, according as the
caufes have been applied to the whole body, or only ta
a part of it. ;
. Vi£our ^ general is rarely morbid 5 although fome-\r- 89
times certain mufcular parts appear to hare too great ^
strength, In maniacs and plirmjftioa, an immenfe
Ee
ftrength
'21 8
medicine.
Diiordcrs ii
the (v'ufcu-
iar Power
90
Tcrpor.
5?
Debility.
> flrenglli is obferved in ail the mufcles, efpecially in thofe
v. hich fervc for voluntary motion ; this is not unjuftly
, reckoned morbid. The reafon of tins excefs is very ob-
fcure 5 however, it is plainly to be referred to a dilealed
flate of the brain. .
A more frequent and more important excels oi vi¬
gour is obferved in thofe. nmfcular fibres that do not
obey the will, fuch as thofe which move the blood. Its
circulation is thus often increafed, not without great
inconvenience and danger to the patient. But a fbghter
cxcefs of this kind, pervading the whole body, renders
people apt to receive inflammatory dileafes, and is uiu-
ally called a phlogijlic diathefis. But this is better ob¬
ferved when local, as in inflammation itfelf.
Too great vigour of the mufcular fibres may arife
from the nervous power increafed beyond meafure,
as in mania, phrenitis, or violent affe&ions of the
mind 5 from too great a tenfion of the fibres, by
which they more ealily and vehemently conceive mo¬
tions, as of the arteries when filled with too much
blood 5 from catching cold, by being exppled either to
cold or heat, as ufually happens in the fpring 5 or, part¬
ly, though the nervous power and tenfion of the fibres
fhould not at all be changed, their adion may be¬
come too great, from a llimulus more violent than umal
being applied, or from the ufual llimulus, if the fibres
themfelves have already acquired too great a. lhare of
mobility.
The oppofite to too great mobility is torpor, and
to too great vigour is debility. Torpor is fuch a di¬
minution of mobility as renders the parts unequal to
their funftions. It arifes from caufes directly oppo¬
fite to mobility ; fuch as, a harder and more rigid
contexture of the parts themfelves, or even fometimes
from one too lax and flaccid} from old age j from fome
peculiar temperament of body, fuch as one phlegmatic,
frigid, or mfenfible j too great and ineeflant labour,
cold, fpare diet, and an exhaufted body. This evil is
the more to be dreaded, beeaufe, the powers of the
body being deficient, nature is neither able to make
any effort of herfelf, nor are the remedies, in other
cafes the molt efficacious, capable of affording her any
affillance.
Debility takes place, when the motion of the
mufcles, either voluntary or involuntary, is not per¬
formed with fufficient llrength. A greater or lefier
ffiare of debility, either general or of fome particular
part, accompanies altnoll all difeafes, and is indeed no
fmall part of them : for it is hardly poffible that a
difeafe can fublilt for any length of time without in¬
ducing fome degree of debility. When a Hate of de¬
bility is induced, it renders a man obnoxious to innu¬
merable diforders, and throws him as it were defence-
lefs in their way. It often depends on the original
ftru61ure of the body, fo that it can be cor re fled
neither by regimen nor medicines of any kind. A
different degree of llrength alfo accompanies the dif¬
ferent ages of mankind } and thus, in fome cafes, de¬
bility cannot be reckoned morbid. But a truly mor¬
bid and unufual debility arifes from the nervous ener¬
gy being diminilhed •, from difeafes of the brain and
nerves, or of the mufcles through which they are dif-
tributed 5 from a decay of the nerves themfelves ; from
a want of the due tenfion of the fibres, or the fibres
themfelves becoming torpid ) from the body exhaufted
Theory,
by fpare diet, want, evacuations j or laftly, from dif-Difuruersin
cafes affecting the whole body, or fome particular parts ^
The higheft degree of debility, namely, when the ^
ftrength of the mufcles is altogether or nearly deftroy-Palfy.
ed, is called purali/sis or puffy ; and is either univerial,
or belonging only to fome particular mufeles. An
umverfal pally arifes from dileales of the brain and
nerves, fometimes very obfeure, and not to be difeo-
vered by the anatomift j for the nervous power itlelf
is often deficient, even when the ftrufture of the nerves
remains unhurt j yet olten a compreffion, obftruc-
tion, or injury of the veffels, extravalation of blood or
ferum, colie ft ions of pus, fwellings, &c. are difeover-
ed. It frequently arifes from certain poifons afting
on the nerves $ from the fumes of metals •, from the
difeafes of parts, and affeftions of the mufcles, very
remote from the brain, as in the colic of Poiftou. A
palfy of fingle mufcles, but lefs perfeft, often arifes
without any defeft of the brain or nerves, from any
violent and continued pain, inflammation, too greal
tenfion, relaxation, reft, or deftruftion of the texture,
of the parts, fuch as commonly happens after the rheu-
matifm, gout, luxations, fraftures of the bones, and
ifehuria.
An univerful palfy, however, as it is called, feldom
affefts the whole body, even though it ffiould origi¬
nate from a difeafe of the brain. We moll common¬
ly fee thofe who are paralytic affefted only on one
fide, which is called an hemiplegia. It is faid that
the fide of the body oppofite to the dileafed fide of
the brain is moft commonly affefted. If all the parts
below the head become paralytic, it is called a para¬
plegia. In thefe difeafes the fenfes for the moft part
remain} though fometimes they are aboliflied, and at
others rendered dull. Sometimes, though rarely, and
which is an exceeding bad fytnptom, the motion, fen-
fation, pulfe, and heat of the paralytic limbs are loft $
in which cafe the arteries themfelves become paralytic.
A pally of the whole body, as far as regards the volun¬
tary motions, with ansefthefia and fleep, is called an
apoplexy. This proceeds from fome injury of the brain .
though a ftate very fimilar to it is induced by narcotics,
opium, wine itfelf, or any generous liquor taken to ex¬
cefs } and laftly, by breathing in air corrupted by noxi¬
ous impregnations, fuch as a large proportion of car¬
bonic acid, hydrogenous gas, or fimilar aftive aerixorm
fluids. . . 53
Another difeafe to which mufcular motion is liable, Spufins.
and that neither flight nor unfrequent, is called fpafm.
This is a violent and irregular motion of the mufcles.
Of fpafms there are two kinds, the tonic and clonic.
The latter is frequently called a convuljton ; in order
to diftinguiffi it from the other, which is more peculiar¬
ly called yjw/iw.
Spafm therefore is a violent, conftant, and preterna¬
tural contraftion of the mulcular fibres j but a ccn-
vulficn is an unufual and violent contraftion alternated
with relaxation. People are rendered liable to fpafm
by too fenlible a habit of body, or too great mobi¬
lity 5 and hence it is a difeafe common in women, in
infants, and in weak, luxurious, lazy, and plethoric
people. It is brought on thofe already predifpofed to
it, by any kind of ftimulus applied to the brain, or to
any nerve, nnifcle, or nervous part connefted with it:
Theory. M E D I
Diibrders of winch we have examples In dentition ; worms lodged
of Sleep. ;n the inteftines, and irritating them j any acrid matter
1— » infecting the blood, or much afFccting the ftomach and
inteftines; the irritation of any nerve, or of the brain
itfelf, by an exoftofis, fwelling, too great fulnefs of the
veffels, pain, vehement aflFeftions of the mind, fudden
evacuation, or poifons admitted into the body. Fre¬
quently, however, the malady originates from flight
caufes, little known, and not eaftly obferved.
Spaftn is both the caufe and effedt, and frequently
con ft i lutes the greateft part, of many difeafes. It is
often very difficult either to be known or cured; be-
eaufe it is fo multiform, and produces as many differ¬
ent fymptoms as there are organs affecfted j of which it
furpriftngly difturbs, impedes, or increafes the funsftions.
It is a difeafe feated in the original ftamina of the con-
ftitution •, and neither to be removed by flight remedies,
nor in a ftiori: time.
Sleep. Witli regard to fleep, its'ufe is fufficiently apparent
from the effe6ts which it produces in the body. It re-
llores the powers both of mind and bodv when ex-
haufted by exercife, giving vigour to the one, and re-
ftoring its wonted alacrity to the other. It renders the
mufcles again active and moveable, after they have be¬
come wearied, rigid, painful, and trembling by hard
labour. It moderates the quicknefs of the pulfe,
which ufually increafes at night, and brings it back
to its morning ftandard. It feems alfo to affift the di-
geftion of the aliment j leffens both the fecretions and
excretions •, and renders the fluids thicker than other-
wife they would be, efpecially in a body endowed with
much fenfibility or mobility. Hence fleep is not only
ufeful, but abfolutely neceffary for preferving life and
health *, and is a moft excellent remedy both for allevi¬
ating, and totally removing, many difeafes.
Want of fleep is hurtful in many different ways,
efpecially to the nervous fyftem. It renders the organs
of fenfe both external and internal, as well as thofe of
every kind of motion, unfit for performing their offices.
Hence the fenfations are either abolifhed, or become
imperfeft or depraved ", and hence imbecility of mind,
defeiff of memory, a kind of delirium, mania itfelf, pain
of the head, weaknefs of the joints, an imperfefl: or
inordinate aftion of the vital organs, quicknefs of pulfe,
heat, fever, depraved digeftion, atrophy, leannefs, and
an increafe or perturbation of the fecretions and excre¬
tions.
Sleep may be prevented both in healthy and fick
people from various caufes; fuch as ftrong light,
noife, pain, anger, joy, grief, fear, anxiety, hunger,
thirft, vehement defire, motion of the body, memory,
imagination, intenfe thought, &c. On the other hand,
fleep is brought on by a flight impreflion on the organs
of fenfe, or none at all ; by the humming of bees,
the noife of falling water, cold and infipid difeourfe ;
or laftly, by fuch an exercife of the memory as is
neither too laborious nor difturbing to the mind.—
Too great an impulfe of the blood towards the head,
fuch as often happens in fevers, prevents fleep ; but a
free and equal diftribution of the blood through the
whole body, efpecially the extreme parts, frequently
brings it on. Whatever weakens the body alfo fa¬
vours fleep 5 and hence various kinds of evacuations,
the warm bath, fomentations, fometimes heat itfelf, are
ufeful for promoting it. It alfo comes on eafily after
CINE. 219
taking food, or indulging venery ", the violent fenfa- Difordcrs
tion being then quieted, and the body itfelf fomewhat, 0l slccP- >
Aveakened. Cold produces a deep fleep of long conti¬
nuance, not eafily difturbed, and often terminating in
death. Laftly, There are certain fubftances which,
when applied to the body, not only do not excite the
nervous fyftem, but plainly lay us afieep, and render
us unfit for fenfaticn ) of this kind are thofe called nar¬
cotics, as opium and the like j among which alfo we
may reckon wine taken in too great quantity. Laftly,
Watching itfelf is often the caufe of fleep •, becaufe
while a man is awake he always more or lefs exercifes
the organs of his body, by which the nervous influence
is diminiffied, and thus the more violently the body is
exercited, in the fame proportion is the perfon under a.
neceflity of fleeping.
Sleep is deficient in many difeafes ; for there are
few which do not excite pain, anxiety, or uneafinefs,
fufficient to prevent the approach of fleep, or to
difturb it. Fevers generally caufe thofe who labour
under them to fleep ill $ as well on account of the
uneafinefs which accompanies this kind of difeafe, as
by reafon of the impetus of the blood towards the
head being frequently increafed ; and likewife from
the ftomach being difordered, loaded with meat, or
diftended with drink. Hence alfo we may fee the rea¬
fon why many hypochondriac and hyfteric patients fleep
fo ill; becaufe they have a bad digeftion, and their fto¬
mach is difpofed to receive many though frequently
flight diforders *, the flighteft of which, however, is fnf-
ficient to deprive the patient of reft, provided the body
be already irritable, and endowed with too great a lhare
of mobility.
Want of fleep will hurt in difeafes as well as in health",
and for the fame reafon", but in a greater degree,
and more quickly, in the former than in the latter j
and is therefore not only a very troublefome fyniptom
of itfelf, but often produces other very dangerous ones.
Too much fleep, on the other hand, produces many
mifehiefs, rendering the whole body languid, torpid, and
lazy; and it even almoft takes away the judgment. It
alfo difturbs the circulation, and diminiflies moft of
the fecretions and excretions. Hence plethora, fat-
nefs, flaccidity, and an inability for the common of¬
fices of life.—The caufes of this excefs are, either the
ufual caufes of fleep above mentioned increafed beyond
meafure, or fome fault in the brain, or a compreflion
of it by an extravafation of the humours; or fome¬
times, as it would feem, from great debility produced
by an unufual caufe, as in thofe who are recovering
from typhous fevers and other difeafes. In thefe ex¬
amples, however, this excefs of fleep is by no means
hurtful; nor even, perhaps, in thofe cafes whete an
excefs of grief continued for a long time, or a great
fright, have produced a furprifing and unexpefted fom-
nolency. Laftly, Many people have accuftomed them-
felves, and that not without a great deal of hurt to
their conftitutions, to fleep too much. Nor there are
examples wanting of fome who have paffed whole days,
and even months, in fleep almoft uninterrupted.
With regard to the manner in which the circulation Circula-
of the blood is performed, and the various principles tion,
of which it is compofed, fee the articles Blood, and
Anatomy. As for the diforders to which the blood
and its circulation are fubjeef, it has been obferved,
E e 2 that
220
MEDICINE.
that In our younger years the veins are much more
denfe, firm, and llrong, than the arteries ; but the
latter, by reafon of the continual preffure upon them,
and tire ilrength which they exert, become daily more
firm, hard, and ftrong, until at laft they equal or ex¬
ceed the veins themfelves in ftrength j and it is not un¬
common in old men to find lome part of the arteries
converted into a horny fubltanee, or even into a folid
bone. Hence in the ftate of infancy the greateft part
of the blood is contained in the arteries, and in old age
in the veins j an affair indeed of no fmall moment, as
it fhows the reafon, in fome meafure, of the ftate of in-
creafe and decreafe of the body. Befides, if any difeafe
happens from too great a quantity of blood, it thence
appears that it mult fhov itfelf in young fubjects in
the arteries, and in old ones in the veins j and this is
the reafon of many difeafes which accompany certain
periods of life.
In molt, if not in all fpecies of animals, the arteries
of the females are much more lax and capacious when
compared with the veins, and the veins much lef», than
in the males of the fame genus. The delign of na¬
ture in this conformation, is probably that they may
be the better able to nourilh the foetus in their womb.
The fame likewife feems to be the reafon why women
are more inclined to plethora than men ; and to this
greater capacity of the arteries and fmallnefs of the
veins are we to afcribe that beauty and elegant lhape of
the arms in women, not disfigured or livid with veins as
in men.
The blood is alfo diftributed in various proportions
to the different parts of the body, and that proportion
too differs at different periods of our lives. At firft
a great quantity is fent to the head, becaufe that part
of the body is firft to be evolved and fitted for its offi¬
ces ; but as foon as the parts begin to make a confider-
able refiftance to the efforts of the blood, and the vef-
fels cannot eafily be further dilated, it is neceffarily fent
off to other parts •, by which means the reft of the body
increafes in bulk, and becomes fitted for performing its
proper fundlions. The effeft of this change is alfo very
loon obferved, namely, when none of the blood paffes
through the navel, and of confequence a greater quan¬
tity is fent by the iliac arteries to the inferior extremi¬
ties. Thefe, though fo fmall and {lender in the foetus,
inereafe very fuddenly ; fo that often in not many months
the child can not only ftand on its feet, but even walk
tolerably well. And during the earlieft periods of in¬
fancy, the inferior extremities grow more rapidly than
, any other part of the body.
Pulfation of Phyficians are wont to judge of the ftate of the cir-
tkc arteries, culation by the pulfe, which indeed is very various, as
well with regard to its frequency, as to the ftrength
and equality of its ftrokes and intervals.—Its common
quicknefs in a healthy adult is about 70 ftrokes in a
minute. In a foetus, perhaps, it is more than double •,
and in an infant a few months old, hardly lefs than 120.
As we grow up, this quicknefs gradually diminifhes ; fo
that in extreme old age it fometimes does not exceed
50, or i& even flower. This rule, however, is not
without exceptions : for many, efpecially thofe of an
irritable habit, have the pulfe much quicker •, while
others, even in the vigour of their age, have their pulfe
remarkably flow. It is for the moft part fomewhat
quicker in women than in men.
4
Theory.
The pulfe is alfo rendered quicker, both in a healthy Difordcrs
and difeafed body, by the application of ftimuli of many ot Circuit
different kinds. Exercife efpecially, by accelerating, ^on-
the return of the blood through the veins, increafes the ' J
quicknefs of the pulfe to a furprifing degree. Various
kinds of irritations affe&ing the nervous iyftem, as in-
tenfe thinking, paflions of the mind, pain, heat, ftimu-
lating medicines, wine, fpices, &c. likewife produce
the fame effed. The acrimony of the blood itfelf alfo
is thought to quicken the pulfe.
When a perfon firft awakes in the morning, the
pulfe is flow, but becomes quicker by degrees on ac¬
count of the many irritating matters applied to the
body. Its quicknefs is increafed after taking food,
efpecially of the animal kind, or fuch as is hot or fea-
foned with fpices. In the evening a flight fever comes
on, for which reft and fleep are the remedy. Thefe
things, how'ever, are fcarcely to be obferved in a healthy
perfon, but are very evident in one that is feverifh,
efpecially when the fever is a hedic.—Again, even
debility itfelf often renders the pulfe quicker than
ufual 5 beeaufe the ventricle of the heart not being
quite emptied, it is the fooner dilated again, and of
confequence contrads the fooner. For this realon a
phyfician can never judge of the ftrength of the circu¬
lation from the frequency of the pulfe.
Laftly, In all fevers, however different from one an¬
other, the pulfe is found to be too quick, partly per¬
haps from debility, partly from the acrimony of the
fluids, and partly from the repulfion of the blood from
the furface of the body, and the accumulation of it in
the large veffels where it ads as a ftimulus ; though
it muft be owned, that a great deal of this is obfeure,
if not totally unknown j nor in truth are we able to
underftand in what manner the autocrateia ads with
regard to the frequency of the pulfe.
The pulfe is feldom obferved too flow, unlefs when
the mobility of the body is much diminifhed, as in
decrepid old age, or from a compreffion or difeafe of
the brain, as is exemplified in the fecond ftage of hy¬
drocephalus •, but a greater compreffion of the brain
ufually produces a ftill more remarkable flownefs of the
pulfe, as in the third ftage of hydrocephalus.—Some¬
times alfo the pulfe is too flow in thofe who are
recovering from tedious fevers. But this is a matter
of little moment, and feems to be owing to fome kind
of torpor. Indeed it has generally been confidered as
a mark of a thorough and complete folution of the
fever; for it is commonly obferved, that when this
ftate of the pulfe takes place, the patient feldom fuffers
a relapfe.
While the frequency of the pulfe continues the fame,
its ftrokes may be either full, great, ftrong, and hardy
or foft, fmall, and weak. A full, great, and ftrong
pulfe takes place when the ventricle ftrongly and com¬
pletely empties itfelf; throwing out a great quantity
of blood into the arteries, which fully diftends them
and ftimulates them to a ftrong contraflion. A pulfe
of this kind is common in ftrong healthy men, and is
feldom to be accounted a fymptom of difeafe. But if
it be too ftrong, and ftrike the finger of the perfon wffio
feels it violently and fliarply, it is called a hard pu/fe.
This hardnefs is produced by a fudden and, violent con-
tra&ion of the heart and arteries, which diftends even
the remote branches, as thofe of the wrift, too fuddenly
and
Theory. MEDICINE.
Diforders and fmartly, and excites them alfo to fudden and vio-
of Circula- contractions.
■_ t'°n‘ . A hard pulfe therefore denotes too great an aCtion
of the heart and arteries. It may arii'e from various
caufes : in the firft place, from too great a tenfion of
the veiTels; for inftance, from their being too full, and
by that means more prone to motion, and the more
fit for receiving violent motions. It may arife alfo
from too great a deniity and firmnefs of the folids j
and hence it is molt frequent in cold countries, among
ftrong robuft people, and fuch as are accuftomed to
hard labour. It may likewife arife from various caufes
irritating the whole nervous fyftem, or only the heart
and arteries. Lailly, It accompanies many fevers, as
well as molt inflammatory diforders, whether the in¬
flammation arifes from a general llimulus applied to
the whole body, or from the irritation of particular
parts, by degrees extended over the whole body. In
fuch a (late of the circulation, the patient frequently
Hands in need of blood-letting, and almoll always bears
it well.
A fmall, weak, and foft pulfe is generally owing to
caufes oppofite to the former, and indicates a con¬
trary date of the circulation and nervous fyltem. It fre¬
quently requires tiimulants ■, nor does it generally re¬
quire blood-letting, or eafily bear it. Sometimes, how¬
ever, a pulfe of this kind is obferved even in the cafe
©f a dangerous inflammation, of the llomach for in¬
ftance, or intellines. But in thefe and the like ex¬
amples we ought to attend to the nature of the malady,
much more than to the ftate of the pulfe.
The pulfe is faid to intermit, when the ftroke does
not return after the ufual interval, and perhaps not
till after twice, thrice, or four times the ufual fpace.
A pulfe of this kind fee ms to be almoil natural and
conftant in forae animals, and is common to feme men
even in the mod perfedl health ; and if thefe happen
to be feized with a fever, the pulfe fometimes becomes
regular, nor can the difeafe be removed before the in-
termiflion has returned.
Moreover, in fome people, though their pulfe beats
equally while in health, yet the flighteft illnefs makes
it intermit; and in others, efpecially thofe who have a
great deal of mobility in their conftitution, fuch as hy¬
pochondriac and hy ft eric people, the intermiflion of
the pulfe is felt, without applying the finger to the ar¬
tery, merely by the uneafinefs which they perceive in
their breads during thofe intervals in which the pulfe
is deficient. An intermittent pulfe likewife occurs in
many difeafes of the breaft, efpecially when water is
collected in it; and the like happens in the end 'of all
difeafes, efpecially fevers, when the ftrength is nearly
exhaufted, and death approaches, of which it is fre¬
quently the forerunner.
An intermitting pulfe therefore feems to arife from
an unequal influx of the nervous power into the heart,
or from the decay and exhauilion of the nervous power,
by which means the heart is not able to contract till
. it has been diftended beyond its due pitch. Or laftly,
It may arife from difeafes of the organ itfelf, or the
neighbouring parts; from fwellings, water, &c. prefs-
ing upon them, and impeding the aftion of the heart :
which indeed is a very dangerous diforder, and almoft
Always mortal.
Many other variations of the pulfe are enumerated Diforders
by phyficians, but moft of them are uncertain, and not of Circuk-
confirmed by experience. We {hall therefore now con-, tl0n ,
fider the motion of the blood, which may be either too v '
great, too fmall, or irregular.
_ A quick pulfe, canteris paribus, produces a more ra¬
pid circulation, becaufe the fooner that the ventricle
of the heart is emptied, the more quickly is the blood
thrown into the arteries j and their actions muft an-
fwer to this ftronger ftimulus. Hence exercife, heat,
ftimulants, plethora, every kind of irritation, paflions
of the mind, and fever, increafe the circulation. The
effed of this increafe is a diftention of the veffels, a fti¬
mulus applied to the whole body, an increafe of heat,
and often a debility. The fecretion of fweat is increaf-
ed while the other fecretions are diminiflied, and the
various fundions of the body impeded j third; comes
on, the appetite is loft, the fat confumed, and a difpo-
fition to putrefcency introduced. Sometimes the fmall-
er veffels are burft j whence effufions of blood and ke-
morrhages. But we are by no means to forget, that
this violent motion of the blood, however hurtful it
may feem, is among the beft remedies made ufe of by
nature in curing many difeafes.
The. motion of the blood is diminifhed, efpecially
by debility, torpor, the want of irritation or of exer¬
cife : the fame thing happens to all the fluids, if there
be any ob ft ruction in the veffels, or any caufe by which
their return is hindered or rendered more difficult.
Thus, from the very weight of the blood itfelf, if a
perfon has ffood long on his feet, the humours return
more flowly from the inferior extremities. Any difeafe
of the heart and arteries alfo, as an aneurifm, contrac¬
tion, offification, muft neceffarily obftrudt the circula¬
tion. The fame thing happens from obftru&ions of the
veins, or interrupted refpiration, by which the paffage
of the blood through, the lungs to the left fide of the
heart is impeded.
. But, from whatever caufes this diminution of the
circulation takes place, the bad confequences are per¬
ceived chiefly in the veins, becaufe in them the blood
always moves more flowly than in the arteries. Hence
varices, and congeftions of blood, efpecially in thofe
parts of the body where the veins are deftitute of
valves, and of confequence where the motion of th&
mufcles cannot aflifl: the circulation. Hence alfo arife
diropfies from an impeded or languid motion of the
blood j becaufe the refiftance of the veins being increaf-
ed, the blood is received into them Avith the greater
difficulty, and more of the thin humour is driven into
the exhaling veffels, and by them depofited in fucli
quantities as cannot be reabforbed by the lymphatics.
Thefe difeafes, as well as all others proceeding from
defects of the circulation, are alfo more difficult of cure
than others, becaufe all the vital poAvers are weakened
at the fame time.
Another diforder of the circulation is Avhere the
blood is carried to one part of the body in too great
quantity, by Avhich means the other parts are depri¬
ved of their due proportion. This irregular diftribution
of the vital fluid frequently arifes from a ftimulus ap¬
plied to the part, itfelf, or to the brain, or at length
adting on the mind, Avbich, according to the laAvs of
fympathy, produces a certain definite diftribution of
222
of C'ir-
tion
97
Palpitation
H E D I
D;formers the blood. It arifes alio not unfrequcntly from a fpafm
taking place in feme other parts, which drives the
blood out of its ordinary courfe.
In proportion to this irregularity of the circulation
are the confequences ; heat, fuelling, rednefs, inflamma¬
tion, rupture of veffels, haemorrhages, effufions, deitruc-
tion, corruption, and fuppuration of the cellular texture
and adioining parts, &c. Even this evil, however,
nature often converts into an excellent remedy 5 and
phyficians, following her flops, frequently attempt to
diredt the diftribution of the blood in particular difeafes,
■well knowing that a change in the diftribution of the
blood is frequently efficacious either for radically curing
fome difeafes, or relieving their moft urgent fymptoms.
Laftly, Some diforders in the motion of the heart
itfelf, and thofe of no fmall confequence, remain yet to
, be taken notice of, namely, palpitation and fyncope..
A palpitation is a violent and irregular abtion of the
heart, fuch as for the moft part is perceived by the
patient himfelf, and that not without a great deal of
uneafinefs and oppreffion .at his breaft ; and it is alio
manifeft to the by-ftanders, if they apply their hands, or
look at his naked breaft j the pulfe of the arteries in
the mean time being weak, unequal, and intermit¬
tent, This is a fpafmodic diforder ; and is induced by
various caufes affefting either the nervous fyftem in
general, or the heart in particular. Every difeafe of the
oruan itfelf, fuch as a conft rift ion of its valves and
blood-veflels, an oflification, enlargement, or polypus,
hindering the free aftion of the heart, and evacuation
of blood from it, are capable of exciting it to violent
and unufual contraftions. The fame effeft will alfo
t follow plethora, or too violent an impulfe of the blood.
The heart will likewife frequently palpitate from a vio¬
lent excitement of the nervous fyftem, efpecially where
the conftitution is endowed with a great deal of mobili¬
ty. Hence palpitations arife from any affeftion of
the mind, and in hyfteric women. Palpitation may
likewife arife from an affeftion of the ftomach, ocea-
fioned by worms, a furfeit, flatus, or {Emulation by
various acrid fubftances. It frequently alfo accompanies
the gout when repelled, or even when a fit is coming
on. Sometimes it arifes from debility, whatever may
be the caufe 5 frequently from any difficulty in breath¬
ing j and many of thefe caufes maybe joined at the
fame time, or fome of them produce others.
Hence we may fee why the evil is fometimes flight
and of fliort continuance } at other times altogether in¬
curable, and certainly mortal in a longer or fliorter
time : why it fometimes returns at intervals, often com¬
ing on and being xncreafed by every kind of irritation
and exercife, and fometimes relieved or totally removed
by ftimulants or exercife.
A fyncope takes place when the aftion of the heart,
and along with it that of the arteries, is fuddenly and
very much leffened } whence the animal powers, the
fenfes, and voluntary motions, immediately ceafe. This
may be produced by almoft all the caufes of palpitation •,
becaufe whatever can difturb and diforder the motion of
the heart, may alfo weaken or fufpend it. The vitiated
ftrufture of the heart itfelf therefore violent paflions of
the mind, whether of the deprefling kind, or thofe
which fuddenly and vehemently excite, various kinds
of nervous difeafes, thofe of the ftomach, every kind of
5
9s
-Syncope.
CINE. Theory,
debility and evacuation, efpecially a great lofs of blood, Oiforders
exceflxve and unremitting labour, long watching, heat, ^
pain, many kinds of poiions, &c. produce fainting. ■ ''0(^
Hence we fee, that whatever weakens the motion of
the blood through the brain tends to produce fainting j
and, on the contrary, tvhatever tends to augment that
motion, alfo tends to refrefh, and to prevent the perfon
from fainting. Hence alfo we fee how the mere pofture
of the body may either bring on or keep off fainting, or
remove it after it has already come on. We likewife
fee how this diforder may fometimes be of little confe¬
quence and ealily removed •, at others very dangerous,
not only as a fymptom, but even of itfelf, as fometimes
terminating in death j and laftly, how it may be ufed
as a remedy by a Ikilful phyfician, and artificially
induced, either to free the patient from violent pain, or
to flop an immoderate effufion of blood fcarce to be
reftrained by any other method. • ^
With regard to the diforders of the blood itfelf, the Buff-co-
glutinous part of it, or, more properly, its fibrine fepa- loured cruft
rated from the red particles, produces that buff-coloured
appearance of’ n feen upon blood drawn from people
afflifted with inflammatory diforders, and even fome¬
times when no fuch difeafes are prefent. This cruft
indeed is nothing elfe than the fibrine of the blood
taking longer time than ufual to coagulate, by which
means the red particles have an opportunity of falling
to the bottom. This indicates no lentor, denfity, thick-
nefs, or tenacity of the blood, as was formerly thought $
but rather its thinnefs, or at leaft a lefs tendency in it
to coagulate. It arifes for the moft part from a violent
agitation and conquaffation of the blood within the bo¬
dy ; and hence it accompanies many fever?, all inflam¬
mations, fometimes haemorrhages, exanthemata, ple¬
thora, pain, and many irritations. It muft, however,
be allowed, that in feveral of thefe difeafes it is render¬
ed highly probable at leaft, from experiments apparent¬
ly accurate, that the quantity of the fibrine of the blood
is really increafed in the proportion which it bears to
the other parts. This cruft, however, is not always to
be accounted morbid, as it often happens to the moft
healthy 5 and may even be produced or deftroyed by
the flighteft caufes while the blood is running from the
vein, fo that frequently we fhall fee a very thick and
tenacious cruft on the blood flowing into one cup, while
that which runs into another has little or none at all.
In general, however, the appearance of this cruft ftiows,
that the patient will bear blood-letting well, though
thofe have been in a great miftake who have direfted
this operation to be repeated till no more cruft appeared
on the blood.
The coagulable -part of the blood alfo frequently pro¬
duces thofe maffes called polypi, which fometimes take
place during life, but more frequently after death, in
the large veffels near the heart, or even in the cavities
of that organ. Similar maffes alfo are frequently form¬
ed in the uterus, and are called moles. IC0
The quantity of blood contained in a healthy body plethora,
is very various, and difficult to be afeertained. Many
difeafes, however, may arife from its being either too
(canty or too abundant. Too great a quantity of
blood is produced by the ufe of rich, nourifhing diet,
ftrong drink, accompanied with a good digeftxon*,
from a lazy, fedentary life, or much fleep, efpecially
Theory.
Diforders In thofe who have been formerly accuftomed to much
ot t*ie exercife *, with many other caufes of the fame kind.
L : jt renders the perfon dull and languid, and fometimes
almoft totally oppreffes him j nor are thofe organs def-
tined for moving the blood fufficient for driving for¬
ward fueh a load. The pulfe finks j and fometimes a
fyneope, vertigo, or palpitation takes place. More fre¬
quently, however, the veffels are too much diftended,
and ready to be thrown into violent and irregular mo¬
tions. Hence a difpofition to fevers, inflammations, an
' unequal diftribution of the blood, unufual congeflions,
rupture of the veffels, and haemorrhages. Befides this,
in confequence of the clofe connection between the fan-
guiferous and the nervous fyftem, a fulnefs of blood
produces a difpofition to fpafm and other difeafes of that
kind.
Hence we may underftand why a plethora is fome¬
times accompanied with a weak and fometimes with a
flrong and hard pulfe, why it is the caufe as well as a
part of fo many diftempers, why it is the effeft of a
high flate of health, &c.
The want of a due quantity of blood is no lefs perni¬
cious than too great an abundance of it. It debilitates
the perfon, and renders him unable to perform the pro¬
per duties of life ; produces a languid circulation, fyn-
cope, fpafms, and at laid death itfelf. In a flighter de¬
gree of the difeafe the body is emaciated through want
ioi of nourifhment, and its fundlions are vitiated in various
Inanition way's. It may arife from want, bad food, or fuch as
affords little nourifhment: from bad digeftion, or the
chyle being hindered from pafling into the blood : from
fevers, or other difeafes which exhauft the body and
hinder nutrition : or laftly, from various evacuations,
particularly of blood ; and that the more efpecially if
they are hidden, for in flow evacuations the veffels ac¬
commodate themfelves furprifingly to the quantity left
in them. Befides, if the body be flowly exhaufted, the
excretions are leffened by reafon of the deficiency of the
vital power ; fo that the unufual expence is eafily com-
penfated by the unufual retention. But if the evacua¬
tion happens to be very hidden and great, it may either
prove mortal in a fhort time, or break the conftitution
t0J to a degree beyond recovery.
Morbid By a great and long continued deficiency of blood
thinnefs of the quality of it alfo is impaired ; becaufe the thin part
the blood. c£ js ea{py anq foon made up ; but the gliltinous,
and red part, not fo eafily. Hence the blood becomes
thin, pale, fcarcely capable of coagulation, or of af¬
fording a proper fupport to the body. Too great thin¬
nefs of the blood alfo proceeds from ufing much drink,
efpecially of the aqueous kind, flender and unnutritious
diet, a bad digeflion in the ftomach ; from difeafes of
the lungs and thofe organs which elaborate the red
part; or from fupnrefiion of the ufual evacuations of
thin humours, as fweat or urine, induced bv cold, a
fault of the fecreting organs, or from putrefcency.
But along with this, other diforders of the blood
concur.
A too thin and watery blood makes the face pale,
the body weak and languid. The folid parts become
flaccid from want of nourilhment, and having too great
a quantity of rvater in their compofition. It btings on
hydropic effufioos of water in all parts of the body, by
reafon of the increafed exhalation of that thin fluid
which moiftens all the inwrard parts 5 partly by reafon
223
of the veffels being relaxed beyond their ufual pitch, Difoidcrs
and not making a proper refittance. Befidts, in this
cafe, the lymphatics are fo far from abforbing more ■ ^ _ 1
than ufual, that, partaking likewife of the general de¬
bility, they are fcarcely fitted for performing their pro¬
per offices.
Nature, however, has taken care, by the moft fimple
means, to provide againft fo many and fo great evils ;
for neither does the blood fo eafily become thin as lome
have imagined, nor when this quality takes place does
it want a proper remedy. For almoft inftantly, if the
perfon be otherwife in health, the excretions of wa¬
tery matters are greatly augmented, and the whole
mafs of blood in a ftiort time becomes as thick as for¬
merly. 103"
The oppofite to this, namely, too great a thicknefs of Morbid
the blood, though often fpoken of by phyficians, is very
rarely if ever obferved ; and thofe fevers and inflamma¬
tions'which have been thought to arife from thence,
are now found to originate from other caufes. The
following would feem to be the law of the human con¬
ftitution. As foon as the blood has attained the due
degree of thicknefs, or gone in the Icaft beyond it, the
excretions are either fuppreffed or diminifhed, the body
attrafts more moifture from the air, the perfon is thirfty,
and drinks as much as is neceftary for diluting the blood.
But if water be -wanting, and the perfon cannot fatisfy
his thirft, then the blood is fo far from being thicken¬
ed, that by reafon of a putrefcency begun or augmented,
it is much diffolved, becomes acrid, and is with diffi¬
culty contained in the veffels. 104
The acrimony of the fluids has afforded a large Acrimony
field for declamation to fpeculative pbyficians, and0^1^
upon this flender foundation many perplexed and in- 00 a
tricate theories have been built. It is certain indeed,
that the blood in a ftate of health has fome fmall {hare
of acrimony ; and this acrimony, from certain caufes,
may be a little increafed fo as to produce various dif¬
eafes of a dangerous nature. This we are affured of
from the inereafe of motion in the heart and arteries,
and the fimilar augmentation of the aflion of the fe-
cretory organs, when certain acrid fubftances are taken
inwardly. The fame thing alfo appears from the un¬
ufual acrimony of the fecreted fluids in fuch cafes, by
which the veffels are fometimes greatly ftimulated, and
fometimes even quite eroded. Very many acrid fub¬
ftances, however, are daily taken into the ftomaeh ; fo
that thefe muft either be correfted in the primer vice,
or changed by digeftion before they pafs into the blood ;
or at leafr by dilution with much water, or being blunt¬
ed by an admixture with gluten, oil, or different gafes,
they muft; depofit much of their acrimony, and at laft
be thrown out of the body as noxious fubftances. Thus
a vaft quantity of falts, acid, alkaline, and neutral, may
pafs through the body, without in the leaf! affecting
the health ; though thefe falts, if taken in very large
quantitv, undiluted, or not thrown out of the body,
will do much hurt.
Moreover, even while life continues, putrefatftion is
going on, and produces much of that fubftance called
animal fait ; for into this a great part of our food is
converted, and paffes off by the urine.. But if this pu-
trefeent difpofition be too great, it will produce too
large a quantity of animal fait ; efpecially if much of
any faline fubftance is otherwife thrown into the body
without
MEDICINE.
224 ' M E D I
Dnorders without proper dilution : and this kind of difeafe is
Blood' we^ known to failors who have been long at fea,
« 1 without haying an opportunity of getting frcih provi-
fions.
For this fpontaneous putrefeency, nature has fug-
gefted a proper remedy, namely, frelh meat, efpecially
of the vegetable and acefcent kind, and fuch as is much
impregnated with acid, which it may impart to the
body. But where this kind of food is wanting, the pu¬
trefaction goes on apace, and a very great thinnefs and
acrimony of the juices take place ; efpecially if there be
alfo a fcarcity of urine, or the excretions which ought
to carry the putrid matters out of the body languilh, ei¬
ther from cold, doth, torpor, deprefling paflions of the
mind, or from the conftitution being broken by dif-
eafes *, or, laftly, from too great heat, which always fa¬
vours putrefaftion.
Befides, it would feem, that fometimes a difpofition
to. putrefaction is much increafed by the reception of a
putrid ferment into the body j of which we have exam¬
ples in fome infeCtious fevers, where the contagion is
very much aflifted by heat, animal diet, certain kinds
of falts, debility and naftinefs.
Laftly, Any lingle part of the body may putrefy
from various caufes, as from inflammation, cold, &c.
and thus may the whole body be infeCted $ although for
the moft part the difeafe proves fatal before the corrup¬
tion has fpread over the whole body.
But when the mafs of blood begins to putrefy great¬
ly, it not only becomes very acrid, but thin alfo, fo
that it either will not coagulate at all, or thows only
a flight and very loofe craflamentum. Nay, even the
red globules are broken down and deftroyed j in which
cafe it neceffarily follows, that the blood muft become
very acrid, as well on account of the evolution of the
fait, as by reafon of the rancid and putrid gluten, which
ftimulates, and frequently even erodes, the veflels •, pro¬
ducing fpots, firft red, then livid and black, tumors,
and ulcers fcarce poflible to be cured, without firft re¬
moving the putrefeent difpofition of the humours. From
the fame caufes proceed haemorrhages from every part
of the body, hardly to be reftrained ; a moft intolerable
fetor of the breath and all the excrements} the higheft
debility and laxity of the folids } the putrefa&ion afting
as a poifon to the nervous fyftem, and at length bring¬
ing on death. & 6
An acrimony of the acid kind never takes place in
the human blood, nor in any of the humours fecreted
from it} though one of them, namely the milk, turns
acid fpontaneeufly in a very ftjort time after it is drawn
from tue breaft, Neither does an alkaline acrimony
feem ever to take place in the blood, Putrefeency
-indeed tends this way, and at laft terminates in it} but
fcarcely while the perfon lives, though the nature of the
urine, even while recent, feems to be but little diftant
from that of an alkali.
Many kinds of acrimony may exift in the blood
from too liberal an ufe of fpices, wine, fpirits, &c, but
of thefe we know nothing certain. We well know,
however, that the body is often infefled with various
kinds of morbid acrimony, which bring on many and
dangerous difeafes, as the finall-pox, meafles, cancers,
lues venerea, See, of which the origin and manner
•f adling are very little underftood, though the efleas
.abundantly evident. In moft cafes, nature has taken
C 1 N E. Th
no lefs care to provide agamft the acrimony than againft Diforder
the too great vifeidity of the blood. Sometimes an of HefpS.
antidote is afforded, either by the excitement of thirft tlon-
that the acrid fubftance may be diluted with plenty of
drink} or by increafing the evacuations, that it may
be thrown out of the body} or laftly, by excitino va¬
rious motions and adtions of the vital powers, by
which it may be either fubdued, changed, rendered in¬
nocent, or expelled from the body by new and unwont¬
ed paffages.
With regard to refpiration, it maybe obftru&edfromRefIOs
various caufes feated either in the lungs themfelves or tioie^"
the furrounding parts. But from whatever caufe this
obftrudtion may arife, it undoubtedly produces all thofe
difeafes which proceed from an interrupted circulation.
The lungs themfelves alfo being at length compreffed,
and not fuftered to dilate fufficiently, cannot throw off
the vapour which arifes from them} and hence they
are frequently oppreffed with moifture. At the fame
time they are irritated, fo that a greater quantity of
mucus, and that of a tliieker kind than ufual, is fecret-;
e_d } by which means the paffages through which the
air enters them are flopped up, till a violent cou<di at
length throws off the load.
The refpiration is alfo fubje&ed to fome other difor-
ders, as a cough and fneezing, which, though at firfl:
fight they may feem very dangerous, are not deftitute
of ufe, and may even be reckoned among the molt fa-
lutary attempts of nature to relieve the patient. Of¬
ten, however, they are attended with danger, or
very great uneafinefs } namely, when they are either
too violent or exerted in vain. At any rate, it is ne-
ceffary for a phyfician to know the nature, caufes,
and effedts of thefe, that he may be enabled to pro¬
mote them when neceffary, to moderate them when
too violent, and to flop them when noxious or of no
ufe.
A cough is. a violent, frequently involuntary, and Cough,
fonorous exfpiration, fuddenly expelling the air with
great force through the glottis fomewhat contra&ed.
The convulfion of the mufcles ferving for exfpiration,
gives a great force to the air, while the contraftion of
the glottis produces the found. It is often long conti¬
nued, being repeated at certain intervals, during each
of which the infpiration is imperfedl and obftru&ed
by reafon of the contradlion of the glottis. It is ex¬
cited by any kind of acrid fubftance, either chemically
or mechanically applied to thofe paffages through
which the air enters. Thefe are lined with a mem¬
brane fo exceedingly delicate and impatient of ftimu-
lus, that it cannot even bear the touch of the mildeft
fubftance, fuch as a fmall drop of water, without throw¬
ing the mufcles ferving for exfpiration into a violent
convulfion} the glottis at the fame time contradting
by means of the fympathy between it and the neigh¬
bouring parts. Tims the air is thrown out with fuch
violence, that it drives the irritating fubftance along
with it} and thus a cough becomes not only ufeful,
but abfolutely neceffary for the prefervation of life, as
being able to free the lungs from every kind of irrita¬
ting fubftance or foulnefs, which might foon bring on
a fuffbeation. Hence a cough is almoft an infeparable
companion of every inflammation of the lungs, as well
as every difficulty in refpiration } and even frequently
accompanies the entrance of the pureft air when the
trachea
Theory.
Difoidcrs trachea and broncliise are excoriated, or become too
of Refpira- fenfible. Examples alfo are -not wanting, where a vio-
tl°n' , lent and troublefome cough has arilen from an irrita¬
bility of the nervous fyftem, or even of foxae particular
part, of the ear, for inftance, the ftomaeh and inteftines,
the liver by inflammation, &c.
Coughing may alfo be voluntarily excited, and may
then be managed at pleafure. Even when involuntary,
it may be moderated, or fupprelTed, by a contrary ef¬
fort : though a violent fit of coughing cannot by any
means be refifted. When it is once excited, the cough
goes on till the irritating fubftance be expelled, or the
fenfe of irritation abolithed, or perhaps overcome by a
more uneafy fenfation than even the cough itfelf; af¬
ter which the irritation again returning at a certain
interval, the cough alfo returns. Hence we are taught
a method of allaying and quieting this moil troublefome
malady, though frequently it is not in our power to re¬
move the caule of it altogether.
A very violent cough is often dangerous : For by
the retention of the breath, and the itrong efforts made
in coughing, a great quantity of blood is collected in
the lungs, of which the veflels are diffended, and fre¬
quently broken ; and hence there fometimes happens a
violent and even fatal haemorrhage. More frequently,
however, it is the caufe of a flower, though equally fa¬
tal, difeafe. Nay, a frequent and troublefome cough,
without any great haemorrhage, or even without any
haemorrhage at all, may injure the lungs to fuch a
degree, efpecially if they be of a more tender ftru&ure
than ufual, as to lay the foundation of a phthifis almofi:
always incurable.
Again, by a long-continued and violent cough, the
paffage of the blood through the lungs being impeded,
it muff neceffarily flow through the veins towards the
head : hence rednefs and lividnefs in the countenance,
haemorrhages, palfies, apoplexies, and fometimes fatal
convulfions, Laflly, by a violent cough the abdominal
vifeera are compreffed with remarkable violence 5 and
if any part happens to be weaker than ufual, a hernia,
prolapfus uteri, abortion, or fimilar accidents, may hap¬
pen.
Even when the cough is more gentle, if it happens
to be importunate and frequent, although we have no¬
thing of this kind to fear, yet the patient is by no
means free from danger ; as he is thereby agitated, fa¬
tigued, has his conftitution broken, is deprived of reft,
has a fever brought upon him, his lungs are ftiaken
and irritated, digeftion. and all the other funftions are
impeded, till at laft he finks under a complication of
107 maladies.
Sneezing.! Sneezing is fomewhat fimilar to cough, as confifting
of a very full infpiration, to which fucceeds a moft
violent exfpiration, by which the air is driven out
through the noftrils with immenfe violence, and fweeps
the paffage through them as it goes out. It is a con-
vulfion much more violent than a cough, and is befides
very difficult to be flopped when once a propenfity to
it has taken place. As a cough proceeds from an irri¬
tation of the glottis, trachea, bronchia, and lungs, fo
fneezing arifes from an irritation of the membrane of
the noftrils, hut rarely from fympathy with any diftant
part. It is fometimes of fervice, as well as a cough ;
though it is alfo fometimes prejudicial, for the reafons
which have been already affigned.
Vol. XIII. Part I.
225
The laft affedtions -of which we {hall here fpeak, are Diforders
thofe arifing from a bad digeftion, difordered motion of ^S01*
of the inteftines, and fome of the principal fecretions.. t^r!' .
The firft of thefe are fometimes very troublefome,
though feldom dangerous. The principal fymptoms are
oppreffion, anxiety, pain at the ftomach ; eradiations, q; egf0B
by reafon of air extricated from the fermenting all- ^
ments, and irritating the ftomach ; naufea and vomi¬
ting, from the irritation and diftention of the fame or¬
gan ; the belly fometimes too coflive, and fometimes
too loofe ; a defedt of nouriflxment j a general debility j
relaxation of the folid parts ; too great thinnefs of the
fluids 3 all the fundlions impeded 3 pain of the head 3
vertigo, fyncope, afthma, palpitation 3 great finking
of the fpirits, efpecially if the patient has been of
a peculiar conftitution 3 fometimes the gout, fome-
times a dropfy, or a flow fever which may prove
fatal.
The motion of the inteftines may be either too great Coftivenels'.
or too little ; and hence proceeds either coftivenefs or
loofenefs. The former is frequently not to be account¬
ed morbid 3 but, when it is, it may arife from the
ftrudture of the inteftines being injured, or from their
being ffiut up or obftrudled by fpafm or otherwife, or
from a deficiency of thofe humours Avhich moiften the
inteftines 3 or, it may arife from mere debility, from a
palfy of the fibres, perhaps, or from a deficiency of the
ufual ftimulus, of the bile, ior inftahee, or from too
dry or flender a diet.
The confequences of long-continued coftivenefs, are,
firft, an affedtion of the alimentary canal, and then of
the whole body. The ftomach is difeaied, and does
not digeft the aliments properly 3 the whole body is
left deflitute of its ufual ftimulus 3 the blood is cor¬
rupted, perhaps from the reforption of the putrid mat¬
ter into it. The circulation through the abdominal
vifeera is impeded 3 hence frequent and irregular con-
geftions, varices of the veins, haemorrhoids, &c. Nay,
the inteftines themfelves being overloaded, diftended
and irritated by an heavy, acrid, and putrid load of
aliment or other matters, are excited to new and un-
ufual contractions, which, if they do not get the bet¬
ter of the obftruction, bring on tormina, colic, or an
iliac paffion, inflammation and gangrene, fatal in a very
fhort time.
Loofenefs, or diarrhoea, is a malady extremely com- l00
mon 3 being fometimes a .primary diteafe, and fome¬
times only a fymptom or an efleet of others. Some¬
times it is a falutary effort of nature, fuch as the
phyfician ought to imitate and bring on by art. It
is alfo familiar to infants, and to people of a certain
conftitution 3 and to them coftivenefs is very prejudi¬
cial. It may arife, in the firft 'place, from fomething
taken into the .body, or generated in the inteflines j
from a fermentation and corruption of the mafs of ali¬
ments 3 from the bile being too abundant and acrid, or
from blood or pus poured into the inteftines 3 from the
inteftines themfelves being eroded, or deprived of their
natural mucus ; from the ‘humours being driven from
the furface of the body towards the inward parts, as
by cold, efpecially when applied to the feet 3 or from
a general corruption of the whole body, as in the
phthifis, heftic, or putrid fever, efpecially towards the
end of thefe diforders. In fevers it is fometimes falu¬
tary, or even puts an end to the difeafe altogether, or
F f at
MEDICINE.
226
Diforders at leafl renders it milder j more frequently, however,
of the Ali- deriving its origin from putrefcency, it is of no fer-
'canai ^ vice> but rather exhaufts the itrength of the patient,
i t 1 A diarrlioea likewife, almoft incurable, and often fatal
in a fhort time, frequently arifes after the operation
for the fillula in ano. Some have their inteftines fo
extremely weak and moveable, that from the flighteft
caufe, fuch* as catching cold, any violent commotion
of the mind, &c. they are fubje£t to a violent diarrhoea.
Laftly, whatever be its origin, if it'has continued for
a long time, the vifcera are rendered fo weak and ir¬
ritable, that the difeafe, though often removed, Hill
returns from the flighted: caufes, and even fuch as are
not eafily difcovered.
A diarrhoea proves very pernicious, by hindering
digeflion and the nourilhment of the body j for the
flomach is commonly affedted, and the aliments pafs
through the inteftines fo quickly, that they can nei¬
ther be properly digefled, nor are the lafteals able to
abforb the chyle from them as they go along. Such a
violent evacuation is alfo hurtful by exhaufting the
body, and carrying off a great quantity of the nutri¬
tious matter from the blood. Neither indeed, is it
only the alimentary mafs which is thrown out fooner
than it ought to be j but at the fame time, a great
quantity of the fluids fecreted in the inteftines, fo that
the whole body quickly partakes of the debility.
Sometimes a violent and long-continued diarrhoea
rifes to fuch a height, that the aliment is difcharged
with little or no alteration. Sometimes alfo, though
rarely, from a fimilar caufe, or from the obftrudfion
of the mefenteric glands, and its other paffages into
the blood, the chyle itfelf is thrown out like milk
along with the excrements j and this difeafe is called
in theJluxus ccehacus.
Pyfentery. A dyfentery is attended with very fevere gripes in
the belly, a frequent defire of going to ftool, and
vain efforts, when nothing is excreted befides the mucus
of the inteftines mixed with a little blood j it is alfo ac¬
companied with exceflive debility, and frequently with
putrefcency and fever. It is thought to * arife from
the conftridlion of fome part of the inteftines, of the
colon efpecially : by which means the bowels, though
ever fo much irritated, can pafs nothing j neither can
the difeafe be removed, until the belly has been well
n j purged by proper medicines.
Tenefmus. A tenefmus is a frequent and infatiable propenfity
to ftool, without being able to pafs any thing, not-
withftanding the moft violent efforts. It may be oc-
cafioned by any kind of irritation, either of the rec¬
tum itfelf or of the neighbouring parts, by acrid
fubfiances taken into the body ; by fome of the ftrong-
er purges, efpecially aloes, a fubftance very difficult of
folution, which will pafs even to the reftum with very
little alteration; by a violent and obftinate diarrhoea,
dyfentery, haemorrhoids, worms, fiftula. calculus, ulcer
in the bladder, urethra, &c. It is often very perni¬
cious, both from the exceflive uneafinefs it occafions to
the patient, and from its exhaufting his ftrength, by the
frequent and vain efforts bringing on a prolapfus ani,
and communicating the violent irritation to the neigh-
*,3 bouring parts, as the bladder, &c.
Naufea and A naufea and vomiting are diforders very common,
vomiting. anci owing to almoft innumerable caufes 5 not only to
affections of the ftomach itfelf, but alfo to affections and
Theory
irritations of the remoteft parts of the body which D-.fordeV
may act upon the ftomach by fympathy. Every irri- of the Ali.
tation and diftention of that vifeus therefore, a load mentaiy
of crude aliment, an obftruftion about the pylorus . Canal‘
all acrid fubftances taken into it, difeafes of the liver* v *
inteftines, kidneys, uterus, the head, the feet, the fldn*
or indeed the. whole body, inflammation, the ftone*
king’s evil, fchirrus, apoplexy, compreflion of the brain)
fratfure of the Ikull, vertigo, fyncope, violent pain)
the gout, efpecially when repelled, fevers, paflions of
the mind, difagreeable imaginations or difcourfes, fre¬
quently induce naufea and vomiting.
Thefe aft eel ions are often ferviceable by freeing the
ftomach from fomething with which it was overloaded -t
promoting fpitting in fome cafes where the lungs are
overcharged with mucus, blood, pus, or water ; pro¬
ducing fweat, and a free and proper diftribution of
blood to the furface of the body ; partly, perhaps, by
the great {training which accompanies vomiting, but
rather by that wonderful fympathy which takes place
between the ftomach and {kin : and hence, in many
difeafes, vomiting is a moft excellent remedy. It is
however in fome cafes hurtful, if too violent or too fre¬
quently repeated, partly by debilitating and making
the ftomach more eafily moved j and partly by fa-
tiguing the patient with violent {trainings, which oc-
cafion hernias, abortions, &c.
Sometimes we find the motion of the inteftines
totally inverted, from the anus to the mouth j afion.P *
moft dangerous diftemper, which hath obtained the
name of the iliac pajjion. It moft frequently arifes
from fome obftru&ion in the alimentary canal hinder¬
ing the defeent of the excrements, as fchirrus, fpafm,
inflammation, &c. : though the moft perfed iliac paf-
fion takes place without any obftru&ion, fo that clyf-
ters will be vomited ; and even after this has conti¬
nued for feveral days, the patients have at length re¬
covered.
A {lighter degree of the iliac paflion, namely the
inverfion of the periftaltic motion of the duodenum,
always takes place in long-continued and violent vo¬
miting, as in fea-ficknefs, or when a perfon has taken
too large a dofe of an emetic j by which means a vaft
quantity of bile frequently afeends into the ftomach, .
and is difcharged by vomiting.
An exceflive vomiting with loofenefs is called a cho- Cholera.
/era, when the matter difcharged has a bilious appear¬
ance. It arifes from a very great irritation of the ali¬
mentary canal without any obftru&ion j and is for the
moft part occafioned by too great a quantity, or
from an acrimony of the bile, from whence it takes
its name. It may originate from feveral caufes, as
too. ftrong a dofe of an emetic and cathartic medicine
eating too great a quantity of fummer-fruits, &c!
and is a very violent malady, often killing the pa¬
tient in a few hours, unlefs proper remedies be applied
in time.
. From a fuppreflion of any of the fecretions, or a obftmAei
diforder of any of the. fecretory organs, many mif-perfpira.
chiefs may arile. A diminution of perfpiration pro-t'on.
duces plethora, laflitude, languor, depreflion of mind,
bad digeftion, lofs of appetite, and even a general cor¬
ruption of the humours from the retention of fuch a
quantity, of putrefeent matter.—The more fuddenly the
diminution or fuppreflion of the perfpiration takes
MEDICINE.
ii7
Exccffive
pcrfpiva-
tion.
lit
Suppreflion
of urine.
Theory. M E B I
Difordcrs place, the looner the mifchief is produced, and the
of Secre- greater it is ; not only by retaining the matter which
. tl°n‘ . . ought to be thrown out, but by repelling the humours
from the furface of the body, and dire&ing them to
other parts ; whence fevers, inflammations, congeftions
of the blood, &c. frequently take place.
This fuppreflion of perfpiration may arife from many
different caufes \ as from cold fuddenly applied to the
body when very hot; fometimes from very violent paf-
fions of the mind } or from fpafmodie difeafes, as the
hyfterics, &c. It may be fuppreffed alfo by that kind
of conftriflion of the veffels of the fkin which is pro¬
duced by various kinds of fevers, the nature of which
has hitherto been but little known.
Exceflive perfpiration or fweating is injurious by de¬
bilitating the body, relaxing the Ikin, and expoflng the
patient to all the evils which arife from catching cold.
It may even be carried to fuch a height as to produce
fainting and death j though it muff be owned that we
cannot eafily bring examples of people having, from this
eaufe, their blood infpiffated, corrupted, or being thence
made liable to inflammations and fevers.
A fuppreflion of urine is Hill more dangerous than
that of perfpiration, and unlefs relieved in a Ihort time
will certainly prove fatal. This diforder, which is call¬
ed ifehuria, may arife from various difeafes of the kid¬
neys, ureters, bladder, urethra, &c. Thus any obllruc-
tion or irritation of one or other of the kidneys or ure¬
ters, by a ftone, gravel, mucus, blood, inflammations,
fpafm, fuppuration, fchirrus, fwellings of the neighbour¬
ing parts, &c. may either prevent the urine from being
feereted, or may give rife to a fcanty or depraved fecre-
tion, or, finally, may obllrucl its pafiage into the bladder
after it is fecreted.
The urine, alfo, after it has entered the bladder,
is there frequently fuppreffed, by reafon of various
diforders to which that organ is liable, as an irritation
or inflammation, fpafm, acrid fubftances injedled, or
fympathy with the neighbouring parts ; or by reafon
of the texture of the bladder itfelf being deftroyed, or
from a palfy, fchirrus, ulcer, &c. in the bladder. Or,
laftly, the urine may be retained in the bladder from
a general ftupor, as from a difeafe of the brain,
which happens in fome fevers, when the patient is
neither fenflble of the ufual ilimulus, nor even of one
much greater, fo that the fibres can fearcely be exci¬
ted to contraflion by any means whatever. This, in
fevers, is always a bad fign, and fometimes even proves
fatal.
A fuppreflion of urine for any length of time pro¬
duces an immenfe diitenfion of the bladder, oppreflion,
uneafinefs, and pain, not only of the part itfelf, but
of the furrounding ones, and even of the whole body ;
a fpafna, or infuperable conftriftion of the fphindler ;
an inflammation, gangrene, or laceration of the blad¬
der itfelf; a violent irritation of the whole habit ;
then a naufea, vomiting, vertigo, general ftupor, and
an impregnation of the whole mafs of Wood with
a humour of an urinous nature, which at laft being
poured out into various cavities of the body, efpecially
of the head, foon brings on a deep fleep, convulfions,
and death.
From the fame caufes, but atting with lefs force,
proceeds that difeafe called a dijfuria, when the urine
paffes with difficulty and pain, and is frequently
C I N E.
•227
^ 119
Dyfuria.
red, black, bloody, purulent, mucous, and fandy ; the Diforden^
reafon of all which appearances is very much un- Secre-
known.—The moft frequent complaint, however, in . l‘<m' ,
making water, is where the patient has a continual and
violent defire of palling his urine, while at the fame
time only two or three drops can be palled at once, rio
and that not without fome pain. This may be occa-Strangury,
fioned even in healthy people, by fome acrid fubftance
taken into the ftomach ; and is very common to old
people, who are generally fubjecl to diforders of the
kidneys and bladder. It arifes alfo frequently from a
Hone irritating the bladder, or from an inflammation of
it, or of its being deprived of its mucus, or this laft be¬
ing fomehovv or other corrupted •, or laftly, from cer¬
tain difeafes, or fome particular Hate of the neighbour¬
ing parts, as of the uterus, vagina, urethra, proftate
gland, &c. _ _ 121-
Akin to the ftrangury is an incontinence of urine, Inconti-
when the patient’s water either comes away againft ne.nce ot
his will, or altogether without his knowledge. ThisUIlnC"
diforder may arife from debility, palfy, an ulcer or
wound, or any long-continued and violent irritation
of the bladder, efpecially of its fphinfter, as from a
ftone, a general pally, or in females difficult labour,
injuring the neighbouring parts.—This fymptom oc¬
curs in a great number of difeafes, efpecially in the
hydrocephalus.—Sometimes the urine is expelled with
violence, either by reafon of univerfal fpafms, or by
violent contractions of the muffles of refpiration, as in
fneezing, laughter, &c. Iia
Among the diforders incident to the urine we Urinary
may reckon the production of calculi, which frequently calculi*
bring on the moft excruciating and dangerous difeafes.
—The urine, befides the water and falts, contains no
fmall fhare of the glutinous part of the blood already
fomewhat corrupted, and ftill inclined to farther cor¬
ruption. Hence the urine even of the moft healthy
people depofits a fediment after it has flood for fom'e
time *, and though none of this fediment be formed in
a healthy body, yet if the fmalleft particle of foreign
matter be introduced into the bladder, a cruft foon
gathers round it, and it is fure to become the bafis of a
concretion, which by degrees grows to a very great
fize. It is not unlikely, alfo, that fome unknown
fault of the fluids may contribute to the produ&ion.
of thofe calculi, as the ftone is well known to be an
hereditary difeafe, and to be born with the patient.
Calculous perfons alfo are commonly fubjed to com¬
plaints of the ftomach, efpecially to an acidity of it;
and many have received no little relief from alkalefcent
or alkaline medicines.—From the fame caufes mav
calculi be formed in the kidneys j from which proceed
a horrid train of fymptoms deferibed in the fubfequent
part of this treatife.
It is now found, by accurate experiments of the
moft able chemifts, that urinary calculi do not, as was
once fuppofed, con fill almoft entirely of an earthy mat¬
ter. Their principal conftituent is a peculiar acid
approaching more nearly to the phofpboric found in
the bones than to any other. But the acid of cal¬
culus being in fome refpecls peculiar in its nature, has
among modern chemifts obtained a peculiar name, and
been diftinguiflied by the appellation of the /ti/iic or uric
acid. It is highly probable that this acid prefent in the
circulating mafs, is precipitated and difengaged by the
F f 2 introduction
22$ M E D I
Difortlcr introduction of other acids, and thus thrown off in
Giants 8Teaicr quantities by the kidneys. Thus, then, we can
t . underftand the influence of acids as tending to the ge¬
neration of calculus, and of alkalies as tending to pre-
*23 vent it.
Schirms. The lafi; diforder here to be taken notice of is a
diforder of the glands themfelves, owing to fome kind
of obllrudlion, and is one of the moil dreadful dif-
eafes incident to human nature. Hence happens a
great fwclling and furpriling hardnefs, not only without
pain, but fometimes even with a diminution of fenfatibn
in the part affedled 5 and when the gland is thus a fleet¬
ed, it is called a fchirrus. Sometimes it remains in
this date for a long time 5 but fooner or later produces
llie mofl: excruciating torment. By degrees it is infedl-
ed with a flow and malignant fuppuration, degenerating
into an horrid ulcer, confuming not only the part itfelf,
CINE. ^ .. Pradice,
but eating away the n ei glib curing ones, and corrupting Verfatility
the whole body with the mofl: acrid and incurable , poi- d“e Hu.
fon. This difeafe is called a cancer, of which the caufes man
are very little known. . tutIon-^
Qf the organs in both fexes concerned in the fundlion
of generation, and of that fundlion as far as we yet
know any thing refpe&ing it, an account has already
been given in Anatomy ; and after what has been faid
of the different fundlions, and of the morbid affedlions,
to which thefe are fubjected, we may conclude our re¬
marks on the theory of medicine, with mentioning the
remarkable verfatility of the human conftitution 5 which
more than that of any other animal, is capable of ac¬
commodating itfelf to every climate and to all kinds of
diet. Hence we may conclude, that a large proportion
of the difeafes to which we are fubjedled are produced
by ourfelves.
Practice of Medicine, or an Account of the principal Difeafes to which the Human
Body is fubjeded.
General We have already defined medicine to be the art of
Arrange- preventing, curing, and alleviating, thofe difeafes to
Difntf ^ which mankind are fubjedted. While thefe affections,
1 ’ however, are in number almofi: infinite, each in its pro-
grefs is fubjedled to almofl: endlefs varieties from differ¬
ences in climate, conftitution, treatment, and a Variety
of other particulars. Hence wm may readily explain
both the difficulty of diftinguiftiing morbid affedfions
from each other in actual pradtice, and the diverlity of
names which have, been affixed to them in the writings
of ancient phyficians. It may readily be fuppofed,
that in this, as well as other fubjedts, there has been a
gradual improvement from the progreffive labours of
ihduftrious and ingenious men. And although much
yet remains to be done in the proper arrangement and
diftindtion of difeafes, or what has been called methodi¬
cal nofology, yet there cannot be a doubt, that during
the courfe of the 18th century, this fubjedl has re¬
ceived very great improvements... For thefe, we are,
in the firft place, highly indebted to the labours of
Francifcus Boiffier de Sauvages, an eminent profeffor
of medicine at Montpelier, who, following out an idea
fuggefted by the fagacious Dr Sydenham of England,
firft fuccefsfully attempted to arrange difeafes, as bo-
tanifts had done plants, into claffes, orders, genera, and
fpecies. Since the publication of the Nofologia Metho-
dica of Sauvages, this fubjedl has been fuccefsfully cul¬
tivated by feveral ingenious men, particularly by Sir
Charles Linnaeus of Upfal, to whofe genius for arrange¬
ment every branch of natural hiftory, but botany in
particular, has been fo highly indebted 5 by Rudolphus
Auguftus Vogel, an eminent profeffor at Gottingen j
and by John Baptift Sagar, a diftinguiftied phyfician at
Igiaw in Moravia : But of all the fyftems of arrange¬
ment yet prefented to the medical world, that publifti-
ed by the late illuftrious Dr William Cullen of Edin¬
burgh, may juftly be confidered as the beft. In treat¬
ing, therefore, of the principal difeafes to which the
human body is fubjeaed, we flrall follow his plan, en¬
deavouring to deliver the beft eftabliffied obfervations
refpeaing the hiftory, theory, and praaice of each. In
Seating of particular genera of difeafe, although we
2.
follow the arrangement of Dr Cullen, yet for the fatis-
faaion of the reader, wre Ihall often point out the
elaffes to which the fame affeaion is referred, by the
other eminent writers whom we have mentioned. And
on this account, it may not be improper briefly to enu¬
merate the general claffes to which each of them have
referred the affbaions of the human body..
The Claffes of Sauvages arc,
j. Vitia.
2. Febres.
3. Phlegmafise.
4. Spafmi.
3. Anhelationes.
6. Debilitates.
7. Dolores.
8. Vefaniae.
9. Fluxus.
10. Cachexiae.
The Claffes of Linnaeus are,
1. Exanthematici.
2. Critici.
3. Phlogiftici.
4. Dolorofi.
5. Mentales.
6. Quietales.
7. Motorii.
8. Supprefforii.
9. Evacuatorii.
10. Deformes.
11. Vitia.
The Claffes of Vogel are.
1. Febres.
2. Profluvia.
3. Epifchefes.
4. Dolores.
5. Spafmi.
6...Adynamise.
7. Hyperaefthefes.
8. Cachexiae.
9. Paranoia?.
10. Vitia.
11. Deformitates.
The Claffes of Sagar are,
1. Vitia.
2. Palgae.
3. Cachexiae.
4. Dolores.
5. Fluxus.
6. Suppreffiones.
7. Spafmi.
8. Anhelationes.
9. Debilitates.
10. Exanthemata.
11. Phlegmafiae.
12. Febres.
13. Vefanias.
Befides
Practice.
General Beficlcs tliefe, tw6 oilier fyftemS have been prefented
Arrange- to pUyiiCj which may be confidered as. deferving at-
Difcafes tenti°n j thofe, viz. of the late learned Dr M’Bride of
■ -r ' Dublin, and of the late ingenious Dr Darwin.
The Claffes and Orders of M’Bride.
Clafs I. Univcrfal Difeafes.
Or. i. Fevers.
2. Inflammations.
3. Fluxes.
4. Painful difeafes.
5. Spafmodic difeafes.
6. Weaknefles or privation.
7. Afthmatic diforders.
8. Mental diforders.
Clafs II. Local Difeafes.
Or. 1. Of the internal fenfes.
2. Of the external fenfes.
3. Of the appetites.
4. Of the fecretions and excretions.
5. Impeding different aftions.
6. Of the external habit.
7. Diflocations.
8. Solutions of continuity.
Clafs III. Sexual Difeafes.
Or. I. General proper to men.
2. Local proper to men.
3. General proper to women*.
4. Local proper to women.
Clafs IV. Infantile Difeafes.
Or. 1. General.
2. Local.
The Clafles and Orders of Darwin.
Clafs I. Difeafes of Irritation.
Or. 1. Increafed irritation.
2. Decreafed irritation.
3. Retrograde irritative motions.
Clafs II. Difeafes of Senfation.
Or. 1. Increafed fenfation.
2. Decreafed fenfation.
3. Retrograde fenfitive motions. .
Clafs III. Difeafes of Volition.
Or. 1. Increafed volition.
2. Decreafed volition.
Clafs IV. Di feafes of A Jfociation.
Or. 1. Increafed affociated motions.
2. Decreafed affociated motions.
3. Retrograde aflociated motions.
After this Ihort view of different claflifications, we
/hall next prefent to our readers a more particular ac¬
count of the arrangement of Dr Cullen ; which, al¬
though it can by no means be reprefented as free from
errors or imperfe6Hons, is yet in many refpe&s the
belt, that has hitherto been publilhed.
229
General
Cullen’s Arrangement. Arrange-
ment of
CLASS L PYREXIAL A frequent pulfe coming Difeafes.
on after a horror •, confiderable heat 5 many of the func-
tions injured j the flrength of the limbs efpecially di-
minilhed.
Order I. Febres. Pyrexia without anv primary lo¬
cal affection, following languor, laflitude, and other
fymptoms of debility.
Seft. I. Intermittentes. Fevers ariflng from the mi-
afma of marlhes j with an apyrexia, or at leaft a very
evident remiflion ; but the difeafe returns regularly, and
for the mofl: part with a horror or trembling.
Genus I. Tertiana. Similar paroxyfms after an in¬
terval of about 48 hours, coming on mofl. commonly at
mid-day. A tertian hath either j
I. An apyrexia interpofed.
1. Varying in the duration of the paroxyfms.
A, The tertian whofe paroxyfms are not extended
beyond 12 hours.
B, The tertian with paroxylms extended beyond 12
hours..
2. Varying in the return of paroxyfms.
C, The tertian returning every day with unequal
paroxyfms alternately fimilar to one another.
D, The tertian returning every third day with two
paroxyfms on the fame day.
E, The tertian returning every day, with two pa¬
roxyfms on every third day, and only one on the inter¬
mediate ones.
F, The tertian returning every day, with an evident
remiflion interpofed between the odd and the even days,
but a lefs remarkable one between the even and the odd
days.
3. Varying in its fymptoms,
G, The tertian accompanied with a difpofltion to
fleep.
H, Accompanied with fpafms and convulflve mo¬
tions.
I, - Accompanied with an efflorefcence on the /kin.
K, with phlegmafia.
4. Varying in being complicated with other difeafes.
5. Varying as to its origin.
II. With the interpofition only of a remiffion between
the paroxyfms.
Genus II. Quartana. Similar paroxyfms, with an
interval of about 72 hours, coming on in the afternoon.
I. With the interpofition of an apyrexia.
1. Varying in the type.
A, The quartan with fingle paroxyfms, returning
every fourth day, none on the other days.
B, With two paroxyfms every fourth day, and none
on the other days,
C, With three paroxyfms every fourth day, ayd
none on the intermediate days.
D, Of the four days having only the third free from
fever, with fimilar paroxyfms every fourth day.
E, The quartan coming on every day, with fimilar
paroxyfms every fourth day.
2. Varying in its fymptoms.
3. Varying in being complicated with other difeafes.
II. With a remiflion only between the paroxyfms.
Genus III. £)uotidiana. Similar paroxyfms with
MEDICINE.
230 M E D I
General an Interval of about 24 hours, coming on commonly in
m^nt of* the morninS-
-Qiv I. With the interpofition of an apyrexia.
1 1 ■■»■■■ v i I. Varies in being folitary.
A, Univerfal.
B, Partial.
2. Complicated with other difeafes.
II. With a remiffion only between the paroxyfms.
Se£t. II. Continue?. Fevers without evident inter-
miffion, and not occafioned by marlh miafmata j but
attended with exacerbations and remiflxons, though not
always very remarkable.
Genus IV. Synocha. Great heat; a frequent,
ftrong, and hard pulfe ; high-coloured urine } the func¬
tions of the fenforium a little difturbed.
Genus V. Typhus. A contagious difeafe j the heat
not much above the natural j the pulfe fmall, weak,
and for the molt part frequent $ the urine little changed;
the functions of the fenforium very much difturbed, and
the ftrength greatly diminiftied.
The fpecies are,
I. Typhus petechialis. Typhus for the moft part
with petechiae.
Varying in degree. 1. Mild typhus. 2. Malignant
typhus.
II. Typhus iff erodes. Typh us with a yellownefs of
the {kin.
Genus VI. Synochus. A contagious difeafe. A
fever compounded of fynocha and typhus ; in the be¬
ginning a fynocha, but towards the end a typhus.
Order II. Phlegmasi^e. A fynocha fever, with
inflammation or topical pain, the internal funflion of
the parts being at the fame time injured ; the blood
drawn and concreted exhibiting a white coriaceous fur-
face.
Genus VII. Phlogofis. Pyrexia •, rednefs, heat, and
painful tenfion, of fome external part.
The fpecies are,
I. Phlogofis (ph/egmone') of a vivid red colour 5 a
fwelling well defined, for the moft part elevated to a
point, and frequently degenerating into an abfeefs, with
a beating or throbbing pain.
The variations are, 1. In the form. 2. In the fitua-
tion.
II. Phlogofis {erythema) of a reddifli colour, vanifil¬
ing by preffure ; of an unequal and creeping circum¬
ference, with fcarce any fwelling 5 ending in the fealing
off of the cuticle, in puftules, or blifters.
The variations are, l. In the degree of violence.
2. In the remote caufe. 3. In being complicated with
other difeafes.
The confequences of a phlogofis are, an impofthume,
gangrene, fphacelus.
Genus VIII. Ophthalmia. A rednefs and pain of
the eye, with an inability to bear the light 5 for the moft
part with an effufion of tears.
The fp ecies and varieties of the ophthalmia are,
I. Idiopathic.
1. Ophthalmia {membranarum), in the tunica adnata,
and the membranes lying under it, or the coats of the
eye.
. A, Varying in the degree of the external inflamma-
-tion.
C I N E. Practice
B, In the internal coats affe&ed. General
2. Ophthalmia {tarji), of the eye-lids, with fwelling, Arrange,
erofion, and glutinous exudation. of
II. Symptomatic. ,
1. From a difeafe of the eye itfelf.
2. From difeafes of other parts, or of the whole
body.
Genus IX. Phrenitis. Violent pyrexia ; pain of the
head j rednefs of the face and eyes ; inability to en¬
dure the light or any noife j watchfulnefs j a furious
delirium, or typhomania.
I. Idiopathic.
II. Symptomatic.
Genus X. Cynanche. Pyrexia fometimes inclining
to a typhus ; difficulty of fwallowing and breathing •,
with a fenfation of narrownefs in the fauces.
The fpecies are,
I. Cynanche {tonfillaris) affc&ing the mucous mem¬
brane of the fauces, but efpecially the tonfils, with red¬
nefs and fwelling, accompanied with a fynocha.
II. Cynanche {maligna) affefting the tonfils, and
mucous membrane of the fauces with fwelling, rednefs,
and mucous crufts of a whitifti or afh-colour, creeping,
and covering ulcers; with a typhous fever and exanthe¬
mata.
III. Cynanche {trachealis) attended with difficult
refpiration, noify and hoarfe infpiration, loud cough,
without any apparent tumor in the fauces, fomewhat
difficult deglutition, and a fynocha.
IV. Cynanche {pharyngcea) attended with rednefs
in the bottom of the fauces, very difficult and painful
deglutition, refpiration fufficiently free, and a fynocha.
V. Cynanche {parotidcea) with great fwelling in the
parotids and maxillary glands appearing on the outfide :
the refpiration and deglutition but little injured j a fy¬
nocha, for the moft part mild.
Difeafes of this genus are fymptomatic, either from
external or internal caufes.
Genus XI. Pneumonia. Pyrexia, with a pain in
fome part of the thorax, difficult refpiration, and cough.
The fpecies are,
I. Peripn'eumony, with a pulfe net always hard, but
fometimes foft; an obtufe pain of the breaft ; the re¬
fpiration always difficult ; fometimes the patient cannot
breathe unlefs in an upright pofture •, the face fwelled,
and of a livid colour ; the cough for the moft part moift,
frequently bloody.
1. Simple idiopathic peripneumonies.
Varying in degree.
2. Idiopathic peripneumonies complicated with fever.
3. Symptomatic peripneumonies.
II. Pleurify, with a hard pulfe ; for the moft paA
attended with a pungent pain of one fide, augmented
chiefly during the time of infpiration *, an uneafinefs
when lying on the fide ; a moft painful cough, dry in
the beginning of the difeafe, afterwards moiit, and fre¬
quently bloody.
1. Simple idiopathic pleurifies.
2. Pleurifies,complicated, (1.) With fever. (2.) With
catarrh.
3. Symptomatic pleurifies.
4. Falfe pleurifies.
I he confequences of pleurify are a vomica or em¬
pyema.
3
Genus
Fraclice.
General
Arrange¬
ment of
Difeafes.
MED
Genu'3 XII. Carditis. Pyrexia ; pain about the
heart; anxiety ; difficulty of breathing ; cough j un¬
equal pulfe ; palpitation of the heart, and fainting.
I. Idiopathic.
II. Symptomatic.
Genus XIII. Peritonitis. Pyrexia j pain of the belly,
exafperated by an upright pofture, without the proper
hgns of other abdominal phlegmafige.
I. Peritonitis (propria), fituated in the peritonaeum,
properly fo called, furrounding the inlide of the abdo¬
men.
II. Peritonitis in the peritonaeum extend¬
ed through the omentum.
III. Peritonitis {mefenteric a), in the peritonaeum
fpread through the mefentery.
Genus XIV. Gaftritis. Pyrexia inclining to a ty¬
phus j anxiety ; pain and heat of the epigaftrium, aug¬
mented when any thing is taken into the ftomash ; an
inclination to vomit, and an immediate rejeftion of
every thing fwallowed j an hiccough.
1. Idiopathic.
t. From internal caules.
A, Gaftritis (ph/egmonodeca), attended wuth acute
pain and violent pyrexia.
2. From external caufes.
B, Gaftritis (eri/xipelatofa), with a lefs violent fever
and pain : an eryfipelatous rednefs appearing on the
fauces.
II. Symptomatic.
Genus XV. Enteritis. Pyrexia of a typhous na¬
ture •, pungent pain of the belly, ftretching and twill¬
ing about the navel; vomiting j the belly obftinately
bound.
I. Idiopathic.
1. Enteritis {phlegmonodcra), with acute pain, violent
fever, vomiting, and conftipation of the belly.
2. Enteritis (erysipelatofa), with lefs acute fever and
pain, without vomiting; but accompanied with a di¬
arrhoea.
II. Symptomatic.
Genus XVI. Hepatitis. Pyrexia ; tenfion and pain
of the right hypochondrium ; fometimes pungent like
that of a pleurify, but more frequently obtufe j a pain
reaching to the clavicle and top of the right Ihoulder ;
a difficulty of lying on the left fide j dyfpnoea; dry
cough, vomiting, and hiccough.
Genus XVII. Splenitis. Pyrexia ; tenfion, heat,
and fwelling of the left hypochondrium, the pain in-
creafing by preffure ; without the ligns of nephritis.
Genus XVIII. Nephritis. Pyrexia; pain in the re¬
gion of the kidney, often following the courfe of the
ureter : frequent difeharge of urine, either thin and co-
lourlefs, or very red ; vomiting ; ftupor of the thigh ;
with a retratticn or pain of the tefticle of the fame fide.
The fpecies are,
I. Idiopathic. Spontaneous.
II. Symptomatic.
Genus XIX. Cyftitis. Pyrexia ; pain and fwelling
of the hypogaftrium : frequent and painful difeharge of
urine, or ifehuria ; and tenefmus. The fpecies are,
I. Thofe ariling from internal caufes.
II. Thofe from external caufes.
Genus XX. Hyfteritis. Pyrexia; heat, tenfion,
fwelling, and pain of the hypogaftrium; the os uteri
painful when touched ; vomiting.
I C I N E.
Genus XXI. Rheumatiimus. A dileale arifing
from an external and frequently very evident caufe ;
pyrexia ; pain about the joints, frequently following
the courfe of the mufcles ; infefting the knees and other '
large joints rather than thofe of the feet or hands; in-
creafed by external heat.
1 he fpecies are either idiopathic or fymptomatic.
The former varies in fituatipn.
A, In the mufcles of the loins.
B, In the mufcles of th<i coxendix.
C, In the mufcles of the breaft.
Genus XXII. Odontalgia; a rheumatifm of the
jaws from a caries of the teeth.
Genus XXIII. Podagra. An hereditary difeafe,.
arifing without any evident external caufe, but for the
moft part preceded by an unufual affedlion of the fto-
mach; pyrexia ; pain of a joint for the moft part of
the great toe of the foot, at leaft infefting chiefly the
wrifts and ankles ; returning by intervals ; and often al¬
ternated with affedlions of the ftomach and other inter¬
nal parts.
I. Podagra (regulvris), with a pretty violent inflam¬
mation of the joints remaining for fome days, and by
degrees going off with (welling, itching, and delquama-
tion of the affedled part.
II. Podagra (atonica), with an atony of the ftomach,
or fome other internal part; and either without the ufu-
al inflammation of the joints, or only writh flight and
Avandering pains ; and frequently alternated with dy-
fpepiia, or other fymptoms of atony.
III. Podagra (retrograda\ with the inflammation of
the joints fuddenly difappearing, and an atony of the fto¬
mach and other parts immediately following.
IV. Podagra {aberrant'), with the inflammation of an
internal part either preceding or not, and fuddenly dif¬
appearing.
GenusXXIV. Arthropuofis. Deep, obtufe, and long-
continued pains of the joints or mulcular parts, fre¬
quently following contufions ; with either no fwelling,
or a moderate and diffufed one ; no phlogofis ; pyrexia,
at firft gentle, afterwards hectic, and at length an im-
pofthume.
Order III. Exanthemata. Contagious difeafes ;
affecting a perfon only once in his life; beginning with
fever; after a certain time- appear phlogofes, for the
moft part fmall and in confiderable number, and difper-
fed over the Ikin.
Genus XXV. Eryfipelas. A fynocha of two or
three days, for the moft part attended with drowfinefs,
often with a delirium. In fome parts of the Ikin, moft
frequently the face, appears a phlogofis. The fpecies
are,
I. Eryfipelas (yejiculofum), with erythema, rednefs
creeping, occupying a large fpace, and in fome parts
ending in large blifters.
II. Eryfipelas (ph/y£fcenodes), wdth an erythema
formed of a number of papulm, chiefly occupying the
trunk of the body, ending in phlydlense or fmall
blifters.
The difeafe is alfo fymptomatic.
Genus XXVI. Peftis. An exceedingly contagious
typhus, with the higheft debility. On an uncertain day
of the difeafe buboes and carbuncles break forth. It is
various in degree, but the fpecies are uncertain.
Genus
231
General
Arrange¬
ment of
Difeafes.
23£ M E D I
General Gonus XXVII. Variola ; a contagious fynocha, with
menthol" vom^ing, and pain on prefling the epigaftrium. On the
Dil'eafcs. day begins, and on the fifth is finithed, the erup-
i——tion of inflammatory puftules, which fuppurate in the
fpace of eight days, and at laft go oil in crufts j fre¬
quently leaving deprefled cicatrices or pockpits in the
Ikin, The fpecies are,
I. Variola (difereta), with few, diftinct, turpid, puf¬
tules, having circular Safes; the fever ceafing immedi¬
ately after the eruption.
II. 'Vario\a(conjluens), with numerous,confluent, ir¬
regularly ftiaped puftules, flaccid and little elevated 5
the fever remaining after the eruption.
Genus XXVIll. Varicella. Synocha; papulae break¬
ing out after a ftiort fever, fimilar to thofe of the fmall-
pox, but hardly ever coming to fuppuration ; after a
few days going off in fmall feales, without leaving any
mark.
Genus XXIX. Rubeola. A contagious fynocha, with
fneezing, epiphora, and dry hoarfe cough. On the
fourth day, or a little later, break forth fmall, cluftered,
and fcarcely elevated papulae ; after three days going off
In very fmall branny feales.
I. Rubeola (vu/garis), with very fmall confluent co-
rymbofe papulae, fcarcely rifing above the fkin.
Varying,
1. In the fymptoms being more fevere, and the courfe
of the difeafe lefs regular.
2. In being accompanied writh a cynanche.
3. With a putrid diathefis.
II. Rubeola (yariolodes), with diftimft papulae, raifed
above the Ikin.
Genus XXX. Miliaria. Synochus with anxiety,
frequent fighing, unfluous fweat, and a fenfe of prick¬
ing as of pin points in the {kin. On an uncertain day
of the difeafe, break out red, fmall, diftinfl papulae,
Spread over the whole body as well as the face ; the
apices of which, after one or two days, become very
fmall white puftules, remaining for a ftiort time.
Genus XXXI. Scarlatina. A contagious fynocha.
On the fourth day of the difeafe the face fwells a little j
at the fame time an univerfal rednefs occupies the {kin
In large fpots, at length running together ; after three
days going off in branny feales 5 frequently fucceeded
by an anafarca. The fpecies are,
I. Scarlatina (Jimplex^), not accompanied with cy¬
nanche.
II. Scarlatina (cynanchica), with an ulcerous cy¬
nanche.
Genus XXXIL Urticaria. A quotidian fever.
On the feeond day of the difeafe, red fpots refembling
the flinging of nettles, almoft vaniftiing during the
day, but returning in the evening with the fever,
and after a few days going off altogether in very fmall
.feales.
Genus XXXIII. Pemphigus. A contagious typhus.
On the firft, fecond, or third day of the difeafe, blifters
break out in feveral parts of the body, of the bignefa of
a bean, remaining for many days, and at laft pouring
out a thin ichor.
Genus XXXIV. Aphtha. Synochus ; the tongue
fometvhat fwelled and of a livid colour, as v’ell as the
fauces •, efehars firft; appearing in the fauces, but at
.length occupying the whole internal parts of the mouth,
of a white colour, fometimes diftindt, often running to-
CINE. praaice;
gether, quickly growing again when taken off j and General
remaining for an uncertain time. Arran^e-
The fpecies are, 1. Idiopathic. 2. Symptomatic.
Order IV. H^morrhagi^e. Pyrexia, with a dif-
charge of blood, without any external violence : the
blood drawn from a vein hath the lame appearance as
in phlegmafiae.
Genus XXXV. Epiftaxis. Pain or weight of the
head, rednefs of the face } a difeharge of blood from
the nofe.
I. Idiopathic.
Varying according to the time of life.
1. Epiftaxis of young people, with fymptoms of an
arterial plethora.
2. Epiftaxis of old people, with fymptoms of a venous
plethora.
II. Symptomatic.
1. From internal caufes.
2. From external caufes.
Genus XXXVI. Hsemoptyfis. Rednefs of the
cheeks 5 a fenfation of uneafinefs, or pain, and fome¬
times of heat in the breaft difficulty of breathing;
tickling of the fauces *, either a fevere or lefs vio¬
lent cough, bringing up florid and frequently frothy
blood.
The idiopathic fpecies are,
1. Haemoptyfis (plethorica), without any external
violence, and without being preceded by any cough or
fuppreflion of any cuftomary evacuation.
2. Haemoptyfis (violentci), from external violence ap¬
plied.
3. Haemoptyfis (phthijica), after a long-continued
cough, with a leannefs and debility.
4. Hoemoptyfis {calculofa), in which fome calculous
molecules, for the moft part of a calcareous nature, are
thrown up.
5. Haemoptyfis (vicaria), after the fuppreflion of a
cuftomary evacuation.
Befides thefe, there are a number of fymptomatic fpe¬
cies mentioned by different authors. The confequence
of an haemoptyfis is, a
Phthijis. A wafting and debility of the body, with
a cough, heftic fever, and for the moft part a purulent
expeftoration. The fpecies are,
I. An incipient phthifis, without any expeftoration
of pus.
II. A confirmed phthifis, with an expectoration of
pus.
Both fpecies vary, 1. As to their remote caufe. 2.
As to the origin of the purulent matter.
Genus XXXVIL Haemorr-hois. Weight and pain
of the head ; vertigo-’, pain of the loins ; pain of the
anus j livid painful tubercles, from which for the moft
part blood flows out 5 which fometimes alfo drops out
of the anus, without any apparent tumor. The fpecies
are,
1. Haemorrhois {lumens), external from marifeae.
Varying,
A, Bloody.
B, Mucous.
2. Haemorrhois {procidens), external from a proci¬
dentia am.
3. Haemorrhois (fiuens), internal, without any fuel¬
ling, ox procidentia ani.
4. Kacmorrhois
prv&lce.
General 4. Htemorrliols (ctfca), with pain and fwelling of the
Arrange- anus> without any profufion of blood.
p™*!;0* Genus XXXVIII. Menorrhagia. Pains of the back,
belly, and loins, like thofe of child-birth j an unufual-
ly copious flux of the menfes or blood from the vagina.
The fpecies are,
1. Menorrhagia (rubra), bloody in women neither
with child nor in child-birth.
2. Menorrhagia (abortus), bloody in women with
child.
3. Menorrhagia (lochialis), bloody in women after
delivery.
X. Menorrhagia (vitiorum), bloody from fome local
difeafe.
5. Menorrhagia (alba), ferous, without any local
difeafe, in women not pregnant. /
6. Menorrhagia (Nabothi), ferous in women with
child.
Order V. Profluvia. Pyrexia, with an increafed
excretion, naturally not bloody.
Genus XXXIX. Catarrhus. Pyrexia frequently con¬
tagious •, an increafed excretion of mucus, at leaft efforts
to excrete it.
The fpecies are,
1. From cold.
2. From contagion.
Genus XL. Dyfenteria. Contagiousr pyrexia ; fre¬
quent mucous or bloody ftools, while the alvine faeces
are for the moil part retained 5 gripes ; tenefmus.
Varying,
1. Accompanied with worms.
2. With the excretion of fmall flefhy or febaceous
bodies.
3. With an intermittent fever.
4. Without blood.
5. With a miliary fever.
Class II. NEUROSES. A preternatural affec¬
tion of fenfe and motion, without an idiopathic pyrexia
or any local affedlion.
Order I. CoMATA. A diminution of voluntary mo¬
tion, with deep, or a deprivation of the fenfes.
Genus XLI. Apoplexia. Almoft all voluntary mo¬
tion abolifhed, with deep more or lefs profound 5 the
motion of the heart and arteries remaining.
The idiopathic fpecies are,
1. Apoplexia (fanguinea), with fymptoms of univer-
fal plethora, efpecially of the head.
2. A poplexia (ferofa), with a leucophlegmatia over
the whole body, efpecially in old people.
3. Apoplexia(hjdroccphalica),coming on by degrees;
affefting infants, or thofe below the age of puberty,
fird with laditude, a dight fever and pain of the head,
then downefs of the pulfe, dilatation of the pupil of the
eye, and drowfinefs.
4. A poplexia (atrabiliaria), taking place in thofe of a
melancholic conftitution.
5. Apoplexia (traumatica), from fome external in¬
jury mechanically applied to the head.
6. Apoplexia (venenata), from powerful fedatives
taken internally or applied externally.
7. m poplexia (mentalis), from an affection or emo¬
tion of the mind.
Vol. XIII. Part I.
2 33
8. Apoplexia (cataleptica), the mufcles remaining General
contraftile, by external motion of the limbs. Arrange-
9. Apoplexia (fuffocata), from fome external fuffo-
eating power. . ‘ ^
The apoplexy is frequently fymptomatic.
1. Of an intermittent fever. 2. Continued fever.
3. Phlegmalia. 4. Exanthema. 5.Hyfteria. b.Epilepda.
7. Podagra. 8. Worms. 9. Ifchuria. 10. Scurvy.
Genus XLI I. Paralyfis. Only fome of the volun¬
tary motions impaired, frequently with deep.
The idiopathic fpecies are,
1. Paralylis (partialis) of fome particular mufcles
only.
2. Paralyfis (hemiplegica) of one fide of the body.
Varying according to the conftitution of the body.
a, Hemiplegia in a plethoric habit.
b, In a leucophlegmatic habit.
3. Paralyfis (paraplegica) of one half of the body
taken tranfverfely.
4. Paralyfis (venenata) from fedative powers applied
either internally or externally.
A fymptom either of an Afthenia or Palfy is,
Tremor ; an alternate motion of a limb by frequent
ftrokes and intervals.
The fpecies are, 1. Afthenic. 2. Paralytic. 3. Con-
vulfive.
Order II. Adynamia:. A diminution of the invo¬
luntary motions, whether vital or natural.
Genus XLIII. Syncope ; a diminution, or even a
total ftoppage, of the motion of the heart for a fhort
time.
I. Idiopathic.
1. Syncope (cardiaca), returning frequently without
any manifeft caufe, with violent palpitations of the heart
during the intervals.—From a fault of the heart or
neighbouring velfels.
2. Syncope (occajionalis) arifing from fome evident
caufe.—From an affection of the whole fyftem.
II. Symptomatic ; of difeafes either of the whole fy¬
ftem, or of other parts befides the heart.
Genus XLIV. Dyfpepfia. Anorexia, naufea, vomit-
ing, inflation, eruflation, rumination, cardialgia, gaftro-
dynia, more or fewer of thofe fymptoms at leaft concur-
ring ; for the moft part with a conftipation of the belly,
and without any other difeafe either of the ftomach itfelf
or of other parts.
I. Idiopathic.
II. Symptomatic.
1. From a difeafe of the ftomach itfelf.
2. From a difeafe of other parts, or of the whole
body.
Genus XLV. Hypochondriafis. Dyfpepfia, with
languor, fadnefs and fear, without any adequate caufes,
in a melancholy temperament.
Genus XLVI. Chlorofis. Dyfpepfia, or a defire
of fomething not ufed as food ; a pale or difcoloured
complexion ; the veins not well filled : a foft tumor of
the whole body ; afthenia ; palpitation ; fupprefilon of
the menfes.
Order III. Spasmi. Irregular motions of the muf¬
cles or mufcular fibres.
Se£L I. In the animalfunciions.
Gg
MEDICINE.
Genus
234 - M E D I
General Genus XLVII. Tetanus. A fpaftic rigidity of al-
» moft the whole body.
Difeafes. Varying according to the remote caufe, as it rifes
u—either from fomething internal, from cold, or from a
wound. It varies likewife, from whatever caufe it may
arife, according to the part of the body affe&ed.
Genus XLVIII. Trifmus. A fpaftic rigidity of the
lower jaw.—The fpecies are,
1. Trifmus {nafeentium), attacking infants under two
months old.
2. Trifmus (traumaticUS'), attacking people of all ages
either from a wound or cold.
Genus XLIX. Convuliio.—An irregular clonic con-
traction of the mufcles without deep.
I. Idiopathic.
II. Symptomatic.
Genus L. Chorea, attacking thofe who have not
yet arrived at puberty, moft commonly within the loth
or 14th year, with convulfive motions for the moft part
of one fide in attempting the voluntary motion of the
hands and arms, refembling the gefticulations of mounte¬
banks ; in walking, rather dragging one of their feet
than lifting it.
Genus LI. Raphania. A fpaftic contraftion of the
joints, with a convulfive agitation, and moft violent pe¬
riodical pain. ,
Genus LIL Epilepfia. A convulfion of the muf¬
cles, with deep.
The idiopathic fpecies are,
1. Epilepfia (cerebra/is), fuddenly attacking without
any manifeft caufe, without any fenfe of uneafinefs
preceding, excepting perhaps a dight vertigo or dimnefs
of fight.
2. Epilepfia (fijmpathica), without any manifeft
caufe, but preceded by the fenfation of a kind of air
rifing from a certain part of the body towards the
head.
3. Epilepfia (occajionalis), arifing from a manifeft
irritation, and ceafing on the removal of that irrita¬
tion.
Varying according to the difference of the irritating
matter. And thus it may arife,
From injuries of the head j pain ; worms ; poifon j
from the repulfion of the itch, or an effufion of any other
acrid humour j from crudities in the ftomach ; from
paflions of the mind 5 from an immoderate hsemorrhagy 5
or from debility.
Se£t. II. In the vitalfinliions.
In the a£Hon of the heart.
Genus LIII. Palpitatio. A violent and irregular
motion of the heart.
In the aftion of the lungs.
Genus L1V. Afthma. A difficulty of breathing re¬
turning by intervals, with a fenfe of ftraitnefs in^ the
bread:, and a noify refpiration with hiding. In the be¬
ginning of the paroxyfm there is either no cough at all,
or coughing is difficult; but towards the end the cough
becomes free, frequently with a copious fpitting of mu¬
cus.-—The idiopathic fpecies are,
1. Afthma (fpontaneum), without any manifeft caufe
or other concomitant difeafe.
; 2. Afthma (exanthematicum), from the repulfion of
Jthe itch or other acrid effufion.
3. Afthma (plethpricwi), from the fuppreflion of
Pra&ice.
fome cuftomary fanguineous evacuation, or from a fpon- General
taneous plethora. Arrange-
Genus LV. Dyfpnoea. A continual difficulty of
breathing, without any fenfe of flraitnefs, but rather nf. 1
fulnefs and infarction in the bread j a frequent cough y"
throughout the whole courfe of the difeafe.
The idiopathic fpecies are,
I- Dyfpnoea (catarrkalis), with a frequent cough,
bringing up plenty of vifeid mucus.
2. Dyfpnoea (Jicca), with a cough for the moft part
dry.
3. Dyfpnoea (aeria), increafed by the lead: change
of weather.
4. Dyfpnoea (terrea), bringing up with the cough
an earthy or calculous matter.
3. Dyfpnoea (aquofa), with fcanty urine and oedc-
matous feet; without any fluctuation in the breaft, or
other figns of an hydrothorax.
6. Dyfpnoea (pinguedinofa), in very fat people.
7. Dyfpnoea (thoracica), from an injury done to the
parts furrounding the thorax, or from ’fome malconfor-
mation of them.
8. Dyfpnoea (extrinfeca), from evident external
caufes.
The fymptomatic fpecies of dyfpnoea are confe-
quences,
1. Of difeafes of the heart or large veffels.
2. Of a dwelling in the abdomen.
3. Of various other difeafes.
Genus LVI. Pertuflis. A contagious difeafe ; con¬
vulfive ftrangulating cough reiterated with noify infpi-
ration 5 frequent vomiting.
SeCt. III. In the naturalfun ft ions.
Genus LVII. Pyrofis. A burning pain in the epx-
gaftrium, with plenty of aqueous humour, for the moft
part infipid, but fometimes acrid, belched up.
Genus LVIII. Colica. Pain of the belly, efpecially
tAvifting round the navel j vomiting 5 and a conflipa-
tion.
The idiopathic fpecies are,
1. Colica (fpafmodica), with retraClion of the navel,
and fpafms of the abdominal mufcles.
Varying, by reafon of fome fymptoms fuperadded.
Hence,
a, Colica, with vomiting of excrements, or of matters
injeCled by the anus.
b, Colica, with inflammation fupervening.
2. Colica (pichnum), preceded by a fenfe of weight
or uneafinefs in the belly, efpecially about the navel j
then comes on the colic pain, at firft flight and inter¬
rupted, chiefly augmented after meals : at length more
fevere and almoft continual, with pains of the arms and
back, at laft ending in a palfy.
Varying according to the nature of the remote caufe j
and hence,
a, From metallic poifon.
b, From acids taken inwardly.
c, From cold.
d, From a contufion of the back.
3. Colica (fercorea), in people fubjecl to coftivenefs.
4. Colica (accidentalis), from acrid matter taken in¬
wardly.
5. Colica (meconialis), in neAV-born children from a
retention of the meconium.
&. Colica
Practice. MEDICINE.-
General Colica (cal/ofa), willi a fenfation of ftrifture in
Orient of" t'omc part of the inteltines, ahd frequently of a collec-
Difeafes. tion of flatus with fome pain ; which flatus alfo paffing
——V—J through the part where the ftriclure is felt, gradually
vanifhes ; the belly flow, and at laft pafling only a few
liquid faeces.
7. Colica (calculofa), with a fixed hardnefs in fome
part of the abdomen, and calculi fometimes pafied by
the anus.
Genus LIX. Cholera. A vomiting of bilious matter,
and likewife a frequent excretion of the fame by ftool;
anxiety j gripes j fpafms in the calves of the legs.
I. Idiopathic.
1. Cholera (fpontanea), arifing in a warm feafon,
without any manifeft caufe.
2. Cholera (accidcntalis), from acrid matters taken
inwardly.
II. Symptomatic.
Genus LX. Diarrhoea. Frequent ftools j the dif-
eafe not infedlious ; no primary pyrexia.
I. Idiopathic.
1. Diarrhoea (crapulofa), in which the excrements
arc? voided in greater quantity than naturally.
2. Diarrhoea (bi/iofa), in which yellow faeces are
voided in great quantity.
3. Diarrhoea (mucofa), in which either from acrid
fubftances taken imvardly, or from cold, efpecially
applied to the feet, a great quantity of mucus is
voided.
4. Diarrhoea (cceliaca), in which a milky humour of
the nature of chyle is difeharged by ftool.
5. Diarrhoea (lienteria), in which the aliments are
difeharged with little alteration foon after eating.
6. Diarrhoea {hepatirrhcca), in which a bloody fe-
rous matter is difeharged without pain.
II. Symptomatic.
Genus LXI. Diabetes. A chronical profufion of
urine, for the moft part preternatural, and in immode¬
rate quantity.
I. Idiopathic.
1. Diabetes {inellitui), with urine of the fmell, co¬
lour, and tafte of honey.
2. Diabetes (jnjlpidus), with limpid, but not fweet,
urine.
II. Symptomatic.
Genus LXII. Hyfteria. Rumbling of the bowels ;
a fenfation as of a globe turning itfelf in the belly,
afeending to the ftomach and fauces, and there threat-
•ening fuffocation j fleep j convulfions; a -great quantity
of limpid urine ; the mind involuntarily fickle and mu¬
table.
The following are by Sauvages reckoned diftindt
idiopathic fpecies ; but, by Dr Cullen, only varieties of
the fame fpecies.
A, From a retention of the menfes.
B, From a menorrhagia cruenta.
C, From a menorrhagia ferofa, or fluor albus.
D, From an obftrudtion of the vifeera.
E, From a fault of the ftomach.
F, From too great falacity.
Genus LXI1I. Hydrophobia. A diflike and horror
at any kind of drink, as occafioning a convulfion of the
pharynx ; induced, for the moft part, by the bite of a
mad 'animal. The fpecies are,
I. Hydrophobia {i'abiofa), with a defire of biting
the byftanders, occafioned by the bite of a rabid ani¬
mal.
II. Hydrophobia (Jimplex), without madnefs, or any
defire of biting.
Order IV. Vesani^. Diforders of the judgment,
without any pyrexia or coma.
Genus LXIV. Amentia 5 an imbecility of judge¬
ment, by wdiich people either do not perceive, or do
not remember, the relations of things. The fpecies
are,
I. Amentia (congenita), continuing from birth.
II. Amentia (fenilis), from the diminution of the
perceptions and memory through extreme old age.
III. Amentia (acquijita), occurring in people for¬
merly of a found mind, from evident external caufes.
Genus LXV. Melancholia •, a partial madnefs, with¬
out dyfpepfia.
Varying according to the different fubjedls concern¬
ing which the perfon raves j and thus it is,
1. With an imagination in the patient concerning his
body being in a dangerous condition, from High t caufes j
or his affairs in a defperate ftate.
2. With an imagination concerning a profperous
ftate of affairs.
3. With violent love, without fatyriafis or nympho¬
mania.
4. With a fuperftitious fear of a future flate.
5. With an averfion from motion and all the offices
of life.
6. With reftleffnefs, and an impatience of any fitua-
tion whatever.
7. With a wearinefs of life.
8. With a deception concerning the nature of the
patient’s fpecies.
Dr Cullen thinks that there is no fuch difeafe'as
that called deemonomania, and that the difeafes mention¬
ed by Sauvages under that title are either,
1. Species of melancholy or mania ; or
2. Of fome difeafe by the fpeftators falfely aferibed
to the influence of an evil fpirit 5 or
3. Of a difeafe entirely feigned j or
4. Of a difeafe partly true and partly feigned.
Genus LXVI. Mania ; univerfal madnefs.
1. Mania (pnentalis), arifing entirely from paffions of
the mind.
2. Mania (corporea), from an evident difeafe of the
body.
Varying according to the different difeafe of the
body.
3. Mania (pbfeura), without any paffion of mind or
evident difeafe of the body preceding.
The fymptomatic fpecies of mania are,
1. Paraphrofyne from poifons.
2. Paraphrofyne from paffion.
3. Paraphrofyne febrilis.
Genus LXVlI. Oneirodynia. A violent and trou-
blefome imagination in time of fleep.
1. Oneirodynia (ti&iva), exciting to walking and va¬
rious motions.
2. Oneirodynia {gravani), from a fenfe of fome
weight incumbent, and preffing on the breaft efpe¬
cially.
G g 2
Class
236
General
Arrange-
MEDICI
emaciation of the whole
Leannefs, afthenia, heftic
ment of Class III. CACHEXIiE ; a depraved habit of
Difcafes. ^ie ^'’hole or greateil part of the body, without prima-
——y——' ry pyrexia or neurofis.
Order I. Marcores j
body.
Genus LXVIII. Tabes,
fever. The fpecies are,
1. Tabes (purulenta'), from an external or internal
ulcer, or from a vomica.
Varying in its fituation : hence,
2. Tabes (fcrophulofaj, in fcrophulous conftitu-
iions.
3. Tabes (venenata), from poifon taken inwardly.
Genus LXIX. Atrophia. Leannefs and afthenia.
without hectic fever. The fpecies are,
1. Atrophia (inaniiorum), from too great evacua¬
tion.
2. Atrophia (famclicorum), from a want of nou-
rifhment.
3. Atrophia (cacochymica), from corrupted nourifti-
ment.
4. Atrophia (debilium), from the function of nutri¬
tion being depraved, without any extraordinary evacua¬
tion or cacochymia having preceded.
Order II. Intumescentl®. An external fwelling
„ of the whole or greateft part of the body.
Sect. I. Adipofce,
Genus LXX. Polyfarcia j a trcublefome fwelling
of the body from fat.
Se<ft. II. Flatuofce.
Genus LXXI. Pneumatofis ; a tenfe elaftic fwel-
Hng of the body, crackling under the hand. The fpe¬
cies are,
1. Pneumatofis (fpontanea), without any manifell
caufe.
2. Pneumatofis (traumatica), from a wound in the
breaft.
3. Pneumatofis (veneneta ), from poifon iniedled or
applied.
4. Pneumatofis (hyjlerica), with hyfteria.
Genus LXXII. Tympanites j a tenfe, elaftic, fo-
norous fwelling of the abdomen ; coftivenefs ; a decay
of the other parts. The fpecies are,
1. Tympanites (intcjlinalis), with a tumor of the
abdomen frequently unequal, and with a frequent eva¬
cuation of air relieving the tenfion and pain.
2. Tympanites (abdominalis), with a more evident
noiie, a more equable tumor, and a lefs frequent emif-
fion of flatus, which alfo gives lefs relhJ.
Genus LXXIII. Phyfometra ; a flight elaftic fwel¬
ling in the epigaftrium, having the figure and fituation
of the uterus.
Se£l. III. Aquofce or Drop/tes.
Genua LXX IV. Anafarca. A foft, inelaftic fwel¬
ling of the whole body, or fome part of it. The fpe-
cics are, t r
I* Anafarca (ferofa), from a retention of ferum on
account of the fuppreflion of the ufual evacuations, or
from an increafe of the ferum on account of too great a
quantity of water taken inwardly.
2. Anafarca (oppiiata), from a compreflion of the
veins.
r-riange-
n;ent of
Diie„fcs.
N E- Practice
3. Anafarca (exanthematicu), arifing after exanthe- General
mata, efpecially fucceeding eiylipelas.
4. Anafarca (aneemia), from the thinnefs of the
blood produced by haemorrhagy.
5. Anafarca (debilium), in weak people after long
difeafes, or from other caufes.
Genus LXXV. Hydrocephalus. A foft inelaftic
fwelling of the head, with the futures of the cranium
opened.
Genus LXXVI. Hydrorachitis. A foft, flender
tumor above the vertebrae of the loins 5 the vertebrae
gaping from each other.
Genus LXXVII. Hydrothorax. Dyfpnoea j pale-
nefs of the face 5 cedematous fwellings of the feet;
fcanty urine j difficult lying in a recumbent pofture 5 a
fudden and fpontaneous ftarting out of fleep, with pal¬
pitation ; water flu&uating in the breaft.
Genus LXXVIII. Afcites. A tenfe, fearce elaflic,
but fluctuating fwelling of the abdomen. The fpecies are,
1. Afcites (abdotninaHs), with an equal fwelling of
the whole abdomen, and with a fluctuation fufficiently
evident.
Varying according to the caufe.
A, From an obftruCtion of the vifeera.
B, From debility.
C, From a thinnefs of the blood.
2. Afcites (faccatus), with a fwelling of the abdo¬
men, in the beginning at lean, partial, and with a lefs
evident fluctuation.
Genus LXXIX. Hydrometra. A fwelling of the
hypogaftrium in women, gradually increafing, keeping
the ffiape of the uterus, yielding to preflure, and fluc¬
tuating 5 without ifehuria or pregnancy.
Genus LXXX. Hydrocele. A fwelling of the fero-
turn, not painful; increafing by degrees, foft, fluctu¬
ating, and pellucid.
Seft. IV. Solid*.
Genus LX XXL Phyfconia. A fwelling chiefly
occupying a certain part of the abdomen, gradually
increafing, and neither fonorous nor fluauating. The
fpecies are,
Phyfconia hepatica.
Phyfconia fplenica.
Phyfconia renalis.
Phylconia uterina.
Phyfconia ab ovario.
Phyfconia mefenterica.
Phyfconia inteftinalis.
Phyfconia omentalis.
Phyfconia polyfplachna.
Phyfconia vifceralis. •'
Phyfconia externa lupialis.
Phyfconia externa fchirrhodea.
Phyfconia externa hydatidofa.
Phyfconia ab adipe fubcutaneo.
Phyfconia ab excrefcentia.
Genus LXXXII. Rachitis. A large head, fwel¬
ling molt in the fore part, the ribs deprefled ; abdomen
fwelled, with a decay of the other parts.
Varying,
1. Simple, without any other difeafe.
2. Joined with other difeafes.
Order III. Impetigines. Cachexies chiefly deformp
ing the ikin and external parts of the body.
Genus
MEDICINE.
Practice.
Central Genus LXXXIII. Scrophula. Swelling of the
Arr, n^e- conglobate glands, efpeeially in the neck ; fwelling
DiV^lVs the upper lip and of the nofe •, the face tlorid, ikin
_ / thin, abdomen fwelled. The fpeeies are,
1. Scrophula (vulgaris), Ample, external and per¬
manent.
2. Scrophula (mefenteric a), Ample, internal, with
palenefs of the face, want of appetite, fwelling of the
abdomen, and unufual fetor of the excrements.
3. Scrophula (fugax), molt Ample, appearing only
about the neck \ for the moft part proceeding from the
reforption of the matter of ulcers in the head.
4. Scrophula (Americana), joined, with the yaws.
Genus LXXXIV. Syphilis. A contagious difeafe ;
ulcers of the tonAls, after impure venery, and a diforder
of the genitals j cluAered pimples of the Ikin, efpeci-
ally about the margin of the hair, ending in crufts and
crufty ulcers ; pains of the bones $ exoftofes.
Genus LXXXV. Scorbutus *, in cold countries,
attacking after putrefeent diet, efpecially fuch as is
fait and of the animal kind, where no fupply of frefh
vegetables is to be had j afthenia j ftomacace } fpots
of different colours on the fkin, for the moft part li¬
vid, and appearing chiefly among the roots of the
hair.
Varying in degree.
a, Scorbutus incipiens.
b, Scorbutus crefeens.
c, Scorbutus inveteratus.
Varying alfo in fymptoms.
d, Scorbutus- lividus.
e, Scorbutus pettchialis.
f, Scorbutus pallidus.
g, Scorbutus ruber.
b. Scorbutus calidus.
Genus LXXXVI. ElephantiaAs j a contagious dif¬
eafe ; thick, wrinkled, rough, unftuous Ikin, deftitute
of hairs, anaeftheAa in the extremities, the face deform¬
ed with pimples, the voice hoarfe and nafal.
Genus LXXXVII. Lepra ; the fkin rough, with
white, branny, and chopped efehars, fometimes moift
beneath, with itching.
Genus LXXXVIII. FrambceAa ; fwellings refemb-
ling fungi, or the fruit of the mulberry or rafpberry,
growing on various parts of the fkin.
Genus LXXXIX. Trichoma j a contagious difeafe j
the hairs thicker than ufual, and twifted into inextri¬
cable knots and cords.
Genus XC. Idferus; yellownefs of the fkin and
eyes \ white faeces ; urine of a dark red, tinging what
is put into it of a yellow colour.
The idiopathic fpecies are,
1. I&erus (calculofus), with acute pain in the epi-
gaftric region, increaAng after meals j biliary concre¬
tions voided by ftool.
2. Icterus (fpafmodicus), without pain, after fpafmo-
dic difeafes and paflions, of the mind. -
3. Icterus (hepaticus), without pain, after difeafes of
the liver.
4. Icterus (gravidarum), ariftng during the time of
pregnancy, and going off after delivery.
5. Icterus (infantum), coming on in infants a few
days after birth.
Class IV. LOCALES. An affection offome part,
but not of the whole body.
Order I. Dysesthesia. The fenfes depraved or de-
flroyed, from a difeafe of the external organs.
Genus XCI. Caligo. The Aght impaired or totally
deftroyed, on account of fome opaque fubftance inter-
pofed between the objects and the retina, inherent in the
eye itfelf or the eyelids. The fpecies are,
1. Caligo (/entis), occaAoned by an opaque fpot be¬
hind the pupil.
2. Caligo (cornea:), from an opacity of the cornea.
3. Caligo (pupilla), from an obftrudtion of the nu-
pih
Varying according to the different caufes from which
it proceeds.
4. Caligo (humorum), from a difeafe or defect of the
aqueous humour.
Varying according to the different ftate of the hu¬
mour.
5. Caligo (palpebrarum), from a difeafe inherent in
the eyelids.
Varying according to the nature of the difeafe in the
eyelids.
Genus XCII. AmauroAs. The Aght diminifhed,
or totally abolifhed, without any evident difeafe of the
eye ; the pupil for the moft part remaining dilated and
immoveable. The fpecies are,
1. AmauroAs (comprejjionis), after the caufes and at¬
tended with the fymptoms of congeftion in the brain.
Varying according to the nature of the remote
caufe.
2. AmauroAs (atonica), after the caufes "and accom¬
panied with fymptoms of debility.
3. AmauroAs (fpafmodica), ater the caufes and with
the Agns of fpafm.
4. AmauroAs (venenata), from poifon taken into the
body or applied outwardly to it.
Genus XCI 11. Dyfopia. A depravation of the
Aght, fo that obje&s cannot be diftindtly perceived, ex¬
cept at a certain diftance, and in a certain Atuation.
The fpecies are,
1. Dyfopia (tenebrarum), in which objedls are not
feen unlefs they be placed in a ftrong light.
2. Dyfopia (luminis,) in which objects are not di-
ftimftly feen unlefs by a weak light.
3. Dyfopia (diffitorum), in ivhich diftant objedls are
not perceived.
4. Dyfopia (proximorurn), in which the neareft ob-
jects are not perceived.
5. Dyfopia (lateralis), in which objects are not per¬
ceived unlefs placed in an oblique pofture.
Genus XCIV. PfeudoblepAs; ivhen the Aght is dif.
eafed in fuch a manner that the perfon imagines he
fees things which really do not exift, or fees things
which do exift after fome other manner than they really
are. The fpecies are,
1. PfeudoblepAs (imaginaria), in which the perfon
imagines he fees things which really do not exift.
Varying according to the nature of the imagina¬
tion.
2. PfeudoblepAs (mutans), in which objetls really
exifting appear fomehow changed.
Varying
237
General
Arrange¬
ment of
Difeafes.
MEDICINE
Varying according to ihe change perceived in the
objects, and according to the remote caufe.
Genus XCV. Dyfecoea. A diminution or total
abolition of the fenfe of hearing. The fpecies are,
1. Dyfecoea [organica}, from a difeafe in the organs
tranfmitting founds to the internal ear.
Varying according to the nature of the difeafe and
of the part aftedted.
2. Dyfecoea {atonica), without any evident difeafe
of the organs tranfmitting the founds.
Varying according to the nature of the caufe.
Genus XCVI. Paracufis 5 a depravation of the
"hearing. The fpecies are,
1. Paracufis (imperfecta), in which though founds
coming from external objects are heard, yet it is nei¬
ther diftincily nor in the ufual manner.
Varying,
a, With a dulnefs of hearing.
b, With a hearing too acute and fcnfible.
c, When a Angle external found is doubled by fome
internal caufes.
(I, When the founds which a perfon defires to hear
are not perceived, unlefs fome other violent found is
raifed at the fame time.
2. Paracufis (Jmaginaria), in which founds not ex-
ifting externally are excited from internal caufes.
Varying according to the nature of the found per¬
ceived, and according to the nature of the remote
caufe.
Genus XCVII. Anofmia •, a diminution or aboli¬
tion of the fenfe of fmell. The fpecies are,
1. Anofmia (organica), from a difeafe in the mem¬
brane lining the internal parts of the noftrils.
Varying according to the nature of the difeafe.
2. Anofmia (atonica), without any evident difeafe
of the membrane of the nofe.
Genus XCVI1I. Agheuftia 5 a diminution or aboli¬
tion of the ienfe of tafte.
1. Agheuftia (organica), from a difeafe in the mem¬
brane of the tongue, keeping off from the nerves thofe
fubftances which ought to produce tafte.
2. Agheuftia (a tonic a), without any evident difeafe
of the tongue.
Genus XCIX. Anaefthefiaj a diminution or abolition
of the fenfe of feeling. The fpecies from Sauvages, a-
dopted by Dr Cullen, are,
1. Anaefthefia a fpina bifida.
2. Anaefthefia plethorica.
3. Anaefthefia nafeentium.
4. Anaefthefia melancholica.
Order II. Dysorexle; error or defeft of appetite.
Sect. I. Appetitus erronei.
Genus C. Bulimia; a defire for food in greater
quantities than can be digefted.
The idiopathic fpecies are,
1. Bulimia (helluonum), an unufual appetite for food,
without any difeafe of the ftomach.
2. Bulimia (fyncopalis), a frequent defire of meat,
on account of a fenfation of hunger threatening fyn-
cope.
3. Bulimia (emetica), an appetite for a great quan¬
tity of meat, which is thrown up immediately after it
is taken.
\ Pradlcc,
Genus Cl. Polydipfia ; an appetite for an unufual General
quantity of drink. Arrange.
The polydipfia is almoft always fymptomatic, and i?e.ntof
varies only according to the nature of the difeafe Avhich ' lteaffc:s'
accompanies it. * ^
Genus CII. Pica ; a defire of fwallowing fubftan¬
ces not ufed as food.
Genus CIII. Satyriafis 5 an unbounded defire of ve-
nery in men. The fpecies are,
1. Satyriafis (juvenilis), an unbounded defire of
venery, the body at the fame time being little difor-
dered.
2. Satyriafis (ftrens), a vehement defire of venery
with a great diforder of the body at the fame time.
Genus CIV. Nymphomania; an unbounded defire
of venery in women.
Varying in degree.
Genus CV. Noftalgia ; a violent defire in thofe who
are abfent from their country of revifiting it.
1. Noftalgia (fimp/ex), without any other difeafe.
2. Noftalgia (complicata), accompanied with other
difeafes.
Se£t. II. Appetitus defeientes.
Genus CVI. Anorexia. Want of appetite for food.
Always fymptomatic.
1. Anorexia (Jiumoralis), from fome humour loading
the ftomach.
2. Anorexia (a tonic a), from the tone of the fibres of
the ftomach being loft.
Genus CVII. Adipfia 5 a want of defire for drink.
Always a fymptom of fome difeafe affedting the fenforium
commune.
Genus CVIII. Anaphrodifia 5 want of defire for, or
impotence to, venery.
The true fpecies are,
1. Anaphrodifia paralytica.
2. Anaphrodifia gonorrhoica.
The falfe ones are,
1. Anaphrodifia a marifeis.
2. Anaphrodifia ab urethrae vitio.
Order III. DysciNESI^. An impediment, or de¬
pravation of motion from a diforder of the organs.
, Genus CIX. Aphonia ; a total fupprefllon of voice
without coma or fynebpe. The fpecies are,
1. Aphonia (gutturulis), from the fauces or glottis
being fwelled.
2. Aphonia (trachealis), from a compreflion of the
trachea.
3. Aphonia (atonica), from the nerves of the larynx
being cut.
? Genus CX. Mutitas; a want of power to pronounce
words. The fpecies are,
1. Mutitas (organica), from the tongue being cut
out or deftroyed.
2. Mutitas (atonica), from injuries done to the
nerves of the tongue.
3. Mutitas (furdorum), from people being born
deaf, or the hearing being deftroyed during childhood.
Genus CXI. Paraphonia 5 a depraved found of the
voice. The fpecies are,
1. Paraphonia (puberum), in which, about the time
of puberty, the voice from being acute and fweet, be¬
comes more grave and harfh.
2. Paraphonia
Pra&icc. M E I) I
General 2. Paraphonia (raucu), in which, by reafon of the
Arrange- Jj-ynefs or flaccid tumor of the fauces, the voice be-
Sfeares. comes rou^ ar}d ^oarfe.
y —') 3- Paraphonia {refonuns), in which, by reafon of an
obftru&ion in the noftrils, the voice becomes hoarfe,
%vith a found biffing througli the nofhils.
4. Paraphonia (pcilatina'), in which, on account of
a defeft or divifion of the uvula, for the moft part with
a hare-lip, the voice becomes obfeure, hoarfe, and un-
pleafant.
5. Paraphonia (clangens), in which the voice is
changed to one acute, {brill, and fmall.
6. Paraphonia (comatofa), in which, from a relaxa¬
tion of the velum palati and glottis, a found is produced
during infpiration.
Genus CXII. Pfellifmus *, a defecl in the articula¬
tion of words. The fpecies are,
1. Pfellifmus {hcejitans'), in which the words, efpe-
cially the firil ones of a difeourfe, are not eafily pro¬
nounced, and not without a frequent repetition of the
firft fyllable.
2. Pfellifmus (ringens\ in which the found of the
letter R is always afpirated, and, as it were, doubled.
3. Pfellifmus (lallans'), in which the found of the
letter L becomes more liquid, or is pronounced in-
flead of R.
4. Pfellifmus {etno/Iiens), in which the hard letters
are changed into the fofter ones, and thus the letter S
is much ufed.
5. Pfellifmus (balbuticns'), in which, by reafon of
the tongue being large, or fwelled, the labial letters are
better heard, and often pronounced inftead of others.
6. Pfellifmus (acheilos), in which the labial letters
cannot be pronounced at all, or with difficulty.
7. Pfellifmus (lagojlomnium), in which, on account
of the divifion of the palate, the guttural letters are lefs
perfedtly pronounced.
Genus CXI 11. Strabifmus; the optic axes of the eyes
not converging. The fpecies are,
1. Strabifmus {Jiabitualis'), from a bad cuftom of
ufing only one eye.
2. Strabifmus (commodus), from the greater debility
or mobility of one eye above the other $ fo that both
eyes cannot be conveniently ufed.
3. Strabifmus {necejfarius'), from a change in the
lituation or ffiape of the parts of the eye.
Genus CXIV. Dyfphagia; impeded deglutition, with¬
out phlegmafia or the refpiration being affefted.
Genus CXV. Contraftura; a long-continued and
jigid contraction of one or more limbs. The fpecies
are,
1. ContraCtura (primaria), from the mufcles becom¬
ing contracted and rigid.
a, From the mufcles becoming rigid by inflammation.
b, From mufcles becoming rigid by fpafm.
c, From mufcles contracted by reafon of their anta-
gonifts having become paralytic.
d, From mufcles contracted by an irritating acri¬
mony.
2. ContraCtura {articular is), from ft iff joints.
Order IV. Apocenoses. A flux either of blood or
fome other humour flowing more plentifully than ufual,
without pyrexia, or an increafed impulfe of fluids.
Genus CXVI. Profufio j a flux of blood.
CINE. 23g
Genus CX\ II. Ephidrofis ; a preternatural evacua- General
tion of fweat. Arrange-
Symptomatic ephidrofes vary according to the nature
of the difeafes which they accompany, the different na- '
ture of the fweat itfelf, and fometimes the different
parts of the body which fweat moft.
Genus CXVIII. Epiphora 5 a flux of the lachrymal
humour.
Genus CXIX. Ptyalifmus ; a flux of faliva.
Genus CXX. Enurefis 5 an involuntary flux of urine
without pain. The fpecics are,
1. Enurefis {atonica'), after difeafes injuring the
fphinCter of the bladder.
2. Enurefis (irritata),- from a compreffion or irrita¬
tion of the bladder.
Genus CXXI. Gonorrhoea 5 a preternatural flux of
humour from the urethra in men, with or without a
defire of venery. The fpecies are,
1. Gonorrhoea (pura), in which, without any im¬
pure venery having preceded, a fluid refembling pus,
without dyfuria or propenfity to venery, flows from the
urethra.
2. Gonorrhoea {impura), in which, after impure
venery, a fluid like pus flows from the urethra with
dyfuria. The confequence of this is,
Gonorrhoea {mucqfa), in which, after an impure
gonorrhoea, a mucous humour flows from the urethra
with little or no dyfuria.
3. Gonorrhoea {laxorum), in which an humour for
the moft part pellucid, without any ereClion of the
penis, but with a propenfity to venery, flows from the
urethra while the perfon is awake.
4. Gonorrhoea {dormientium), in which the feminal
liquor is thrown out, with ereClion and defire of venery,
in thofe who are afleep and have lafeivious dreams.
Order V. Epischeses 5 fuppreffions of evacuations.
Genus CXXII. Obftipatio ; the ftools either fup-
preffed, or flower than ufual. The fpecies are,
1. Obftipatio {debilium), in lax, weak, and for the
moft part dyfpeptic perfons.
2. Obftipatio {rigidorum), in people whofe fibres are
rigid, and frequently of an hypochondriac difpofition.
3. Obftipatio {objlru&orum), with fymptoms of the
colica, ift, 2d, 4th, and 7th, above-mentioned.
Genus CXXIII. Ifchuria 5 an abfolute fuppreffion
of urine. The fpecies are,
1. Ifchuria {renalis), coming after a difeafe of the
kidneys, with pain, or troublefome fenfe of weight in.
the region of the kidneys, and without any fwelling of
the hypogaftrium, or defire of making water.
_ 2. Ifchuria {nreterica), coming after a difeafe of the
kidneys, with a fenfe of pain or uneafinefs in fome part
of the ureter, and without any tumor of the hypoga¬
ftrium, or defire of making water.
3. Ifchuria {vejicalis), with a fwelling of the hypo¬
gaftrium, pain at the neck of the bladder, and a fre¬
quent ftimulus to make water.
4. Ifchuria {urethralis), with a fwelling of the hypo¬
gaftrium, frequent ftimulus to make water, and pain in
fome part of the urethra.
All thefe fpecies are fubdivided into many varieties,
according to their different caufes.
Genus CXXIV. Dyfuria j a painful, and fomehow
impeded emiffion of urine. The fpecies are,
x. Dyfuria
240
General
Arrange¬
ment of
Difeafes.
MEDICINE.
1. Dyfuria ^aniens'), witli heat of urine, without any
manifeil cliforder of the bladder.
2. Dyfuria { fpafmodica), from a fpafm communicated
from the other parts to the bladder.
3. Dyfuria {comprejfionis'), from the neighbouring
parts preding upon the bladder.
4. Dyfuria {phlogiJHcct), from an inflammation of the
neighbouring parts.
j. Dyfuria {irritata), with figns of a Hone in the
bladder.
6. Dyfuria (niucofa), with a copious excretion of
mucus.
Gehus CXXV. Dyfpermatifmus} a flow, impeded,
and infufficient emiflion of femen in the venereal aft.
The fpecies are,
1. Dyfpermatifmus (iirethralls'), from difeafes of the
urethra.
2. Dyfpermatifmus (nodofus), from knots on the cor¬
pora cavernofa penis.
3. Dyfpermatifmus (prcvputialis), from too narrow an
orihce of the prepuce.
4. Dyfpermatifmus {mucofus), from mucus infarfting
the urethra.
5. Dyfpermatifmus {Jujpertonicus), from too flrong
an ereftion of the penis.
6. Dyfpermatifmus {epilepticus), from a fpafmodic
epilepfy happening during the time of coition.
7. Dyfpermatifmus {apraclodes), from an imbecility
of the parts of generation.
8. Dyfpermatifmus (rejluus), in which there is no
emiflion of femen, becaufe it returns from the urethra
into the bladder.
Genus CXXVI. Amenorrhoea. The menfes either
flowing more fparingly than ufual, or not at all, at their
ufuai time, without pregnancy. The fpecies are,
1. Amenorrhoea {emanfionis), in thofe arrived at pu¬
berty, in whom, after the ufual time, the menfes have
not yet made their appearance, and many different mor¬
bid affeftions have taken place.
2. Amenorrhoea {fupprejfionis), in adults, in whom
the menfes which had already begun to flow are fup-
preffed.
3. Amenorrhoea {dificilis), in which the menfes flow
fparingly, and with difficulty.
Order VI. Tumores *, an increafed magnitude of
any part without pblogofis.
Genus CXXVII. Aneurifma 5 a foft tumor, with
pulfation, above an artery.
Genus CXXVIII. Varix •, a foft tumor, without pul¬
fation, above a vein.
Genus CXX1X. Ecchymoma ; a dilfufed, little emi¬
nent, and livid tumor.
Genus CXXX. Schirrus j an hard tumor of fome
part, generally of a gland, without pain, and difficultly
brought to fuppuration.
Genus CXXXI. Cancer ; a painful tumor of a
fchirrous nature, and degenerating into an ill condi¬
tioned ulcer.
Genus CXXXII. Bubo 5 a fuppurating tumor of
a conglobate gland.
Genus CXXXIII. Sarcoma ; a foft fwelling, without
pain.
Genus CXXXIV. Verruca j a harder fcabrous fwell-
ing.
Pra&ice.
Genus CXXXV. Clavus ; a hard, lamellated thick- Gcnoral
neft* of the fkin. Arrange.
Genus CXXXVI. Lupia. A moveable, foft tumor ™!pitof
below the fkin, without pain. 1 '1‘^“,csj
Genus CXXXVII. Ganglion. A hard moveable
fwelling, adhering to a tendon.
Genus CXXXVIII. Hydatis $ a cuticular veficle
filled ’with aqueous humour.
Genus CXXXIX. Hydarthrus} a mofi: painful fwell¬
ing of the joints, chiefly of the knee, at firft fcarce ele¬
vated, of the fame colour with the fkin, diminiffiing
the mobility.
Genus CXL. Exoflofis 5 a hard tumor adhering to a
bone.
Order VII. Ectopia: ; tumors occafioned by the re¬
moval of fome part out of its proper fituation.
Genus CXLI. Hernia j an eftopia of a foft part as
yet covered with the fkin and other integuments.
Genus CXLII. Prolapfus 5 a bare eftopia of fome
foft part.
Genus CXLIII. Luxatio 5 the removal of a bone
from its place in the joints.
Order VIII. Dialyses. A folution of continuity j
manifeft to the fight or touch.
Genus CXLlV. Vulnus 5 a recent and bloody folu¬
tion of the unity of fome foft part by the motion of fome
hard body.
Genus CXLV. Ulcus. A purulent or ichorous fo¬
lution of a foft part.
Genus CXLVI. Herpes ; a great number of phlyc-
tenae or fmall ulcers, gathering in clufters, creeping,
and obflinate.
Genus CXLVII. Tinea j fmall ulcers among the
roots of the hair of the head, pouring out a fluid which
-changes to a white friable feurf.
Genus CXLVIII. Pfora. Itchy puftules and little
ulcers of an infeftious nature, chiefly infefting the
hands.
Genus CXLIX. Fraftura ; bones broken into large
fragments.
Genus CL. Caries j an ulceration of a bone.
Having thus prefented to our readers Dr Cullen’s
general fyllematic view of all the difeafes to which the
human body is fubjefted, v7e come next to give a more
particular account of the more important affeftions,
treating of them in the order which Dr Cullen has ar¬
ranged them.
Class I. PYREXIiE, or the Febrile ns
Difeales.
Order I. FEBRES,
Or Fevers ftii£Uy fo called.
Sauvag. Clafs II. Vog. Clafs I. Sagar. Clafs XII.
Morbi Febriles Critici, Lin. Clafs II.
Sect. I. INTERM ITT ENTS.
Intermittentes of many authors j Sauv. Clafs II. Or¬
der III. Lin. Clafs If. Order II. Vog. Clafs I. Older I.
Sag. Clafs XII. Order III.
The
Prafllee. M E D I
Febies. The remittenies of others, Sauv. Clafs II. Order II.
*   ' Sag. Clafs XII. Order II.
Exacerbantes, Lin. Clafs II. Order III.
Continue, Vog. Clafs I. Order II.
Genus I. TERTIAN A j the Tertian Fever.
(Tertiana, Sauv. G. 88. Lin. 16. Hoffm. Stahl.
Cleghorn. Senac.)
The Ge/zazW Tertian.
126 (Tertiana legitima, Senert. Hqfftn. Cleghorn, Minorc.
Sauv. Sp. I.)
i. Defcription. This difeafe, in its moft regular
form, confifts of repeated paroxyfms, returning every
fecond day, the patient during the intermediate period
enjoying apparently a Rate of good health. This is the
moil common form of ague, as it is commonly called in
Britain. Each paroxyfm confifts of three parts, the
cold, the hot, and the fweating ftages. The paroxyfm
commonly begins with a remarkable fhivering, increaf-
ing frequently to a convulfive fhaking of the limbs.
The extremities are always cold, fometimes remarkably
fo. The cold for the. moft part is firft perceived about
the lumbar regions, from thence afcending along the
fpine it turns towards the pit of the ftomach. Some¬
times it begins in the firft joint of the fingers and tip of
the nofe. Sometimes it attacks only a particular part
of the body, as one of the arms, the fide of the head,
&c. This cold is often preceded by a heavy and fleepy
torpor, languor, and laflitude, which we are partly to
afcribe to real weaknefs and partly to mere languor.
To thefe fymptoms fucceed yawning and ftretching ;
after which the cold comes on as above defcribed, not
unfrequently with a pain of the back, and a trouble-
fome fenfation of tenfion in the precordia and hypo¬
chondria. To this fucceed naufea and vomiting : and
the more genuine the difeafe, the more certainly does
the vomiting come on ; by which a great deal of tough
mucous matter, and fometimes bilious fluff or indi-
gefted food, is evacuated during the firft paroxyfm.
In forae there is only a violent draining to vomit,
without bringing up any thing : fometimes, inftead of
thefe fymptoms, a diarrhoea occurs, and this chiefly
in weak, phlegmatic, and aged people, or where an in-
digefted mucous faburra has long remained in the primae
viae.
When thefe fymptoms have continued for an hour
or two, the cold begins to go off. and is fucceeded by
a laflitude, languor, and flaccidity of the whole body,
but chiefly in the limbs, with an uneafy forenefs as if
the parts had been bruifed \ excepting in thofe cafes
where the naufea continues for a longer time. After
this languor, a heat comes on, the increafe of which is
generally flow, but fometimes othe'rwife, with pain of
the head, thirft, and bitterncfs in the mouth. The
pulfe is quick and unequal; fometimes beating 130
ftrokes in a minute. As foon as this heat has abat¬
ed, a little moifture or fweat is obferved to break
forth ; not always indeed in the firft, but always in the
lucceeding paroxyfms, and the urine lets fall a quan¬
tity of lateritious fediment. The whole paroxyfm is
feldom over in lefs than fix hours, more frequent¬
ly eight, and in violent cafes it extends to 1 2 hours j
but that which exceeds 12 hours is to be reckoned a
fpurious kind, and approaching to the nature of conti-
Vol. XIII. Part I,
CINE. 241
nued fevers. All thefe fymptoms, however, are repeat- Tortiana.
ed every fecond day, in fuch a manner that the patient-v—
is quite free from fever for at leaft 24 hours. The pa¬
roxyfms return much about the fame time, though
fometimes a little fooner or later.
2. Caufes of this difeafe andperfons fubjeff to it. The
genuine tertian attacks men rather than women, young
people rather than old : the latter being more fub-
je£l to anomalous tertians. It like wife feizes the
lulty and active, rather than the la/y and indolent,
Thofe, however, who are apt to naufeate their meat
fall ealily into a tertian fever. The caufe, according
to Dr Cullen, is the miafma of marihes, and that
only. Other phyfieians have taken in many more
caufes, almoft every thing indeed which debilitates
the body : but the Doflor denies that any of thefe,
though they may difpofe the body for receiving the
difeafe, or may augment it, can by any means produce
it without the concurrence of the marth miafma ; and
it cannot be denied, that it is a difeafe almoft pe¬
culiar to marfhy fituations. Thus wre find it very fre¬
quent in the fenny counties of Britain, although in
other parts of this ifland it may be confidered as a very-
rare difeafe ; nay, in many it may perhaps be faid that
it never occurs. And it is alio well known that inter-
mittents have almoft entirely difappeared in many parts
of Britain, in which they were very common before the
marihes of thefe places were drained.
3. Prognofs. 'The genuine Ample tertian, unlefs
improper medicines be adminiftered, is generally very
eafily cured 5 nay, the vulgar reckon it of fuch a falu-
tary nature, that after it they imagine a perfon be¬
comes more llrong and healthy than before. Hippo¬
crates has obferved, that thefe fevers terminate of
their orvn accord after {even or nine paroxyfms*
Juncker tells us, that it frequently terminates before
the feventh paroxyfm, but rarely before the fourth.
He alfo denies that any thing critical is to be obferved
in its going off ; but in this he differs from Vogel,
who tells us, that the urine, for feme days alter the
fever is quite gone off, appears flimy, and lets fall much
fediment. The latter alfo informs us, that belides the
common crifis by fweat and urine, the tertian hath one
peculiar to itfelf, namely, dry fcabby ulcers breaking
out upon the lips. Thefe fometimes appear about the
third or fourth paroxyfm •, and then we may venture
to foretel that the difeafe will go off fpontaneoufly
after the feventh. But though the difeafe be never
dangerous, in cold climates at leaft, when properly-
treated ; yet the improper ufe of hot and (limulating
medicines may change it into a continued fever, more
or lefs dangerous according to the quantity, of medi¬
cines taken and the conftitution of the patient ; in
which cafe the prognofis muft be regulated by the par¬
ticular fymptoms which occur. In warm climates,
however, the tertian fever may be confidered as a
much more alarming difeafe *, and unlefs the moft:
powerful remedies be employed, the patient is in dan¬
ger of falling a viftirn to every paroxyfm.
A variety of theories have been propofed for ex-
plainirtg the phenomena of this affection ; but we may
affert, that every thing hitherto faid upon the fub-
jeft is highly unfatisfaftory. For although it be now
almoft univerfally admitted, that this fever docs arife
from the effluvia of marfties, yet in what manner'the
H h aflion
242 M E D I
Kebres. action of tliofe effluvia induces fever, and particularly
^ v why this fever returns in regular paroxyfms, are quef-
tions with regal'd to which we are ftiU totally in the
dark. Dr Cullen, with much ingenuity, attempted
to prove, that the remote caufes ot this, as well as of
other fevers, operate by inducing a ftate of debility j
that tliis debility gives rife to fpafm, which induces in-
creafed aelion, from which the phenomena are to be ex¬
plained. But this theory is liable to no lefs numerous
and un fur mountable objections than the exploded hypo-
thefes which had before been propofed by others. For
it is an undeniable truth, that debility often exifts, even
to the higheft imaginable degree, without any fever j
nav, that when fever has taken place, the debility is
often much greater after it is entirely gone than at
any period during its courfc. When fpafm and in-
creafed adlion do take place, we have no reafon to view
them in any other light than merely as fymptoms of
the difeafe ; and while they are often abfent in this
affeCHon, they frequently occur in others where the
ficknefs, anxiety, and other characterizing fymptoms
of fever are entirely abfent : and, upon the whole, a
probable or rational theory of intermit tents, as well as
of other fevers, ftill remains to be difeovered.
Cure. The treatment of all genuine intermittents,
whether tertians, quotidians, or quartans, being almoft
precifely the fame, the general method of cure appli¬
cable to all of them may be here given, to which it
will be eafy to refer when we come to deferibe the
others.
In treating intermittent fevers, phyficians have formed
indications of cure according to their different theories.
The followers of Boerhaave, Stahl, &c. rvho imagined
that the difeafe proceeded from a lentor or other dif-
orders in the blood, always thought it neceffary to cor-
reft and evacuate thefe peccant humours by emetics and
purgatives, before they attempted to flop the difeafe by
the Peruvian bark or any other medicine. Cinchona
indeed, among fome, feems to be held in very little efti-
mation : fince Vogel affirms, that this medicine, inftead
of deferving to have the preference of all other febri¬
fuge medicines, ought rather to be ranked among the
lowed; of the whole $ and for this reafon he aferibes the
cures, faid to be obtained by the ufe of the Peruvian
bark, entirely to nature.
According to Dr Cullen, the indications ef cure in
intermitting fevers may be reduced to the following:
1. In the time of intermiffion, to prevent the return
of the paroxyfms.
2. In the time of paroxyfms, to condufl thefe m fuch
a manner as to obtain a final folution of the difeafe.
3. To take off certain circumllances which might
prevent the fulfilling of the two firft indications.
The firft indication may be anfwered in two ways :
I. By increafing the aflion of the heart and arteries
fome time before the period of acceffion, and fupport-
ing that increafed aflion till the period of acceffion be
over, and thus preventing the recurrence of that atony
and fpafm of the extreme veffels, which he thinks give
occafion to the recurrence of paroxyfms. 2. By fup-
porting the tone of the veffels, and thereby preventing
atony and the confequent fpafm, without increafing
the aflion of the heart and arteries, the recurrence of
paroxyfms may be prevented.
The aftion of the heart and arteries may be increaf-
4
CINE. Praflice,
ed, 1. By various ftimulant remedies internally given Tertians,
or externally applied, and that without exciting fweat.v—y—J
2. By the fame remedies, or by others, managed in
fuch a manner as to excite fweating, and to fupport that
fweating till the period of acceflion be for iome time
pall. 3. By emetics, fupporting for the lame time the
tone and action of the extreme veflels.
The tone of the extreme veffels may be fupported
without increafing the adion of the heart and arteries,
by various tonic medicines ; as, 1. Aftringents alone.
2. Bitters alone. 3. Aftringents and bitters conjoined.
4. Aftringents and aromatics conjoined. 5. Certain
metallic tonics; and, 6. Opiates. A good deal of
exercife, and as full a diet as the condition of the patient’s
appetite and digeftion allow, will be proper during the
time of intermiflion, and may be confidered as belonging
to this head. Although many particulars in this plan of
cure are deduced from Dr Cullen’s theory, yet there
can be no doubt that the objed chiefly to be aimed at
is to employ fuch remedies during the intermiflions as
will prevent a recurrence of the paroxyfm. Of all the
remedies hitherto employed with this intention, the moft
celebrated, perhaps the moft certainly effedual, is the
Peruvian bark 5 or, to fpeak more properly, the bark of
the Cinchona offiema/is of Linnaeus. But it mult be
obferved, that good effeds are only to be expeded from
this medicine when employed in fubftance and in large
quantity ; and for its ufe the following rules or obferva-
tions have been given :
1. The cinchona may with fafety be employed at any
period of intermitting fevers, providing that at the fame
time there be neither a phlogiftic diathefis prevailing in
the fyftem, nor any confiderable or fixed congeftion
prefent in the abdominal vifeera.
2. The proper time for exhibiting the cinchona in
intermittent fevers is during the time of intermiffion,
and it is to be abftained from in the time of paroxyfms.
3. In the cafe of genuine intermittents, while a due
quantity of cinchona is employed, the exhibition of it
ought to be brought as near to the time of acceffion as
the condition of the patient’s ftomach will allow.
4. In all cafes of intermittents, it is not fufficient that
the recurrence of paroxyfms be flopped for once by the
ufe of the cinchona; a relapfe is commonly to be
expeded, and ftiould be prevented by the exhibition of
the cinchona repeated at proper intervals.
The advantage of adminiftering the medicine as early
as poflible, jvas fully afeertained by Dr Lind in the years
1765, 1766, and 1767, during an uncommon prevalence
of intermittents. When the difeafe was flopped by the
cinchona immediately after the firft or fecond fit, which
was the cafe with 200 of the Dodor’s patients as well
as himfelf, neither a jaundice nor dropfy enfued $ where¬
as, when the cinchona could not be adminiftered, on
account of the imperfed intermiflion of the fever, or
vfflen the patient had negleded to take it, either a
dropfy, jaundice, or conftant headach, were the certain
confequences, and the violence of the difeafe rvas in
proportion to the number of the preceding fits, or to
the continuance of the fever. By every paroxyfm the
dropfical fwellings were vifibly increafed, and the co¬
lour of the fkin rendered of a deeper yellow. When
the fever continued a few days without intermiffion, the
belly and legs generally fwelled •, a violent headach,
likewife, and vertigo, for the moft part diftreffed the
patient j.
MEDICINE.
Practice.
Febres patientTo that fonie, even after the fever had left
them, were not able to walk acrofs their chamber for
a fortnight or three weeks. When the returns of the
fever were regular and even, but flight, four or five fits
of a fimple tertian were fometimes followed by the
moft dangerous fymptoms; efpecially in the year 1765,
when thefe fevers raged with the greatefl; violence. If,
as frequently happened, a dropfical patient relapfed in¬
to the intermittent, there was an abfolute neceflity for
putting an immediate Hop to it by the cinchona; and in
upwards of 70 fuch patients, Dr Lind obferved the moft
beneficial effecls to accrue from this practice. Without
regard to a cough, or any other chronical indifpofition,
he ordered it to be given in large dofes.
Cinchona has been often obferved to fail in removing
intermittents, from not continuing the ufe of it for a
fufficient length of time, from adminiftering it in too
fmall a dofe, or from giving it in an improper form. It
was a prevailing opinion, that an ounce, or an ounce
and a half, taken during one intermiflion, was fuffi¬
cient to prevent the return of another paroxyfm. But
this is not always the cafe ; for a fevere fit will often
attack a patient who has taken fuch a quantity. When
this happens, the patient ought to perfevere during the
following intermiffions, with an increafe of the dofe, till
five or fix ounces at leaft have been taken. The medi¬
cine alfo ought not to be omitted as foon as one fit is
flopped, but ftiould be continued in a fmaller dofe, and
after longer intervals, for at leaft ten days or a fortnight.
Even for feveral months after the difeafe is entirely
removed, it would be advifable to take a little occafion-
ally in damp weather, or during an eafterly wind, to
prevent a relapfe. Where the intervals between the fits
are fhort, as in quotidians and double tertians, from one
to two drams of it ought to be taken every two or
three hours.
The form in which this medicine is adminiftered is
of fome confequence. Mucilages and fyrups have
been recommended to conceal the tafte of it ; but,
from various experiments, Dr Lind found nothing
more effectual for this purpofe than fmall beer or
milk, efpecially the latter. A dram of bark mixed
with two ounces of milk, and quickly drank, may
eafily be taken by a perfon of the moft delicate tafte,
and by wafliing the mouth afterwards with milk, there
will not remain the leaft flavour of the bark ; but if
the mixture be not drank immediately, the bark will
impart a bitter tafte to the milk. This medicine is
commonly given in electuaries or bolufes; but Dr
Lind obferves, that in thefe forms it proves much lefs
efficacious than when adminiftered in juleps or draughts,
with the plentiful addition of wine or fpirits. He has
remarked, that fix drams of powdered bark, given
in a julep, confifting of one-fourth or one-third of
brandy, is as effectual as an ounce of the powder in
the form of an electuary, and proves lefs difagreeable
to the ftomaeh. For patients unaccuftomed to wine
«r fpirits, each draught fliould be rvarmed with fpiri-
tus ammonite, or timft. myrrh, by both of which the
efficacy of the bark i« he thinks increafed. Dr Lind is
alfo fullv convinced that wine or fpirits improve the
virtues of the bark much more than elixir vitrioli, tindl.
fofar. or fuch other medicines as have been recommend¬
ed by different phyficians.
For thofe who naufeate cinchona from a weaknefs
of the ftomach or other caufe, he advifes it to be Ter
given in clyfters, in which form it is, he tells my as effi¬
cacious as when taken by the mouth. For this purpofe
the extrad is moft proper with the addition oi a fufficient
quantity of the tindura thebaica, in order to its being
longer retained. For children labouring under in¬
termitting fevers, Dr Lind orders the fpine of the
back to be anointed, at the approach of the fit, with
a liniment compofed of equal parts of tindura the¬
baica and liniment, fapon. which has otten prevent¬
ed it. If this ffiould not produce the defired tiled:,
he informs us that two or three tea-fpoonfuls of lyrup.
& mecon. given in the hot fit, will generally mitigate
the fymptoms. But for the entire removal of the ditt afe,
after purging with magnefia alba, he preferibes a dram
of the extrad. cinchona; with a few drops of tind. the¬
baic. in a clyfter, to be repeated every three hours for
a child of about a year old. When the itomach is op-
preiTed with phlegm, the magnefia frequently occafions
vomiting, which fhould be promoted with warm water.
The conftant heavinefs of the head occaiioned by thofe
fevers in fuch tender conftitutions is beft relieveu by
the application of a blifter to the back.
Cinchona has alfo proved effedual for the cure of
intermittents in children, even when externally applied,
by putting the powder of it into a quilted wTaillcoat.
Of its efficacy in this way feveral inftances are related
by Dr Samuel Pye in the fecond volume of Medi¬
cal Obfervations and Inquiries. In ffiort, fo effedual
was it found in removing thefe fevers w hen properly ap¬
plied, that of between four and five hundred afflided
with them in the year 1765, Dr Lind loft only two,
neither of whom had taken this medicine.
In all thefe cafes, a vomit was adminiftered when¬
ever the patient complained of a ficknefs and retching
to vomit, or was feized with a fpontaneous vomiting j
and cinchona was never given till this ficknefs was
removed, or a purgative taken to clear more perfedly
the whole alimentary canal. In thofe patients who
were troubled with a cough, attended with a pain
in the fide affeding the breathing, when the pain
was not relieved by warm fomentations, the balfa-
mum anodynum, or by a blifter, Dr Lind gene¬
rally ordered a few ounces of blood to be taken
away, and endeavoured to flop the fever as foon as
poffible by the adminiftration of cinchona; having
found that every return of the fever increafed all fuch
pains —When the headaeh was very violent, and
haraffed the patient during the intermiffions, the fuc-
cefs of cinchona was rendered more complete by the
application of a blifter to the back.— A giddinefs of
the head, which is the fymptom moft commonly re¬
maining after even a flight intermitting fever, was ge¬
nerally relieved bv the fal C. C. and cinchona in wine.
The former of thefe was adminiftered in the following'
manner.
R. Aq. Alex. Simp. *vii.
Sal C. C. 3fs.
Syr. e Cort. Aurant. |i. M. f. julep. Cap*
Cochlear, ij. fubinde.
If from the continuance of the fever the patient was
diftreffed with a flatulence, adiftention of the abdomen,
and a fwelling of the legs, a fpoonful of tinftura fa-
cra, with the addition of 30 drops of the fpiril. lavend.
compef. was ordered to be taken every night.—A
H h 2 continuance
244
Fcbres. continuance of cinchona, a change of air, and the cold
v ’ bath, were often found requilite to prevent a relapfe.
Such is the method of cure recommended by this
experienced author, who has alfo difcovered the effica¬
cy and fuccefs of opium in intermitting fevers. He
informs us, that he has prefcribed an opiate to up¬
wards of 300 patients labouring under this difeafe ;
and he obferved, that, if taken during the intermiffion,
. it had not the lead effeft either in preventing or mi¬
tigating the fucceeding paroxyfm: when given in the
cold fit, it once or twice feemed to remove it; but
when given half an hour after the commencement of
the hot fit, it generally gave immediate relief.—
When giv’en in the hot fit, the eifedfs of opium are
as follow : 1. It ffiortens and abates the fit •, and
this with more certainty than an ounce of cinchona
is found to remove the difeafe. 2. It generally gives a
fenfible relief to the head, takes off the burning heat
of the fever, and occafions a profufe fveat. This
fweat is attended with an agreeable fottnefs of the
Ikin, inttead of the burning fenfath n which affedls
patients fweating in the hot fit, and is always much
more copious than in thofe who have not taken opium.
3. It often protluces a foft and refreffiing deep to a
patient tortured in the agonies of the fever, from which
he awakes bathed in fweat, and in a great meafure free
from all complaints.
Dr Lind has always obferved, that the effedls of
opium are more uniform and con 11 ant in intermitting
fevers than in any other difeafe, and are then more
quick and obvious than thofe of any other medicine.
An opiate thus given foon after the commencement of
the hot fit, by abating the violence and lefiening the
duration of the fever, preferves the conilitution fo en¬
tirely uninjured, that, fince he ufed opium in agues, a
dropfy or jaundice has feldom attacked any of his pa¬
tients in thofe difeafes. When opium did not imme¬
diately abate the fymptoms of the fever, it never in-
creafed their violence. On the contrary, mod pa¬
tients reaped fome benefit from an opiate given in the
hot fit, and many of them bore a larger dwfe at that
time than they could do at any other. He affures us,
that even a delirium in the hot fit is not incrcaled by
opium, though opium will not remove it. Hence he
thinks it probable, that many fymptoms attending thefe
fevers are fpafmodic ; but more efpecially the headach.
However, if the patient be delirious in the fit, the
adminillration of the opiate ought to be delayed until
he recovers his fenfes, when it will be found greatly to
relieve the weaknefs and faintnefs which commonly luc-
eeed the delirium. Dr Lind is of opinion, that opium
In this difeafe is the bell preparative for cinchona ; as it
not only produces a complete intermiffion, in which cafe
alone that remedy can be fafely adminidered ; but oc-
cadons fuch a faluiary and copious evacuation by fweat,
as generally to render a much lefs quantity of cinchona
requifite. He commcnlv preferibes the opiate in about
twTo ounces of tin&ura facra, when the patient is cof-
tive, who is to take the cinchona immediately after the
fit. By thefe means the paroxyfm is ffiortened, and
the in<edines are cleanfed, previous to the adminidra¬
tion of cinchona; as the opiate doth not prevent, but
only fomewhat retards, the operation of the purgative.
When a vomit is given immediately before the paroxyfm,
the admin iftration of the opiate diould be podponed till
the hot fit be begun.
Pra&ice.
In the adminidration of cinchona, care fliould be Tertiana.
taken that it be of a good quality. And different opi- —y-^
nions have been entertained with refpeft to the choice,
even where there is no reafon to believe that it has been
adulterated by the mixture of other articles. For a long
time, the preference was given to fmall quilled pieces
of pale-coloured bark j but of late the red bark, which
is generally in larger maffes, of an apparently coarfer
texture, and evidently of a more refinous nature, has
been highly celebrated by Dr Saunders and others.
And in cafes where it does not difagree with the fto-
mach or excite loofenefs, it is admitted by the mod ac¬
curate obfervers to be more powerful in preventing the
return of intermittents. Whether the red bark be the
produft of a different fpecies of the cinchona, or be ob¬
tained as well as the pale quilled bark from the cinchona
officinalis, is not yet afeertained with fufficient accura¬
cy. Cinchona of a yellow colour has lately been im¬
ported into Britain and highly extolled. Its botanical
hidory is not afeertained. It contains more bitter ex-
traftive matter, and more tannin and gallic acid, than
either the pale or red ; but lefs gum than the pale, and
lefs refin than the red. It feems to produce the fame
medical effetls in fmaller dofes. And it has fometimes
fucceeded in the cure of intermittents where the pale
and red cinchona have before been employed in vain.
A fpecies of cinchona, didinguiffied by the title of
cinchona Jamaicenfis, has been difcovered in Jamaica
and other idands in the Weft Indies. A very accurate
defeription of it has been given by Dr Wright of Ja¬
maica in the PhilofophicalTranfaflions of London. The
bark of this fpecies alfo has been recommended in
the cure of intermittents ; but the advantages of it
have not hitherto been fufficiently confirmed by experi¬
ence.
The barks of various trees readily cultivated in
Britain, particularly different fpecies of the falix, the
primus, the fraxinus, and the quercus, have by fome
been reprefented as no lefs efficacious than the cincho¬
na. But we may fafely venture to affert, that although
feveral of them may poffefs fome power in flopping in¬
termittents, yet that none hitherto tried can be confi-
dered as in any degree approaching to the cinchona in
point of efficacy.
But although the Peruvian bark be the beft cure
for intermittents hitherto difcovered, yet while it can.
by no means be reprefented as the only cure, it is very
certain that other remedies have in different cafes fuc¬
ceeded after the cinchona has failed. Cures have of¬
ten been obtained bv the ufe of different aromatics,
bitters, and aftringents. Many articles from the mi¬
neral kingdom alio have been employed with advan¬
tage. And intermittents have unqueftionably been in
certain cafes flopped by different preparations of iron,
zinc, copper, lead, and mercury. But of all the ar¬
ticles of this nature, arfenic has of late been the moft
celebrated. Arfenic is on good grounds conjeflured
to be the bafis of an article much employed in the
cure of intermittents in fome of the countries where
they are moft prevalent, and fold under the title of
the tajlelefs ague drop. The great fuceefs attending
the ufe of this article, led Dr Fowler, an ingenious phy-
fician of Stafford, to examine it with particular atten¬
tion. And in a treatife which he has lately publiffied,
entitled Medical Reports on the effedls of arfenic in the
cure of agues, he has given a formula for an arfenical
folution,.
MEDICINE.
Practice.
Febres. folution, which he has found very fuccefsful in affec-
'“—"v 1 tions of this kind, and which is probably very nearly
the fame with the taflelefs ague drop. Dr Fowler’s
mineral folution, as he ftyles it, is found by diffolving
64 grains of arfenic and as much fixed vegetable al¬
kaline fait in a pound of diftiiled water. This folu¬
tion is given in dofes from three to 12 drops, varied
according to the condition of the patient, and re¬
peated two or three times a-day. And where the
cinchona has failed in flopping intermittents, it feems
to be one of the moft powerful remedies yet dif-
covered. But after all remedies prove ineffedlual, in¬
termittents are often flopped by change of feafon and of
fituation.
But befides the remedies employed in tertians and
other intermittents, with the view of preventing the
return of paroxyfins, it is often alfo neceffary to employ
powerful articles with other intentions, particularly to
mitigate and Ihorten the paroxyfm when prefent $ to ob¬
viate urgent fymptoms, efpecially thofe of an inflamma¬
tory or putrid nature •, and to obtain a complete apyrexia
or intermiflton from fever after the paroxyfm has ceafed.
With thefe intentions, recourfe is not unfrequently had
to emetics, laxatives, blood-letting, blifters, opium, dilu¬
ents, or fudorifics, as the circumflances of the cafe may
require.
127 The Irregular or Spurious Tertian.
Sp. I. var. 1. B.
Tertiana notha five fpuria, Sauv. fp. 2. Sennert.
C/eghorn. Hojfman.
The chara£leriflic marks of this fever are, that its
paroxyfms lad longer than 12 hours, and confequently
it inclines more to the quotidian or continued fever than
the former. Its paroxyfms have no flated hour of
attacking. The cure, however, is precifely the fame
ivith that above deferibed, obferving the proper cau¬
tions already mentioned with regard to the ufe of the
cinchona.
n8 The Double TERTIAN. Sp. 1. var. 2. C.
Tertiana duplex, Sauv. fp. 13. Vog. G. 12. Sennert.
Cleghorn.
Duplicata, Lin. 18.
The double tertian comes on every day j but differs
from the quotidian in this, that its paroxyfms do not
anfwer to each other fingly, but alternately. The
firft day, for inftance, the fit will come on in the fore¬
noon, in the fecond in the afternoon, the third in the
forenoon, and the fourth in the afternoon.
Of thefe fevers we (hall give the following deferip-
tion from Cleghorn’s treatife on the difeafes of Mi¬
norca : “ They are called double tertians when there
are two fits and two intervals within the time of each
period. But commonly there is fome dift’erence between
the two fits, either in refpeft of the hour they come
at, the time of their duration, or the nature and vio¬
lence of their concomitant fymptoms. Some double
tertians begin in this manner.—On the evening of
Monday, for example, a flight fit comes on, and goes
off early next morning •, but on Tuefday, towards the
middle of the day, a more fevere paroxyfm begins,
and continues till night. Then there is an interval to
Wednefday evening, when a flight fit commences a
new period of the fever, which proceeds in the fame
3
MEDICI N E,
245
manner as the firft. $ fo that according to the way Tertiana.
phyficians calculate the days of difeafes, (by beginning
to reckon from the firft hour of their invafion), both
paroxyfms happen on the odd days, while the greateft
part of the even days is calm and undifturbed.’ But
in moft double tertians the patient has a fit every day
of the difeafe j the fevere one commonly appearing at
noon upon the odd days, the flight one towards even¬
ing on the even days j though fometimes the worft of
two fits happen on the even days.
“ There is a tertian fever fometimes to be met with,
during each period of which there are three different
fits, and as many intervals. For example, towards
Monday noon the patient is feized with a paroxyfm,
which declines about five or fix o’clock the fame even¬
ing j a few hours after, another fit begins, and con¬
tinues until morning ; from which time there is an in¬
terval to Tuefday evening, vThen a third fit comes on,
and lafts moft part of the night. On Wednefday
there are again two paroxyfms, as on Monday, and on
Thurfday like that of Tuefday 5 and thus the fever
goes on with a double fit on each of the odd days,
and a Angle fit on the even days.
“ In double tertians, that interval is the moft con-
fiderable which follows the fevere fit 5 for the flight fit
oftener ends in a remiflion than intermiflion, and fre¬
quently lingers till the other approaches : Hence - it
is, that the night preceding the vehement fit is much
more reftlefs than that which comes after it, as has
been obierved by Hippocrates. In double tertians,
the vehement fit often comes on a little earlier in each
period, while the flight fit returns at the fame hour,
or perhaps later and later every fecond day : fo that the
motions of one have no influence on thofe of the other ;
from whence it appears, that each of thefe fits hath
its own proper independent caufes.”
Duplicated Tertian. Sp. I. var. 2. D.
Tertiana duplicata, Sauv. fp. 14. Jones. River.
This hath two fits on the fame day, with an inter¬
mediate day on which there are none. This alfo does
not differ in any remarkable particular from thofe al¬
ready deferibed.
The Triple Tertian. Sp. I. var. 2. D.
Tertiana triplex, Sauv. fp. 15. Cleghorn.
Semitertiana, Hoffman.
Semitertiana primi ordinis, Spig.
This differs from the former in having a Angle and
double fit alternately : thus, for inftance, if there be
two fits the firft day, there is only one the fecond,
two the third, one the fourth, &c. Its cure is the fame
as before.
The .SW-Tertian. Sp. I. var. 2. F.
Hemitritaeus, Celf.
Semitertiana, Cleghorn.
Semitertiana fecund! ordinis, Spig.
Amphimerina hemitritreus, Sauv. Ip. 8.
Amphimerina pfeudo-hemitritseus, Sauv. fp. 9.
The femitertian is deferibed by Dr Cullen as having-
only an evident remiffon between its paroxyfms; more
remarkable between the odd and even day, but lefs
fo between the even and odd one. For this reafon,
he adds, that poffibly fome femitertians ought rather
to
zap
13 r
2 4-5
Fcbre*.
1^2
M E D I
to be clafied among the remittents $ and owns that it is
difficult to fettle the boundaries between them. But
C I N E. Praaice.
it feized the head, and proved fatal to abundance of Tertiana
perfons.
Cleghorn, whom he quotes, defcribes it in the follow¬
ing manner. “ A fit begins on Monday noon, for
example, and goes off the fame night. On Tuefday
afternoon a fecond fit comes on, and gradually in-
creafes till Wednefday night, when it terminates. On
Thurfday morning there is fuch another interval as
happened on Tuefday morning: But on Thurfday
afternoon another long fit like the preceding com¬
mences ; and returning regularly every fecond day, leaves
only a ffiort interval of ten or twelve hours during the
•ight and forty.
Concerning the cure of thefe fevers Dr Cullen ob-
ferves, that though no entire apyrexia occurs, cinchona
may be given during the remiffions : and it fhould be
given even though the remiffions be inconfiderable j if,
from the known nature of the epidemic, intermiffions
or confiderable remiffions are not to be expefted, and
that great danger is apprehended from repeated exa¬
cerbations.
The Sleepy Tertian. Sp. I. var. 3. G.
Tertiana carotica, Sauv. fp. 10. Werlhof
Tertiana hemiplegica, Sauv. fp. 20. Werlhof.
Quotidiana foporofa, Sauv. fp. 8. Car. Pif.
Febris caput impetens, Sydenham, ep. ad. R. Brady.
From this defcription of Sydenham’s we may have
an idea of the nature of the diltale. As to its cure he
ftrongly recommends cinchona ; telling us, that, even
in the mojl continued kind of intermit tents, “ the nearer
the intermittent approaches to a continued fever, either
fpomaneoufiy, or from ufing too hot a regimen, fo much
the more neceffary is it to exhibit a larger quantity of
the bark ; and that he took advantage of a remiffion,
though ever lo Imall.” -
The Spafmodic or Convulfve Tertian. Sp. I.
var. 3. H.
Tertiana afthmatica, Sauv. fp. 6. Bonnet.
Tertiana hyfterica, Sauv. fp. 8. Wedel. A. N. C.
Dec. I. A. 11. obf. 193.
Hyfleria febricofa, Suuv. G. 135. fp. 8. A. N. C.
Dec. I. Ann. II.
Tertiana epileptica, Sauv. fp. 16. Colder. Lautter.
(^uotidiana epileptica, Sauv. fp. 3. Edinb. Efi'ays,
vol. v. art. 49.
Ecclampfia febricofa, Sauv. G. 139. fp. 17.
Epilepfia febricofa, Sauv. G. 134. fp. 9.
Tertiana tetanodes Med. Beobacht I. Band.
Tetanus febricofus, Sauv. G. 122. fp. 10. Storh.
Ann. Med. II.
This, according to Vogel, is a moll dangerous fpe-
cies, and very commonly fatal; for which reafon he
ranks it among thofe intermittents which he calls ma¬
lignant. Sometimes he tells us the alarming fymptom
of a lleepinefs comes on, not at the beginning of the
difeafe, but will unexpectedly occur during the third,
fourth, fifth, or fixth paroxyfm. It commonly begins
with the cold fit, and continues during the whole time
of the paroxyfm, and, becoming ftronger at every fuc-
ceeding one, at laft terminates in a mortal apoplexy.
Sometimes fevers of this kind rage epidemically. Vo¬
gel relates, that he faw a Ample tertian changed into
one of thefe dangerous fevers. The patient was a wo¬
man of a delicate conllitution, and the fymptoms ap¬
peared in confequence of her being put in a violent
paliion : however, it occurred but once, and (he reco¬
vered. Hoffman mentions a carus in a double tertian
occurring feven times without proving mortal ; though
Vogel fays, that the powers of nature are very feldom
fufficient to conquer the difeafe.
In 1678, Dr Sydenham tells us that intermittents
raged epidemically at London, where none had ap¬
peared before from 1664. Of them “ it is to be noted
(fays he), that though quartans were moft frequent
formerly, yet now tertians or quotidians were moll
common, unlefs the latter be entitled double tertians :
and likewife, that though thefe tertians fometimes
began with chilnefs and {hivering, which were fuc-
ceeded firft by heat, and foon after by fweat, and end¬
ed at length in a perfefl intermiffion, returning again
after a fixed time j yet they did not keep this order
after the third or fourth fit, efpecially if the patient
was confined to his bed and ufed hot cardiacs, which
inereafe the difeafe. But afterwards this fever be¬
came fo unufually violent, that only a remifiion hap¬
pened in the place of an intermiffion *, and approach¬
ing every day nearer the fpecies of continued fevers,
Tertians of this kind occur with very different
fymptoms from thole of the true ones, and fometimes
even with thofe which are very extraordinary. In
fome they are attended with fymptoms of afihma,
in others with thole oi hyfterics, in others with eon-
vulfions. Where the fymptoms of aflhma occur, the
difeafe mull be treated with diuretics and antilpaimo-
dics joined with cinchona. In the hyfteric afthma the
fit comes on with cold, yawning, cardialgia, terror
and dejection of mind. The difeafe is to be remov¬
ed by mild aperients and antihyfterics joined with cin¬
chona.
Of the convulfive tertian we have a moll remarkable
inflance in the Edinburgh Medical Effays, vol. v.
The patient was a farmer’s fon about 26 years of age,
of a ftrong plethoric habit of body. He had labour¬
ed under an ague half-a year, and had taken a great
deal of Peruvian bark. While he tvas telling his cafe
to the furgeon (Mr Baine of Pembroke), he was lud-
denly taken with a violent liamping ol his feet $ and
the convulfions gradually afcended from the foies of the
feet to his legs, thighs, belly, back, and Ihoulders.
His head was then moft violently convulfed, with a
total deprivation of fpeech ; but he had a moll difmal
vociferation, which might have been heard at a con¬
fiderable diltance, his abdomen and thorax working
and heaving violently and unufually in the mean time.
This fit having lalled half an hour, a profufe fweat
broke out over all his body, which relieved him 5 and
he then became capable of anfvvering fuch queftions
as were put. Thefe extraordinary fits, he faid, had
been occafioned by a fright, and his neighbours had
concluded that he was bewitched. They returned
fometimes twice a-day, and always at the times the
ague ufed to return. During the paroxyfm his pulfe
was very high and quick, his face much inflamed,
and his eyes ready to flart out of his head. After
th®
Pra&ice.
M E D I
Febres. the fit was over, he Complained of a moft torturing
pain of the bowels. His tongue was generally moift,
and he had a fuppreffion of urine.—This formidable
difeafe, however, was totally fubdued by the ufe of
cinchona, mercurials, antifpafmodics, opiates, and faline
draughts.
134 The Eruptive Tertian. Sp. I. var. 3. I.
lertiana petechialis, Sauv. fp. 3. Donat. Lautter.
Tertiana fcorbutica, Wedel. A. N. C. Dec. I. A.
II. obf. 193.
Tertiana urtieata, Sauv. fp. 22. Elanchon. Jcurn. de
Med. 1763. C/cghorn.
Tertiana miliaris, Sauv. fp. 21. Walthieri de Med.
Ger.
This fpecies of tertian is accompanied with red or
livid blotches on the Ikin, or an eruption like that oc-
cafioned by the flinging of nettles. In the latter cafe
Dr Cleghorn fays the difeafe is very dangerous 5 and
as the former indicates an incipient diffolution and pu¬
trefaction of the blood, it muft alfo be reckoned of very
dangerous tendency.
?35 The bijlammatory Tertian. Sp. I. var. 3. K.
Tertiana pleuritica, Sauv. fp. 4. Valef. Lautt.
Pleuritis periodica, Sauv. G. 103. fp. 14.
Tertiana arthritica, Sauv. fp. 5. Morton. Lautt.
Sauvages informs us, that he has feen a true and
genuine pleurify having all the pathognomic figns of
the difeafe, but afluming the form of an intermittent ;
that is, the patient is one day affeCted with the pieuri-
fy, and the next feemingly in perfeCt health. He alfo
tells us, that in the month of May 1760, a tertian
raged epidemically, which after the third fit imitated
a. pleurify, the pain of the fide, and difficulty of
breathing coming regularly on, and the fever from
an intermittent becoming remittent; the blood had
alfo the fame appearance with that of pleuritic per-
fons, and the dirtemper yielded to bleeding and gentle
cathartics.—Morton alfo informs us, that he has ob-
ferved fimilar diforders an hundred times, which were
always certainly and fafely cured by the Peruvian
bark.
136 The Tertian complicated with other Diforders.
Sp. I. var. 4.
Tertiana fcorbutica, Sauv. fp. q. Etmuller, Timccus.
Tertiana fyphilitica, Sauv. fp. 1 7. Deidier.
Tertiana verminofa, Sauv. fp. 18. Stiffcr. in aft.
Helmftad. Lancif. de noxiis palud. Pringle.
Ramazzini. Van den Bofch. de conft. vermin.
The fcorbutjc tertian, according to Sauvages, is ex¬
ceedingly anomalous, its periods being fometimes much
anticipated, and fometimes mucli poftponed. It is ex¬
ceedingly obftinate, and will return if the body be
not cleared of its fcorbutic taint. The patient- is affeft-
ed with lancinating pains of a wandering nature. The
urine lets fall a dulky red fediment, or a thick branny
matter is copioufly fcattered up and down in it, feem-
ingly tinged with blood. The ufual fymptoms of feur-
vy, viz. livid fpots, and rotten fetid gums, alfo fre¬
quently occur. For this the Peruvian bark is very ufe-
ful, both as a febrifuge and antifcorbutic.
A tertian accompanied with worms is taken notice
CINE. 247
of by Sir John Pringle in his treatife on the difeafes of Tertiana.
the army. The worms, he tells us, were of the round
kind } and though we are by no means to reckon them
the caufe of the fever, they never failed to make it
worfe,' occafioning obftinate gripings or ficknefs at fto-
mach. In thefe cafes flitches were frequent j but, be¬
ing flatulent, were not often relieved by bleeding. The
worms were difeharged by vomiting as well as by ftool.
For difeharging thefe ivorms, he commonly gave half
a dram of rhubarb with 12 grains of calomel j without
obferving any inconvenience from fuch a large dofe of
mercury. Anthelmintics, which aft flowly, had little
chance of doing good ; for though worms will fome¬
times lie long in the bowels without giving much un-
eafinels to a perfon otherwife well, yet in a fever, efpe-
cially one of a putrid kind (to which his intermittents
always feemed to incline), the worms being difturbed
by the increafe of heat, and the corruption of the hu¬
mours in the prints vue, begin to move about, and
flruggle to get out. Lancifius, who makes this remark,
adds, that, upon opening the bodies of fome who had
died at Rome of fevers of this kind, wounds were found
in the inteftines made by the biting of the worms ; nay,
that fome of them had even pierced through the coats
of tire guts, and lay in the cavity of the abdomen.
Pringle never had any inftance of this ; but knew
many cafes in which the worms efcaped by the patient’s
mouth, though there had been no previous retching to
bring them up. One foldier was thrown into violent
convulfions, but was cured by the above-mentioned
powder.
The Tertian varied from its Origin. Sp. I. 137
var. 5.
Tertiana accidentalis, Sauv. fp. 12. Sydenham.
Tertiana a fcabie, Sauv. fp. 12. Juncker, tab. 80.
Hojfman, II. p. 12.
The exiftence of fevers of this kind, as we have al¬
ready oaferved, is denied by Dr Cullen j the acci¬
dental fever of Sauvages was faid to arife from any
flight error in the non-naturals, and confequently was
very eafily cured. That which arofe from the repul-
fion of the itch, was cured as foon as the eruption re¬
turned. ,
The Tertian with only a remijjion between the Remittent
fits. Sp. II. tertian.
Tritaeophya, Sauv. Gen. 85. Sag. p. 695.
Tritaeus, Lin. 21.
Hemitritaea, Lin. 23.
Tertianae remittentes et continuae Auftorum.
Tertianae fubintrantes, proportionatae, fubcontimue,
Torti.
Tertiana fubcontinua, Sauv. fp. 19.
Quotidiana deceptiva, Sauv. fp. 2.
Amphimerina femiquintana, Sauv. fp. 24.
Tritaeophya deceptiva, Sauv. fp. 10.
Caufus Hippocratis.
Tritaeophya caufus, Sauv. fp. 2.
Febris ardens Boerhaavii, aph. 738.
Tertiana perniciofa, quae fimulata tertiani circuitus
effigie lethalis, et mille accidentibus periculofiffi-
mis implicata, exiftit. Lud. Mercatus.
Tertiana peftilens, P. Sal. Diverfus.
Tertiarfa
^43
Febrcs.
M E D I
Tertiana maligna peftilens, Riverii.
1 Morbus Hungaricus. Lang. Lemb. Rennert. Jor¬
dan.
Languor Pannonicus, Cober.
Amphimerina Hungarica, Sauv. fp. 10.
Hemitritaeus peftilens, Schenck. ex Corn. Gamma.
Febres peftilentes iEgyptioruxn, Alpin.
Febris tertiana epidemica, Bartholin.
Febres epidemicae, autumni 1657 Willis.
Febris fyneches epidemica, ab anno 165^ a<^
et poftea ab anno 1673 ad 1691, Morton.
Febres autumnales incipientes, Sydenham.
Affedlus epidemicus Leidenfis, ¥r. Sylvn.
Morbus epidemieus Leidenfis, 1669, Fanois.
Tertian* perniciofae et peftilentes, et febres caftren-
fes epidemic*, Lancijt.
Febres intermittentes anomalae et mail moris, Hoff¬
man.
Febris cholerica minus acuta, Hoffman.
Febris epidemica Leidenfis, anno I7I9> Koker apud
Haller, Difp. tom. v.
Amphimerina paludofa, Sauv. fp. 19.
Febris paludum, Pringle.
Bononienfis conftitutio hiemalis 1729* Bcccan in
A. N. C. vol. iii.
Amphimerina biliofa, Sauv. fp. 22.
Febris caftrenfis, Pringle.
Febris putrida epidemica, Huxham de aere ad ann.
I729-. .
Febris biliofa Laufanenfis, Tiffot.
Tritaeophya Wratiflavienfis, Sauv. fp. 3. Hahn.
Epidemia verna Wratiflav. in App. ad A. N. C,
vol. x.
Tritaeophya Americana, Sauv. fp. 12.
Febris anomala Batava, Grainger.
Morbus Naronianus, Pujati.
Febris continua remittens, Hillary's difeafes of Bar-
badoes.
Febris remittens Indi* Orientalis, Lind. diff. inaug.
1768.
Febris critica et febr. biliofa seftatis, Rouppe.
Febris remittens regionum calidarum, Lind on the
difeafes of hot climates.
A. Tertiana cholerica five dyfenterica. Tort. Therap.
Special, lib. iii. cap. 1. Lautter. Hift. Med. caf. 6.
16. 17. 20. Morton, App. ad Exerc. II.
B. Tertiana fuberuenta five atrabiliaris, Tort. ibid. Ne¬
ver feen by Cleghorn.
C. Tertiana cardiaca, Tort. ibid. Lautter. Hift. Med.
caf. 15. 16. 23.
Amphimerina cardiaca, Sauv. fp. 5.
Tritaeophya aflbdes, Sauv. fp. 6.
Febris continua aflodes, Vog. 27.
D. Tertiana diaphoretica, Tort. ibid.
Tritaeophya typhodes, Sauv. fp. 4.
Tritaeophya elodes, Sauv. fp. 5.
Febris continua elodes, Vog. 21.
E. Tertiana fyncopalis, Tort. ibid. Lautter. caf. II. 12.
13. 15. 16.
Tritaeophya fyncdpalis, Sauv. fp. 1.
Amphimerina fyncopalis, Sauv. fp. 4.
Amphimerina humorofa, Sauv. fp. 6.
Febris continua fyncopalis, Vog. 29.
F. Tertiana algida, Tort. ibid. Lautter. caf. 13.
Amphimerina epiala, Sauv. fp. 3.
Vradice.
Tertianat
CINE.
Amphimerina phrlcodes, Sauv. fp. 7.
Tritseophya leipyria, Sauv. fp. 9.
Tertiana leipyria, Sauv. fp. 23. Valcarenglu Med.
Ration, p. 18.
Febris continua epiala et leipyria, Vog. 19. et 24.
G. Tertiana lethargica, Tort. ib.
Tritaeophya carotica, Sauv. fp. 7- Lautter. 1. 7. 14.
Tertiana apople&ica, Morton. Exerc. I. cap. ix.
hift. 25.
Tertiana foporofa, Werlhof. de febr. p. 6.
Febris epidemica Urbevetana, Lancif. de noxiis pal.
effluv. I. II. c. 3.
The remittent fevers are much more dangerous than
the true intermittents, as being generally attended with
much greater debility of the nervous fyftem and ten¬
dency to putrefcency in the fluids than the latter. Sal¬
vages divides his tritseophya, a remittent tertian into
the following fpecies :
X. Tritceophya fyncopahs, or that attended with faint- IJ5
ing. It begins like a tertian, with cold fucceeded by
heat and profufe fweating *, but attended with much
more dangerous fymptoms, fuch as cardialgia, enormous
vomiting, great weaknefs, fmall contrafted pulfe, cold-
nefs of the extremities, and, unlefs timely afliftance be
given, kills during the fecond or third paroxyfm.
2. The caufus, or burning fever of Hippocrates, 140
returns every third day without any new fenfation of
cold *, and is attended with great thirft, heat, but with¬
out diarrhoea or fweat, and continues only for one
week or two at the utmoft. It attacks chiefly young
people of a robuft and bilious habit of body, who have
been accuftomed to much exercife, and expofed to the
fun during the heats of fummer, and have alfo ufed a
phlogiftic regimen. The tongue is dry, fometimes
black ; the urine of a red or flame colour j together
with pain of the head, anxiety, and fometimes other
fymptoms ftill more dangerous.
3. Tritceophya VratiJJavienJis, was a peftilential difeafe 141
occafioned by famine, during which the people fed on
putrid aliments : the air was infefled by the vaft num¬
bers of bodies of thofe flain in battle, and the inhabitants
were alfo dejedfted by reafon of being deprived of their
harveft, and other calamities •, to all which was added
the continuance of a calm in the atmofphere for a long
time. It began Avith an acute fever, leipyria or coldnefs
of the external parts and a fenfation of burning heat
inwardly } general Aveaknefs j pain of the head and
prgecordia ; ferous, or bilious diarrhoea j a delirium, in
fome furious, and accompanied with a dread of be¬
ing expofed to the air on the fecond day the thirft
was \Tiolent, attended Avith a bilious vomiting, as Avell
as diarrhoea, tough vifeid fpitting, fainting, burning
heat in the boAvels, the tongue dry and feeming as if
burnt Avith a hot iron, a fuppreffion of the voice, anxi¬
ety, ftupor, after which quickly folloAved eommlfions
and death. In fome fevers leipyria came on Avith an
exceeding great cold of the extremities, prefently fol-
loAA'ed by an intolerable heat of the vifeera, Avith fymp-
tomatic fweats, violent diarrhoea, folloAved by a very
itchy miliary eruption. On the fourth day came on
copious fweats, fpafms of the loxver jaxv, naufea, invo¬
luntary palling of urine, flight delirium, a flux of ichor¬
ous matter from the noftrils, an exceeding tough fpit¬
ting, an epilepfy, and death. Profeffor Hahn, Avho
pra&ice.
Fcbres. gives tlie liiftory of this difeafe, was himfelf attacked
by it, and fuffered in the following manner : On the
firft day was a violent feverifh paroxyfm without rigor,
a lharp pain in the occiput, and immediately an inflam¬
matory pain over the whole head j the feet were ex¬
tremely cold, and the extremities rigid with fpafms.
The pain continued to increafe daily to fuch a degree,
that the contaft of the air itfelf became at laft intoler¬
able j a dejedlion of mind and incredible •Weaknefs fol¬
lowed ; he paffed reftlefs nights with continual fweat-
ing, heavy and pained eyes, and an univerfal fenfation
of rheumatifm over the Avhole body. On the third
day the pains were afluaged, but he had a very bad
night. On the fourth day all the fymptoms were worfe,
the feet quite chilled, the hands very red and agitated
with convulfive motions ; he was terrified with appre-
henfions of death, and had a vomiting every now and
then : this day fponges dipped in cold water were ap¬
plied over the whole body, and he ufed cold water for
his drink. On the eighth day the pulfe was convul¬
five ; and the pains were fo violent that they made him
cry out almoft continually. On the ninth day he was
delirious, and threw up fome grumous blood. On the
nth his pulfe was more quiet, and he had a fweat j a
decoftion of cinchona was given : his voice was bro¬
ken, his fpeech interrupted, and his teeth chattered up¬
on one another. On the 12th his jaw was convulfed,
he had a rifus fardonicus, and deafnefs 5 after which
the paroxyfms returned lefs frequently, and only to¬
wards night. On the 14th he had a chilling cold over
the whole body, a cold fweat; frequent lotions were
applied, and all the fymptoms became milder. On the
18th he had a quick delirium, but fainted as foon as
taken out of bed 5 a fenfation of hunger, followed by
copious fweats ; profound fleep ; an averfion from
noife ; every thing appeared new and extraordinary.
On the 36th a cholera; on the 48th a fealing off of the
Ikin, and falling off of the nails. This epidemic car¬
ried off above 3000 people at Warfaw. Frequent lo¬
tion of the body either cold or tepid, watery glyfters,
and the copious introduftion of watery fluids under
the form of drink, were of fervice. But the moft fa¬
vourable crifis was under the form of fome cutaneous
eruption.
?4a 4. Tnt&ophya typhodes. The principal fymptom of
this fever was a continual fweat with which the pa¬
tients were almoft always wet 5 with paroxyfms re¬
turning^ every third day. Sauvages tells Us, that he
had twice an opportunity of obferving this fever j one
was in the teacher of an academy, about 40 years of
age, and of a melancholic temperament. He fweated
every fecond night fo plentifully, that he was obliged
to change his linen nine times ; and even on the inter¬
mediate days was never perfeftly free of fever, and had
his Ikin moiftened with fweat. The other was of a
woman who went about in man’s clothes, and was dif-
covered only after her death. The difeafe began with
a flight fenfation of cold, after which fhe fweated for
eight hours. It was attended with the higheft de¬
bility, anxiety, and at the fame time an infatiable
hunger.
*43 5. Trit&ophya el odes, was an inflammatory epidemic,
but not contagious, terminating about the 14th or 21ft
day. The difeafe came on in the night time, with
diflurbed reft, univerfal weaknefs, watching's, great
- VOL. XIII. Part I.
249
heat and fweat, rednefs of the face and almoft of the Tertiana.
whole body, fparkling eyes, the tongue dry and white; —v——'
a hard, tenfe, and turgid pulfe: about the third day
a kind of frenzy frequently came on with the feverilh
paroxyfm, the forerunner of an univerfal miliary erup¬
tion •, or, what was worfe, with purple fpots fo clofe
together, that they looked like an eryfipelas of the
whole body. Sometimes blifters of the fize of fmall
pearls, filled wtth acrid ferum, appeared on the neck,
armpits, and trunk of the body, which were of all the
fymptoms the moft dangerous. There was a variety
of the difeafe, which Sauvages calls the humoralis, and
in which the pulfe was foft and feeble, with greater
weaknefs over the whole body, and the difpofition to
fleep more frequent than in the other j the eyes lan¬
guid 5 the tongue very white, but not dry; and worms
were fometimes difeharged.
6. TritcEophya ajjodes. This fpecies arofe from a 144
foulnefs of the primas vise, and the effluvia of waters
in which hemp had been fteeped. It began with ri¬
gor, followed by great heats, reftlefsnefs, toffing of the
limbs, faintings, immoderate thirft, drynefs of tongue,
delirium, and at length exceflive watchings 5 thefe
laft, however, .were lefs dangerous than vertigo or a
comatofe difpofition, which brought on convulfions or
apoplexies. »
7. Tritceophya carotica. This had exacerbations 145
every other evening 5 and its diftinguiflung fymptom
was an exceflive inclination to fleep, preceded by a
fevere headach, and followed by delirium, and fome¬
times convulfions ; the tongue was black, and the pa¬
tient infenfible of thirft after the delirium came on.
In thofe cafes where the difeafe proved fatal, a fub-
fultus tendinum and other alarming fymptoms, came
on.
8. Tritcvophja leipyria is only a variety of the tritae- 146 ,
ophya caufus, already deferibed.
9. Tritceophya deceptiva. This fpecies at firft aflumes 147
the appearance of a continued fever; but afterwards de¬
generates into a remittent, or even an intermittent. It
is deferibed by Sydenham, but attended with no re¬
markable fymptoms.
10. The laft of Sauvages’s fpecies of Tritaeophya 14*
belonging to the remitting tertian is the Americana.
This, according to Sauvages, is the ardent fever with
which the Europeans are ufually feized on their firft
arrival in America, and generally carries off one half of
them. Of this there are two varieties, the very acute
and the acute. The very acute ends before the feventh
day. It comes on a few days after the perfon’s arrival,
with lofs of appetite, with dyfpnoea and fighing from
Aveaknefs, headach, laffitude, and pain of the loins: a
pyrexia fucceeds, with great thirft, fweat, and heat 5
the ficknefs increafes, naufea comes on, with vomiting
of porraceous bile; the tongue rough, the extremities
often cold j Avatching, furious delirium; and the pa¬
tient frequently dies on the third day. Copious fweats,
and a plentiful hsemorrhagy from the nofe on the fifth
day, but not fooner, are ferviceable j but a bilious diar-
rhrea is the beft crifis of all.
The acute kind terminates moft frequently on the
ninth, but very rarely goes beyond the fifteenth day.
Death frequently comes on between the fourth and
feventh days. It begins Avith headach, pain in the
loins, *and fometimes ftiivering 5 great laflitude, dyf-
I i pnoea.
MEDICINE.
MEDICINE.
pnoea, thirll j burning fever, increafing every third day j
inflation of the abdomen, pain at the pit of the ftomach,
naufea, and bilious vomiting. Such is the Hate of the
difeafe Avithin twenty-four hours. The eyes are red,
and full of tears 5 the urine pellucid 5 there is a low de¬
lirium, and continual anxiety j the tongue is dry and
red, and fometimes, though rarely, black, which is a
iiill Avorfe fign ; the pulfe, formerly Urong and full,
finks about the fourth day, and becomes tenfe and fpaf-
modic : if a cams then comes on, the patient dies the
fifth or fixth day ; but if the pulfe keeps up, and no
cams comes on, a crifis is to be expected by fweat, by
a copious hemorrhagy from the nofe, or, which is ftill
more fafe, by a bilious diarrhoea, which is never falu-
tary if it comes on before the fifth day.
To the remitting tertian alfo belong the following
fpecies mentioned by Sauvages, viz.
149 I. Teriiana fubcontinua. This begins like a genuine
tertian, and at firlt hath diftinct paroxyfms ; but thefe
grow gradually more and more obfcure, the difeafe
acquiring daily more of the appearance pf continued
fever, by Avhich it is to be diftinguilhed from the
other varieties of this fpecies. It is not unfrequently
joined Avith thofe fymptoms Avhich attend the fatal fe¬
ver already mentioned ; as cardialgia, cholera, fyncope,
&c. but in a much lefs degree. The difeafe commonly
begins Avith little or no fenfe of cold, but rather a fen-
fation of heat j Avhen the tertian is doubled, it has firft
a {lighter and then a more fevere fit j and thus goes
on Avith an exacerbation on the even days : and though
it fliould change from a double into a fingle tertian,
we are ftill to fufpect it, if a Aveak fit is the forerunner
of a very ftrong one. This change of the tertian into
a continued fever is alfo to be prognofticated if a heat
remarkable to the touch is perceived on the day of in-
termiflion, together Avith fome difturbance of the pulfe,
thirft, and drynefs of the tongue ; all of which fhoxv
a tendency to inflammation : the fame is foretold by
the urine being in fmall quantity, and very red, or pf
a faffron colour ; alfo an ulcerous or aphthous inflam¬
mation of the throat, with difficulty of iwalloAving, or
any very fevere fymptom coming on in {he beginning
of the difeafe, excepting only a delirium, which is eafily
removed.
350 2. ^uotidiana deceptiva. This is a diforder of an in¬
flammatory kind, Avith a ftrong tendency to putrefcency,
and fometimes affumes the form of a quotidian. In it
the patient frequently complains of cold Avhen he really
is hot, and the remiffion is very indiftinfl. The difeafe
is knoAvn by tbe great languor of the patient and the
fnulnefs of his tongue.
ijx 3. Amphimerina cardiaca is an acute malignant fever,
Avith daily exacerbations, attended Avith fainting and
vomiting of green bile. AfterAvards, the Aveaknefs in-
creaiing, the patient’s extremities grow cold,-and a pro-
fufe fweat comes on, Avhich is frequently fucceeded by
death on the fourth day. Another ipecies refembling
this Sauvages calls the fyncopalis ; but the cardiaca dif¬
fers from it in being attended Avith cardialgia.
1.52 4. Amphimerina paludofa. This is the fever deferibed
by the Britilh-phyficians under many different names,
and appearing under various forms, according to the
different conftitutions of the patients. This fever
in the Eaft Indies, according to Dr Lind of Windfor,
generally, comes on fuddenly, and begins Avith A .ftnfe
Practice,
of debility and a very great loWnefs of fpirits. Thefe Tertiana,'
fymptoms are attended with a greater or lefs degree of y—j
ehillinefs, vertigo, naufea, very acute pains in the head
and loins, and a trembling of the hands \ the counten¬
ance is palp, the fldn commonly very dry and corrugat¬
ed, the eyes dull and heavy, the pulfe quick and fmall,
the brsath generally difficult, and interrupted with hic¬
cough.
As the paroxyfin increafes, the chillincfs uoav and
then gives way to irregular heats, which foon become
violent and permanent} the naufea likewife increafes j
and in fome there comes on a vomiting, in Av hich they
throw up a great deal of bile. Son;etimes bile is like¬
wife voided by ftool. The {kin grows red the eyes
appear fmall, and fometimes not a little inflamed. The
pulfe becomes fuller, and the breath more difficult, at¬
tended with great reftleffnefs and a troublefome thirfl: j
notAvithftanding Avhich (fo great is the naufea) the pa¬
tient cannot endure any kind of liquids. The tongue
becomes foul, and the pain of the head and loins more
violent j a delirium then follows 5 a flight moifture ap¬
pears on the face, and from thence fpreads to the other
parts 5 Avhilft the violence of tfie other fymptoms abates,
and fhoAvs the beginning of a repfiffion, which is com¬
pleted by plentiful fweats.
On the fever’s remitting, the pulfe returns almoff to
its natural ftate j the palps of the head and loins ftill
continue, though fomewhat lefs violent, as likeAvilb
the naulea and Avant of appetite. When the dife-afe
gains ftrength, the remiffion is fearcely obvious, and
is immediately followed by another parqxyfm 5 Avhich
begins, not indeed with fo great a ffiivering, but is at¬
tended with a greater pain of the head, the greateft
anxiety, a heartburn, naufea, vomiting, and bilious
ftools. The matter moft commonly evacuated by vo¬
mit and ftool is Avhitilh like chalk and Avater, or curd¬
led milk Avhich is vomited by fucking children, Avhen
the curd is much broke doAvn. A heat, immoderate
thirft, and delirium noAV come on. The tongue be¬
comes more foul j the teeth and infide of the lips are
covered with a black cruft 5 the breath groAvs hot and
fetid : another remiffion eofues, attended Avith a fweat j.
but this remiffion is both ffiorter and lefs obvious than
the firft.
This fecond remiffion is fueceeded by a paroxyfm, in
Avljich the fymptoms are far more violent than in the
fofmer 5 that which the patient difeharges by vomiting
and purging is more fetid *, the mouth, teeth, and in¬
fide of the lips, are not only covered with a black cruft,
but the tongue becomes fo dry and ftiff, that the pa¬
tient’s voice can fcarce be heard. Violent delirium,.
Avith reftleffnefs and anxiety, come on chiefly during
tbe paroxyfm y nor do thefe 'fymptoms abate till the
fever remits, and" the patient fweats.
When the fever becomes fo violent, during the third
fit, as to end in death, Avhich is often the cafe, fome of
the fick have a coma •, in others the delirium becomes
more violent. The difeharges noAV become more fetid,
and have a cadaverous fmell} the ftools are involuntary ;
the pulfe is fo quick, fmall, and irregular, that it is
fcarce to be counted, or even felt; a cold fweat is dif-
fufed over tbe whole body, efpecially the head and
neck : the face becomes Hippocratic and convulfed ;
the patient picks tbe bed-clothes; a fubfultus tendinum
comes on 5 the fick lie conftarftly on their backs, and
infenfibly
Pra£Hc& M E D I
Febres. infehSbly flids down to tiro foot oF the bed 5 their ex-
l- * ' ' tFeraxties grow cold •, they are then feized with convol-
fions, with which the fcene elofes.
In this fever, the urine, which at the beginning is
pale, becomes of a deeper colour by degrees, but
without depofiting any fediment. There feldom or
never appear any petechiae, and the prickly heat which
was before on the Ikin vanilhes on the firft appearance
of the fever. But though thefe were the general
fymptoms of this diforder, they varied in the different
fubje&s, and at different feafonsof the fame year. The
pulfe, for example, in fome, was quick in the beginning
of the diforder; in others, it varied with the other
fymptoms. The fkin was generally dry in the be¬
ginning of the fit; but in fome it was moift, and cover¬
ed with fweat from the very beginning of the difeafe.
In the month of September, when the diforder raged
moft, the remiffions were very imperfect and obfeure ;
but, on the return of winter and the healthy feafon,
they became more regular, and the difeale affumed the
appearance of an intermitting fever, to fuch a degree
as at length not to be diftinguifhed from it. In fome
the remiflions could fcarce be perceived, and the fever
continued for two weeks without any material change
for the better or the worfo. At this time numbers
were ferzed with it. When the diforder continued for
any time without a change, it generally ended in death ;
white the weather grew better, it fometimes, in the
fpace of a few days, from a common fever became an
intermitting one, and the patient recovered, unlefs his
liver, which was fometimes the cafe, happened to be
affefted. The cure of an inflammation of the liver
proved uncertain and tedious ; as it was Commonly fol¬
lowed by a colliquative diarrhoea, which generally en¬
dangered the patient’s life.—'Every fucceeding paroxyfm
was obferved to be more dangerous than the preceding;
the third generally proved fatal; fome died during
the firft. When this happened, the fever, in the lan¬
guage of the country, -vVas called zpuca, that is a ftrong
fever.
This difeafe, according, to Dr Lind of Haflar hof-
pital, is the autumnal fever of all hot countries, the
epidemic difeafe between the tropics, and the difeafe
rtioft fatal to Europeans in all hot and unhealthy cli¬
mates. AH authors agree that intermittents in gene¬
ral, but particularly this dangerous kind of them, are
produced by heat and moifture, but particularly the
evaporation of moifture from marflies. Dr Lind of
Windfdr remarks, that the European feamen are very
fubjecl to the fever above mentioned when they happen
to arrive at Bengal in autumn. They are predifpofed
to it from the nature of their food, their confinement on
board, the very great heats to which they are expofed
during the voyage, and their lying for hours together
expofed to the night colds.
Moft of the meat ufed by the crews of tbofe fliips
is falted/ and often in a'putrid ftate, without any frefli
vegetables, they having, only bifeuits, and fome other
farinaceous matters. The quantity of the vinous or
fpirituous liquors allowed them is, in his opinion, by far
too fin all to fubdue the putrefeent difpofition of their
animal-food. 'I'heir fluids confequently become, from
day to day, more and more putrefoent, and of courfe
more apt to breed and contratt this diforder. This
■difpofition is likewife induced by their being flowed
CINE. 251
very clofe together, and that For a confidcrable length Tertiara.
of time, and in a foul air, efpeciaHy when the weather
happens to be too ftormy to permit the hatches and port¬
holes to be kept open.
Though the heats they endure in the voyage to In¬
dia are lefs confiderable than tbofe of the country it-
felf, yet they are too much for an European conftitution
to bear. The general heat at fea within the tropics is
about 84° of Fahrenheit’s thermometer, which is fuf-
ficient to relax them, and promote a corruption of their
humours, elpecially when it coincides with the above
caufes. It likewife creates a languor and indolence,
which alone are fufficicnt to increafe that putrefcence.
I hefe caufes are apt to be confiderably aggravated by
the men’s being often expofed, when on duty, for hours'
together, to rain, damp, and cold air ; a cireumftance
which frequently happens to them when working their
(hips up the river Ganges in the night-time. Hence
the perfpiration is checked, and the excrementitious
fluid which ufed to be difcharged by the fkin being re¬
tained in the body, contributes, he thinks, very much
towards the predifpofition to this difeafe.
But the moft powerful of all the remote caufes is
juftly thought to be the effluvia of marfhes replete with
putrid animal-fubftances. We have not, however,
been able to determine from what kind of putrid ani-
mal-fubftances thefe effluvia derive their virus. For
that every kind of putrefaction has not fuch an effect
appears from this, that neither praClical anatomifts, nor
thofe who by their trades are expofed to the putrid ef¬
fluvia of animals, for inftance fuch tanners and butchers
as keep their {hops and flails very dirty, are more
fubjeCt than others to putrid difeafes. Nor are the
fhip-ftewards and their fervants, whofe bufinefs it is
to deliver out the provifions to the fhips crews, and
who fpend the moft of their time amongft the putrid
and rancid effluvia of thn places in which thofe pro¬
vifions are kept, more fubjecl to putrid fevers than
their fhip-mates. But whatever be in this, we are well
affured that fome particular putrid fermentations pro¬
duce noxious vapours, which, united with thofe of
marflies, render them more pernicious. Hence evi¬
dently proceeds the extreme unhealtbfulnefs of a place
called Ct/lpt, on the eaftern bank of the Ganges. The
fhores about it are full of mud, and the banks co¬
vered with trees. Oppofite to the place where the fhips
lie there is a creek, and about a mile from its entrance
Hands the town of Culpi : the fhips lie about a mile
from the fhore. None of the feilors on board the
fhips flattened at this place enjoyed their health. The
burying ground alfo contributed not a little to fpread
the infeftion. The ground being marfliy, the putrid
water flowed from the old graves into the new ones,
which infeCted the grave-diggers and thofe that at¬
tended the funerals •, and from this caufe many were
fuddenly feized while they were performing the laft
duty to their companions. This place has ever been
remarkable for the unhealthfulnefs of its air. It was
once cuftomary to fend fome of the Company’s fer¬
vants here to receive the cargoes of the fhips, and fend
them to Calcutta ; but fo many of thCm died on this
duty, that the Company was at length obliged to dif-
penfe with it.
Hence it plainly appears, how apt putrid animal
and vegetable fubftances are to render the effluvia of
4 i 2 fenny
2 M E D I
Febres. fenny places more pernicious than they would other-
“"F wife be. The reafon why great inundations of the
Nile and Ganges are followed by a healthy feafon is,
that by* this means the putrid animal and vegetable
fubftances difperfed over the contiguous countries are
carried off into the fea.—The noxious vapours arifing
from fens fpread but a little way. Dr Lind has often
known Ihips crews at a very little diftance from the
fhore quite free from this diforder. But although thefe
marfh miafmata firft bring on the difeafe, yet contagion
particularly fpreads it, and renders it more epidemic.
Thus the Drake Eaft Indiaman continued free from
the diforder for two weeks together, when the had no
communication with the other fhips j but as foon as
the diforder was brought on board, many were feized
with it within a few days in fuch a manner as to leave
no room to entertain the leaft doubt concerning its con¬
tagious nature.
Dr Lind of Haflar hofpital has given a very curious
and learned account of the appearance of this fever
throughout the various parts of the globe. It was ve¬
ry common in England in the years 1765 and 1766,
one obvious caufe of which was the prevalence of the
eaftern wind. This wind in England is often faid to
bring with it a fog from the fea } but the truth of the
matter is, that in many places of this illand the eaft-
wind frequently raifes a copious vapour from water,
mud, and all marfhy or damp places. To this exhal¬
ing quality of the eaftern Avind Dr Lind has often
been an eye-Avitnels. When the wind changes to the
eaft, the mud fometimes fends up a vapour as thick as
fmoke ; and the dodtor has obferved tAvo filh-ponds in
his neighbourhood, one of frefti and the other of falt-
Avater, Avhich on the approach of an eafterly Avind
fometimes alfo emit a denfe vapour, as from a pot of
boiling AVater. In order to vieAv this phenomenon di-
ftindtly, the perfon ftiould Hand at about 100 yards
diftance from the mud or ponds. If the fun ftiines
when the vrind changes to the eaft, he Avill obferve a
eonftant fleam of vapours ariftng out of the ponds,
from about five to ten yards in height, while the air
about him remains ferene. As the vapour or fog ari¬
fing from other bodies glides along the furface of the
earth, and is brought by the eafterly Avind to the
ponds, he Avill ftill be able, for fome time, to diftinguifh
the vapours afcending perpendicularly out of the ponds
from thofe Avhich are carried in an horizontal diredtion
by the Avind ; efpecially if the fun continues to ftiine,
though faintly.
This evaporating quality of the eaft-wind feems to
manifeft itfelf alfo by its effedts both on the thermo¬
meter and the human body ; for a thermometer hung
over a damp piece of ground during the fogs or exha¬
lations arifing from it, will often indicate a degree of
cold beloAV the freezing point. The chillinefs of the
body, fo fenfibly perceived Avhen in this fituation, feems
to proceed from the fame caufe, and to produce nearly
the fame fenfations, which the damp arifing from the
wet floor of a chamber communicates to thofe who hap¬
pen to be in it.
Winds are not conftant in their effedls. As wTe have
{bmetimes Avarm Aveather with a north-Avind, and fome¬
times very little heat Avith one bloAving from the fouth $
fo the fogs attending an eaft-wind are not conftant,
neither is the evaporation above mentioned at all times
CINE. Practice.
to be perceived. It is poflible, however, that in all this Tertiana.
there may be a deception •, and that inftead of fuppo- u' v
fing the quantity of vapours exhaled to be increafed by
an eafterly Avind, the coldnefs of that AAund may only
condenfe and render vifible the vapours in the air at
that time. But even this fuppofition is liable to great
objections, as our coldeft north-winds feldom or never
produce fuch an effect, but on the contrary are attend¬
ed Avith dry and ferene Aveather.
Be this as it will, however, an eaft-Avind is ufually
accompanied with a cold, damp, and unAvholefome va¬
pour, Avhich is obferved to affect the health both of
animals and vegetables, and in many places to produce
obftinate intermitting fevers, and alfo to occafion fre¬
quent relapfes. In particular fpots of the low damp
ifland of Portfea, the ague frequently prevails during
the autumnal feafon, and in fome years is much more
frequent and violent than in others. It is alfo obfer-
vable, that this difeafe always attacks ftrangers, or thofe
who have formerly lived on a drier foil, and in a more
elevated fituation, Avith greater feverity than thofe Avho
are natives of the ifland.
The year 1765 was remarkable, not only for the
long continuance of the eafterly winds, but for an ex-
ceflive degree of heat, Avhich produced a more violent •
and general appearance of thofe difeafes than had been
knoAvn for many years before. In the month of Au-
guft the quickfilver in Fahrenheit’s thermometer often
rofe to 82° in the middle of the day. This confiderable
addition of heat, together with the want of refreftiing
rains, greatly fpread the fever, increafed its violence,
and even changed its form in many places. At Portf-
mouth, and throughout almoft the whole ifland of
Portfea, an alarming continual or remitting fever ra¬
ged, Avhich extended itfelf as far as Chichefter. At the
fame time, the town of Gofport, though diftant only
one mile from Portfmouth, enjoyed an almoft total ex¬
emption from ficknefs of every kind ; Avhereas in the
neighbouring villages and farm-houfes, a mild regular
tertian ague a ft e died whole families. The violence of
the fever, Avith its appearances in a continued, remit¬
ting, or intermitting form, marked in fome meafure
the nature of the foil. In Portfmouth the fymptoms
Avere bad, Avorfe at Kingfton, and ftill more dangerous
and violent at a place called Half-way Houfes ; a ftreet
fo named, about half a mile from Portfmouth, where
fcarcely one in a family efcaped this fever, which ge¬
nerally made its firft attack Avith a delirium. In the
large fuburb of Portfmouth called the Common^ it feem-
ed to rage Avith more violence than in the toAvn, fome
parts excepted $ but even wfiole ftreets of this fuburb,
together with the houfes in the dock-yard, efcaped its
attack.
The marines, who Avere three times a-week exercifed
early in the morning on South-fea beach, fuffered much
from the effedt of the ftagnant Avater in an adjoining
morafs. Half a dozen of them Avere frequently taken
ill in their ranks Avhen under arms j fome being feiz¬
ed with fuch a giddinefs of their head, that they could
fcarcely ftand •, Avhile others fell doAvn fpeechlefs, and
upon recovering their fenfes complained of a violent
headach. When fuch patients wrere received into the
hofpital, it vras obferved that fome few had a regular
ague, but that far the greater number laboured under
a remitting fever, in which foxaetimes indeed there,
was-
praaice. M E D I
Febrcs. was no perceptible semi (lion for feveral days. A con-
i—-v—ftant pain and giddinefs of the head were the moft in-
feparable and diftreffing fymptoms of this difeafe. Some
were delirious, and a few vomited up a quantity of
bile ; but in all the countenance was yellow. A long
continuance of the fever produced a dropfy or jaundice,
or both. Even a flight attack reduced the moft robuft
conftitution to a ftate of extreme debility 5 and this weak-
nefs, together with the giddinefs, continued for a long
time after the fever. A fcabby eruption now and then
made its appearance on the lips and the corners of the
mouth : but dry itchy fpots over the whole body, re-
fembling much the common itch, and feeming to par¬
take of the nature of that difeafe, were more frequently
obferved in the patients at Portfmouth, where there was
not the leaft reafon to fufpedt any infection.
Such is the appearance of the remitting fever occa-
fioned by marfti miafmata in England. In the Nether¬
lands its fymptoms are not much different. Dr Lind
informs us, that at Middleburg, the capital of Weft
Zealand, a ficknefs generally reigns towards the latter
end of Auguft, or the beginning of September, which
is always moft violent after hot fummers. It com¬
mences after the rains which fall in the end of July j
the fooner it begins the longer it continues, and it is
only checked by the coldnefs of the weather. Towards
the end of Auguft and beginning of September it is a
continual burning fever, attended with a vomiting of
bile, which is called the gall-Jicknefs. This fever, after
continuing three or four days, intermits, and affumes
the form of a double tertian •, leaving the patient in a
fortnight, or perhaps fooner. Strangers that have
been accuftomed to breathe a dry pure air do not re¬
cover fo quickly. Foreigners in indigent circumftances,
fuch as the Scots and German foldiers, who are garri-
foned in the adjacent places, are apt after thofe fevers
to have a fwelling in their legs and a dropfy 5 of which
many die. 1
Thefe difeafes, the doctor obferves, are the fame with
the double tertians common within the tropics. Such
as are feized with the gall-ficknefs have at firft fome
flulhes of heat over the body, a lofs of appetite, a white
foul tongue, a yellow tindt in the eyes, and a pale
colour in the lips. Such as live well, drink wine, and
have warm clothes and good lodgings, do not fuffer fo
much during the fickly feafon as the poor people 5 how¬
ever, thefe difeafes are not infectious, and feldom prove
mortal to the natives.
Sir John Pringle obferves, that the prevailing epi¬
demic of autumn in all marftiy countries, is a fever of
an intermitting nature, commonly of a tertian form,
but of a bad kind ; which, in the dampeft places and '
worft feafons, appears as a double tertian, a remitting,
or even an ardent fever. But however thefe fevers may
vary in their appearance according to the conftitution
of the patient and other circumftances, they are all of
a fimilar nature. For though, in the beginning of the
epidemic, when the heat or rather the putrefa&ion in
the air is the greateft, they affume a continued or a re¬
mitting form, yet by the end of autumn they ufually
terminate in regular intermittents.
In Zealand where the air is more corrupted than in
other parts of the Netherlands, this diftemper is called
the gall-Jichnefs; and indeed both the redundance and
depravation of the bile is fometimes fo great, that it has
CINE. 253
been generally afcribed to the corruption and overflow- Tertiana.
ing of that humour. But though it cannot with juftice —v—
be faid to originate from corrupted bile, it is certain that
the difeafe may be continued, and the fymptoms ag¬
gravated, by an increafed fecretion and putrefa&ion of
the bile occaiioned by the fever. In proportion to the
coolnefs of the feafon, to the height and drynefs of the
ground, this diftemper is milder, remits or intermits
more freely, and removes further from the nature of a
continued fever. The higher ranks of people in ge¬
neral are leaft liable to the difeafes of the marihes ; for
fuch countries require dry houfes, apartments raifed
above the ground, moderate exercife, without labour
in the fun or evening damps, a juft quantity of fer¬
mented liquors, plenty of vegetables, and frefh meats.
Without fuch helps, not only ftrangers, but the natives
themfelves, are iickly, efpecially after hot and clofe
fummers. The hardieft conftitutions are very little ex¬
cepted more than others j and hence the Britifti in the
Netherlands have always been liable to fevers.
By this diftemper the Britifti troops were haraffed
throughout the whole of the war from 1743 to 1747.
It appeared in the month of Auguft 1743 > Pa~
roxyfms came on in the evening, with great heat, thirft,
a violent headach, and often a delirium. Thefe fymp¬
toms lafted moft of the night, but abated in the morn-
ing, with an imperfedt fweat, fometimes with a hae-
morrhagy from the nofe or a loofenefs. The ftomach
from the beginning was difordered with a naufea and
fenfe of oppreflion, frequently with a bilious and of-
fenfive vomiting. If evacuations were either negledt-
ed, or too fparingly ufed, the patient fell into a conti¬
nued fever, and fometimes grew yellow as in a jaundice.
When the feafon was further advanced, this fever was
attended with a cough, rheumatic pains, and fizy blood.
The officers being better accommodated than the com¬
mon men, and the cavalry who had cloaks to keep them
warm, were not fo fubjedl to it: and others who be¬
longed to the army, but lay in quarters, were leaft of
all affedted j and the lefs in proportion to their being
little expofed to heats, night-damps, and the other fa¬
tigues of the fervice.
In this manner did the remitting fever infeft the
army for the remaining years of the war j and that ex-
adtly in proportion to their diftance from the marftiy
places, of which we have feveral notable inftances in
Pringle’s obfervations. In Hungary the fame difeafe
appears with ftill more violence, and is readily compli¬
cated with fevers of a truly peftilential nature, by
which means it becomes extremely dangerous. Hun¬
gary is acknowledged to be the moft fickly climate in
Europe, and indeed as bad as any in the world. Here
it was where the crufaders in only marching through
the country to invade Afia, often loft half their num¬
ber by ficknefs 5 and where the Auftrians not long
fince buried, in a few years, above 40,000 of their belt
troops, who fell a facrifice to the malignant difpofition
of the Hungarian air. The reafon of this uncommon
malignity is, that Hungary abounds with rivers, which,
by often overflowing, leave that low flat country over-
fpread with lakes and ponds of ftagnating water, and
with large unwholefome marfties. So great is the im¬
purity of thefe ftagnated waters, that by them the ri-
'vers, even the Danube, whofe courfe is flow, become
in feme places corrupted and offenfive. The air is •
moift.
M E D I
moift, and in furanaer quite fultry. In the nights of
harveft, Kramer tells us, it was fo very damp, that tire
Auftrian foldiers could not fecure themfelves from the
nxoifture even by a triple tent-covering. Here epide¬
mical diftempers begin conftantly to rage during the
hotteft months of the year j which are July, Auguft,
and September : and thele complaints, according to
the obfervations of the phylician above mentioned, are
the fame with thofe which are epidemic upon the coaft
of Guinea, and in the fickly climates of the Eail: and
Weft Indies, of which malignant fevers of the remit¬
ting and intermitting kind are the moft common and
dangerous.
The heat of the fun in Hungary is more intenfe than
'in any other country of Europe ; and in proportion to
the heat is the peftilential quality of the marfhy exhala¬
tions-. It is conftantly obferved, that the nearer any
city or fort is to a morafs or a large river with foul and
dozy banks, the more unhealthy are the inhabitants.
At fuch feafons and places, the air fwarms with num-
berlefs infedts and animalcules, a fure fign of its malig¬
nant difpofition •, and the hotter the fummer, the more
frequent and mortal are the difeales. In Ihort, this
country, on account of its unhealthinefs, has been
termed the grave of the Germans ; and in Italy, the
Campania of Rome is almoft equally unhealthy. Lan-
cilius, phyfician to Pope Clement XI. furnilhes us rvith
a very ftriking inftance of the malignant quality of the
air of Campania. Thirty gentlemen and ladies of the
firft rank in Rome having made an excurfion, upon a
party of pleafure, toAvards the mouth of the Tyber, the
Avind fuddenly fliifting, bleAv from the fouth over the
putrid mar (lies, Avhen 29 Avere immediately feized with
a tertian fever, only one efcaping.
The ifland of Sardinia is annually vifited Avith an
epidemical ficknefs, Avhich rages from June to Sep¬
tember, and is called by the natives the intemperies.
In fome years there is a want of rain for four or tive
months 5 and then it is that this ficknefs exerts its
utmoft violence, being always more fatal in fome
places than in others, and in particular to ftrangers.
Of this the Britifti had a fevere proof in 1758.—Ad¬
miral Broderick, in the Prince ftiip of Avar, anchored
in the bay of Oriftagni, Avhere 27 of his men, fent
aftiore on duty, Avere feized Avith the epidemical diftem-
per of this ifland ; twelve of them in particular, avIio
had flept on ftiore, Avere brought on board delirious.
All of them in general laboured under a Ioav fever,
attended Avith great oppreflion at the breaft and at
the pit of the rtomach, a conftant retching, and fome-
times a vomiting of bile ; upon Avliieli a delirium often
enfued. Thcfe fevers changed; into double tertians,
and terminated in obftinate quartan agues. It is avot-
thy of remark, that in this (hip, Avhich lay only tAvo
miles from the land, none Avere taken ill but fuch as
had been on (bore, of Avhom feven died. The prior
of a convent, making a vifit to the. Englifli officers,
informed them, that the intemperies of the ifland was
a remitting or intermitting fever, and that he liimfelf
had fuffered feveral attacks of it. Sardinia Avas-for¬
merly fo remarkable for its unAvholofome air, that the
Romans ufed to banilh their, criminals thither j and it
is at nrefent but thinly peopled, oAving to the morta¬
lity occaiioned by this annual licknefs. For although
it is about 140 miles long, and in feveral places 75.
CINE. PrafUce.
miles broad, yet it is computed that the Avhole number Tertians,
of its inhabitants does not exceed 250,000 : an inconti- —y-—^
derable number, when compared with the inhabitants
of the leffer, but comparatively more healthful, ifland
of Corftca} though even there the French loft a num¬
ber of their troops by intermitting and remitting fe¬
vers. In the ifland of Minorca, too, Dr Cleghorn in¬
forms us, that fevers of this kind prevail exceedingly j
that their types are various, their fymptoms violent,
the intermiftions fallacious, and that they frequently
and fuddenly prove fatal. It is more than probable,
he adds, from the accounts of feveral phyftcians and
travellers, that epidemical tertians are not Avholly con¬
fined to the coafts and iflands of the Mediterranean,
but that they are equally frequent and deftruclive in
many other parts of the globe •, and perhaps may be
deemed the anniverfary autumnal diftempers of moft
hot countries in the Avorid. And though in the mild
climate of Britain, a tertian may eafily be cured Avhen
it is difcovered ; yet in Avarm climates, fuch is the ra»
pid progrefs of the diftemper, that it is necefiary to
knoAV it in the very beginning, which is very difficult
for thofe Avho have never feen any but the tertians ufual-
ly met with in Britain.
From Dr Cleghorn’s account of Minorca, hoAvever,
it doth not appear Avhy that ifland (hould be fo much
infefted Avith fevers of this kind, fince it is far from be¬
ing a marfliy country; nay, on the contrary, is very
dry. The fouth wind, he obferves, is very unhealthy ^
and it is the prevalence of this Avind which brings on
the fever: but ftill the difficulty is not removed, be-
caufe the fea air is fo far from bringing on fuch dan¬
gerous difeafes,, that it is one of the greateft preferva-
tives againft them. As to the moifture Avhich muff ne-
ceffarily accompany an infular fituation, that cannot
reafonably be admitted as a caufe of this or any other
difeafe. In die London Medical Obfervations we find
a paper on a fubjeft very fimilar to the prefent, namely,
the mifchiefs produced by lying in damp ftieets, or be¬
ing expofed to moift vapour. The author tells us, that
he hardly knoAvs a diftemper the origin of Avhieh has
not by fome been aferibed to lying in a damp bed, or
fitting in a Avet room5 and yet he does not knoAV any
one Avhieh Avill certainly, be produced by thefe caufes,
and people frequently expofe themfelves to fuch oaufes
Avithout fuffering any ill effects. “ It ffiuft be oAvned
indeed,, (fays he), that the vapours arifirig from the
bilge-water of ffiips tend to produce a fcurvy. The
fwampy plains alfo near the mouths of great rivers
Avhich, are often overfloAved, and Ioav grounds Avhich.
cannot readily be drained, and thofe tra&S of land
Avhere the thicknefr and extent of the AVoods keep the
ground moift and half putrid for Avant of ventilation,
are deftruftive to the neighbouring inhabitants, by 00
cafioning obftinate intermittents in the colder climates,
and peftilentiab fevers in the hotter regions. But all
this mifehief arifes not merely- from moifture, but from
an unventilated and putrid moifture } for the inoffen-
fivenefs of mere Avetnefs, untainted with putridity* may
be reafonably inferred from the following conftdera-
tions. The air is often fully faturated Avith moifture-,
and yet neither is any epidemical diftfcmper produced
by it* nor are thofe remarkably aggravated Avith Avbich
the fick. happen at that time to be affiidted. The air
from rivers and from the fea is probably more repknidi¬
ed
practice. 'MED]
Fcbres. ed with vapours than inland countries cleared of their
k—-v—*— woods: yet the moft celebrated of the ancient phyfi-
cians recommended the bank of a running river for the
fituation of a houfe, on account of its peculiar healthful-
nefs •> and many invalids are fent by the modern phyfi-
cians to the fea fide, only for the benefit of the fea air.
“ Where the Tailors are cleanly, and not too much
crowded, they are often as healthy during long voyages
at fea, as they Avould have been upon any part of the
land. Venice is not obferved to be lefs healthy than
London or Paris.
“ Thofe who are much difpofed to fweat, lie many
hours in bedclothes impregnated probably with a lefs
wholefome moifture than would have been left in the
fheets half-dried after walking j and there is no reafon
to think that any remarkable injury was done to the
health by the continuance of fuch fweats almoft every
night for weeks, and for months, except what arofe
from the too great copioufnefs of this evacuation.
“ Children, and fueh as are troubled with the ftone,
and thofe who, from other infirmities or age, eonltantly
wet their beds with their urine, do not appear to fuffer
in their health on this account.
“ It is a common pra&ice, in fome diforders, to go
to bed with the legs or arms wrapped in linen cloths
thoroughly foaked in Malvern water, fo that the fiieets
•will be in many places as wet as they can be ; and I
have known thefe patients and their bedfellows receive
wo harm from a continuance of this praftice for many
months. Nor can it be faid that the Malvern water is
more innocent than any other water might be, on ac¬
count of any ingredients with which it is impregnated;
for the Malvern water is purer than that of any other
fprin^ in England which I ever examined.
“ The greateft valetudinarians do not fcruple to
fprinkle lavender-w'ater upon their fheets 5 and yet,
when the fpirit is flown off, there is left what is as
truly water-gs if it had been taken from the river.
“ Is it obferved, that laundrefles are peculiarly un¬
healthy above other women, though they live half
their time in the midft of wet linen, in an air fully fa-
turated with vapours ? Many other employments might
be mentioned, the perfons occupied in which are
conftantly expofed to wet floors or pavements, or to
be fur rounded with watery vapours, or to have their
clothes often wet for many hours together.
“ Is it the coldnefs of wet linen which is to be feared ?
But fhirts and fheets, colder than any unfrozen water
can be, are fafely worn and lain in by many perfons,
who, during a hard frofl, neither warm their fhirts
nor their (heets.—Or does the danger lie in tire damp-
nefs > But then how comes it to pafs, that a warm or
cold bath, and long-continued fomentations, can be
ufed, without the deflruftion of thofe who ufe them ?
Or is it from both together ? Yet we have long heard
of the thicknefs and continuance of the cold fogs in
the fcas north-weft of England, but have never yet
been told of any certain ill effefi which they have upon
thofe that live in thefe countries.”
With regard to the caufes of fevers, however, Dr
Lind is of opinion, that noxious vapours arifing from
tlie earth are for the moft part to be blamed. Even
in countries feemingly dry, and where violent rains are
not frequent, be thinks that the air may load itfelf
'with putrid exhalations from the ground j and that,
CINE.
except in the burning deferts of Arabia or Africa,
people are nowhere exempt from difeafes occafioned
by putrid moifture. In moft of the hot countries the
pernicious effects of the putrid vapours are by no means
equivocal. In Guinea, they feem to be more extraor¬
dinary than anywhere elfe in the world; neither indeed
can it be fuppofed, that a hot and moift atmofphere can
be without putrefcency. It may in general be remark¬
ed, that in fultry climates, or during hot weather, in
all places fubjeft to great rains, where theYountry is
not cleared and cultivated, but is overrun with thick¬
ets, fhrubs, or woods, efpecially if there are marfhes or
ftagnating waters in the neighbourhood, ficknefs may
be dreaded, and particularly the remitting fever of
which we now treat. The fens, even in different coun¬
ties of England, are known to be very prejudicial to
the health of thofe who live near them, and ftill more
fo to ftrangers; but the woody and marfhy lands in
hot countries are much more pernicious to the health
°f Europeans. In all thofe unhealthy places, particu¬
larly during fogs or rains, a raw vapour, difagreeable
to the fmell, arifes from the earth, and efpecially in the
huts or houfes. But of all the vapours Avhich infeft: the
torrid zone, the mofl: malignant and fatal are the /iar-
mattans : They are faid to arife from the conflux of fe-
veral rivers in the king of Dormeo's dominions at Be¬
nin (the moft unwholefome part of Guinea), where tra¬
vellers are obliged to be carried on men’s backs for fe-
veral days journey, through fwampy grounds, and over
marfhes, amidft ftinking ooze, and thickets of man¬
grove trees which are annually overflown. Thefe va¬
pours come up the coaft to a furprifing diftance, with
the fouth-eaft and north-eaft winds: and it has been
obferved, that in their progrefs they have often chan¬
ged both the courfe of the winds and of the fea-cur-
rents. The times of their appearance at Cape Coaft
are the months of December, January, or February.
The north-eaft and fouth-eaft winds are always un¬
healthy, but particularly fo during the harmattan fea-
fon. In fome years this vapour is fcarce perceptible j
but in others it is thick, noxious, and deftruftive to
the blacks as well as whites.—The mortality is in pro¬
portion to the denfity and duration of the fog. It has
a raw putrid fmell; and is fometimes fo thick, that a
perfon or houfe cannot be difcerned through it at the
diftance of 15 or 20 yards: and it continues fo for 10
or 14 days ; during which it opens the feams of fhips,
fplits or opens the crevices of wood as if fhrunk or dried
with a great fire, and deftroys both man and beaft. 
In the year 1754 or 1755, the mortality oceafioned in
Guinea by this; ftinking fog was fo great, that in feve-
ral negro towns the living were fcarce fufficient to bury
the dead.—Twenty women brought from Holland by a
new governor to the Caftle del Mina, perifhed, toge¬
ther with moft of the men in the garrifon. The gates
of Cape Coaft caftle were (hut up for want of centinels
to do duty; the blacks dying at this time as well as
the white people. It is lucky that it is only in fome
years that harmuttans are fo very thick and noxious,
otherwife that part of the country would be depopu¬
lated. It is obferved that all fogs are -extremely un¬
healthy in thofe parts, particularly before and after the
rainy feafons 5 but the above account of the harmat-
tans appeared fo very extraordinary and incredible to
fome of Dr Lind’s readers, that he thought proper to -
publifti ;
255
Tevtiana.
M E D I
publifli a further corroboration of the facts above men¬
tioned. “ A gentleman (fays he), ‘who had long re-
lided at Cape Coafl caftle, informed me, that during
the time of this fog, being in the upper chambers of
the fort, the boards of the floor ftirunk fo much, that
he could difcern the candles burning in the apartments
below him (there are no plafter ceilings ufed in thofe
hot countries), and that he could then even diftinguifti
what people were doing in the apartments below ; the
Teams of the floor having opened above half an inch
while the fog lafted, which afterwards, upon its being
difpelled, became clofe and tight as before.”
In Africa the rains ahd dews feem to be pofleffed of
qualities almoft equally pernicious with the fogs. This
much is certain, that m Guinea, many of the principal
negroes, and efpecially of the mulatto Portuguefe, take
the utmoft precaution to avoid being wet with thofe
rains, efpecially fuch as fall firft. At the fetting in of
the rainy feafon, they generally fhut themfelves up in
a clofe well-thatched hut, where they keep a con-
ftant fire, fmoke tobacco, and drink brandy, as prefer-
vatives againft the noxious quality of the air at that
lime. When wet by accident with the rain, they im¬
mediately plunge themfelves into fait-water, if near it.
Thofe natives generally bathe once a day, but never in
the frefli water rivers when they are overflown with the
rains : at fucK times they prefer for that purpofe the
water of fprings. The firfl: rains which fall in Guinea
are commonly fuppofed to be the moft: unhealthy. They
have been known, in 48 hours, to render the leather
of the (hoes quite mouldy and rotten, they ftain clothes
more than any other rain ; and foon after their com¬
mencement, even places formerly dry and parched
fwarm with frogs. At this time fkins, part of the traf¬
fic of Senegal, quickly generate large worms j and it is
remarked, that the fowls, which greedily prey on other
infefls, refufe to feed on thefe. It has been farther ob-
ferved, that woollen cloths wet in thofe rains, and af¬
terwards hung up to dry in the fun, have fometimes be¬
come full of maggots in a few hours.—It is alfo proba¬
ble, that as in fome of thofe countries the earth, for
fix or eight months of the year, receives no moifture
from the heavens but what falls in dews, which every
night renew the vegetation, the furface of the ground
in many places becomes hard and incruftated with a
dry fcurf, which pens up the vapours below j until, by
the continuance of the rains for fome time, this cruft is
foftened, and the long pent up vapours fet free. That
thefe dews do not penetrate deep into the earth is evi¬
dent from the conftant drynefs and hardefs of fuch
fpots of ground in thofe countries as are not covered
with grafs and other vegetables. Thus the large rivers
in the dry feafon being confined within narrow bounds,
leave a great part of their channel uncovered, which
having its moifture totally exhaled, becomes a folid
hard cruft ; but no fooner the rains fall than by de¬
grees this long parched up cruft of earth and clay gra¬
dually foftens, and the ground, which before had not
the leaft fmell, begins to emit a ftench, which in four
or five weeks becomes exceedingly noifome, at which
time the ficknefs is generally moft violent.
This ficknefs, hov'ever, is not different from the
remitting fever which has been defcribed under fo
many various forms and names. An inflammatory
. fever is feldom obferved, during the feafon of ficknefs.
CINE. P
in this part of the world ; and we {hall conclude our
defcription of the amphimerina paludofa with fome ex-
tra£ls from the furgeon’s journal in a Ihip that failed up
the rivers of Guinea.
“ On the 5th of April we failed up the river of
Gambia, and found all the Englifli in the fort in.
perfect health. The furgeons of the faftory informed
me, that a relaxation of the ftomach, and confequent-
ly a weakened digeftion, feemed to bring on moft of
the difeafes fo fatal to Europeans in the fickly feafon.
They were generally of a bilious nature, attended
with a low fever, fometimes of a malignant, at other
times of a remitting kind.—On the 12th of April,
after failing 30 miles up the river St Domingo, we
came to Catchou, a town belonging to the Portuguefe
in Lat. 20° N. In this town were only four white
people, the governor, and three friars. The number
of whites in the trading {hips was 51. One morning,
towards the latter end of April, a little rain fell. On
the 13th of May there was a fecond ftiower, accompa¬
nied with a tornado. On the 18th of May it rained
the whole day j and the rain continued, with but ftiort
intervals, until the beginning of October.
“ In the month of June almoft tw'o-thirds of the
white people were taken ill. Their ficknefs could not
be well chara&erifed by any denomination commonly
applied to fevers : it however approached neareft to
what is called a nervous fever, as the pulfe was always
low, and the brain and nerves feemed principally af-
fefted. It had alfo a tendency to frequent remiflions.
It began fometimes with a vomiting, but oftener with
a delirium. Its attack was commonly in the night £
and the patients, being then delirious, were apt to run
into the open air. I obferved them frequently recover
their fenfes for a ftiort time, by means of the heavy
rain which fell upon their naked bodies. But the de¬
lirium foon returned : they afterwards became coma-
tofe, their pulfe funk, and a train of nervous fymptoms
followed 5 their (kin often became yellow 5 bilious vo¬
mitings and ftools were frequent fymptoms. The fever
reduced the patient’s ftrength fo much, that it was ge¬
nerally fix weeks or two months before he was able to
walk abroad. A confuming flux, a jaundice, a dropfy
or obftruftions in the bowels, were the confequences
of it. Of 51 white men, being the companies of four
{hips which were at Catchou, one-third died of the
fever, and one-third more of the flux, and other difeafes
confequent upon it; and of thefe not one wTas taken ill
till the rains began.
“ I believe, on the whole face of the earth, there
is hardly to be found a more unhealthy country than
this during the rainy feafon : and the idea I then con¬
ceived of our white people was by making a comparifon
of their breathing fuch a noxious air, with a number of
river-fifh put into ftagnating water j where, as the water
corrupts, the filh grow lefs lively, they droop, pine away,
and many die.
“ Thus fome perfons became dull, inaftive, {light¬
ly delirious, at intervals 5 and, without being fo much
as confined to their beds, they expired in that delirious
and comatofe ftate in lefs than 48 hours after being
in apparent good health. The white people in general
became yellow; their ftomach could not receive much
food without loathing and retchings. Indeed it is no
wonder that this ficknefs proved fo fatal, that recove-
pra$i<te- M E D 1
Fibre', ries from it were fo tedious, and that they were at-
>—-V”"”' tended with fluxes, dropfies, the jaundice, ague-cakes,
and other dangerous chronical diftempers. It feems
more wonderful to me that any white people ever reco¬
ver, while they continue to breathe fo peftiferous an air
as that at Catchou during the rainy feafon. We were,
as I have already obferved, 30 miles from the fea,
in a country altogether uncultivated, overflowed with
water, furrounded with thick impenetrable woods, and
overrun with flime. The air was vitiated, noifome,
and thick ; infomuch that the lighted torches or candles
burnt dim, and feemed ready to be extinguiihed : even
the human voice loft its natural tone. The fmell of the
ground and of the houfes was raw and offenfive; but the
vapour arifing from putrid water in the ditches was
much worfe. All this, however, feemed tolerable, when
compared with the infinite numbers of infefts fwarming
every where, both on the ground and in the air ;
which, as they feemed tq be produced and cherifhed by
the putrefaftion of the atmofphere, fo they contributed
greatly to increafe its impurity. The wild bees from
the woods, together with millions of ants, overran
and deftroyed the furniture of the houfes ; at the fame
time, fwarms of cockroaches often darkened the air,
and extinguidied even candles in their flight; but the
greateft plague was the mufquettoes and fand-flies,
whofe inceflant buzz and painful flings were more
infupportable than any fymptom of the fever. Be-
fides all thefe, an incredible number of frogs on the
banks of the river made fuch a conftant and dif-
agreeable croaking, that nothing but being accuftom-
ed to fuch an hideous noife could permit the enjoy¬
ment of natural fleep. In the beginning of October,
as the rains abated, the weather became very hot;
the woods were covered with abundance of dead frogs,
and other vermin, left by the recefs of the river 5 all
the mangroves and ftirubs were likewife overfpread with
ftinking flime.”
After fo particular a defcription of the remitting fe¬
ver in many different parts of the world, we prefume it
will be needlefs to take notice of any little varieties which
may occur in the warm parts of America, as both the
nature and cure of the diftemper are radically the fame:
neither (hall we lengthen out this article with further
defcriptions of remitting fevers from the works of fo¬
reign authors, as, from what we have already faid,
their nature cannot eafily be miftaken.
Cure. The great difficulty in the cure of remitting
fevers arifes from their not being Ample difeafes, but
a complication of feveral. Fevers, properly fpeaking,
have biit three or four different appearances which
they can affume without a complication. One is, when
they are attended with a phlogiftic diathefis : another
is, when they affume the form of .genuine intermit-
tents; a third is, when they produce a great debility of
the nervous fyftem •, and the fourth is, when along
with this debility there is alfo a rapid tendency to pu¬
trefaction. If, therefore, all thefe fpecies happen to
make an attack at once, the moft dangerous fever we
can imagine will be produced ; and however contrary
it may be to our theories to admit the poflibility of
fuch an attack, the truth of the faCl is too often con¬
firmed by fatal experience. In the beginning of re-’
mittent fevers, for inftance, the fymptoms indicate a
high degree of inflammation : but if the praftitioner
Vol. XIII. Part I.
CINE. 2,
attempts to remove this inflammation by blood-letting Tern
or other evacuations, the pulfe finks irrecoverably, and ‘"""v
the perfon dies wffth fuch fymptoms as ftiow that the
nervous fyftem has been from the beginning greatly
affefted j at the fame time the high ftimulants and
cordials, or cinchona, which would have conquered
the nervous part of the difeafe, increafe the inflamma¬
tory part of it to fuch a degree, that, by a too early
exhibition of them, the patient alfo dies, but after an¬
other manner.
In the remitting fever of the Eaft Indies, Dr Lind
of Windfor formed the following indications of cure.
I. To allay the violence of the fever. 2. To evacuate
the putrid humours, and take great care to prevent the
body from inclining to putrefaction. 3. To keep up
the ftrength of the patient as much as poflible during the
diforder. 4. To lofe no time in preventing the return
of the paroxyfms.
To allay the violence of the fever, every thing that
can contribute to increafe it ought to be carefully
avoided or removed j fuch as great heat, too ftrong a
light falling on the eyes, noife, and motion. If du¬
ring the paroxyfm the head and loins be affeCled with
violent pains, the pulfe be full and hard, and the heat
intenfe, bleeding may be ufed, but with the greateft;
caution : for, however ufeful this operation may be in
cold climates, the fuccefs of it in warm ones is fo far
from being certain, that the lives of the patients have
been often very much endangered, nav even deftroyed
by it. Dr Badenoch, and the furgeon of the Ponfhorne,
endeavoured each of them to relieve two patients by
blood-letting j and the confequence was, that each of
them loft one patient. Dr Lind bled two patients ;
one of whom was Mr Richardfon, the firft mate of
the ftiip, who complained of a moft violent pain in his
head, with a full hard pulfe. About four or five ounces
of blood were taken from him, by which he was
greatly relieved : nor was the cure retarded by it $
nay, the fever afterwards became lefs irregular. At
the time the other patient was bled, the difeafe was
exceedingly frequent and violent. He was fo earneft
for bleeding, that he fired all the reft wffth the fame
defire, fwearing, that by refufing them this only re¬
medy, every one of them would be fent to their graves.
To quiet them, therefore, and get quit of their impor¬
tunities, the do&or complied with their requeft, and
took about five or fix ounces from him who had been
the firft to require it. The confequence wTas, that he
immediately loft his ftrength ; and in lefs than an hour,
during which time he made his will, was carried off by
the next fit. It is neceffary, however, to obferve, and
indeed the doftor himfelf makes the obfervation, with
regard to this patient, that he was bled at an improper
time, namely, between the fits *, whereas, had he been
bled in the hot fit, it is poflible he might have been
relieved.
In fupport of the advantages to be derived from
bleeding under proper circumftances, we have the
authority both of Cleghom and Pringle. As Dr
Cleghorn praclifed in a very hot country, his ob~
fervations muft in the prefent cafe have greater weight
than thofe of Pringle, who praftifed in a colder
one. The former acquaints us, that if he was called
in early enough, unlefs there was a ftrong contra-indi¬
cation, he always ufed to take away fome blood from
K k people
MEDICINE.
people of all ages ; namely, from robuft adults, 10
or twelve ounces j 'from others a fmaller quantity, m
proportion to their ftrength and years. And further,
If a violent headach, obllinate delirium, and heat or
pains of the bowels, were urgent, the bleeding was re¬
peated within a day or two. By this feafonable evacua¬
tion, he found the vehemence of all the paroxyfms
fomewhat diminifhed •, the apyrexia became more com¬
plete } the operation of emetics and cathartics render¬
ed fafer and more fuccefsful and the terrible fymp-
toms which happened about the height of the diftem-
per, fucli as raving fopor, difficulty of breathing, in¬
flammations of the abdominal vifcera, &c. were either
prevented or mitigated. But if the fever had conti¬
nued for fome time before he was called, and the mafs
of blood appeared to be too much melted down or in¬
clined to a putrid dhTolution, he either abftained from
bleeding entirely, or took away a very fmall quantity,
though fome urgent fymptoms might feem to require
a larger evacuation. As to the time of perform¬
ing the operation, he acquaints us, that it is fafe
enough, except when the cold fit lafts or is foon ex-
pc61ed, or while the fkin is covered with critical
fweats ; and that he ufually opened a vein in the be¬
ginning of the hot fit *, by which means the fick were
relieved, the immoderate heat of the body, which is
often productive of fatal effefts, was diminilhed, and
the critical fweats brought on fooner and in greater
abundance.
But though Dr Lind found venefeftion to be of fuch
pernicious tendency in his patients, cooling acidulated
liquors were of the utmoft fervice, as they corre&ed
the putrid humours, leffened the heat and thiril, and
of courfe prevented the fever from arriving at fo great
an height as it would otherwife have done. Thofe
cooling liquors are the bell which are made up with
fome farinaceous fubftance, as they moft eafily unite
with our fluids. Foffile acids too, and cryftals of tar¬
tar, efpecially the latter, are of confiderable ufe, not
only in this, but in other fevers. I he neutral falls,
prepared with the juice of lemons, were likewife given
with fuceefs during the heat of the fever. They leffen
the naufea, the fits become more regular, and the re-
miflions more full ; and they are particularly grateful
Avhen given in a date of effervefcence. The good ef-
fefts of thefe draughts we are in a great meafure to
afcribe to the antifeptic quality of the fixed air extrica¬
ted from them, during the effervefcence.
During the remiflion, it is proper to evacuate the
putrid humours by fmall doles of ipecacuanha, or ra¬
ther tartar emetic. The tartar emetic indeed appears
to be endowed with fome kind of febrifuge ^ virtue,
which Dr Cullen thinks is owing to its relaxing the
febrile fpafm taking place in the capillary veffels.
But fliould there appear any fymploms. of a topi¬
cal inflammation in fome of the abdominal vifcera,
a thing which never happens unlefs the diforder has
been of fome ftanding, vomiting is to be avoided, and
we are to depend upon purgatives alone for the evacua¬
tion of the putrid bile. Thefe are always ufeful in
the cure of this diforder. But all acrid and ftrong
purgatives are to be carefully avoided, and only the
mild antifeptic ones made ufe of, fueh as cryftals of tar¬
tar, or tamarinds made up with manna or with Glau¬
ber’s fait.
Pra&ice,
Though in thefc difeafes there is a great quantity of Tertiana.
putrefcent bile collected in the body, yet it leemsk|"” v '-J
much more probable that this is the ejfeSi than the
cau/e of the diforder; and therefore, though we carry
off the quantity collected ever fo often, more of the fame
kind will ftill be produced by the putrefcent difpofition
of the other tluids, at the fame time that the ftrength
of the patient muft neceffarily be dhniniihed by repeat¬
ed evacuations, when it ought rather to be kept up by
all poffible means. We ought well to obferve, however,
that the mineral acids have not that property of fweet-
ening putrid bile which the vegetable ones have j and
therefore the fame relief will not be given by them
which might reafonably be expected from vinegar or
lemon juice.
In order to keep up the ftrength of the patient,
good food is abfolutely neceffary. Dr Lind allowed
the fick fmall meffes of panada made with boiled rice
and barley mixed with currants or raifins and prunes,
fealoned with fugar and a little wine, efpecially claret.
During the paroxyfms, they had gruel made of flour
and rice, with fugar and the juice of acid fruit ; and
when the fit went off, a little wine was added to this
mixture.
The Hurts and bedding muft be very often changed
and well aired ; their ftools, and all filth and naftinefs,
are to be immediately removed j the places where
they are lodged fhould be well aired and frequently
fprinkled with vinegar •, and, in the laft place, the fick
muff be exceedingly well nurfed. Blifters, according
t® Dr Lind, fhould never be ufed till the fever has been
of long continuance, or the fpirits and pulfe of the pa¬
tient have begun to flag. But here our author has im¬
plicitly followed Dr Huxham, whofe theory concern¬
ing the ufe of blifters is now found to be erroneous.
According to that celebrated author, blifters are ca-
bable of doing confiderable hurt in all cafes where
there is a tendency to inflammation, by increafing the
motion of the fluids and the ofcillatory power of the
veffels, both of which are already too great. They
are alfo improper, according to him, where there is a
confiderable tendency of the fluids to putrefaftion j
becaufe he fuppofes the falts of thefe flies to operate
in the fame manner with volatile alkalies, that is, by
diffolving and putrefying the blood ftill farther. But
Sir John Pringle has Ihown, that, in inflammatory
fevers as wTell as thofe of the putrid kind, both blifters
and volatile falts may be of fervice j the latter, parti¬
cularly, he hath experimentally proved to be fo far from
promoting putrefaction, that they are exceedingly ftrong
antifeptics.
In the Eaft Indies, Dr Lind found it abfolutely
neeeffary to exhibit the Peruvian bark in large quanti¬
ties, and as early as poflible. By this method he not
only fecured the patient from the imminent danger of
death to which he was expofed at every fit, but likewife
conquered thofe obftruCtions which were apt to enfue
in the abdominal vifcera, and which are to be attri¬
buted to the continuance of the diforder, and not to
the bark employed to cure it. He always gave the cin¬
chona during the fecond remiflion, as all his care was
during the firft to clcanfe the primse vise. He obferves,
however, that it is to no purpofe to give the bark till
the neceffary purgations are over j but affures us, that
it never fails, unleL from the coming on of a vomiting
or
practice.
MEDICINE.
259
Febrcs. or diarrhoea It cannot be taken in fufficient quantities
■—v—before the return of a paroxyftn. To prevent the me¬
dicine from vomiting or purging, he mixed a few drops
of liquid laudanum with every dofe of it. Half a
dram was given every half hour in fome convenient
vehicle, beginning as foon as the fever had confider-
ably abated, and the pulfe was returned nearly to its
natural ftate j both which generally happened before
the fweats were over. An ounce of the bark was
fometimes found too little to check the fever, but an
ounce and a half never failed. It mull be continued
daily in fmall dofes till the patient has recovered his
ftrength, and then a greater quantity mult be given,
efpecially at the feafon when the rivers overflow the
country.
Dr Pringle found the autumnal remittents in the Ne¬
therlands complicated with a great many inflammatory
fymptoms •, for which reafon it was generally found
neceflary to open a vein in the beginning. The ver¬
nal and later autumnal remitting fevers are accom¬
panied with pleuritic and rheumatic pains from the
coldnefs of the weather, and on that account require
more bleeding. A phyfician unacquainted with the
nature of the difeafe, and attending chiefly to the pa-
roxyfms and remiflions, would be apt to omit this eva¬
cuation entirely, and give the cinchona too feon, which
would bring on a continued inflammatory. fever. In
thefe countries a vein may be fafely opened either du¬
ring the remiflion or in the height of a paroxyfm ; and
our author alfo found good effects refulting from bleed¬
ing in the hot fits of the marfli fever, even after it had
almofi: come to regular intermiflions. After bleeding, a
purgative was ufually exhibited, of which he gives us
the following formula.
Infufi fenae commun. ^iij*
Eledfl. Lenitiv. 3fs-
Nitr. pur. 5i.
Tin&r fen. 3vi. M.
Of this only one half was taken at once j and if it
did not operate twice in four hours, the remainder
was then taken. This potion agreed with the ftor
mach, purged plentifully, and therefore was a very
ufeful compofition. Next morning, when there was
almofi: always fome remiflion, he gave one grain of
emetic tartar rubbed with 12 grains of crabs-eyes, and
repeated the dofe in two hours, if the firft had little
or no effeft; or at any rate in four hours. This me¬
dicine was intended not only to vomit, but alfo to
operate by rtool, and excite a fweat. If thefe evacua¬
tions were procured, the fever generally became eafier,
and was even fometimes cured. This he prefers to the
ipecacuanha, and therefore in the latter years of his
practice difufed that root entirely. The fame medi¬
cine was repeated next day or the day following ; or if
not, a laxative clyfter was thrown up : and this method
was continued till the fever either went off altogether,
or intermitted in fuch a manner as to be cured by the
cinchona.
A fimilar method was followed by Dr Huck in the
remitting fevers of the Weft Indies and North Ame¬
rica. In the beginning he let blood ; and in the firft
remiflion gave four or five grains of ipecacuanha, with
from half a grain to two grains of emetic tartar. This
powder he repeated in two hours, taking care that the
patient fhould not drink before the fecond dofe ; for Tertiana.
then the medicine more readily paffed into the bowels v——J
after it had operated by vomiting. If, after two hours
more, the operation either way was fmall, he gave a third
dofe, which commonly had a good effe£t in opening
the firft paffages ; and then the fever either went quite
off, or intermitted in fuch a manner as to yield to the
bark. On the continent, he found little difficulty after
the intermiflion ; but in the Weft Indies, unlefs he gave
the cinchona upon the very firft intermiflion, though
imperfeft, the fever was apt to affume a continued and
dangerous form.
In the remitting fevers of hot countries, however,
it muft be obferved, that the lancet muft in all cafes be
much more fparingly ufed than in fimilar difeafes of
the colder regions } and we muft alfo be fparing of vene-
fection in thofe countries where the marfli effluvia are
very ftrong and prevail much. For this reafon Dr
Lind of Haflar greatly condemns the practice of in-
diferiminate bleeding when people firft arrive in hot
climates. The firft difeafes indeed which occur in a
voyage to the fouthward are, for the moft part, of an
inflammatory nature, and owing to a fudden tranfition
from cold to hot weather. This occafions a fulnefs
and diftenfion of the vefiels ; whence all Europeans,
on their firft arrival under the tropic, bear evacuations
much better than afterwards. The prat!ice of indif-
criminately bleeding, however, a number of the flap’s
company when they firft come into a warm latitude, is
by no means found to anfwer the purpofe of a preven¬
tive. In fuch cafes, indeed, as plainly indicate a ple¬
thoric difpofition brought on by the heat, blood-let¬
ting is certainly ufeful. The figns of this are a pain
and giddinefs in the head 5 a heavinefs and dulnefs of
the eyes, which fometimes appear flightly inflamed :
there is alfo commonly a fenfe of weight and fulnefs
in the breaft, the pulfe at the fame time being quick
and oppreffed.
But the cafe is quite different after a longer conti¬
nuance of fiffitry w'eather, and when the conftitution is
in fome meafure habituated to the hot climate. • For
it is then obferved, that the fymptoms of inflamma¬
tions in the bov’els, even the moft dangerous, are not
near fo fevere in fuch climates as in cold countries 3
nor can the patients bear fuch large evacuations. The
phyfician, however, muft take care not to be mifled
by the apparent mildnefs of the fymptoms : for he wflll
find, notwithftanding fuch deceitful appearances, that
the inflammation makes a more rapid progrefs in hot
countries than in cold, fuppurations and mortifications
being much more fuddenly formed 3 and that in general
all acute diftempers come fooner to a crifis in the warm
than in colder regions. Hence it is an important rule
of practice in thofe climates, to feize the moft early op¬
portunity, in the commencement of all threatening
inflammations, to make frequent though not copious eva¬
cuations by blood-letting. For by delay the inflam¬
mation quickly paffes from its firft to its laft or fatal
ftage 3 at leaft, an imperfect crifis in fuch inflammatory
fevers enfues, which fixes an obftrmftion in the vifeera
extremely difficult to remove.
It is indeed a general maxim with fome phyficians
in the Weft Indies, that in moft acute diftempers bleed¬
ing in that country is prejudicial. This is founded
upon a fuppofition that the craffamentum of the blood
K k 2 is
26o
M E D I
Febres. is thinned, and the folids greatly weakened, by the
heat of the climate. It is therefore objected, that
bleeding in fuch an habit of body weakens the powers
of nature, and withdraws the ftrength which is re-
quilite to fupport the patient until the crifis of the
fever.
This reafoning is partly juft j but, like all general
maxims, will admit of exceptions. Firft, with regard
to lailors, it is to be remembered, that they are more
expoled to quick viciflitudes of heat, cold, damps, and
to various changes of the air and weather, than moft of
the other inhabitants of the Torrid Zone. Add to
this, that their intemperance, and the exceffes they
are apt to fall into whenever it is in their power to
commit them, render them more liable to inflamma¬
tions than any other fet of people. Hence their dif-
eafes require more plentiful evacuations than the land-
inhabitants of thofe parts of the world, and generally
they bear them better. But with regard to the natives
of the country, or thofe who have remained long there,
it muft be proper to bleed them very fparingly, making
allowance for the different feafons of the year, the
temperature of the air, and the fltuation of the places
where they refide. Thus, in fome parts, even on the
ifland of Jamaica, at particular feafons, the weather
is cool •, wherefore, in thefe places, and at fuch fea
ions, the inhabitants having their fibres more rigid,
and a firmer crafts of their blood, bear venefeftion
much better.
In cold countries the ft ate of the air greatly aflifts
in reftoring the impaired fpring of the fibres ; where¬
as every thing almoft in warm weather, fuch as heat,
moifture, &c. concur to relax and weaken the habit
of body. Thus we may daily fee perfons in Britain,
after having fuffered a moft fevere fit of ficknefs, re¬
cover their ftrength and fpirits in a few days, and in
a very ftiort time their natural conftitution. But the
cafe is very different in the fultry regions of the Torrid
Zone, or indeed in any part of the world where the
heat of the feafon caufes the mercury to Hand for any
length of time at the 77th degree and upward of
Fahrenheit’s thermometer. During fuch an excefs of
heat, debility after fevers is apt to remain with Eu¬
ropean conftitutions for feveral months. In Jamaica,
the convalefcents are fent to the cool fummits of the
mountains ; but a retreat to a more northern climate
is often abfolutely neceffary to recover their wonted
tone and vigour of body. It is a well-eftablilhed
obfervation, that the negroes and aborigines of the
Torrid Zone cannot bear plentiful evacuations by the
lancet. They commonly mix the moft ftimulating
poignant fpices with their ordinary light food, and
this is found by experience fuitable to their conftitu¬
tions.
As proper preventives for the dangerous fevers of
which we are treating, Dr Lind on all oCcafions re¬
commends the avoiding of ftagnant water, or putrid
marfhes *, the ufe of proper food, cleanlinefs, and fo-
briety. Of the propriety of removing from the neigh¬
bourhood of thofe places whofe peftilential effluvia pro¬
duce the diforde.rs, wTe cannot pofflbly entertain a
doubt ; and of the efficacy of proper food in prevent¬
ing putrid diforders he gives a remarkable inftance in
the Sheernefs man of war, bound to the Eaft Indies.
As they went out, the men being apprehenfive of
4
Pra&ice.
a voyage, petitioned the captain Tertiana.
CINE.
ficknefs in fo long
not to oblige them to take up their fait provifions,
but rather to permit them to live upon the other fpe-
cies of their allowance. It was therefore ordered, that
they fttould be ferved with falt-meat only once a-week j
and the confequence was, that after a paffage of five
months and one day, the ihip arrived at the Cape of
Good Hope without having a fingle perfon fick on
board. As the ufe of button’s pipes had been then
newly introduced into the king’s ihips, the captain
was willing to aferibe part of fuch an uncommon
healthfulnefs to their beneheial effects ; but it was foon
difeovered, that, by the neglect ot the carpenter, the
cock of the pipes had all this while been kept Ihut.
This Ihip remained in India fome months, where none
of the men, except the boats crew, had the benefit of
going on Ihore j notwithftanding which, the crew con¬
tinued to enjoy the moft perfect ftate of health j they
were, however, well fupplied with frelh meat. On
leaving India, knowing they were to flop at the Cape
of Good Hope, and trulting to a quick pafiage, and
the abundance of refrelhments to be had there, they
ate their full allowance ot fait meats, during a pailage
of only 1 o weeks 5 and it is to be remarked the air-
pipes were now opened. 1 he efteft of this was, that
when they- arrived at the Cape, 20 of them were af¬
flicted in a moft miferable manner with Icorbutic and
other diforders. Thefe, however, were fpeedily reco¬
vered by the refrelhments they met with on Ihore.’ Be¬
ing now thoroughly fenfible of the beneficial effects of
eating, in thefe fouthern climates, as little fait meat as
poflible when at fea, they unanimoully agreed, in their
voyage home from the Cape, to refrain from their,
too plentiful allowance of fait flelh. And thus the
Sheernefs arrived at Spithead, with her full comple¬
ment of 160 men in perfect health and with unbroken
coniiitutions, having in this voyage of 14 months and
15 days buried but one man, who died in a mercurial
falivation.
Thus Ave fee, that a free and pure air is not a fuffi-
cient prefervative againft a putrefeent ftate of the
fluids, without proper food *, and, on the other hand,
we have a very remarkable inftance of the inefficacy
of the moft falutary food to prevent putrid difeafes,
in a very noxious ftate of the atmofphere. In the year
1717, at the fiege of Belgrade in Hungary, the fever
of the country, and the flux, occalioned a moft extraor¬
dinary mortality among the troops. The dread of thefe
difeafes caufed every one, as may naturally be fup-
pofed, to have reeourfe to different precautions for
felf-prefervation. Prince Eugene, the commander in
chief, had water and the provifions for his table fent
him tivice a-Aveek from Vienna. The pure ftream of
the river Kahlenberg Avas regularly brought to him :
he avoided all exceffes, and lived regularly, or rather
abftemioufly •, refreffied himfelf often by eating a cool
melon ; and mixed his ufual Avine, which Avas Bur¬
gundy, Avith Avater. Yet, notAvithftanding his utmoft
care, he Avas feized Avith a dyfentery ; which would
have quickly put an end to his life, had not the fpeedy
conclufion of that campaign permitted him to make a
quick retreat.
At this unhealthy feafon, Avhen hardly one imperial
officer, much lefs their feveral dometties, efcaped thofe
malignant difeafes, the remwned Count Bonneval and
his
Pra&ice. M E D I
Febres. his numerous retinue continued in perfect health, to the
‘•■-’Y”"’' furprife, or to ufe the words of Dr Kramer, to the envy,
of all who beheld thenu The only precaution he u(ed,
was to take, two or three times a-day, a fmall quan¬
tity of brandy in which the Peruvian bark was infufed •,
and he obliged all his attendants and domeltics to fol¬
low his example. It is no lefs remarkable that the
count, placing his certain prefervation in the ufe of
this tingle medicine, lived for many years afterwards in
the molt unhealthy fpots of Hungary, without any at¬
tack or apprehention of difeafe ; and continued to en¬
joy a perfect date of health during the hotted and mod
liekly feafons. And thus, with an unbroken and
found conditution, which is feldom the cafe of thofe
who redde long in fuch climates, he lived to a great
age. There is an indance produced by the fame au¬
thor, of a whole regiment in Italy having been pre-
ferved by the ufe of cinchona from the attack of thefe
malignant difeafes, viz. the flux, and bilious fever as it
is frequently called, when the red of the Audrian ar-
mv, not purfuing that method, became greatly annoyed
with ihem.
The intemperance and irregular living of thofe Eu¬
ropeans who vifit the hot climates is frequently accufed
as the caufe of their dedrudlion j but, our author
thinks, without fufficient reafon j for though intem¬
perance will make the body more liable”to receive fuch
difeafes, it will not bring them on. It mud by no
means, however, be imagined, that in thofe climates
Europeans mav with impunity be guilty of excefles in
eating or drinking: for the lead error in that way will
often prove fatal by debilitating the body, whofe ut-
mod drength in time of full health was perhaps fcarce
fuffieient to refid the pedilential miafmata of the at-
tnofphere.
It appears, therefore, from the concurrent tedimony
of the mod eminent phyficians, that the mod proper
medicine to be ufed, either as a preventive or cure for
remitting and intermitting diforders, is the Peruvian
bark, adminidered with proper precautions and after the
pnmce vice have been evacuated of the putrid bilious
matter colledled in them. In thofe fpecies of tritceophyn,
&.e. belonging to this clafs, enumerated by Sauvages,
the fame remedies only were ufeful *, but in that pedi-
lendal didemper which he calls tritceophya Vratiflavi-
enjis, he tells us, that walking the body with water
fometimes hot, fometimes cold, watery clyders, and
plenty of aqueous drink, were likewife of ufe.
Genus II. QUART ANA; the Quartan Fever.
Quartana au&orum, Sauv. Gen. 89. Lin. 17. Vog. 3.
Sag. 751. Hoffm. II. p. 23. Lunch, tab. 81.
C I N E. 261
and mind. 1 here is feldom any vomiting unlefs when Quartana.
the domach is manifedly overloaded with aliment; nei- ‘ “
ther is there any diarrhoea, but the belly in general is
rather bound, not only on the days on which the pa-
roxyfm takes place, but alfo on the intermediate ones.
The heat, which flowly fucceeds the cold, is lefs
troublefome to the patient by its violence than by the
uneafy drynefs of the Ikin, which is fcarcely ever moi-
dened with fweat. This heat rarely continues longer
than four or five hours, unlefs perhaps at the fird or fe-
cond paroxyfm. It is accompanied affo with a giddi-
nefs and dull pain of the head. On the termination of
the paroxyfm, the patient returns to a middling date of
health, and continues in the fame for the red of the in¬
termediate days ; only there remains fomewhat of a
loathing, and a deep-feated pain as if the perlon was all
over bruifed or broken, which kind of fenfation the phy-
cians are wont to call ojleocopus. The fit returns every
fourth day, and that precifely at the fame hours, being
rarely podponed.
Caufes of, and perfons fubjeB to, this diforder. The
fame general caufes concur in producing this as other
intermittents, namely marflr miafmata, and whatever can
difpofe the body to be eafily affected by them. Studi¬
ous people, and thofe of a melancholic turn, are faid
to be particularly fubjedt to quartans; but what are
the immediate caufes which produce a return of the fits
every fourth day, indead of every day, or every third
day, mud probably lie for ever concealed, as depend-
ing upon the fecret and inexplicable mechanifm of the
human body.
Prognofs. A fimple quartan, where there is no
reafon to dread any induration of the vifcera, may very
certainly admit of a cure; and the prognofis can
never be unfavourable, unlefs in cafes of extreme weak-
nefs, or where the didemper hath been unlkilfully
treated.
Cure. This does not in the lead differ from that
which hath been fully laid down for the fimple tertian,
and which it is therefore needlefs to repeat here.
The Duplicated Quartan. Sp. I. var. 1. B.
Quartana duplicata, Sauv. fp. 4. Bbnet.
This is entirely fimilar to the duplicated tertian al¬
ready mentioned ; proper allowance being made for the
difference between the type of a tertian and quartan.
The Triplicated Quartan. Sp. I. var. 1. C.
Quartana triplicata, Sauv. fp. 16.
This hath three paroxyfms every fourth day, while
the intermediate days are entirely free from fever.
*53
*54
The Genuine Quartan. Sp. I. var. 1. A.
Quartana legitima, Sauv. fp. 1. Sydenham de morb.
acut. cap. v.
Defcription. The genuine quartan, according to
Juncker, keeps its form more exaftly than other inter¬
mittents ; fcarcely coming on at any other time than
four or five in the afternoon. The cold is lefs violent
than in the tertian ; but is very perceptible, though it
doth not proceed to fuch a height as to make the
limbs fhake ; it continues for about two hours. It is
jireceded and accompanied by a languor both of body
The Double Quartan. Sp. 1. var. 1. D.
Quartana duplex, Sauv. fp. 3. Vog. fp. 13.
In the double quartan, the fits come on every day
except the third; but fo that the firlt paroxyfm anfwers
to the third, the fecond to the fourth, and fo on.
The Triple Quartan. Sp. I. var. 1. E.
Quartana triplex, Sauv. fp. 5. Vog. fp.14. Bar¬
tholin. H. anat. c. 1. 93.
This comes on every day, but the quartan type is
ftiu
262
Vebn's.
*S7
IS8
i5i>
medicine,
{till preferved by the times of aecefTxon ; that is, the
tin)'5 of the fourth paroxyfm’s coming on anfwers to
that of the firft, the fifth to the fecund, the fixth to the
third, &c.
The Quartan, accompanied with Symptoms of other
difeafes. Sp. I. var. 2.
Quartana cataleptica, Sauv. fp. 7* Bonet. polyalth.
vol. i. p. 805.
Quartana comatofa, Sauv. fp. 1 5* Werholf. de febr.
C. Pifonis Obferv. de morbis a colluvie ferof. obf.
166, 167, 168, 169, 171, 17.2, 173, 174.
Quartana epileptica, Sauv. fp. 8. Schol%u Conf. 379*
380.
Quartana hyfterica, Sauv. fp. 10. Morton, Pyret.
exerc. I. cap. ix H. 10, 11.
Quartana nephralgica, Sauv. fp. 9.
Quartana metaftatica, Sauv. fp. 17*
Quartana amens, Sauv. fp. 12. Sydenham de morb.
acut. cap. v.
Quartana fplenetiea, Sauv. fp. 2. Ktmuller, Coll,
confult. caf. 25.
The Quartan complicated with other Difeafes. Sp. I.
var. 3.
Quartana fyphilitica, Sauv. fp. 6. Platen, obferv.
"’L. III. p. 676. Edin. Eff. art. xlvii. obf. 8.
Quartana arthriticia, Sauv. fp. 11. Mufgr. de Arthr.
fvmpt. cap. ix. H. 4. et 5.
Arthritis'febrifequa, Sauv. fp. 10.
Arthritis febricofa, Sauv. fp. 10. Werlhof. de febr.
Cockburn de morbis naviganlium, obi. ' 9.
Quartana fcorbutica, Sauv. fp. 14. Barthol. de med.
Dan. dilf. iv. Tim. L. VIII. caf. 18.
The Remitting Quartan. Sp. II.
Tetartophva, Sauv. gen. 85. 'iag. 699. Lin. 21.
Quartana remittens auftorum.
Var. 1. Tetartophya fimplex, Sauv. fp. 1.
2. Amphimerina femiquartana, Sauv. fp. 23.
3. Tetartophya femitertiana, Sauv. fp. 5.
4. Tetartophya maligna, Sauv. fp. 6. Lautter.
Hift. med. caf. 21. M. Donat. L. III.
cap. 14. ex M. Gatenaria Horjl. L. I.
obf. 15.
5. Tetartophya carotica, Sauv. fp. 4. Werlhof.
de febr. BianchiJMft.. hep. pars III. conft.
ann. P* 751,
6. Tetartophya fplenalgica, Sauv. fp. 2.
7. Tetartophya hepatalgica, Sauv. 3. Car. Pif.
in prefat. p. 33.
8. Amphimerina fpafmodica, Sauv. fp. 16.
To the tertian or quartan fevers alfo belong the Er¬
ratic# of authors. As all thofe above mentioned differ
only in the flight circumftance of the type from the in¬
termitting and remitting tertians already defcribed at
length, it is unneceffary here to take up time in defcri-
bmg every minute circumftance related by phyficians
concerning them, efpecially as it could contribute no¬
thing towards the laving down a better method of cure
than what hath been already fuggefted.
Pra&lce.
. . Quotidiani,
Genus III. QUOTIDIANAj the Quotidian '—
Fever.
Quotidiana auftorum, Sauv. gen. 86. Lm. 15.
Vog. I. Hoffm. II. 33. Punch, tab. 79.
The Genuine Quotidian. Sp. I. var. 1. A.
Quotidiana fimplex, Sauv. fp. 1. 169
Quotidiana legitima, Sennert. de febr. cap. 18.
Defcription. This kind of fever generally comes on
about fix or feven o’clock in the morning, beginning
with a confiderable degree of cold and {hivering, which
lafts for about an hour •, and is often accompanied with
vomiting or fpontaneous diarrhoea, or both. It is fuc-
ceeded by a pretty ftrong heat, accompanied with thirft,
reftleffnefs, and pain of the head. When the heat abates
a little, a fpontaneous fweat commonly follows, and the
whole paroxyfm rarely exceeds fix hours. It returns,
however, every day almoft always at the fame hour, un«
lefs it be evidently difturbed.
Caufes of, and perfons fubjeEl to, the difeafe. The
fame general caufes are to be affigned for the quotidian
as for other intermittents. This kind occurs but rare¬
ly ; and is faid to attack people of a phlegmatic tempe¬
rament rather than any other : alfo old people rather
than young, and women rather than men.
The prognofis and method of cure are not different
from thofe of tertians and quartans.
The Partial Quotidian. Sp. I. var. I. B.
Quotidiana partialis, Sauv. fp. ;6. Cnojfel, E. N. C. ifa
D. I. A. III. obf. 205. Edin. Med. Eff. vol. i.
art. 31 vol. ii. art. 16.
Quotidiana cephalalgica, Sauv. fp. 6. Mort. pyretol.
exerc. i. hift. 27. Van Swieten in Boerh. p. 534.
Cephalalgia intermittens, Sauv. fp. 7*
Cephalcea febricofa, Sauv. fp. 4. _ _
Quotidiana ophthalmica, Morton, ibid. hift. 17* Van
Swieten, ibid.
Ophthalmia febricofa, Sauv. fp. 23.
Thefe diftempers attack only fome particular part of
the body, as the head, the eye, arm, &c. producing
periodical affeaions of thofe parts returning once in 24
hours j they are to be cured by cinchona, as other in¬
termittents. They are known to belong to this elafs,
bv the evident intefmiflion of the pain or other affe£Hon
of the part. The quotidiana hysterica, Sauv. fp. 3.
quotidiana catarrhahs, Sauv. fp. 9. and quotidiana Jiran-
guriofa, Sauv. fp. II. feem to be fymptomatic difor-
ders.
The Remitting Quotidian. Sp. II.
Amphimerina, Sauv. gen. 84. Lin. 20. ifo
Quotidiana continua, Vag. 15. _
Quotidianae remittentes et continua; auftorum.
Amphimerina latica, Sauv. fp. 1.
Febris continua lymphatica, JEtmullcv^ Coll. coni,
caf. 32. River. Obf. cent. 1. obf. 57.
Amphimerina fingultuofa, Sauv. fp. 14*
Febris continua Lyngodes, Vog. 26.
Concerning thefe alfo nothing remains neceffary to '
be mentioned in this place, having already fo fully dif-
cuffed the remitting fevers in all the different parts oi
, the
Fraaice. M E D I C I N E.
Febres. the world. Many other varieties of tliefe fevers men-
■ y " J tioned by different authors are to be accounted merely
fymptomatic.
26'
Sect. II. CONTINUED FEVERS.
Contimne, Sauv. clafs ii. ord. 1. Vog. clafs i. ord. 2.
Sag. 666. Boerh. 727.
Continentes, Lin. clafs ii. ord. 1. Stahl. Caf. mag.
35. Caf. min. 87. Lunch. 58. Sennert. de febr.
L. ii. cap. 2. et 10.
Genus IV. SYNOCHA.
Synocha, Sauv. gen. 80. Lin. 12. Lunch. ^8.
Synocha, five febris acuta fanguinea, Hoffin. II. 105.
Synochus, Vog. 16.
Continua non putris, Boerh. 720.
Ephemera, Suuv. g. 79. Boerh. 728. Lunch. 57.
Diaria, Lin. l 1.
Febris inflammatoria auftorum.
Defcription. The mod: fimple kind of fynocha is
the ephemera or diary fever. It begins without any
fenfation of cold or fnivering, unlefs there be fome in¬
ternal inflammation, or the fmallpox or meafles hap¬
pen to be prefent. A continual heat without any in-
termiflion confiitutes the eflence of this difeafe. The
heat, however, is more tolerable than in the fynocha
properly fo called. In fome, the pains of the head are
pungent and throbbing, anfwering to the pulfations
of the arteries ; but in others they are dull and heavy.
The face is red and bloated ; and there is a remarkable
laflitude of the limbs, with a ftrong, full, and frequent
pulfe. The urine is red, and depofits a fediment almoffc
of the colour of orange-peel •, and in the very firft day
of the difeafe, figns of concoftion (according to the
Hippocratic phrafe) appear. The fever commonly
goes off -with a gentle fweat 5 but fometimes, though
more rarely, with a hemerrhagy by the nofe. Its
fhorteft period is 24 hours : but if it goes beyond the
fourth day, it is then a fynocha properly fo called.
The fimple fynocha, according to Vogel, begins
with cold and {hivering, fucceeded by vehement heat,
rednefs, and drynefs of the Ikin. The face, efpecial-
ly, is very red, and the thirft intenfe. The head is
either pained or heavy. The patient either doth not
ileep at all, ot is difturbed with dreams. A moift
iweat then breaks out all over the Ikin. The pulfe is
full, quick, and frequent; the judgment is fometimes
a little difturbed ; young people are apt to be terri¬
fied with imaginations; and they for the moft part
incline to fleep 5 the refpiration is difficult, and the
belly coftive ; at the fame time that a tenfive kind of
laflitude is perceived over the whole body. A com¬
plete crifis takes place either on the fourth or at the
fartheft on the eleventh day. The charadleriftic marks
of the fimple fynocha, therefore, are, A rednefs of
the face, moifture of the Ikin, a ftrong and frequent
pulfc.
Caufes of and perfons fuhjeEl to, this difeafe. As we
have already remarked of intermittents, fo muft we alfo
now remark of continued fevers, that it is impoflible to
difeover thofe minute caufes which occafion .the differ¬
ence of tvoe betwixt one inflammatory fever and an¬
other, though moft authors pretend to enumerate thefe
5
with great certainty. Thus Juncker tells us, that the Synocha.
caufe of the fimple ephemera is plethora, together with
any immoderate agitation and commotion of the fluids
while in that ftate. Vogel reckons among the caufes
of his febris diaria, paflions of the mind, pain, wTant,
expofure to the fun, &c. ; a repulfion or abforption
of certain humours; wounds, fraftures, luxations, &c. ;
fo that in general we may reckon every tiling tending
to increafe the action of the arterial fyftem to be in
certain circumftances a caufe of inflammatory fever.—
Hence we find thofe are moft fubjedt to the fynocha
whofe conftitution is either naturally robuft, or who
are expofed to thofe caufes which tend to produce an
increafed aftion of the arterial fyftem ; fuch as hard
labour, high living, &c.
Prognqfis. The moft fimple kind of fynocha, that
is, the ephemera or diary fever, is commonly cured
without the afliftance of medicine, and therefore the
prognofis is for the moft part favourable : yet, if it be
improperly treated by heating medicines, it may eafily
be converted into the other kind ; or, if there be a pu¬
trid difpofition of the fluids, into a fever of a very
dangerous nature. The fame thing is to be underftood
even of the moft violent kind; for fimple inflamma¬
tory fevers are not dangerous unlefs complicated with
an aftedlion of fome particular part, as the pleura, fto-
mach, &c.
Cure. Dr Cullen objects to the plan of thofe -who
are for leaving the cure of continued fevers to the
operations of nature ; becaufe thefe operations are nei¬
ther certain in themfelves, nor are they fo well under-
ftood as to enable us to regulate them properly ; and
it is likewife poflible to fuperfede them by art. The
plan therefore on which he proceeds is, to form his
indications of cure upon the means of obviating the
tendency to death in fevers ; and thefe he reduces to
three. 1. To moderate the violence of re-a£lion.—
2. To remove or obviate the caufes of debility ; and,
3. To obviate or correct the tendency of the fluids to
putrefa&ion.
The frrf indication may be anfwered, 1. By all
thofe means which diminilh the adtion of the heart and ’
arteries. 2. By thofe which take off the fpafm of the
extreme veffels, which, according to his theory, is the
chief caufe of violent re-adtion.
I. The adtion of the heart and arteries may be dimi-
niftied, 1. By avoiding or moderating thofe irritations
which, in one degree or other, are almoft conftantly
applied to the body. 2. By the ufe of certain feda-
tive powers. 3. By diminiftiing the tenfion or tone of
the arterial fyftem.
[ i.] The irritations above mentioned are the im-
preflions made upon our fenfes, the exercife of the body
and mind, and the taking in of aliments. The avoid¬
ing of theie as much as poflible, or the moderating
their force, makes what is properly called the antiphlo-
giftic regimen, proper to be employed in almof every
continued fever. This regimen is to be diredted in the
following manner.
I. Imprefiions on the external fenfes, as ftimulant
to the fyftem, and a chief fupport of its adlivity,
ftiould be avoided as much as poflible; efpecially fuch
as are of a ftronger kind, and which give pain and
uneafinefs. No impreflion is to be more carefully
guarded againft than that of external heat y and at the
fame
264
Fcbres. fame time every oilier means of Increafing the heat of
" v"""-' the body is to be fliunned. Both thefe precautions
are to be taken as foon as a hot itage is fully formed $
and to be attended to during its continuance, except
in certain cafes, where a determination to fweating is
neceffary, or where the flimulant effefts of heat may
be compenfated by circumftances which determine it to
produce relaxation and revulfion.
2. All motion of the body is to be avoided as much
as poffible, and that polture only chofen which employs
the feweft mufcles, and keeps none of them long in a
flate of contraction. Speaking, as it accelerates refpira-
tion, is particularly to be avoided. It muft alfo be ob-
ferved, that every motion of the body is more ftimulant
in proportion as the patient is weaker.
3. The exercife of the mind is alfo to be avoided,
as being a ftimulus to the body j but here an exception
is to be made in the cafe of a delirium coming on,
when the prefenting of accuftomed objeCts may di¬
vert the irregular train of ideas then arifing in the
mind.
4. The prefence of recent aliment in the ftomach
proves always a ftimulus to the fyftem, and ought
therefore to be as moderate as pofllble. A total ab-
ftinence for fotne time may be of fervice ; but as this
■cannot be long continued wTith fafety, we muft avoid
the ftimulus of aliment by choofing that kind which
gives the leaft. Alimentary matters are alfo to be ac¬
counted more ftimulant in proportion to their alkalef-
«ent qualities 5 and this leads us to avoid all animal,
and ufe only vegetable food. For the fame reafon,
aromatic and fpirituous liquors are to be avoided j
and in anfvvering the prefent indication, we muft ab¬
stain from all fermented liquors except thofe of the
loweft quality. Other ftimuli are, the fenfation of
thirft, crudities or corrupted humours in the ftomach,
a preternatural retention of the faeces in the inteftines,
and a general acrimony of all the humours, which is
in moft fevers to be fufpefted. Thefe are to be re¬
moved by fuch methods as the urgency of the fymp-
toms require, by diluting liquors, vomiting, the ufe of
acids, laxative cly fters, and large quantities of antifeptic
drinks.
[2.] The fecond method of moderating the violence
of reaftion is by the employment of certain fedative
powers, with a view to diminilh the adivity of the
whole body, and particularly that of the fanguiferous
fyftem. The firft of thefe to be mentioned is the
application of cold. Heat is the chief fupport of the
activity of the animal-lyftem; and the fyftem is there¬
fore provided with a powrer of generating heat : but
at the fame time we may obferve, that this would
go to excefs, were it not conftantly moderated by a
cooler temperature in the furrounding atmofphere.
When, therefore, the generating power of heat in the
fyftem is increafed, as is commonly the cafe in fevers,
it is neceflary not only to avoid all further means of
increafing it, but alfo to apply air of a cooler tempe-
^ rature $ or at leaft to apply it more entirely and freely
than in a ftate of health. This is fhown, from fome
late obfervations, to be a very powerful means of mo¬
derating the violence of re-aClion : but what is the mode
®f its operation, to what circumftances of fever it par¬
ticularly applies, or what limitations it requires, are not
yet fully afeertained.
Practice,
Another fedative power very frequently employed Synccha,
in fevers, is that of certain medicines known in the
materia medica by the name of refrigerants. The
chief of thefe are acids of all kinds wrhen fufficiently
diluted, and which are, in feveral refpeCts, remedies
adapted to continued fevers. Thofe efpecially in ufe
are the fulphuric and vegetable j and on many accounts
the latter are to be preferred. Another fet of refrige¬
rants are the neutral falts formed of the fulphuric, ni¬
trous or vegetable acids, with alkalies either fixed or
volatile. All thefe neutrals, while they are diffolved
in water, generate cold j but as that cold ceafes foon
after the diffolution is finilhed, and as the falts are ge¬
nerally exhibited in a diflblved ftate, their refrigerant
power in the animal body does not all depend upon
their power of generating cold with water. Nitre is
the refrigerant chiefly employed; but all the others,
compounded as above mentioned, partake more or lefs
of the fame quality. Befides thefe neutrals, fome me¬
tallic falts have alfo been employed in fevers, particu¬
larly the acetite of lead : but the refrigerant powers of
this fait are by no means afeertained, and its deleterious
qualities are too well known to admit of its being freely
ufed.
[3.] The third general method of diminifliing
the rea£tion, is by leflening the tenfion, tone, and
activity of the fanguiferous fyftem. As the adi¬
vity of the fyftem in a great meafure depends upon the
tone, and this again upon the tenfion, of the veffels,
given to them by the quantity of fluids they contain,
it is evident, that the diminution of the quantity of
thefe muft diminilh the aftivity of the fanguiferous
fyftem. The moft efficacious means of diminilhing
the quantity of fluids is by the evacuations of blood¬
letting and purging. The former is evidently one of
the moft powerful means of diminilhing the adivity of
the whole body, and efpecially of the fanguiferous fy¬
ftem *, and it muft therefore be the moft effedual
means of moderating the readion in fevers. When
the violence of readion, and its conftant attendant
a phlogiftic diathefis, are fufficiently evident j when
thefe conftitute the principal part of the difeafe, and
may be expeded to continue through the whole of it,
as in the cafes of fynocha $ then blood-letting is the
principal remedy, and may be employed as far as the
fymptoms of the difeafe may feem to require, and the
conftitution of the patient will bear. It muft, how¬
ever, be remarked, that a greater evacuation than is
neceflary may occafion a flower recovery, and render
the perfon more liable to a relapfe, or bring on other
difeafes. It is alfo to be obferved, that this evacu¬
ation is the more effedual, as the blood is more fud-
denly drawn off, and as the body is at the fame time
more free from all ‘irritation, and therefore when
it is in a pofture in which the feweft mufcles are in
sdion.
With regard to purging, when we confider the
quantity of fluids conftantly prefent in the cavity of
the inteftines, and the quantity which may be drawn
off from the innumerable excretories that open into
this cavity, it will be obvious, that a very great eva¬
cuation may be made in this way j and if this be done
by a ftimulus that is not at the fame time communi¬
cated to the reft of the body, it may, by emptying
both the cavity of the inteftines and the arteries which
furniffi
MEDICINE.
praaice. M E D I
Febres. fiirnifh the excretions poured into it, induce a confi-
—■ ‘ derable relaxation in the whole fyftem •, and is there¬
fore fuited to moderate the violence of reaction in fe¬
vers. But it is to be obferved, that as the fluid drawn
from the excretories opening into the inteftines is not
all drawn immediately from the arteries, and as what
is even more immediately drawn from thefe is drawn
.off flowly •, fo the evacuation will not, in proportion to
its quantity, occafion fuch a fudden depletion of the
red veffels as blood-letting does $ and therefore cannot
aft fo powerfully in taking off the phlogiftic diathefis
of the fyftem.
At the fame time this evacuation may induce a con-
ftderable degree of debility ; and therefore, in thofe
cafes in which a dangerous Hate of debility is likely to
occur, purging is to be employed with a great deal of
Caution j and this caution is more difficult to be ob-
ferved than in the cafe of blood-letting : and it is fur¬
ther to be noticed, that as purging takes off in fome
meafure the determination of the blood to the veffels
on the furface of the body, it feems to be lefs adapted
to the cure of fevers.
II. The other method of moderating the violence of
reaftion in fevers is by the exhibition of thofe remedies
fuited to take off the fpafm of the extreme veffels, fup-
pofed to be the irritation which chiefly fupports the
reaftion. The means to be employed for this purpofe
are either internal or external.
Firjl, The internal means are, I. Thofe which de¬
termine the force of the circulation to the extreme vef-
fsls on the furface of the body, and by refloring the
tone and aftivity of thofe veffels, overcome the fpafm
on their extremities. 2. Thofe medicines which have
the power of taking off fpafm in any part of the fy-
ilem, and which are known under the title of Anti-
JSFASMODICS.
(i.) Thofe remedies which are fit to determine to
the furface of the body are, I. Diluents. 2. Neutral
lalts. 3. Sudorifics. 4. Emetics.
1. Water enters, in a large proportion, into the com-
pofition of all the animal fluids, and a large quantity of
it is always diffufed through the whole of the common
mafs. In a found ffate, the fluidity of the whole mafs
depends upon the quantity of water prefent in it. Wa¬
ter therefore is the proper diluent of our mafs of blood,
and other fluids are diluent only in proportion to the
quantity of water they contain.
In a healthy ftate, alfo the fulnefs of the extreme
veffels and the quantity of excretion are in proportion
to the quantity of water prefent in the body. But in
fever, though the excretions be in fome meafure inter¬
rupted, they continue in fuch quantity as to exhale
the more fluid parts of the blood ; and, while a por¬
tion of them is at the fame time nefceffarily retained in
the larger veflels, the fmaller, and the extreme vef¬
fels, both from the deficiency of fluid and their own
eontrafted ftate, are lefs filled, and therefore allowed
to remain in that condition. To remedy this con-
trafted ftate, nothing is more neceffary than a large
fupply of water or watery fluids taken in by drinking
or otherwife ; for as any fuperfluous quantity of wa¬
ter is forced off by the feveral excretories, fuch a force
applied may be a means of dilating the extreme veffels,
and of overcoming the fpafm affefting their extremi¬
ties. Accordingly, the throwing in a large quan-
Vol. XIII. Part I.
CINE. 265
tity of watery fluids, has been, at all times, a remedy Synocha.
much employed in fevers ; and in no inftan.ce more re- v ^
markably than by the Spanifli and Italian phyficians,
in the ufe of what they call the diceta aquec. This
praftice conftfts in taking away every other kind of
aliment and drink, and in giving, in divided portions,
every day for feveral days together, fix or eight pounds
of plain water, generally cold, but fometimes warm.
This, however, is to be done only after the difi-
cafe has continued for fome time, and at leaft for a
week.
2- A fecond mean of determining to the furface of
the body, is by the ufe of neutral felts. Thefe neu¬
trals, in a certain dofe, taken into the ftomach, produce
foon after a fenfe of heat upon the furface of the body $
and, if the body be covered clofe and kept warm, a
fweat is readily brought out. The feme medicines taken
during the cold ftage of a fever, very often put an end
to it, and bring on the hot one ; and they are alfo re¬
markable for Hopping the vomiting which fo frequently
attends the cold ftage of fevers. All this fliows, that
neutral felts have a power of determining the blood to
the furface of the body, and may therefore be of ufe in
taking off the fpafm which fubfifts there in fevers. The
neutral moft commonly employed in fevers, is that
formed of an alkali with the native acid of vegetables.
But all the other neutrals have more or lefs of the
feme virtue •, and perhaps feme of them, particularly
the ammoniacal felts, poffefs it in a ftronger degree.
As cold water taken into the ftomach often ftiows the
fame diaphoretic effefts with the neutral felts, it is pro¬
bable that the effeft of the latter depends upon their re¬
frigerant powers.
3. A third method of determining to the furface of
the body, and taking off the fpafm fubfifting there, is
by the ufe of fudorifics and by fweating, The propriety
of this praftice has been much difputed j and many fpe-
cious arguments may be adduced both for and againft
it. In its favour may be urged, 1. That in healthy per-
forrs, in every cafe of increafed aftion of the heart and
arteries, a fweating takes place, and is, feemingly, the
means of preventing the bad effefts of fuch increafed
aftion. 2. That, in fevers, their moft ufual folution
and termination is by fpontaneous fweating. 3. That,
even when excited by art, it has been found ufeful at
certain periods and in certain fpecies of fever.—On the
other hand, it may be urged againft the praftice of
fweating, 1. That in fevers, as a fpontaneous fweating
does not immediately come on, there are fome circum-
ftances different from thofe in the ftate of health, and
which may render it doubtful whether the fweating can
be fefely excited by art. 2. That in many cafes the
praftice has been attended with bad confequences. The
means commonly employed have a tendency to produce
an inflammatory diathefis •, which, if not taken off by
the fweat fucceeding, muft be increafed with much dan¬
ger. Thus fweating employed to prevent the acceflions
of intermitting fevers has often changed them into a
continued form, which is always dangerous. 3. The
utility of the praftice is doubtful; as fweating, when
it happens, does not always give a final termination,
as muft be roanifeft in the cafe of intermittents, and
in many continued fevers which are fometimes in the
beginning attended with fweatings which do not prove
final j and, on the contrary, whether they be fponta-
L 1 neous
MEDICINE.
Pra&ice.
neous or excited by art, they feem often to aggravate
the difeafe.
From thefe confiderations, it is doubtful if the prac¬
tice of fweating can be admitted very generally ; but,
at the fame time, it is alfo very doubtful if the failure
of the pra6tice, or the mifchiefs faid to arife from it,
have not been owing to the improper condudl of the
pradtitioner. With refpedl to the laid, it is almolt
agreed among phyficians, j . That fweating has been
generally hurtful when excited by ftimulant, heating,
and inflammatory medicines. 2. That it has been
hurtful when excited by much external heat, and con¬
tinued with a great increafe of the heat of the body.
3. That it is always hurtful when it does not relieve }
and rather increafes the frequency and hardnefs of the
pulfe, the anxiety and difficulty of breathing, the
headach, and delirium. 4. That it is always hurtful
if it be urged when the fweat is not fluid, and when
it is partial and on the fuperior parts of the body
only.
In thefe cafes, it is probable, that either an inflam¬
matory diathefis is produced, which increafes the fpafm
on the extreme veflels ; or that, from other caufes, the
fpafnr is too much fixed to yield eafily to the increafed
a£tion of the heart and arteries : and upon either fup-
pofltion it muft be obvious, that urging the fweat may
produce determinations to fome of the internal parts,
with very great danger.
Notwithftanding thefe doubts, however, it ftill re¬
mains true, 1. That fweating has been often ufeful in
preventing the acceffions of fevers when they have
been certainly forefeen, and a proper conduit employ¬
ed. 2. That even after fevers have in fome meafure
come on, Fveating has interrupted their progrefs when
properly employed, either at the very beginning of the
difeafe, or during its approach and gradual formation.
3. That even after pyrexiae have continued for fome
time, fweating has been fuccefsfully employed in curing
them, as is particularly exemplified in the cafe of a
rheumatifm. 4. That certain fevers produced by a very
powerful fedative contagion, have been generally treat¬
ed molt fuccefsfully by fweating.
Thefe inftances are in favour of fweating, but give
no general rule *, and it muft be left to farther experi¬
ence to determine how far any general rule can be efta-
bljfhed in this matter. In the mean time, if the prac¬
tice of fweating is to be attempted, the following rules
may be laid down for the conduct of it : 1. That a
fwTeat ffiould be excited without the ufe of ftimulant
inflammatory medicines. 2. That it fliould be exci¬
ted with as little external heat, and with as little in¬
creafe of the heat of the body, as poflible. 3. That,
when excited, it fliould be continued for a due length
of time; not lefs than 12 hours, and fometimes for 24
or 48 hours ; always, however, fuppofing that it pro¬
ceeds without the dangerous circumftances already
mentioned. 4. That for fome part of the time, and
as long as the perfon can eafilv bear, it fliould be
carried on without admitting of fleep. 5. That it
fhould be rendered univerfal over the whole body ; and
therefore particularly that care ftiould be taken to
bring the fweating to the lower extremities. 6. That
the pradtice fliould be rendered fafer by moderate pur¬
ging excited at the fame time. 7. That it ftiould not
be fuddenly checked by cold anyhow applied to the Synoch*.
body. v—-—y—
When attention is to be given to thefe rules, the
fweating may be excited, 1. By warm bathing, or a
fomentation of the lower extremities. 2. By frequent
draughts of tepid liquors, chiefly water, rendered more
grateful by the addition of a light aromatic, or more
powerful by that of a fmall quantity of wine. 3. By
giving fome dofes of neutral falts. 4. Moft effedlually,
and perhaps moft fafely, by a large dofe of an opiate,
joined with a portion pf neutral falts, and of an eme¬
tic.
The fourth mean of determining to the furface of
the body, and thereby taking off the fpafm affefling
the extreme vefiels, is by the ufe of emetics. Thefe,
particularly of the antimonial kind, have been em¬
ployed in the cure of fevers ever fince the introduflion
of chemical medicines; but though of late their ufe
has become very general, their efficacy is ftill difpu-
ted, and their manner of operating is differently ex¬
plained.
Vomiting is in many refpe&s ufeful in fevers : as it
evacuates the contents of the ftomach, as it emulges the
biliary and pancreatic dufts, and evacuates the contents
of the duodenum, and perhaps alfo of a large portion of
the inteftines ; as it agitates the whole of the abdomi¬
nal vifeera, it expedes the circulation in them, and
promotes their feveral fecretions; and, laftly, as it agi¬
tates alfo the vifeera of the thorax, it has like effedts
there.
It is not to this caufe, however, that w?e are to im¬
pute the effedl vomiting has in determining to the fur-
face of the body. This muft be attributed to the par¬
ticular operation of emetics upon the mufcular fibres
of the ftomach, wffiereby they excite the adlion of the
extreme arteries on the furface of the body, and by this
means effedlually determine the blood to thefe veffels,
remove the atony, and take off the fpafm affedling
them. For this purpofe they are exhibited in two dif¬
ferent w'ays ; that is, either in fuch dofes as may excit-e
full and repeated vomitings, or in fuch dofes as may ex¬
cite fickncfs and naufea only, with little or no vomiting
at all.
Full vomiting is well fuited to determine to the fur¬
face of the body, and thereby to obviate the atony and
fpafm which lay the foundation of fever. Thus, vo¬
miting excited a little before the expedled acceffion of
the paroxyfm of an intermittent, has been found to
prevent the paroxyfm altogether. It has been obfer-
ved alfo, that wffien contagion has been applied to a
perfon, and firft difeovers its operation, an emetic given
has prevented the fever which might otherwife have
been expected.
Thefe are the advantages to be obtained by exciting
vomiting at the firft approach of fevers, or of the pa¬
roxyfm of fevers ; and they may alftT be applied after
fevers are formed, to take off, perhaps entirely, the
atony and fpafm, or at leaft to moderate thefe, fo that
the fever may proceed more gently and fafely. It is
feldom, however, that vomiting is found to produce a
final folution of fevers ; and after they are once form¬
ed, it is commonly neceffary to repeat the vomiting fe¬
veral times; but this is attended with inconveniency,
and fometimes with difadvantage. The operation of
full
MEDICINE.
pra&ice.
Ffbres. full vomillng is tranlitory, and the exercife of vomit-
ting is a debilitating power j and therefore, when the
vomiting does not remove the atony and fpafm very en¬
tirely, it may give oecafion to their recurrence with
greater force. For thefe reafons, after fevers are fully
formed, fome phyficians have thought proper to em¬
ploy emetics in naufeating dofes only. Thefe are ca¬
pable of exciting the adticn of the extreme veffels, and
their operation is more permanent. At the fame time
they often Ihow their power by exciting fome degree of
fweat, and their operation is rendered more fafe by
their commonly producing fome evacuation by ftool.
But naufea continued for any great length of time, is
to molt patients a fenfation highly diftreffing, and al-
molt infufferable.
The emetics chiefly in ufe at prefent are, ipecacu¬
anha and antimony. The former may be employed for
determining to the furface of the body : but, even in
very final! dofes, it fo readily excites vomiting, that it
is with difficulty employed for the purpofe of naufeat¬
ing only 5 and in whatever manner employed, there is
reafon to fufpeft that its effects are lefs permanent,
and lefs powerfully communicated from the ftomach to
the reft of the fyftem, than thofe of antimony. This
laft is therefore generally preferred ; and its prepara¬
tions, feemingly various, may all be reduced to two
heads 5 one comprehending thofe in which the regu-
line part is in a condition to be affed upon by acids,
and therefore on meeting with acids in the ftomach it
becomes adlive •, and another, comprehending thofe
preparations in which the reguline part is already join¬
ed with an acid, rendering it a£live. Of each kind
there are great numbers, but not differing effentially
from one another ; the two moft worthy of notice are,
the ca/x nitrata antimonii, and emetic tartar, or tartrite
of antimony, of the Edinburgh Difpenfatory. Both
thefe are very efficacious medicines ; but the latter
feems preferable, becaufe its dofe is capable of being
better afcertained \ though the former, on account of
its flower operation, may have fome advantages, and in
certain cafes be more efficacious as a purgative and
fudorific.
The calx nitrata antimonii, when firft introduced in¬
to the pharmacopoeia of the Edinburgh college was
fuppofed to be very nearly, if not precifely, the fame
with a medicine which has of late been highly cele¬
brated in the cure of fevers, Dr James’s powder. But
from more accurate obfervations, there is now reafon
to believe that the pulvis antimonialis .of the J-mndon
Pharmacopoeia, formed by the calcination of anti¬
mony with hartfliorn, approaches more nearly to that
celebrated arcanum. But at any rate, the calx anti¬
monii nitrata, the pulvis antimonialis, and James’s
powder, are probably not effentially different from
each other. The two latter, however, have the moft
near refemblance ; and accordingly the Edinburgh col-
lege, in their Pharmacopoeia, have introduced an ar¬
ticle under the title of antimonium calcareo-phofphora-
tum, which they confider as fo much fimilar to James’s
potvder, that they have ufed as a fynonyme for it, the
title of pulvis Jacobi.
The time moft proper for exhibiting thofe medicines
is a little before the acceffion, when that can be cer¬
tainly known. In continued fevers the exacerbations
are not always very obfervable 5 but there is reafon to
believe, that one commonly happens about noon or
foon after it; and that thefe, therefore, are the moft
proper times for exhibiting emetics.
With refpeft to the manner of adminiftration, that
of the calx nitrata is Ample, as the whole of what is
thought a proper dofe may be given at once ; and no
more can be properly given till the next acceffion.
The adminiftration of the emetic tartar is different. It
is to be given in fmall dofes, not fufficient to excite vo¬
miting ; and thefe dofes are to be repeated after fhort
intervals for feveral times, till ficknefs, naufea, and
fome, though not much, vomiting come on. The dif¬
ference of adminiftration muft depend upon the dofe,
and the length of the interval at which it is given. If
it be intended that the medicine ftiould certainly ope¬
rate by ftool, the dofes are made fmall, and the inter¬
vals long. On the contrary, when vomiting is proper,
or when much purging ought to be avoided, and there¬
fore fome vomiting muft be admitted, the dofes are
made larger, and the intervals ftiorter. With refpedt
to both kinds of preparations, the repetition is to be
made at the times of acceffion, but not very often : for
if the firft exhibitions, duly managed, have little effedt,
it is feldom that the after exhibitions have much ; and
it fometimes happ ens that the repeated vomiting, and
efpecially repeated purging, does harm by weakening
the patient.
(2.) 1 he other fet of internal medicines which are
fuppofed ufeful in taking off the fpafm of the extreme
veffels, are thofe named antifpajmodics. But whatever
may be the virtues of fome of them in this way, fuch
is their power of ftimulating at the fame time, that
very few of them can with fafety be adminiftered in
fevers of an inflammatory nature. Almoft the only
one which can with fafety be exhibited in thefe cafes
is camphor •, and the operations of this are by no means
well afcertained. Dr Huxham mentions it as a cor¬
rector of the acrimony of cantharides ; and affures us,
that it very effectually promotes a diaphorefls. But
from the remarks of other practitioners, we have no
juft reafon to fuppofe that it acts perceptibly in a dofe
of five or fix grains, though in 15 or 20 it produces a
particular kind of intoxication.
Secondly, The external means Anted to take off the
fpafm of the extreme veffels, are bliftering and warm
bathing.
1. What are the effects of bliftering fo frequentfy
employed in fevers is not yet agreed among phyfi¬
cians. Dr Cullen is of opinion, that the fmall quan¬
tity of cantharides abforbed from a bliftering plafter,
is not fufficient to change the confiftence of the mafs
of blood; and therefore, that fuch a quantity can nei¬
ther do good by refolving phlogiftic lentor if it exifts,
nor do harm by increafing the diffolution of the blood
arifing from a putrid tendency in it. The effects of
cantharides upon the fluids, therefore, may be entirely
neglected. The inflammation produced by the appli¬
cation of cantharides to the Ikin, affords a certain proof
of th eir ftimulant power : but in many perfons the ef¬
fect of that ftimulus is not confcderable ; in many It is
not communicated to the whole fvftem ; and even when
it does take place in the whole fyftem, it feems to be
taken off very entirely by the effufion and evacuation of
ferum from the bliftered part. It may be concluded,
therefore, that neither much good is to be expected,
E 1 2 nor
268
MEDICINE.
Febrfes.
nor mttch harm to be apprehended, from the ftimulant
1 power of bliftering ; and the certainty of this conclu-
fion is eftablifhed by the great benefit arifing from the
proper practice of blifiering in inflammatory difeafes.
Much has been imputed to the evacuation made by
bliftering 5 but it is never fo confiderable as to affeft
the whole fyftem 5 and therefore can neither, by a hid¬
den depletion, relax the fanguiferous fyftem, nor by any
revulfton aflFeft the general diftribution of the fluids.
The evacuation, however, is fo confiderable as to affedt
the neighbouring veffels •, and the manifeft utility of
bliftering near the part affedted in inflammatory difeafes
leads us to think, that bliftering, by deriving to the
ikin, and producing an eftiifion there, relaxes the fpafm
of the deeper feated vefiels. It is in this manner, moft
probably, that the tumor of a joint, from an effufion
into the cellular texture under the Ikin, takes off the
rheumatic pain formerly affedling that joint. Analo¬
gous to this, probably, is the good effed! of bliftering
in continued fevers, arifing from the relaxation of the
fpafm of the extreme velfels by a communication of
the bliftered part with the reft of the fkin. A blifter
may be employed at any period in continued fevers j
but it veill be of moft advantage in the advanced ftate
of fuch fevers, vThen, the readtion being weaker, all
ambiguity from the ftimulating power of bliftering is
removed, and when it may belt concur writh other
circumftances tending to a final folulion of the
fpafm.
From this view of the matter, it will appear, that
the part of the body to Avhich blifters ought to be ap¬
plied is indifferent, except upon the fufpicion of topical
affedtion, when the bliftering is to be made as near as
poflible to the part affedled. Whether finapifms and
other rubcfacientia act in a manner analogous to what
has been fuppofed of bliftering may be doubtful j but
their effects in rheum at ifm and other inflammatory dif-
Oafes render it probable.
2. The other external means of taking off the fpafm
of the extreme vefiels is warm bathing. This was fre¬
quently, and in different circumftances, employed by
the ancients p but has, till very lately, been negledted
by modem phyficians. As the heat of the bath ftimu-
lates the extreme vefiels, and, with the concurrence of
moifture, alfo relaxes them, it feems to be a fafe ftimu-
lus, and well fuited to take off the fpafm affedling thefe
veffels. It may be applied to the whole body by im-
merfion \ but this is in many refpedls inconvenient.
From extenfive experience it appears, that moft of the
purpofes of warm bathing can be obtained by a fomen¬
tation of the legs and feet, if properly adminiftered, and
continued for a due length of time, not lefs than an
hour. The marks of the good effedts of fuch a fomen¬
tation are, the patient’s bearing it eafily, its relieving
delirium, and inducing fleep.
Genus V. TYPHUS 5 the Typhous Fever.
Typhus, Sauv. gen. 82. Sag. 677.
165 I. Typhus mitior, or the Show Nervous FEVER. Sp. 1.
var. 1.
Febris maligna hedlica convulfiva, five lues
Willis de morb. convulfiv. cap. 8.
Febris peftilens, Fracajlor. de morb. contag. lib. ii.
ftop. 4.
a,..
Practtce,
Febris peftilens, fine charadlere veneni, ForeJfy I. vi. Typhus,
obf. 26.
Febris hedlica peftilens, Forejl, 1. vi. obf. 32.
Febris nova ann. 1685, Sydenham, Sched. monitor.,
Febris putrida nerVofa, Wintringh. Com. Nofolog. ad
ann. 1720, 1721.
Febris lenta nervofa, Huxhatn on fevers, chap. 8.
Febris contagiofa, Lind on fevers and infedlion,
pfijjim.
Typhus nervofus, Sauv. fp. 2.
Typhus comatofus, Sauv. fp. 3.
Tritaeophya typhodes Mangeti, Sauv. fp. 11. Rayt)i.
Fort, de febribus.
Defcription. Of all the deferiptions we have of the
nervous fever, that of Dr Huxham is perhaps the beft.
According to him, the patient at firft grows fomewhat
liftleft, and feels flight chills and fhudders, with un¬
certain flulhes of heat, and a kind of wearinefs all
over, like what is felt after great fatigue. This is al-
tvays attended with a fort of heavinefs and dejedlion
of fpirit, and more or lefs of a load, pain, or giddi-
nefs of the h ad •, a naufea or difrelifh of every thing
foon follows, without any confiderable thirft, but fre¬
quently with retching to vomit, though little but in-
fipid phlegm is brought up. Though a kind of lucid
interval of feveral hours fometimes intervenes, yet the
fymptoms return with aggravation, efpecially towards
night j the head grows more giddy or heavy; the heat
greater ; the pulie quicker, but weak 5 with an op-
preflive kind of breathing. A great torpor, or obtufe
pain and coldnefs, affefts the hinder part of the head
frequently, and oftentimes a heavy pain is felt on the
top all along the coronary future; this, and that of
the back part of the head, generally attend nervous
fevers, and are commonly fucceeded by fome degree
of a delirium. In this condition the patient often
continues for five or fix days, with a heavy, pale, funk
countenance; feemingly not very fick, and yet far
from being well 5 reftlefs, anxious, and commonly
quite void of fleep, though fometimes very droxvfy and
heavy ; but although he appears to thofe about him
aftually to fleep, he is utterly infenfible of it. The
pulfe during all this time is quick, weak, and unequal j
fometimes fluttering, and fometimes for a few moments
flow 5 nay, even intermitting, and then, with a fudden
flufh in the face, immediately very quick, and perhaps
foon after furprifingly calm and equal ; and thus alter¬
nately. The heats and chills are aS uncertain and un¬
equal ; fometimes a fudden colour and glow arife in the
cheeks, while the tip of the nofe and ears is cold, and
the forehead at the fame time in a cold dewy fweat.
Nay, it is very common, that a high colour and heat
appear in the face, when the extremities are quite cold.
The urine is commonly pale, and often limpid; frequent'-
ly of a whey colour, or like Vapid fmall beef, in Which
there is either no manner of fediment, or a kind of
lOofe matter like bran irregularly feattefed up and down
in it. The tongue at the beginning is feldoDi or nevef
dry or difcoloured, but fometimes covered with a thin
whitifh mucus : at length, indeed, it often appears very
dry, red, and chapped, or of the colour of pomegranate
rind ; but this chiefly at the clofe of the difeafe : yet,
however dry the tongue and lips feem, the patient fel-
dom complains of thirft, though fometimes of a heat in
the tongue. About the feventh or eighth day, the
giddinefs,
practice. M E D I
Febres. giddinefs, pain, or heavinefs o£ the head become much
greater, with a conftan-t noife in it, or tinnitus uurium ;
which is very difturbing to the tick, and frequently
brings on a delirium. The load on the praecordia,
anxiety and faintnefs, grow much more urgent”, and pa¬
tients often fall into an aftual deliquium, efpecially if
they attempt to fit up $ cold fweats fuddenly come out
©n the forehead, and on the backs of the hands (though
at the fame time there be too much heat in the cheeks
and palms), and as fuddenly go off. If the urine now
grow more pale and limpid, a delirium is certainly to
be expected, with univerfal tremors and fubfultus ten-
dinum ; the delirium is feldom violent, but as it were a
confufion of thought and adtion, muttering continually
and faltering in their fpeech. Sometimes they a-
wake only in a hurry and confufion, and prefently
recolleft themfelves, but forthwith fall into a mut¬
tering dozy ftate again. The tongue grows often
Very dry at the height, efpecially in its middle part,
with a yellowilh lilt on each fide, and trembles greatly
when the fick attempts to put it out. Frequently pro-
fufe fweats pour forth all at once, about the ninth,
tenth, or eleventh day, commonly coldilh and clammy
on the extremities 5 oftentimes very thin ftools are dif*
charged, and then nature finks apace ; the extremities
grow cold, the nails pale or livid j the pulfe may be
laid to tremble and flutter, rather than to beat, the
vibrations being fo exceedingly weak and quick that
they can fcarce be diftinguifhed 5 though fometimes
they creep on furprifingly flow, and very frequently
intermit. The fick become quite infenfible and ftupid,
fcarce affected with the loudeft noife or the ft r on gelt
light, though, at the beginning, ftrangely fufceptible
of the impreflions of either. The delirium now ends
in a profound coma, and that foon in death. The ftools,
urine, and tears, run oft' involuntarily, and denounce a
fpeedy diffolution, as the tremblings and tw'itchings of
the nerves apd tendons are preludes to a general con-
vulfion, which at once fnaps the thread of life. In
one or other of thefe ways are the fick carried off, after
having languilhed for 14, 18, or 20 days j nay, fome¬
times much longer. Moft patients grow deaf and ftupid
towards the end of this difcafe (fome extremely deaf),
though too quick and apprehenfive at the beginning
infomuch that the leaft noife or light greatly offended
them. Many from their immoderate fears feem to hurry
themfelves out of life, where little danger is apparent
at the beginning : nay, fome will not allow themfelves
to fleep, from a vain fear of dozing quite away ; and
others from the vaft hurry, anxiety, and confufion of
which they are fenfible either during fleep or at their
waking.
Caufes of and perfons fubjeffi to, this diforder. The
nervous fever is moft frequently the confequence of
contagion. It moft commonly attacks perfons of
weak nerves, a lax habit of. body, and a poor thin
blood ; thofe who have fuffered great evacuations, a
long dejeftion of fpirits, immoderate watchings, ftu-
dies, fatigue, &c. \ alfo thofe who have ufed much
crude un whole fome food, vapid impure drinks, or
who have been confined long in damp foul air 5 who
have broken the vigour of their conftitutions by fali-
vations, too frequent purging, immoderate venety, &c.
Hence we fee how the difeafe is connected with &n ex¬
treme debility of the nervous fyftem j for when people
CINE.
are prepared for this fever by having their nerved al¬
ready weakened, the contagious particles immediately
attack the nervous fyftem, without fo much affe&ing
the ftate of the blood or juices, though the latter are
greatly affedled in the putrid malignant fevers.
Prognojis. In nervous fevers, the prognofis is very
much the fame with that of the putrid malignant kind.
And although death be not fo frequent as in that mo¬
dification of fever, yet it may juftly be confidered as a
Very fatal difeafe.
Cure. As this fever is produced by contagion af¬
fecting the nervous fyftem of a perfon already debi¬
litated, and thus producing weaknefs in an extreme
degree, we have now occafion to confider Dr Cullen’s
two indications of cure omitted under the Synocha;
namely, to remove the caufe and obviate the effeCts of
debility, and to correCt the putrefcent tendency of
the fluids 5 for though, in the beginning of nervous
fevers, the tendency to putrefaction be not remark¬
able, it becomes exceedingly great towards their con-
elufion.
[l.j In anfweringtire firft indication, Dr Cullen ob-
ferves, that moft of the fedative poAvers inducing de¬
bility ceafe to aft foon after they haA^e been firlt ap¬
plied ; and therefore the removing them is not an
objeft of the prefent indication. There is only one
which may be fuppofed to continue to aft for a long
time, and that is the contagion applied j but we knoAV
nothing in the nature of contagion that can lead us to
any meafures for removing or correfting it. We knoAV
only its effefts as a fedative power inducing debility,
or as a ferment inducing a tendency to putrefaftion in
the fluids, the former of Avhich at prefent falls under
our confideration.—The debility induced in fevers by
contagion, or other caufes, appears efpecially in the
Aveaker energy of the brain j but in what this confifts,
or how it may be reftored, Are do not Avell know j but
as nature, feemingly for this purpofe, excites the mo¬
tion of the heart and arteries, Ave muft afcribe the con¬
tinuance of the debility to the Aveaker re-aftion of the
fanguiferous fyftem : the means, therefore, which Ave
employ for obviating debility, are immediately direft-
ed to fupport and increafe the aftion of the heart and
arteries ; and the remedies employed are tonics or fti-
mulants.
In contagious difeafes Ave know, both from the
effefts which appear, and from diffeftions, that the
tone of the heart and arteries is conliderably dimi-
niflied j and that tonic remedies are therefore proper¬
ly indicated. We are to confider thefe remedies as of
two kinds; 1. The power of cold j 2. That of tonic
medioines.
The power of cold as a tonic in fevers may be em¬
ployed in tavo Avays : either asthroAvn into the ftomach,
or as applied to the furface of the body. As avc have
already obferved that the poAver of cold may be Com¬
municated from any one part to every>other part of the
fyftem, fo it Avill be readily alloAved that the ftomach
is a part as fit as any other for this communication, and
that cold drink taken into the ftomach may prove an
ufeful tonic in fevers. This the experience of all ages
has confirmed, but at the fame time it has been fre¬
quently obferved, that, in certain circumftances, cold
drink taken into the ftomach has proved very hurtful j
and therefore that its ufe in fevers requires fome limi¬
tations.
M E D I
tations. What thefe limitations lliould be, and what
are all the circumftances which may forbid the ufe of
cold drmk, it is difficult to determine ; but it feems
clearly forbidden in all cafes where a phlogiftic dia-
thehs prevails in the fyitem, and more efpecially
when there are topical affections of an inflammatory
nature.
The other method of employing cold as a tonic,
is by applying it to the furface of the body, as a re¬
frigerant power fit to moderate the violence of re-
adtion ; but probably it may here alfo be confidered
properly as a tonic, and ufeful in cafes of debility.—
Not only cool air, but cold water alfo may be applied
to the furface of the body as a tonic. The ancients
frequently applied it with advantage to particular
parts as a tonic ; but it is a difcovery of modern
times, that, in the cafe of putrid fevers attended with
much debility, the body may be wafhed all over with
cold water. This was firft pradtifed at Breflaw in
Silefia, as appears from a differtation under the title
of Epidemia Verna, quae Wratiflaviam, anno 1737 af-
jlixit, to be found in the ABa Nat. Curiof. vol. x.
And from other writers it appears, that the pradtice
has paffed into fome of the neighbouring countries.
But in Britain the ufe of cold water externally applied
has of late been more extenfively introduced than into
any other country of Europe. For this we are chiefly
indebted to the late ingenious Dr Currie of Liverpool.
He has recommended the dafhing cold water over the
wffiole furface of the body, as a means not only of obvi¬
ating heat, delirium, and other fymptoms moft urgent •,
but of putting an immediate flop to the difeafe. And
there can be no doubt that the pradtice has often been
attended with the moft falutary confequences. But it
is by no means fo generally advantageous as Dr C urrie
and fome others are inclined to believe. It is in but
very rare inftances that an artificial termination of
fever can thus be obtained ; and even as obviating
fymptoms, it is not unfrequently attended with bad con¬
fequences. It can never be employed with fafety un-
lefs where the heat is very urgent. And perhaps all
the advantages of cold immerfion may be obtained
merely from cold wafhing, a pradtice norv very common
in Britain.
The medicines which have been employed in fevers
as tonics are various. If the acetite of lead hath been
found ufeful, it is probably as a tonic rather than as
a refrigerant ; and the ens veneris, or other prepara¬
tions of iron which have been employed, can adt as
tonics only. The preparations of copper, from their
effedts in epilepfy, are prefumed to poffefs a tonic
power •, but whether their ufe in fevers be founded on
their tonic or emetic powrers, is uncertain. And upon
the whole there may no doubt occur fome inftances of
fevers being cured by tonics taken from the foffil king¬
dom •, but the vegetable tonics are the moft efficacious,
and among thefe the cinchona certainly holds the firft
place.
The cinchona has commonly been eonfidered as a
fpecific, or a remedy of which the operation wras not
underftood. We muft obferve, however, that, as in
many cafes the effedls of the bark are perceived foon
after its being taken into the ftomach, and before it
can poffibly be conveyed to the mals of blood, we may
conclude, that its effedts do not arife from its operating
CINE.
Pradice.
on the fluids \ and muft therefore depend upon its Typhus,
adting on the nerves of the ftomach, and being there-v—~v-~-
by communicated to the reft of the nervous fyftem.
This operation feems to be a tonic power, the bark be¬
ing a remedy in many cafes of debility, particularly in
gangrene j and if its operation may be explained from
its poffefling a tonic power, we may eaiily perceive
why it is improper when a phlogiftic diathefis prevails;
and from the fame view we can afcertain in what cafes
of continued fever it may be admitted. Thefe cafes
are either where confiderable remiffions have appear¬
ed, when it may be employed to prevent the return of
exacerbations, on the fame footing as it is ufed in in¬
termitting fevers } or in the advanced ftate of fevers,
when all fufpicion of an inflammatory condition is re¬
moved, and a general debility prevails in the fyftem
and its being then employed is fufficiently agreeable to
the prefent pradlice.
Another fet of - medicines to be employed for ob¬
viating debility and its effedts, are the diredt ftimu-
lants. Thefe, in fome meafure, increafe the tone of
the moving fibres •, but are different from the tonics,
as they more diredtly excite and increafe the adtion of
the heart and arteries. This mode of operation renders
their ufe ambiguous j and when an inflammatory dia¬
thefis is prefent, the effedts of the ftimulants may be
very hurtful 5 but it is ftill probable, that in the ad¬
vanced ftate of thefe fevers, when debility prevails, they
may be ufeful.
Of all the ftimulants which may be properly em¬
ployed, wine feems to be the moft; eligible. It has
the advantage of being grateful to the palate and
ftomach, and of having its ftimulant parts fo much di¬
luted, that it can be conveniently given in fmall dofes •,
and therefore it may be employed with fufficient fafety.
—It may be fufpedted that wine has an operation ana¬
logous to that of opium ; and on good grounds. But
we can diftindtly remark its ftimulant power only ; which
renders its effedls in the phrenetic delirium manifeftly
hurtful ; and in the mild delirium depending on debili¬
ty, as remarkably ufeful.
[2.] We muft now proceed to the other indication
of cure, namely, to corredt or obviate the tendency in
the fluids to putrefadlion. This may be done, I. By
avoiding any new application of putrid or putrefeent
matter. 2. By evacuating the putrid or. putrefeent
matter already prefent in the body. 3. By corredling
the putrid or putrefeent matter remaining in the body
by diluents and antifeptics. 4. By fupporting the tone
of the veffels, and thereby refilling further putrefadlion,
or obviating its effedls. 5. By moderating the vio¬
lence of readtion, confidered as a means of increafing
putrefadlion.
The further application of putrid or putrefeent mat¬
ter may be avoided, 1. By removing the patient from
places filled with corrupted air. 2. By preventing the
accumulation of the patient’s own effluvia, by a conflant
ventilation, and by a frequent change of bedclothes and
bodv linen. 3. By the careful and fpeedy removal of
all excremental matters from the patient’s chamber.
4. By avoiding animal food.
The putrid or putrefeent matter already prefent in
the bodv, may be evacuated partly by frequent evacu¬
ations of the contents of the inteftines j and more
effedlually ftill by fupporting the excretions of perfpi-
ration
Pradice _ MED
Febres. ration and urine by the plentiful ufe of diluents. That
u—v 1 which remains in the body may be rendered more mild
and innocent by the ufe of diluents, or may be corredt-
ed by the ufe. of antifeptics. Thefe laft are of many
and various kinds; but which of them are conveniently
applicable, or more particularly fuited to the cafe of
fevers, is not well afcertained. Thofe moft certainly
applicable and ufeful are acefcent aliments, particularly
fruits, acids of all kinds, and neutral falts.
Ihe progrefs of putrefaction may be confiderably
retarded, and its effedls obviated, by fupporting the
tone of the veffels •, and this may be done by tonic
medicines, of which the chief are cold, and the Peru¬
vian . bark, as already mentioned. The violence of
readtion increafing the tendency to putrefadtion, may
be moderated by the means already mentioned under
Sijnochn.
1 hefe are the proper indications to be obferved in
the cure of the How nervous fever; and they are
chiefly fulfilled by cleanlinefs, cool air, and diluents;
which, perhaps, upon the whole, are more ufeful in
fevers, than all other pradlices put together. Dr
Huxham obferves, that evacuations (efpecially bleed-
^ng)> are improper even at the beginning. Even a
common purgative given at this time' hath been follow¬
ed by furprifing languors, fyncope, and a train of other
ill fymptoms. It may, however, fometimes be necef-
fary to cleanfe the ftomach and primae vise by a gentle
emetic, or a mild laxative. Indeed, where naufea, fick-
nels and load at ftomach are urgent, as is frequently
the cafe in the beginning of this fever, a vomit is ne-
ceflary. Clyfters of milk, fugar, and fait, may be
injedled with fafety and advantage every fecond or
third day, if nature wants to be prompted to ftool.
The . temperate,, cordial, diaphoretic medicines, are
certainly, according to our author, moft proper in thele
fevers; afid a well-regulated, fupporting, diluting diet
is neceflary. The latter of itfelf, judicioufly managed,
will go a great way in the cure, efpecially if aflifted by
well-timed and well-applied blifters, and a due care to
keep the patient as quiet as poftible both in body and
mind. But it ftiould be noted, that ftrong opiates are
commonly very pernicious, however much the want of
fleep and reftleflhefs may feem to demand them. Mild
diaphoretics, fuch as neutral draughts or elixir pare-
goricum, have much better efFedls 5 which, by raifing a
gentle ealy fweat, or at leaft a plentiful perfpiration,
calm the hurry of the fpirits, and a refrelhing fleep en-
fues. Where the confufion and dejedlion of fpirits are
very confiderable, blifters have been advifed to be ap¬
plied to the neck, occiput, or behind the ears 5 and dur¬
ing all this a free, ufe of thin wine whey, feme pleafant
ptifan or gruel, with a little pure wine* muft be directed.
Indeed the patients, in this cafe ftiould drink frequent¬
ly : though fuch quantities may not be neceflary as in
the ardent or even putrid malignant fevers 5 yet they
fliould be fufficient to carry on the work of dilution,
upport the fweats, and fupply the blood with frefli and
wholefome fluids, in place of that noxious matter which
is continually pallingoff. In this view alfo a thin chicken-
broth is of fervice, both as food and phyfic, efpecially
towards the. decline of the difeafe 5 and for the fame
realon thin, jellies of hartlhorn, fago, and panada, are
uietul, adding a little wine to them, and the iuice of
orange or lemon.
I C I N E. 2y
it is oblervable, that the lick are never fo eafy as Typhus,
when they are in a gentle fweat} for this foon removes
the hurry of fpirits, exacerbations of heat, &c. But
profufe fweats Ihould never be encouraged, much lefs
induced, by very ftrong heating medicines, efpecially
in the beginning or advance of the fever ; for thev
too much exhauft the vital powers, and are followed
by a vaft dejedion of fpirits, tremors, ftartings of the
tendons, and fometimes end in rigors, cold° clammy
fweats,. fyncope, or a comatofe difpofition. Some¬
times irregular partial heats and flufhes fucceed, with
great anxiety, reftleflhefs, delirium, difficulty of breath-
ing, and a vaft load and oppreffion in the prsecor-
dia, fo as to incline the lefs cautious obferver to think
there may be fomething pneumonic in it 5 but even
here we muft beware of bleeding, as the pulfe will be
found very fmall and unequal, though very quick. Nor
is bleeding contraindicated only by the weaknefs and
fluttering of the pulfe, but alfo by the pale, limpid,
and watery urine which is commonly attendant. Thefe
fymptoms denote the load, anxiety, and oppreffion on
the prtecordia to proceed from an affedion of the ner¬
vous fyftem, and not from a pneumonic obftrudion or
inflammation, d he breathing in this cafe, though thick
and laborious, is not hot, but a kind of fighing or fob¬
bing refpiration, nor . is there often any kind of cough
concomitant; fo that it has been conjedured to proceed
from fome fpafm on the vitals. Here therefore the
nervous cordial medicines are indicated, and blifters to
the thighs, legs, or arms.
1 he above-mentioned difficulty of breathing, anxie¬
ty, and oppreffion, many times precede a miliary erup¬
tion, which often appears on the feventh, ninth, or
eleventh day ol the fever, and fometimes later. In¬
deed great anxiety and oppreffion on the prascordia al¬
ways precede puftular eruptions of any kind in all
forts of fevers. 1 his eruption fliould be promoted by
foft eafy cordials and proper diluents; to which ffiould
be fometimes added fome gentle aromatics. Thefe
tend to calm the univerfal uneafinefs commonly com¬
plained. of, and alfo very effeftually promote a diapho-
refis, with which the miliary eruptions freely and eafily
advance. But however advantageous thefe commonly
are, profule fweats are feldom or never fo, even though
attended with a. very large eruption. Two or three
crops of thefe miliary puftules have been known to fuc-
cecd one another, following profufe fweats, not only
without advantage, but with great detriment to the
patients, as they were thereby reduced to an extreme
degree of weaknefs ; fo that they may juftly be reckon¬
ed fymptomatic rather than any thing elfe, and the con-
fequent eruption is often merely the fymptom of a fymp-
tom. , r
In thefe profufe colliquative fweatings a little gener¬
ous red wine (diluted fomewhat, if necellarv) may be
given with the great eft advantage ; as it prefently mo¬
derates the fweats, fupports the patient, and keeps up
the miliary papulae if they happen to attend. Towards
the decline of the fever alfo, where the fweats are
abundant and weakening, fmall dofes of the tindlure of
cinchona with laffron and fnakeroot may be given with
the greateft advantage, frequently interpofmg a dofe
ox rhubarb to.carry. off the putrid colluvies in the firft
paflages ; which withal makes the remiffions or inter-
miffions that often happen in the decline of nervous
fevers
3
i66
MEDICINE.
fevers more dlitinct and manifeft, and gives a fairer op¬
portunity of throwing in the bark 5 for in the proper
exhibition of this medicine we are to place our chief
hope of curing both the nervous and putrid malignant
fevers.
Pra&icc.
Rogers, EiTay on Epidemic Typhus.
II. Typhus gravior, or the putrid, peJHlential, or ma¬
lign nut Fever. Sp. I. var. 2.
Febris pellilens, P. Sal. Diver/, de febre pefti-
lenti.
Febris peftilens iEgyptiorum, Alpm. de med. JF.-
gypt. 1. i. cap. 14.
Typhus ./Egyptiacus, Sauv. fp. 6.
Febris peltilens maligna, Sennert. de febribus, L iv.
cap. 10.
Febris maligna peftilens, River, 1. xvii. feft. iii.
pap. 1.
Febris peftilens maligna, ann. 1643, Willis, de fe¬
bribus, cap. 14.
Typhus carcerum, Sauv. fp. 1.
Febris nautica peftilentialis, Huxham de acre ad ann.
I740, •
Miliaris nautica, Sauv. fp. g.
Febris putrida contagiofa in carceribus genita, Hux¬
ham de acre ad ann. 1742.
Miliaris purpurata, Sauv. fp. h.
Febris carcerum et nofocomiorum. Pringle, Difeafes
of the army, p. 294. Van Swieten, Maladies des
armes, p. 136.
Typhus caftrenfis, Sauv. fp. 5.
'Febris caftrenfis, quam vulgb cephalalgiam epidemi-
cam vocant, Hear. Mali et A. Ph. Koph. Difl".
apud Hallerum, tom. v.
Febris Hungarica five caftrenfis, Juncker, 74. et plu-
num auBorum.
Febris caftrenfis Gallorum in Bohemia, ann. 1 742j
Scrinci. Diff. apud Haller, tom. v.
Febris petechialis, Sennert. 1. iv. cap. 13. River.
prax. 1. xvii. fe£l. iii. cap. 1. Hoffm. ii. p. 84.
Juncker, 73. Huxham on fevers, chap. 8. Lud¬
wig. Inft. med. clin. N* 146. Schreiber von er-
kentnefs, und cur der Krank heiten, p. 126.
Monro, Difeafes of military hofpitals, p. 1.
Febris catarrhalis maligna petechizans, Juncker, 72.
Hoffm. ii. 75. Filer de cogn. et cur. morb.
feft. vi.
Febris quae lenticulas, pun&icula, aut peticulas
vocant, Fracajlorius de morb. contag. lib. ii.
cap. 6.
Febris peticularis Tridenti, ann. 1591. Roboretus de
febr. peticul.
Febris petechialis epidemica Coloniae, ann. 1672.
Donckers, Idia febris petechialis.
Febris petechialis epidemica Pofonii, 1683, C. F.
Loeu in App. ad. A. N. C. vol. ii.
Febris petechialis epidemica Mutinae, 1692. Ra-
ma%Kini. Conft. Mutinenfis, oper. p. 177.
Febris maligna petechizans, ann. 1698. Hojffm. ii.
p. 80.
Febris petechialis Wratiflavise, ann. 1699.
Ephem. Germ. D. III. A. VII. et VIII. obf.
132. p. 616.
Febris epidemica Lipfise, 1718. M. Adolph. A.
N. C. III. obf. 131. p. 296.
Febris endemica et epidemica Corcagienfis, ann.
FurJle-
et feq.
Hafe.
Ludu-
1708, 1718, et feq.
difeafes.
Febris continua epidemica Corcagienfis, ann. 1719.
et feq. M. O'Connel, Obf. de morbis.
Febris petechialis epidemica Cremonae, 1734. Val-
carenghi Med. ration, feci. 3.
Febris petechizans Petropoli, 1735. Weitbrecht.
Diff. apud Halier, tom. v.
Febris petechialis, ann. 1740, 1741, in Haftia.
Ritter. A. N. C. vol. vii. obf. 4.
Febris maligna petechialis Rintelli, 1741.
nau, A. N. C. vol. vii. obf. 5.
Febris petechialis epidemica Silefiae, 1741,
Bandhor/. Diff. apud Haller, tom. v.
Febris petechialis epidemica Viennse, 1757.
nohrl. Hill. med. cap. 2.
Febris petechialis epidemica Lipfiae, 1757-
vig. Adverfar. tom. i. pars 1.
Febris petechialis epidemica variis Germanice locis
ab ann. 1735 ad 1761. Struck de morbo cum
petechiis.
Defcnption. This difeafe has been fuppofed to differ
from the former in degree only $ and there are many
circumftances which would lead us to conclude, that
both frequently originate from a contagion precifely of
the fame nature. In the fame manner we fee, during
different feafons, and in different circumftances, vari¬
ous degrees of malignity in fmallpox. Though every
inftance of the difeafe depends on the introduction of
a peculiar and fpecific contagion into the body, yet
this contagion in particular epidemics evidently pof-
feffes peculiar malignancy. The fame is probably the
cafe with the typhoid fever : But whether this obfer-
vation be well founded or not, there cannot be a doubt
that the typhus gravior or putrid fever is a difeafe.
of the moil dangerous nature, as, befides the extreme
debility of the nervous fyftem, there is a rapid ten¬
dency of the fluids to putrefaClion, which fometimes
cuts off the patient in a few days, nay, in the warm
climates, in 12 or 14 hours j or if the patient recovers,
he is for a long time, even in this country, in an ex¬
ceedingly weak ftate, and requires many weeks to reco¬
ver his former health.
The putrid fevers, according to Huxham, make
their attack with much more violence than the flow
nervous ones 9 the rigors are fometimes very great,
though fometimes fcarce felt ; the heats much fharper
and permanent ; yet, at firrt, fudden, tranfient, and re¬
mittent : the pulfe more tenfe and hard, but common¬
ly quick and fmall; though fometimes flow, and feem-
ingly regular for a time, and then fluttering and une¬
qual. The headach, naufea, and vomiting, are much
more confiderable even from the beginning. Some¬
times a fevere fixed pain is felt in one or both temples,
or over one or both eyebrows *, frequently in the bot¬
tom of the orbits of the eyes. The eyes always appear
very dull, heavy, fometimes yellowifti, and very often
a little inflamed. The countenance feems bloated,
and more dead-coloured than ufual. Commonly the
temporal arteries throb much, and a tinnitus aurium is
very troublefome: a ftrong vibration alfo of the caro¬
tid arteries frequently takes place in the advance of the
fever, though the pulfe at the wrift may be fmall, nay
even flow : this is a certain fign of an impending deli-
Pra^'cs. MED!
Febn ri'jra, and generally proceeds from fome conaderable
v-—obltruclions in the brain.
The proftration of fpirits, weaknefs, and faintnefs,
are often furprilngly great and hidden, though no in¬
ordinate evacuation happens-, and this too fometimes
when the pulfe feems tolerably llrong. The relpira-
tion is moll: commonly laborious, and interrupted with
a kind of fighing or fobbing, and the breath is hot and
offenfive.
few or none of thefe fevers are without pain in the
bacii and loins j always an univerfal wearinefs or fore-
nefs is felt, and often much pain in the limbs. Some-
limes a great heat, load, and pain, affecl the pit of the
llomach, with perpetual vomiting of porraceous or black
bile, and a molt troublefome lingultus ; the matter dif-
charged is frequently of a very naufeous fmell. The
tongue, though only white at the beginning, grows
daily more dark and dry; fometimes of a Ihining livid
colour, with a kind of dark bubble at top $ fometimes
exceeding black ; and fo continues for many days to¬
gether nor is the timid to be got off many times for
feveral days, even after a favourable crilis : at the height
of the difeafe, it generally becomes very dry, ftiff, and
black, or of a dark pomegranate colour. Hence the
fpeech is very inarticulate, and fcarce intelligible. The
third in the increafe of the fever is commonly very
great, fometimes unquenchable; and yet no kind of
drink pleafes, but all feem bitter and mawkilli ; at
other times, however, no third is complained of,
though the mouth and tongue are exceedingly foul
and dry j this is always a dangerous fymptom, and
ends in a frenzy or coma. The lips and teeth, efpe-
cially near the height, are Covered with a very black
tenacious fordes. At the commencement of the fever, the
urine is often crude, pale, and vapid, but grows much
higher coloured in the advance, and frequently refembles
a drong lixivium, or citrine urine, tinged with a fmall
quantity of blood } it is without the lead fediment or
cloud, and fo continues for many days together : by
degrees it grows darker, like dead drong high-colour¬
ed beer, and fmells very rank and offenJive. In pe¬
techial fevers, the urine has often been feen almod
black and very fetid. The dools, efpeeially near the
height, or in the decline of the fever, are for the mod
part intolerably fetid, green, livid, or black, frequent¬
ly with fevere gripes and blood. When they are more
yellow or brown, the lefs is the danger j but the high-
eft when they run off infenfibly, whatever their colour
may be. It is likewife a very bad fymptom when the
belly continues tenfe, fwollen, and hard, after profufe
ftouls -, for this is generally the confequence of an in¬
flammation or mortification of the inteftxnes. A gentle
diarrhoea is often very beneficial, and fometimes feems
to be the only way which nature takes to carry off the
morbific matter.
Sometimes black, livid, dun, or greenidi fpots appear
on different parts of the fkin, particularly on the bread,
which always indicate a high degree of malignity but
the more florid the fpots are, the lefs danger is to be
feared. It is alfo a good fign when the black or violet
petechias become of a brighter colour. The large,
black, or livid fpots, are almod always attended with
profufe haemorrhagies 5 and the fmall, dulky, brown
fpots, like freckles, are not much lefs dangerous than
Vol. XIII. Part I.
CINE.
the livid or black; though they are feldom accom¬
panied with fluxes of olood : exceflive.lv profufe, cold,
clammy fweats are often concomitant, by which alfo
. they lomctimes vanith, though without any advantage
to the patient. The eruption of the pettchise is uncer¬
tain; fometimes they appear on the fourth or fifth
day, though fometimes not till the eleventh, 01 even
later. The vilices, or large dark blue or greenifh
marks, feldom appear till very near the fatal period.
Frequently alfo we meet with an efflorefeence like the
meailes in malignant fevers, but of a much more dull
and livid hue; in which the fkin, efpecially on the
bread, appears as it were marbled or variegated. This
in general is an ill fymptom, and is often attended with
fatal confequences.
Sometimes about the nth or 14th day, on the oc¬
currence of profufe fweats, the petechite disappear, and
vad quantities of v'hite miliary puduies break out.
This is feldom found of any coniideraole advantage;
but an itching, fmarting, red rath, commonly gives
great relief; and fo do the large, fretting, watery
bladders, which many times rife upon the back, bread,
fhoulders, &c. A fcabby eruption hkevvife about the
lips and nofe is one of the laluiary fymptoms; and
the more hot and angry it is, fo much the better. But
of much more uncertain and dangerous event are the
brown-coloured aphthae; nor are thofe that are ex¬
ceeding white and thick, like lard, of a very promifihg
afpect. They are foon fucceeded by great difficulty
of fwallowing, pain and ulceration of the fauces,
oefophagu6, &c. and with an inceffant lingultus : the
whole prim.r vice become at lafl affedlcd; a bloody
dyfentery conies on, followed by a fphacelation of the
inteftines; as is evident from the black, famous, and
bloody ftools, extremely fetid and infe£tious. Vibices,
or large black and bluifli marks refembling bruifes,
are frequently feen towards the clofe of the fever ;
and, when attended with lividity and coldnefs of the
extremities, are certain tokens of approaching death.
In fome cafes, the blacknefs has been known to reach
almofl, to the elbows, and the hands have been dead-
cold for a day or two before the death of the patient.
Such are the general appearances of the putrid ma¬
lignant fever in this country, among thofe who enjoy
a free air, and are not crowded together, or expofed
to the caufes of infedlion : but in jails, hofpitals, or
other places where the lick are crow’ded, and in fome
meafure deprived of the benefit of the free air, the
fymptoms are, if poflible, more terrible. Sir John
Pringle, who had many opportunities of obferving it,
tells us, that the jail or hofpital fever, in the begin¬
ning, is not eafy to be diitinguifhed from a common
fever. The firft fymptoms are flight interchanges of
heat and cold, a trembling of the hands, fometimes a
fenfe of numbnefs in the arms, weaknefs of the limbs,
lofs of appetite ; and the diforder increaflng towards
night, the body grows hot, the fleep is interrupted,
and not refrefhing. With thefe fympton s, for the
moft part, there is fome pain or confufion in the head ;
the pulfe at firfl: is a little quicker than natural, and
the patients find themfelves too much indifpofed to go
about bufinefs, though too well to be wholly confined.
When the fever advances, the above-mentioned fvrnp-
toms are in a higher degree; and in particular the
M m patient
274 M E D I
, Fcbres- patient complains of a laflitude, naufea, pains in his
" back, a more conftant pain and confufion in his head,
attended with an uncommon dejedtion of fpirits. At
this time the pulfe is never funk, but beats quick, and
often varies in the fame day both as to ftrength and
fulnefs. It is little affected by bleeding, if a moderate
quantity of blood be taken away ; but if the evacuation
be large, and efpecially if it be repeated, to anfwer a
falfe indication of inflammation, the pulfe, increafing
in frequency, is apt to fink in force, and often irre¬
coverably, whilft the patient becomes delirious. But
we muff obferve, that, in every cafe, independent of
evacuations, the pulfe fooner or later finks, and then
gives certain evidence of the nature of the difeafe. The
appearance of the blood is various ; for though it be
commonly little altered, yet fometimes it will be fizy,
not only on the firft attack, but after the fever is form¬
ed. I he worft appearance is when the craffamentum
is diffolved j though this does not happen till the ad¬
vanced ftate of the fever : indeed this feems not eafy
to be afeertained, as blood has been fo feldom taken
away at that time. The urine is alfo various. Some¬
times it is of a reddifli or flame colour, which it preferves
a long time 5 but it is oftener pale, and changes from
time to time in colour as well as crudity, being fome¬
times clear, fometimes clouded : towards the end, upon
a favourable crifis, it becomes thick, but does not al¬
ways depofit a fediment. If the lick lie warm, and
have had no preceding flux, the belly is generally
bound } but when they lie cold, as they often do in
field-hofpitals, the pores of the Ikin being Ihut, a di¬
arrhoea is a common fymptom, but is not critical. In
the worfl: cafes, a flux appears in the laft ftage; then
the ftools are involuntary, colliquative, ichorous, or
bloody, and have a cadaverous fmell ; the effedls of a
mortification of the bowels, and the fign of approach¬
ing death. When the hofpitals are filled with dyfen-
teric patients, fome of the nurfes will be infefted with
the flux only, and others with this fever, ending in
thefe bloody and gangrenous ftools.
In the beginning the heat is moderate j and even in
the advanced ftate, on firft touching the Ikin, it feems
inconfiderable : but upon feeling the pulfe for fome
lime, we are fenfible of an uncommon heat (the co¬
lor mordicans, as it has been called), leaving an un-
pleafant fenfation on the fingers for a few minutes.
A day or two before death, if care be not taken, the
extremities become cold, and the pulfe is then hardly
to be felt. The Ikin is generally dry and parched j
though fometimes there are longer or fhorter fweats,
efpecially in the beginning. Such as are produced by
medicine are of no ufe, except on the firft attack, at
which time they will often remove the fever; and na¬
tural fweats are never critical till the diftemper begins
to decline. Thefe laft are rarely profufe, but gentle,
continued, and equally diffufed over the body : fome¬
times the difeafe will terminate by an almoft impercep¬
tible moifture of the Ikin ; the fweats are ufually fetid,
and offenfive even to the patient himfelf.
The tongue is commonly dry j and, without conftant
care of the nurfe, becomes hard and brown, with deep
chops : but this fymptom is common to moft fevers.
At other times, though rarely, the tongue is foft and
moift to the laft, but with a mixture of a greenifh or
yellowiih colour. The thirft is fometimes great, but
CINE.
more frequently moderate.
Praflice.
In the advanced ftate, the Typhus,
breath is offenfive, and a blackifh furring gathers about -1
the roots of the teeth.
Some are never delirious, but all lie under a ftupor
or confufion •, few retain their fenfes till death : many
lofe them early, and from two caufes 5 either from iin-
moderate bleeding, or the premature ufe of warm and
fpirituous medicines. They rarely fleep ; and, unlefs
delirious, have more of a dejefted and thoughtful look
than what is commonly feen in other fevers. The face
is late in acquiring either a ghaftly or a very morbid
appearance ; yet the eyes are always muddy, and ge¬
nerally the white is of a reddifti caft as if inflamed.
The confufion of head commonly rifes to a delirium,
efpecially at night; but, uulefs by an unfeafonable hot
regimen, it feldom turns to rage, or to thofe high
flights of imagination common in other fevers. When
the delirium comes to that height, the face is fluihed,
the eyes red, the voice is quick, and the patient ftruggles
to get up. But when that fymptom is owing to large
evacuations, or only to the advanced ftate of the dif¬
eafe, the face appears meagre 5 the eye-lids in flumbers
are only half (hut; and the voice, which is commonly
low and flow, finks to a degree fcarce to be heard.
From the beginning there is generally a great dejec¬
tion and failure of ftrength. A tremor of the hands is
more common than a ftarting of the tendons 5 and if the
fubfultus occurs, it is in a leffer degree than in many
other fevers. In every ftage of the difeafe, as the pulfe
finks, the delirium and tremors increafe •, and in pro¬
portion as the pulfe rifes, the head and fpirits are re¬
lieved. Sometimes in the beginning, but for the moft
part in the advanced ftate, the patient grows dull of
hearing, and at laft almoft deaf. When the fever is
protrafted, with a flow and low voice, the fick have a
particular craving for fomething cordial, and nothing
is fo cordial or fo acceptable as wine. They long for
no food, yet willingly take a little panada if wine be
added. But fuch as are delirious, with a quick voice,
wild looks, a fubfultus tendinum, or violent actions,
though their pulfe be funk, yet bear neither hot medi¬
cines, wine, nor the common cordials.
Vomiting, and complaints of a load and ficknefs at
ftomach, though ufual fymptoms, are not effential to
the difeafe; nor are pleuritic ftitches, difficulty in
breathing, or flying pains, to be referred fo much to
it as to the conftitution of the patient, or to a preced¬
ing cold.
A petechial efflorefcence is a frequent, though not
an infeparable, attendant of this fever. It fometimes
appears of a brighter or paler red, at other times of a
livid colour, but never rifes above the Ikin. The fpots
are fmall j but generally fo confluent, that at a little di-
ftance the Ikin appears only fomewhat redder than or¬
dinary, as if the colour was uniform ; but upon a nearer
infpeftion interftices are feen. For the moft part this
eruption is fo little confpicuous, that unlefs it be look¬
ed for attentively, it may efcape notice. The fpots ap¬
pear thickeft on the back and breaft, lefs on the legs
and arms, and Sir John Pringle never remembers to have
feen any on the face. As to the time of their appear¬
ance, he agrees entirely with Dr Huxham. Thefe
fpots are never critical, nor are they reckoned among
the mortal fymptoms ; but only concur with other
feertain the nature ef the difeafe. The nearer
they
figns to
pra£lice. , M E D I
Febres. they approach to purple, the more they are to be
l——y—"^ dreaded. In a few cafes, inftead of fpots, purple ftreaks
and blotches were obferved. Sometimes the petechiae
did not appear till after death •, and there was one cafe
in which, after bleeding, the petechiae were feen only
on the arm below the ligature, and nowhere elfe on the
fldn.
The hofpital fever, though accounted one of the con¬
tinued kind, yet has generally fome exacerbations at
night, with a remiffion and often partial fweats in the
day } and after a long continuance it is apt to change
into a hedfic, or an intermitting form. The length of
the difeafe is uncertain. Sometimes it was terminated,
either in death or recovery, in feven days after the pa¬
tient took to his bed j but in the hofpitals it generally
continued from 14 to 20, and fome died or recovered
after four weeks. From the time of the finking of the
pulfe until death or a favourable crifis, there is perhaps
lefs change to be feen from day to day in this than in
molt other fevers. When its courfe is long, it fome-
times terminates in fuppurations of the parotid or axil¬
lary glands } and when thefe do not appear, it is pro¬
bable that the fever is kept up by the formation of fome
internal abfcefs. The parotid glands themfelves do not
fuppurate, but only fome of the lymphatic glands that
lie over them. Sir John Pringle obferved one inftance
of a fwelling of this kind on both fides, without any
previous indifpofition, when the perfon, not fufpedling
the caufe, and applying difcutient cataplafms, was, upon
the tumour fubfiding, feized with the hofpital-fever.
Many patients after the crifis of this fever complain of
a pain in the limbs and want of reft ; and almoft all of
them mention great weaknefs, confufion in their head,
vertigo, and a noife in their ears.
Ten of the bodies of thofe who died of this diftem-
per in Houghton’s regiment were opened. In fome,
all the cavities were examined $ in others, only the
brain and thb bowels. In fome of them, the brain ap¬
peared to be fuppurated. The firft of this kind Sir John
Pringle met with at Ghent; but the man being brought
into the hofpital from the barracks no earlier than two
days before he died, he could only conjecture from the
fymptoms and the imperfedt accounts he had of him,
that his death was owing to a fever of this kind, after
lingering near a month in it. About three ounces of
purulent matter were found in the ventricles of the
brain, and the whole cortical and medullary fubftance
was uncommonly flaccid and tender j nay, fome of
the fame kind of matter was found in the fubftance of
the upper part of the cerebellum : yet this perfon, with
fome ftupor and deafnefs, had his fenfes till the night
before he died ; fo far, at leaft, that he anfvvered di-
ftindlly when roufed and fpoken to ; but about that
time the mufcles of his face began to be convulfed. Of
two other inftances of men who undoubtedly died of
this fever, in one the cerebrum was fuppurated, in the
«ther the cerebellum. In the former cafe, the patient
was under a ftupor, with deafnefs from the beginning j
but was never delirious, nor altogether infenfible. His
pulfe funk early ; and about ten days before his death
his head began to fwell, and continued very large till
within two days before he died, when it fubfided a little,
lor feveral days before his end, he would tafte nothing
but cold water, and during his illnefs he lay conftantly
CINE.
upon one fide. The head being opened, an abfcefs as
large as an egg was found in the fubftance of the fore¬
part of the right hemifphere of the brain, full of thin
matter like whey. At that time five more, ill of the
fame fever, had the like fwelling of their heads, but
recovered. In the other cafe, the abfcefs in the cere¬
bellum was about the fize of a fmall pigeon’s egg, and
contained alfo a thin ichorous matter j nor had this
patient ever been fo thoroughly infenfible as not to an-
fvver reafonably when fpoken to. T wo days before lie
died his urine turned pale.
Thefe fuppurations, however, were not conftant; for
another who died about the fame time, and had been
ill about the fame number of days with the like fymp¬
toms, the pale water excepted, had no abfcefs either in
the brain or cerebellum. Two were opened afterwards,
in whom the cortical fubftance of the brain had an in¬
flammatory appearance, but no fuppuration. In one of
them the large inteftines were corrupted 5 that man
went off with a loofenefs j and juft before he died, an
ichorous matter wras difcharged from his nofe. In the
military hofpital at Ipfwich, one who unexpectedly died
of this fever after having been feemingly in a fair way
of recovery, had no fuppuration in his brain 5 but in
another, who died after an abfcefs in both orbits, the
brain was found flaccid, and about two ounces of a thin
ferum in the ventricles.
Caufes of, and perfons fubjeft to, this diforder. The
caufe of this fever, as well as that of the flow nervous
fever, is an infection or contagion from fome difeafed
animal-body, or from corrupted vegetables ; and there¬
fore is very little, if at all, different from thofe pefti-
lential diforders which have arifen after battles, where
great numbers of dead bodies were allowed to lie above
ground, and infect: the air with their effluvia. This is
confirmed by an obfervation of Foreftus, wrho ivas eye-
witnefs to a diftemper of this kind (which indeed he
calls a plague) owing to the fame caufe, attended with
buboes and a high degree of contagion. The fame au¬
thor alfo gives an account of a malignant fever breaking
out at Egmont in North-Holland, occafioned by the rot¬
ting of a whale which had been left on the fflore. We
have a like obfervation of a fever affecting the crew of a
French fhip, by the putrefaction of fome cattle which
they had killed on the ifland of Nevis in the Weft In¬
dies. Thefe men wTere feized with a pain in their head
and loins, great weaknefs, and a diforder of the ftomach,
accompanied with fever. Some had carbuncles j and
on others purple fpots appeared after death.
Galen afligns two caufes for peftilential fevers : 1. The
great heat of the weather, when the humours happen to
be in a more putrefcent ftate than ufual. 2. A putrid
ftate of the air, arifing either from a multitude of dead
bodies left unburied, as after a battle, or from the eva¬
poration of corrupted lakes and marlhes.
One of the moft remarkable difeafes incident to an
army is related by Diodorus, as breaking out among
the Carthaginians at the fiege of Syracufe. That au¬
thor not only relates fome of its moft diftinguifhing
fymptoms, but reafons well about its caufe. He ob-
ferves, that pains in the back and eruptions {<p\vKrxivu,i)
■were common ; that fome had bloody ftools; that
others were feized with a delirium, fo as to run about
and beat all that came in their way; that the phyfi-
M m 2 cians
276
Febres.
cians knew no cure ; and that it was the more fatal as
tiie lick were abandoned by every body on account of
the contagion. As to the cuuie, the author takes no¬
tice of the multitude of people confined within a nar¬
row compafs; of the fituation of the camp in low
and wet ground j of the fcorching heats in the middle
of the day, fucceeded by the cold and damp air from,
the marches in the night-time j to thefe he adds, the
putrid fleams arifing firll from the marfhes, and after-
wards from the bodies of thofe who lay unburied.—
This ditlemper feems to have been a compound of the
xnarfh and peflilential fever.
Foreflus remarks, that, from the putrefaction of
the water only, the city of Delft, where he prablifed,
was fcarce ten years together free from the plague or
fome peflilential diflemper. He adds, that the ma-
giflrat.es, upon his reprefentation of the eaufe, erebt-
ed a wind-mill for moving and refrefhing the water.
At that time Holland was much more fubjcbl to inun¬
dations and the flagnatioa of water than at prefent.
In 1694, a fever broke out at Rochfort in France,
which, on account of the uncommon fymptoms and
great mortality, was at fir it believed to be the plague.
But M. Chirac, who was fent by the court to inquire,
into its nature, found the caufe to arife from fome
marfhes that had been made by an inundation of the
fea ; and obferved, that the corrupted fleams, which:
fmelled like gun-powder, were carried to the town by
the wind, which had long blown from that quarter.
About two-thirds of thofe who wrere taken ill died.
In fuch as were opened, the brain was found either in¬
flamed or loaded with blood ; the fibres of. the body
were uncommonly tender •, and the bowels had either
fuppurated or were mortified.
It is needlefs to mention more inflances of peflilen¬
tial fevers being brought on by the fleams of corrupt¬
ed fubilances, whether animal or vegetable. In ge¬
neral it may be remarked, that the putrefablion of
thefe fubflances in a dry air is more apt to bring on a
fever of the continued form ; but in a moifl air hasr
a greater tendency to produce remitting fevers. But,
it mufl alfo be obferved, that, even in cafes where the
molt malignant fevers prevail, all perfons are not
equally difpofed to receive the infection, though equally
expofed to it with others. Some, through mere vigour
of body and mind, cannot be infefled with the moft
contagious difeafes •, while, on the other hand, thofe
whole bodies are debilitated by a former difeafe, by
fludy, low diet, or want, or thofe who have laboured
under any of the deprefling paflions of the mind for
fome time, feldom or never- efcape. Men, therefore,
who have been weakened by accidents (as thofe who
have undergone a mercurial falivation) are very apt to
fall into this difiemoer. Thofe who are taken into
crowded hofpitals, ill of the fmallpox, however good
the fort may be, fall readily into this fever, and run a
greater rifk of dying of it than others. The fecond
fever is attended with double danger, feeing the patient
has been fo much weakened bv the firit. A fure ngn
of the corruption of the air in an hofpital is when many
of the nurfes fall fick.
Progno/is. In thefe fevers we cannot draw a prog-
noflic from any fymptom by sKelf •, md perhaps all of
them together are more fallible than in others, Ge-
MEDICINE. Pratlice,
nerally the following are good : To have little deli- Typhus.
riurn ; the ftrength little impaired y turbid .urine in the 1
decline of the difeafe y and at that time a gentle fweat
or moillure diffufed over the body, or even the fkin
foft and the tongue moifl 5 or to have fome lo. fe ftools
fucceeded by a diaphorefis ; the pulfe to rife by wine
or cordials, with an abatement of the flupor, tremor,
and other affections of the brain. Deafnefs is rather
a good fign. A fediment in the urine, without other
changes for the better, is no fure fign of recovery j and
fome have recovered in whole urine there was no fedi¬
ment.—The bad figns are, a fubfultus tendinum $ tho
eyes much inflamed and Haring 5 the fpeech quick, and
the found ot the voice altered y a high delirium ; per¬
petual watchfulnefs j conflant ficknets at the ftomach,
and vomitings ; frequent ftools, with a finking pulfe,
and the diforder of the head increafed ; coldneis of the
extremities, and a tremulous motion of the tongue.
It is obferved to be among the worfl figns when the
patient: complains of blindnefs 5 when he fwallows with
difficulty, or cannot put out his tongue when defired
to do it j when he can lie on his back only, and pulls
up his knees y or when infenfible he endeavours: to
uncover his bread, or makes frequent attempts to get
out of bed without, affigning any reafon. If to any
of thefe are added ichorous, cadaverous, and involun¬
tary itools, it is a fign of a mortification of the bowels
and approaching death. It will not feem Itrange to
find molt of thefe prognoflics common to the advanced
date of other fevers, when we confider, that from
whatever caufe fevers begin, by a long continuance
the humours are corrupted, and the brain and nerves
affe6!ed much in the fame manner as in thofe which
arife from xnfeflion.
Prevention and cure. As diffempers of the putrid
kind never arife without an infedion received from
fome quarter or other, the methods of prevention mufl
evidently be reduced to two general heads. 1. To
avoid receiving the infeftion into the body ; and, 2. To
put the body in fuch a fituation as may enable it to
refill the infedtion when received. On both thefe me¬
thods fcaree any writer hath equalled Dr Lind of Haf-
lar, whofe opinions and directions therefore we fhall
give pretty fully.
As putrid difeafes are very common and violent in
the hot countries, it is very neceffary for Europeans'
who vifit thefe climates to be well informed, in the firft
place, of the figns of an unhealthy country, that they
may be upon their guard as foon as they enter any fo¬
reign region. Thefe figns are by this author enume¬
rated as-follows.
1. A fudden and great alteration in the air, at fun-
fet, from intolerable heat to a chilling cold. This is
perceived as foon as the fun is down, and is for the mofl
part accompanied with a very heavy dew .— it {hows an
unhealthy fwampy foil, the nature of which is fucb,
that no fooner the fun-beams are withdrawn, than the
vapours emitted from it render the air damp, raw, and
chilling, in the mofl fultry climates 5 fo that even un¬
der the equator, in fi>me unhealthy places, the night-
air is very cold to an European conflitution.
2. Thick noifome fogs, chiefly after funfet, arifing
from the vallevs, and particularly from the mud, dime,
or other impurities. In hot countries, the fmell of
thefe
practice.
Febres. thefe fogs may be compared to that of a new-cleaned
c—v”*"* ditch. Difeafes, therefore, arifing from this caufe, ge¬
nerally take place in the night, or before funrifing.
3. Numerous fwarms of flies, gnats, and other in¬
fers which attend ftagnated air and unhealthy places
covered with wood.
4. When all butchers meat foon corrupts, and in a
few hours becomes full of maggots j when metals are
quickly corroded on being expofed to the air $ and
whesc a corpfe becomes intolerably offenlive in lefs than
'fix hours j thefe are proofs of a clofe, hot, and un-
wholefome country. And in fuch places, during ex-
ceflive heats and great calms, it is not altogether un¬
common for Europeans, efpecially fuch as are of a
grofs habit of body, to be feized at once with the moft
alarming and fatal fymptoms of what is called the yel¬
low-fever, without even any previous complaint of fick-
nefs or other fymptoms of the diteafe. There has firft
been perceived an uneafy itching fenlation, commonly
in the legs •, and upon pulling down the llockings,.
ftreams of thin diflblved blood followed, a ghaftly yel¬
low colour quickly diffufed itfelf over the whole body,
and the patient has been carried off in lefs than forty-
eight hours.
5. A fort of Tandy foil, commonly a fmall, loofe,
white faud, as that at Penfacola, Whydah, and the
ifland of Bonavifta, which is found by experience to
be injurious to health. The peftiferous vapour ari-
ling, during the fumraer months and in the heat of
the day, from fuch a Tandy foil, is belt charafterized
by its effefts in the extenlive deferts of Alia and Africa.
It there conllitutes what is called the Samiel-wind; a
blaft which, in the parched defert, proves inftantly
fatal both to man and beafl: 5 but when it paffes over a
foil well covered with grafs and vegetables, has its
effects greatly mitigated ; it is, however, even then,
productive of ficknefs : thus the foutherly winds, while
they blow from the deferts of Libya during the lum-
mer, at Algiers, Tunis, and Tripoli, produce an un¬
healthy feafon ; and at Madras the winds, which, in
the months of April and May, pafs over a large tract
of fand, are always hot, difagreeable, and unwhole-
fome.
During thefe land-winds, fudden gulls of a more
hot and fuffocating nature are often obferved to come
from thefe fands once or twice, or even more frequent¬
ly, in a day, which feem to be this vapour in a purer
form. Thefe gulls pafs very quickly, and affeft per-
fons who happen to Hand with their faces towards
them in the fame manner as the hot air wrhich iffues
from a burning furnace, or from a heated oven, and
obliges them immediately to turn away from it in or-
der to recover breath. The effect of this hot fuffoca¬
ting blall or vapour on the human body, even when
mitigated bv nailing through a moift atmofphere, is
the fame as that of intenfe cold ; it Ihuts up every pore
of the Ikin, and entirely flops the perfpiration of fuch
as are expofed to it. Thefe blafts come only in the day¬
time, and always from the deferts. Water is the only
known eorreftor or antidote again ft them : hence,
coarfe thick cloths, kept conftantlv wet, and hung up
at the windows or doors, greatly mitigate their violence.
A houle To built as to have no windows or doors- to¬
wards the deferts, is an excellent protection again!!
their pernicious effects. The hot land-winds conllantly
277
blow at Madras and other places on the coaft of Corcr- Typhus,
mandel, at that feafon, from midnight till noonthe 1 '*
fea-breezes then begin, which relieve the ditHculty in
breathing, and the obftrutffed perfpiration, which the
former occalioned.
That the heat of thefe land-winds, as alfo of the
fudden gulls which accompany them, proceeds from
large trails of fand heated by the fun, is evident from
the increafed heat and fuffocating quality of thofe
winds, in proportion as the day advances, and as the
heat of the feafon is increafed. The oppofite winds,
blowing from each fide of the Balagate mountains,
are a further proof of this. Thefe mountains run¬
ning from north to fouth, divide the Either Pen-
infula of India into two equal parts, and feparate what
is called the Malabar from the Coromandel coalt. To
the former they are very near, but at a great diftance.
from the latter. The winds blowing from thofe hills
are on the Malabar coalt always remarkably cool y
but on the coaft of Coromandel, in the months of
April, May, June, and July, are extremely hot and
fuffocating, as they pafs over a large tract of inter¬
mediate fand, heated during thofe months by an al-
molt vertical fun. Hence the Malabar coaft is always
covered with an agreeable verdure j whereas the Co¬
romandel coall, during the continuance of thefe hot
winds, feems a barren wildernefs, nothing appearing
green except the trees. On the contrary, the winds
that pafs over thefe fands, after being wet with the
rains, are the coldelt which blotv at Madras. Bottles
of liquor inclofed in bags of coarfe cloth, kept con-,
ftantly wet, and fufpended in the lhade, where thofe.
hot winds may have aecefs to them, become as cold as
if they had been immerfed in a folution of nitre j an
effedt owing undoubtedly to the conllant evaporation
of water from the furface.
It is an obfervation of the natives on the coall of
Coromandel, which is confirmed by the experience of
many Europeans, that the longer the hot land-winds
blow, the healthier are the enftpng months j thefe
winds, as they exprefs it, purifying the air. Are not
the winds therefore the caufe why the air on the coaft
of -Coromandel,. except during their continuance, is.
more healthy than in other parts of India where thefe
winds do not blow ? Does not this alfo fuggeft a very
probable reafon, wfliy the plague in Egypt generally
ceafes in the beginning of June ; the periodical hot
winds which come from the deferts of Nubia and Ethi¬
opia having then rendered the air of Egypt pure and.
wholefome ? Many have aferibed that effect to the
north winds j as the plague not only- ceafes when they
blow, but all infedled goods, houfehold-furniture, and
wearing apparel, are then laid to become entirely free
from the contagion: thefe, however, cannot be the
caufe, as the moft deltrudtive plague is abated in its
violence, if not wholly eradicated, before they fet in.
With equal propriety we may reject the opinion- that
the overflowing of the Nile is productive of that falu-.
tary effeCl, as the plague generally ceafes before the in-
creafe of that river is perceptible.
Thus the plague, the greateft calamity which can
afflict mankind, feems to be. deftroved by thofe hot
winds, which are otberwife fo pernicious to animal
and vegetable life. And although, during the conti¬
nuance ox thcle winds, the moil truitful fields wear
the
M E D I C I N E..
278
M E D
T
JL
Febres.
the afpe6l of a parched defert, yet no fooner the rains
fall, but vegetation is reftored, the plants revive, and a
beautiful verdure is again fpread over the face of the
country.
Having thus given an account of the ligns of an un¬
healthy country, Dr Lind next proceeds to mention
fuch employments as are particularly dangerous to Eu¬
ropeans on their firft arrival. One of thefe is the cut-
ing down of trees, fhrubs, &c. or clearing the ground,
as it is called. Of the unhealthinefs of this employ¬
ment he gives two inftances. At the conclufion of the
late peace, the captain of a fhip of war went on fhore
at the illand of Dominica, with 12 of his men, to cut
down the wood, and to clear a piece of ground which
he intended to have purchafed: but, in a few days,
ficknefs obliged him to deiift from this dangerous
■work ; the captain and 11 of his men being feized
with violent fevers, which terminated in obftinate in-
termittents, and of which feveral died. The furvivors
fuffered fo much in their conftitutions, that, even after
they came to England, the return of an eaft-wind was
apt to bring on a violent fit of the ague. The Lud-
low-Caftle, a Ihip of war of 40 guns, in a voyage to
the coaft of Guinea, rjfo loft 25 of her men at Sierra
Leona, who were employed in cutting down wood for
the fhip. This is an occupation which has often pro¬
ved deftruftive to Europeans in thofe climates, and in
which they ought never to be employed, efpecially du¬
ring the rainy feafon ; there being numberlefs inftan-
ccs of white perfons, when cutting down the woods at
that feafon, who have been taken ill in the morning,
and dead before night.
Another evil, lefs known, and lefs fufpefled, but
no lefs dangerous, is the fending Europeans in open
boats after funfet, where the foil is fwampy, or where
there are great night-fogs. The fingle duty alone of
fetching frefh-killed butchers meat at night for the ufe
of our fhips companies in the Eaft and Weft Indies,
has deftroyed every year feveral thoufand feamen. In
thofe parts of the world, butchers meat muft be brought
on board at night immediately after it is killed, other-
wife it will not be fit for ufe the next day •, but a con-
tracl made with the natives to fend it on board at that
time, which might be done for a trifling fum, would
be the means of preferving many ufeful lives. During
the fickly feafon at Batavia, a boat belonging to the
Medway, which attended on fhore every night, was
three times fucceflively manned, not one having furvi-
ved that fervice. They were all taken ill in the night,
when on fhore, or when returning on board •, fo that
at length the officers were obliged to employ none but
the natives on that bufinefs. Great numbers of men
have perifhed from being employed in this manner at
Bengal, where the European fhips often anchor in the
muft unhealthy fpots of the river *, and even when the
great night-fogs arife, after the rainy feafon, the men
are often obliged to perform fuch night-fervices in
boats. Now fince it is fo dangerous for Europeans in
unhealthy countries, particularly during a feafon of
ficknefs, to be expofed in an open boat to the foggy
night-air, it muft appear that fending them unffiel-
tered, in open boats, far up rivers, in unhealthy
fouthern climates, for the fake of wood, water, trade,
or other purpofes, muft be attended with the moft de-
iiruftive and fatal confequences.
C 5 N E.
Pra6hce,
Burying the dead in fwampy countries is another Typhus,
occupation which has proved fatal to many, and which ''“““r'-J
ought to be entrufted to negroes or the natives of the
country. I he effluvia from the ground when newly
opened, whether from graves or ditches, are far more
dangerous than from the fame fwampy foil when the
furface is undifturbed 5 nay, in fome places, it has been
found almoft certain death for an European to dig a
grave, unlefs long feafoned to the country. In fuch a
place, the attendance of friends at funerals ought to be
difpenfed with.
In all cafes wfflere it is pra&icable, the fhips which
vifit thefe unhealthy countries fhould anchor at as great
a diftance as poffible from fhore ; or if obliged to an¬
chor near marfhy grounds or fwamps, efpecially during
fummer or in hot weather, and when the wind bknvs
direftly from thence, the gun-ports which would ad¬
mit the noxious land-breeze ought to be kept fhut,
efpecially at night. Or if the ftiip rides with her head
to the wind, a thick fail ought to be put upon the
fore-maft, along which the fmoke from the fire-place
might be made conftantly to play and afeend. If the
fail fhould occafion a little fmoke between decks, this
inconvenience wTill be fufficiently compenfated by its
keeping off the diredf ftream of the fwampy fhore efflu¬
via ; which now being obliged to form a curve before
they reach the more diftant parts of the veflfel, muft
needs be greatly diverted and fcattered.
The belt prefervative againft the mifehievous im-
preffions of a putrid fog, or of a marfhy exhalation,
is a clofe, flickered, and covered place; fuch as the
lower apartments in a fhip, or a houfe in which there
are no doors or windows facing the fwamps. If in
fuch places a fire be kept either at the doors and other
inlets to a houfe, or in the cli ambers, as is praftifed
in fome unhealthy countries during the rainy or foggy
feafon, it will prove an excellent and effectual protec¬
tion againft the injuries of a bad air. On board of
fhips alfo fires may be made at the hatchways} and of
the good effefts of this we have the following exam¬
ple. When the Edgar, a fhip of war of 60 guns, was
upon the coaft of Guinea in the year 1768, her men
were very fickly, and many of them died : however it
was obferved, that in a floop of war, which was con¬
ftantly in company with her, few were taken ill, and
not one died during the whole voyage. This could be
aferibed to no other caufe, but that in the floop the
fire-place for cooking viftuals was on the fame level
with the deck where the men lay 5 and every morning
when the fire was lighted, efpecially when there was
but little wund, the fmoke from the cook-room fpread
itfelf all over the ftiip, and particularly over thofe parts
where the men lay ; but from the conftruftion of the
fire-place of the Edgar, no fmoke from it ever came
between her decks.
Perfons on board any fhip whatever, are much more
fafe, and their fituation is much preferable to that of
thofe who make diftant inland excurfions in fmall
boats upon the rivers, and who are for the moft jfart
ignorant of the caufe of thofe maladies which deftroy
them. The intolerable heat at noon often obliges
fuch perfons to go in a manner half naked ; while a
free and plentiful perfpiration iffues from every pore.
A near approach to putrid fwamps at this time is apt
to produce an immediate ficknefs, vomiting, and
aftcrwrards
Pradice. M E D I
Febres. afterwards a low nervous or malignant fever. If
they happen to pafs them at night, or lie near them
in an open boat, the air from thofe fwamps is per¬
ceived to be quite chill and cold ; in fo much that
warm thick clothing becomes abfolutely requilite to
guard the body again ft the impreflions of fo great an
alteration in the air, and againft its cold and incle¬
ment quality : for the effects of it then, even on the
moft healthy and vigorous conftitution, is frequently a
chilling cold fit of an ague, terminating in a fever
with delirium, bilious vomitings, and purging, or even
death itfelf.
Where fuch expofure becomes unavoidable, the only
method is to defend the body as much as poflible againft
the pernicious miafmata with which the air abounds.—
All thofe who are employed in cutting down woods, or
in other laborious and dangerous fervices in hot climates,
during the heat of the day, ought to have their heads
covered with a bladder dipt in vinegar, and to wafti
their mouths often with the fame liquor; never to fvval-
low their fpittle, but rather to chew a little rhubarb or
feme other bitter, and fpit it out frequently ; to flop
their noftrils with a fmall bit of linen or tow dipped in
camphorated vinegar ; and to infufe fome Peruvian bark,
garlic, and rhubarb, in brandy, of which a dram is to
be taken, either by itfelf or diluted with water, morning
and evening.
In the evening before funfet they fttould leave off
work, and not return to their labour in the morning
till the fun has difperfed the unwholefome deAVs and
vapours. Thofe who muft of neceflxty remain on fhore,
and fleep in dangerous places, fhould take care not to
fieep upon the ground expofed to the dews, but in
hammocks in a clofe tent, ftanding upon a dry fand,
gravel, or chalk, near the fea Ihore, and where there is
no fubterraneous water for at leaft four feet below the
furface of the ground. The door of this tent fhould
be made to bpen towards the fea ; and the back part
of it, which receives the land breeze, muft be well
fecured by double canvas, or covered with branches
of trees. But in fuch circumftances, a hut, when it
can be procured, is preferable to a tent, efpecially if
it be well thatched, fo as to prove a defence both
againft the exceflive heat of the fun by day, and the
noxious dews which fall at night. Here the men may
be enjoined to fmoke tobacco. When the air is
thick, moift, and chill, the earth being overfpread
with cold dew, a conftant fire muft be kept in and
about the tent or hut, as the moft excellent means of
purifying fuch unwholefome air, and of prelerving the
health of thofe who either fleeping or waking are ex¬
pofed to its influence. The centinels who guard the
water-calks, ought likewife at fuch a time to have a
fire burning near them. All old and forfaken habi¬
tations, natural caves and grottos in the earth, where
the men may be induced to take up their abode, muft
before their admiffion be perfe&ly dried and purified
with fufficient fires. Fire and fmoke are undoubtedly
the great purifiers of all tainted and unwholefome air,.
and the moft excellent prefervatives againft its noxious
influence. It is the cuftom of the negroes in Guinea,
and alfo of fome Indians (who both fleep for the moft
part on the ground), to have a fire, producing a little
fmoke, conftantly burning in their huts where they
Deep. This not only corredls the moifture of the
CINE.
night, but alfo, by occafioning more fmoke than heat,
renders the damp from the earth lefs noxious; of which
Dr Lind gives the following remarkable inftance.
A Guinea fhip being up one of the rivers for the fake
of trade, it was found to be very dangerous to fleep
on fhore: w'ithout which their trade could not be fb
conveniently carried on. Firft the captain, then the
mate, and two or three of the feamen, were taken ill;
each of them the morning after they had lain on Ihore.
By thefe accidents the men were greatly intimidated
from lying alhore ; till the furgeon boldly offered to
try the experiment on himfelf. Next morning when
he waked, he found himfelf feized, as the reft, with a
giddinefs and pain in the head. He immediately
acquainted one of the negroes with his condition, who
carried him to his hut, and fet him down in the fmoke
of it; when his fhiverings and giddinefs foon left him.
He then took a dram of the bark bitter ; and found
himfelf greatly relieved, efpecially by breathing fome
time in the fmoke.—Thus inftrubled by the negro ho
ordered a large fire to dry the hut he flept in ; and
afterwards had every night a fmall fire fufficient to
raife a gentle fmoke without occafioning a trouble-
fome heat: and by this means he and feveral others,
ufing the fame precautions, flept many nights on Ihore
without any inconvenience.
Fire and fmoke indeed are found to be certain cor-
re&ors, or rather deftroyers, of infection in all cafes,
whether arifing from the noxious effluvia of marflies,
or from the contagion of difeafed bodies. Even thofe
moft extraordinary and fatal damps called harmattans,
are unable to refift the falutary effebls of fmoke. In
other cafes, Dr Lind remarks, that, under fome cir¬
cumftances, the fource of an infe&ion in a fick cham¬
ber, or any other place, may be removed or deftroyed
by accidental means, for which we cannot account,
and which we often cannot afeertain. But it oftener
happens, that it is very difficultly rooted out; and
that exa£l cleanlinefs, with the benefit of a pure air,
often proves infufficient to remove the evil. Smoke,
however, has never been knoxvn to fail. It is not to
be doubted, that, excepting the true plague, there
has been an infeftion fully as peftilential and as mortal
in fome fhips as in any other place whatever ; yet
it has never been heard, that any fhip, after having
been carefully fmoked, did not immediately become
healthy : and if afterwards they turned fickly, it was
eafy to trace that ficknefs from other infefted fhips,
jails, and the like places.
There are three methods praclifed for purifying
veffels after the men have been removed out of them.
The firft is by burning of tobacco. A quantity of
tobacco is fpread on feveral fires, made with fuch old
pieces of rope as are called junk. Thefe are difperfed
into different places of the fliip, and their heat and
fmoke afterwards clofely confined below for a confide-
rable time.—The fecond method is by charcoal fires
ftrewed with brimftone. The heat and fleam of thefe
burning materials muft alfo be long and clofe fhut up :
but, although this fume, properly applied, has been
found by experience to purify moft effe&ually tainted
apartments, fhips, clothes, &c. yet there are fome kinds
of vermin which it will not deftroy, particularly lice.
The third method of purification is performed by the
addition of arfenic to the materials of the fecond pro-
ccft,
279
Typhus.
aP.o . M E D I
1- ebres. ccfs, in tlie following manner. After carefully flop-
' v~ ping up all the openings and every i'mall crevice of the
ihip (as was alio neceilary in the preccdiiig procefles),
a number of iron pots, properly fecured, are to be pla¬
ced in the /io/Jy or/ope, gun-deck, &c. Each of thefe
.is to contain a layer of charcoal at the bottom, then
.a layer of brimltone, and fo alternately three or four
layers of each, upon which the arfenic is to be fprink-
led, and on the top of it fome oakum dipped in tar is
to be laid to ferve as a match. The men, upon fet-
• ting fire to the oakum, muft fpeedily leave the place,
.{hutting clofe the hatchway by which they came up.
From the known and experienced efficacy of thefe
proceiles, it appears, that fire and finoke are powerful
agents for annihilating infeefion *, and, it may beprefum-
ed, even the plague itfelf. This is in fome meafure
agreeable to what we learn from the ancient records of
phyfic. But the prepofterous ufe, or rather abufe, of
fire on fuch occafions, has caufed its effedls to be dif-
regarded by fome, and to be fufpefted of mifehief by
-others. The modern pradlice of burning large fires in
the open air, in the ftreets, .and about the walls of
towns infefled with the plague or other contagion, is
founded on principles groundlefs and erroneous ; and
has therefore been found by experience not only unfuc-
cefsful, but hurtful. But though this mult be allowed,
it does not thence by any means follow, that when once
a houfe has been infefled, and the patients removed
from it, the doors and windows at the fame time being
ffiut, that fuch fires will then prove hurtful; or that, by
this method of purification, all the feeds of contagion
.may not be effe&ually deftroyed, Whenever, therefore,
perfons die of a fpotted fever, a malignant fore throat,
the fmall pox, or any diftemper found to be communica¬
ble from the fick to the found, the corpfe ought quickly
after death to be removed into- another room \ that in
which the perfon died ffiould be well aired, by having
dhe window’s opened, till a charcoal fire be kindled, w ith
fome rolls of fulphur upon it; after which, both doors
and windows ihould be kept (hut for a confiderable time,
not lefs than eight or ten hours, till the room be
thoroughly fmoked. In feveral (hips, where there are
the faireft opportunities of trying and judging things of
this nature, the contagion of the fmall-pox has been
entirely (lopped by wood-fires, fprinkled witli brimflone,
kept burning and clofely confined in the infected place.
In a word, a judicious and proper application of fire and
fmoke is a powerful agent for the deftruftion and utter
extinction of the moil malignant fources of difeafe ; and
they are befides great purifiers of all bad and tainted
air.
Next to the fmoke of wood for purifying a tainted
air, that of gun-powder is to be efteemed the bed ; and
it has this further good property, that it is entirely in-
offenfive to the lungs. The cafcarilla bark, when burn¬
ing. gives a mod agreeable feent to the chamber of the
lick thus it is at lead an elegant prefervative, and may
prevent bad fmells from taking t ffeCl. The deam of
camphorated vinegar, warmed, is dill more powerful for
this purpofe. But, befides correcting the ill quality
of the air, and purifying the chamber, another good
effeCl is produced from fuch Beams and fmoke as are
inoffenfive to the lungs.. As foon as the vapour be¬
comes denfe. the nurfes and patients become defirous
of the admidion of frefh air by the doors or windows.
cine. . praaice
Now’ it is certain, that the air in the chambers of the Typhus
fick cannot be too often changed, ..provided the patient —“V'-.
be well covered, and the curtains of his bed, if necef-
fary, be drawn clofe. No argument is fo forcible to
obviate the danger of foul air in a room or ward (oc-
cafioned by the obdinacy of nurfes and relations), as or¬
dering it to be frequently fumigated or fmoked : A
practice -more frequent in other countries than in this,
but of great benefit to the fick.
Lailly, with regard to the method of purifying
goods, moveables, clothes, ike. which are fuppofed to
harbour infedlion, it mud be obferved, that the ulual
cudom of only unpacking and expoling fueh materials
to the open air, is in many in dances infufficient to de^
droy the latent feeds of difeafe. It is certain indeed,
that in mod cafes the contagious particles are more
readily and fatally communicated from the clothes of
fick perfon than from his body. The fpreading a-
ffiroad, therefore, of contaminated clothes to-dry or to
be aired, -without a previous fumigation of them, may
be of dangerous and fatal confequence. All fueh fof-
pefted fubllances (hould be fird fumigated in a clofe
place, and in the-fame manner as an inieCled chamber,
after which they may be fpread abroad and expofed to
the air. In infeClious difeafes, efpecially fevers, the
linen of the fick, or fuch clothes about them as will
admit of being wadied, ought never at fird to be put
in warm water, as it is dangerous to receive the deam
that may hence arife. It is neceffary to deep them
fird either in cold water or in cold leap-lees-for leveral
hours, that the filth may be waffied off.
But although the dedru£lion of contagion by fmoke
is unquellionably a very important practice, yet it cannot
now’ be faid, that it is the mod powerful agent for this
purpofe. By the ingenious obfervations and experiments
of M. Morveau in-France, and of Dr Smyth Carmichael
in England, it is now afeertamed, that we poffels dill
more powerful means of dedroying contagions, -either
in the muriatic or nitrous acid gas. The former may
eafily be detached from common foa fait, and the latter
from nitre, by means of the fulphuric acid. Rooms
mav, with the utmod fafety and eafe, be filled with
Thefe fumes, although the fick be not removed from
them. But for difinfeflmg a room, ward, or dup,
•when empty, the mod powerful article yet difeovered
is the oxygenated muriatic acid gas, detached from a
mixture of manganefe and fea fait, by means of the
fulphuric acid.
We mull now proceed to give an account of the me¬
thod of cure, after thefe means of preventing the in-
feflion from being received into the body have either
been negledled or proved ineffectual. Here it is of the
utmod importance to take the difeafe in the very
beginning, before it has time to corrupt the duids to
.fuch a degree as to endanger life. In dight de¬
grees of infeftion, a vomit properly adminidered, e-
’fpecially if fucceeded by a blider, never fails to re¬
move the diforder, and prevent the fever which would
otherwife unavoidably follow. Of this Dr Lind
gives tlie following indances. A lady affliCied with
the bilious cholic, had intolerably fetid difeharges of
corrupted matters upwards and downwards. A gentle¬
woman, only in pading the room, was immediately
feized with a retching and ficknefs, which continued
24 hours. The nurfe who attended was fuddenly fei-
Practice. MEDICINE. 281
Febres. zed with a giddinefs and vomiting from the bad fmell,
- v J which, as (he expreffed it, reached into her ftomach.
The vomiting became more fevere at night, accompa¬
nied with a purging and frequent fluverings. By-
means of an emetic both evacuations were itopped :
notwithftanding which, for fome days afterwards, fne
continued to have frequent tremors, and a violent head-
aeh, with a low irregular pulfe ; and did not recover
fo foon as the patient.
Such flight degrees of infe&ion have been often ob-
ferved to be derived from patients of a grofs habit of
body when labouring under inflammatory diftempers,
and even other complaints. A man was fent to Haf-
lar Hofpital, fuppofed to have a fever. He was fu-
rioufly delirious, with a quick full pulfe. Notwith¬
ftanding plentiful evacuations, this delirium continued
for two months with fhort intervals : when the cafe
was found to be plainly maniacal. A nurfe, upon rai¬
ling this perfon up in her arms, perceived an intole¬
rably bad fmall, and was inftantly feized with fliiver-
ings, ficknefs, and headach. Finding herfelf very ill,
lire took a vomit in fix hours afterwards, and paffed the
night in profufe fweats by" means of a fudorific draught.
Next morning the violence of the headach was but
little abated ; upon every attempt to move, fhe com¬
plained of a burning heat and pain in her forehead,
and became giddy. Her inclination to drink was fre¬
quent, and her pulfe low and quick. A blifter was im¬
mediately applied to the back •, as foon as the blifter
took effeft, the headach and thirft entirely left her,
and the pulfe was calm. Next day ftie arofe and was
well.
Many fimilar inftances of inflexion have been obfer-
ved from putting the dead into their coffins. In par¬
ticular, one man, from performing that duty to
his meflmate, was fo ill, even after the operation of the
Vomit, as to require a blifter. In the courfe of one
"week two nurfes were infefted by a perfon in the fmall-
pox. Both were feized in like manner with fhiverings,
ficknefs, and headach ; the one upon receiving the
patient’s breath, the other upon making his bed. In
one, a pain darted into her breaft ; in the other, into
the breaft and in the fmall of the back. The com¬
plaints of the former were fpeedily removed by a vo¬
mit, though ffie continued to have irregular returns of
fhiverings for three days afterwards. But in the latter,
though the headach, ficknefs, and rigors, were great¬
ly abated by the vomit, yet a conftant heat and thirft,
with a low pulfe, and a violent pain in the breaft, in¬
dicated the neceffity of apolying a blifter to the affedt-
ed parts, which next morning removed all her com¬
plaints.
A perfon is often immediately fenfible of his having
received infection from the firft attack : they gene¬
rally compare the firft impreffion to an earthy difa-
greeable fmell, reaching down, as they exprefs it, into
their ftomach, as from a grave newly opened, but not
quite fo raw as the cadaverous ftench ; and the effedts
of it, ffiivering and ficknefs, are inftantaneous. It is
a fmell difficult to deferibe; but it is well known to the
nurfes and attendants about the fick, as it ufually ac¬
companies fevers of extreme malignity, and, with the
peculiar difcharges from the bliftered parts, may be
reckoned among the moft conftant fymptoms of a bad
fever. Some compare the fmell to that of rotten ftraw.
Vol. XIII. Part I.
It often refembles the difagreeable fmell of a perfon Typhus,
labouring under the confluent fmallpox at their turn, -v—
though not fo ftrong. One perfon, on receiving the in¬
fection, was fenfible of fomething like an eledrric ffiock
through his body. But many are not fenfible of any
effedt from infedtion at firft; and an infedlion from
a fever will fometimes continue for many days, nay
weeks, difcovering itfclf chiefly by irregular ffiiverings,
fometimes fo fevere as to, oblige the patients to have
recourfe to their beds once or twice a-day ; fometimes
every other day. Among a number thus affedted, it
alfo appears, that fuch as are put into unfeafoned cham¬
bers, or have fat down on the cold ground, lain in raw
damp apartments, &c. are immediately feized with a
ficknefs at ftomach, fometimes with a dangerous pur¬
ging, and often with fevers accompanied with bad fymp¬
toms, which others have entirely efcaped.
It now remains to confider the proper method of
curing putrid fevers, on the fuppofition that the infec¬
tion has been allowed to operate till the blood becomes
radically tainted, and of confequence the nervous fyftem
affedlt d to fuch a degree, that its power cannot be re-
ftored by any of the fimple pradtices above mentioned.
Here all authors agree, that a change of air, when it
can be effedled, is highly advantageous, and often con¬
tributes more towards the removing the difeafe than
all the medicines that can be exhibited. The utility of
this change will appear from what has been formerly
faid } and we fliall only further mention one inftance
from Dr Lind, in which the effedfs of bad air appear
to a degree almoft incredible. “ It is remarkable flays
he), that, in the laft war, the Englifti ffiips which touch¬
ed at Batavia fuffered more by the malignant and fatal
difeafes of that climate, than they did in any other part
of India, if we except a fatal feurvy which once raged in
that fleet at fea. Soon after the capture of Manilla, the
Falmouth, a ffiip of 50 guns, went to Batavia, where ihe
remained from the latter end of July to the latter end of
January ; during which time Ihe buried 100 foldiers of
the 79th regiment, and 75 of the ffiip’s company 5 not
one perfon in the ffiip having efcaped a fit of ficknefs, ex¬
cept her commander Captain Brereton. The Panther, a
fliip of 60 guns, was there in the years 1762 and 1764;
and both times during the rainy feafon. In the former
of thefe years, ffie buried 70 of her men ; and 92 of
them were very ill when ffie left the place. In the
year 1764, during a ftiort ftay, 25 of her men died.
The Medway, which was in company with her, loft
alfo a great number of men. Nor was the ficknefs at
that time confined to the ftiips : the whole city afford¬
ed a feene of difeafe and death : ftreets crowded w ith
funerals, bells tolling from morning to night, and horfes
jaded with dragging the dead in herfes to their graves.
At that time a flight cut of the Ikin, the leaft fcratch
of a nail, or the moft inconfiderable wound, turned
quickly to a fpreading putrid ulcer, which in 24 hours
confumed the flefli even to the bone. This fad is fo
extraordinary, that upon a Angle teftimony, credit would
hardly be given to it; yet on board the Medw'ay and
Panther they had the moft fatal experience of it, and
fuffered much from it.”
But where a change of air is impradieable or in-
effedual, and where the fever has already made fome
progrefs, Sir John Pringle generally took away fome
blood if the pulfe was full. When the fymptoms run
N n high,
282
Febres. Ingli, a plentiful evacuation of that kind feemed indi-
v cated } yet it was obferved, that large bleedings gene¬
rally did harm, by finking the pulfe, and affecting the
head. Nor was a moderate bleeding to be repeated
without caution •, even thofe whofe blood was fizv, un-
lefs their lungs were inflamed, were tile worfe for a fe-
cond bleeding. If the head only fuffered, it was much
fafer to ufe leeches than to open a vein in the arm )
but in the delirium with a funk pulfe, even leeches were
hurtful. Many recovered without letting blood, but
few who loft much of it.
Emetics alfo muft be ufed with caution ; for though
they may be of fervice by way of prevention, yet in the
advanced date of the difeafe, when the patient has all
along complained of a ficknefs at ftomach, they are
evidently unfafe. Elere the antifeptic quality of fixed
air is of much ufe, and the neutral draughts given in
the a£t of eflfervefcence are generally attended with
happy elfefts. Nay, clyfters of fixed" air itfelf have
been found very ferviceable. Even in very bad ftages
of the diftemper, where a putrid and colliquative loofe-
nefs has taken place, clyfters of fixed air have been
known to alleviate the fymptoms. We muft not,
howrever, put too much confidence in medicines of
this kind. Mild tonic cordials, efpecially wine and
cinchona, are the only refources in thefe diforders.
Concerning the former, Sir John Pringle obferves,
in the low ftate of thefe fevers, and in great fink-
ings, which either come after unfeafonable bleedings
or long want of nouriihment, it wTas a moft grateful
and efficacious cordial, to which nothing was compa¬
rable. The common men had an allowance, from a
quarter to half a pint in a day, of a ftrong kind made
into whey, or added to the panada which was their or¬
dinary food. But to others out of the hofpital, he
ufually prefcribed Rhenith or a fmall French wine,
whereof fome confumed near a quart per day, and part
of that undiluted. Nay, fo great was the virtue of
wine in this ftage of the fever, that feveral were known
to recover from the lowreft condition, when, refufing the
bark on account of its tafte, they took nothing but a
little panada with wine, and a volatile diaphoretic mix¬
ture, every two or three hours by turns. Perhaps there
is no rule more neceffary in this ftate, than not to let
the patient when low remain long without taking fome-
thing cordial and nourifhing •, as many have been ob¬
ferved part recovery, by being fuffered to pafs a whole
night without any fupport about the time of the crifis.
In the advanced ftate of this fever the fick are remark¬
ably low •, and therefore Hoffman advifes in fuch cafes,
that they fhould be conftantly kept in bed, and not per¬
mitted even to fit up in it. In the laft ftage of this
fever, as well as in that of the fea-feurvy, it would feem
that the force of the heart was too fmall to convey the
blood to the brain, except when the body is in a hori¬
zontal pofture.
But, however neceffary wine and cinchona may be
in the low ftage of this fever, we muft remember, that
thefe remedies are to be adminiftered only as antifep-
tics and fupporters of the vis vitce, w ithout aiming at
thoroughly raifing the pulfe or relieving the head, or at
forcing a fweat bv them, before nature points that way,
and which Sir John Pringle feldom obferved before the
14th dav.
In the low ftate of the hofpital fever, a ftupor was a
Pradice.
conftant attendant, which was very apt, in the evening, Typhus,
to change to a flight delirium. If this was all, nothing v-—'
was done. But if the delirium increaled upon ufing
wine, if the eyes looked w ild, or the voice became
quick, there was reafon to apprehend a phrenitis j and
accordingly it was obferved, that at fuch times all in¬
ternal heating medicines aggravated the fymptoms 5 and
in thefe cafes, blitters were of the greateit fervice. Fo¬
mentations of vinegar and warm water for the feet.
Sir John Pringle is of opinion, would anfwer better than
either finapiims or blitters, provided they were long
enough and often enough applied. In the inflamma¬
tory fevers, he has known thefe fomentations have lit¬
tle effe£t for the firft hour, and yet tucceed afterwards.
For internal medicine, cinchona was omitted for fome
time, but the patient was continued with an acidulated
drink, viz. barley-water and vinegar j and treated alfo
with camphire, pulvis contrayervee compojitus, and nitre,
as wras ulual in the beginning of the fever. If the de¬
lirium was of the low kind, a decoflion of cinchona
and wune were the only remedies 5 for in no infiance
wras the delirium perfeflly removed till the time of the
crifis. It muff alfo be'obferved, that a delirium may
arife in putrid fevers from two oppofite errors ; one
from large and repeated bleedings, and the other from
wine and the cordial medicines being taken too early.
It appears, therefore, how nice the principles are that
regard the cure } as neither a hot nor a cool regimen
Avill anfwer with every patient, or in every ftate of the
difeafe.
If a diarrhoea came on in the decline of the fever, it
was moderated, but not fupprefled, by adding an opiate
to the ufual medicines. For though the loofenefs may
be confidered as critical •, yet as the fick were too low
to bear evacuations, there was a neceflity for reftrain-
ing it in fome meafure ■, and it has often been obfer¬
ved, that when it has been treated in this manner, about
the ufual time of the crifis, the patient has fallen in¬
to a gentle fweat, which has carried off the difeafe.
In the worft cafes of this fever, and efpecially when
it coincides with the dyfentery, the ftools are frequent¬
ly bloody ; in which dangerous ftate, if any thing
could be done, it was attempted by medicines of the
fame kind. In proportion to the putrid nature of the,
ftools, opiates and aftringents. were ufed with the greater-
caution. #
If the difeafe terminate in a fuppuration upon one of
the parotid glands, the abfeefs wras opened without
waiting for a fluctuation, which might never happen j the
pus being often here fo vifeid, that after it was ripe *
the part felt nearly as hard as if the fuppuration had
not begun.
Almoft every patient, after the fever, complained
of want of reft, frequently of a vertigo or confufion
of the head, of a continuation of the deafnefs, or of
other fymptoms commonly called nervous. An opi¬
ate was then given at night ^ and in the day fome
ftrenalhening medicines, fuch as cinchona and the ful-
phurfc acid. ‘ In thefe cafes, the bark was found not only
to be the beft ftrengthener, but the fureft preservative
againft a return of the difeafe. For this laft intention
the convalefcent was ordered about three drams a-day
for fix or feven days together ; and afterwards, if
he remained longer in the hofpital, fome fmaller quan¬
tity daily. But if there was any appearance of a hec-
MEDICINE.
Pra&ice. M E D I
Febrcs. tic fever from an inward abfcefs, the cafe was treated
accordingly. Upon comparing fome of the remaining
fymptoms of thofe who recovered, with the condition
of the brain in thofe who died and were opened, Sir
John Pringle was induced to think, that fome part even
of that fubftance might fuppurate, and yet the perfon
recover.
Sometimes the patient falls into an irregular inter-
termittent which, if not of a heftic nature from an in¬
ternal abfcefs, may proceed from negledting to clear the
primce vie. For it is eafy to conceive, that after a long
fever of fuch a putrid natute, often attended with lan¬
guor of the bowels, the faeces may be fo much accumu¬
lated, and fo corrupted, as to occafion new diforders.
In fuch cafes, after proper evacuation by a purge, cin¬
chona was almoft an infallible remedy.
The Yellow FEVER.
Typhus cum flavedine cutis.
Typhus idleroides, Sauv. fp. 7.
167 Febris Jlava Indue Occidentalism Warren. Malignant
Fever of Barbadoes, Hillanfs Difeafes of Bar-
badoes. Lining on the Yellow Fever of South
Carolina, Edin. Phyf. and Liter. Elfays, vol. ii.
AT Kit trick de Febre Flava Indiae Occidentalis,
Edin. 1766.
Dcfcription. This is one of the moft fatal difeafes
to which the inhabitants of warm climates are fubjedf,
and is the fame with that called, from one of its worft
fymptoms, the black vomit, which is fo terribly deftruc-
tive in fome of the w’arm parts of America, particularly
at Carthagena •, and which of late has proved fo fatal
in Philadelphia, New York, and the Britilh Well In¬
dia illands, as defcribed by Drs Rufh, Chilholm, Clerk,
and other late writers. This, though by fome con-
fidered as a new difeafe, is evidently from the fame con¬
tagion which has produced fatal fevers on many former
occafions. \
The yellow or putrid bilious fever has been in parti-
eular minutely defcribed by Dr Hillary. It moft com¬
monly feizes the patient at firft with a faintnefs, then
with a fieknefs at ftomach, accompanied in general with
a giddinefs of the head 5 and foon after with a flight
chilnefs and horror, very rarely with a rigor. Thefe
fymptoms are foon followed by a violent heat and high
fever, attended with acute darting pains in the head and
back. A fluthing in the face, with an inflamed red-
nefs and a burning heat in the eyes, great anxiety and
oppreflion about the praecordia, are the pathognomonic
ftgns of the diftemper, efpecially when attended with
fieknefs at ftomach, violent retchings, and bilious yel¬
low vomitings, with frequent fighing. The pulfe is
now generally very quick, high, foft, and fometimes
throbbing, but never hard : in fome- it is very quick,
foft, low, and oppreffed •, the refpiration quick, full, and
fomctimes difficult j the fkin very hot, and fometimes
dry, though more frequently moift. Blood taken from
the patient, even at the very beginning of the difeafe, is
often of an exceeding florid red colour, without the leaft
appearance of fize *, and the craffamentum, when it has
flood till it is cold, will fcarce cohere, but fluctuates $
the ferum is often yellow.
Moft of the above-mentioned fymptoms continually
increafe, and are much aggravated : the retching and
vomiting become almoft inceffant $ the anxiety great,
CINE.
and fighing frequent; great reftlefTnefs ; continual tof- Typl
fmg 5 no eafe in any pofture 5 little fleep, and that dif- ~v
turbed and uneafy, and without any refreftiment to the
lick. When they are fainting, they turn yellow about
the face and neck, inftead of turning pale ; and as the
fainting goes off, they recover their natural colour.
Thefe fymptoms generally continue to the third day,
though fometimes not longer than the firft or fecond j
in others to the end of the fourth : the firft (hows the
greater diffolution of the blood, and the greater malig¬
nity of the difeafe ; the laft, the contrary ; which the
improper manner of treating the difeafe fometimes haf-
tens and increafes, or the proper method retards. This
may be called the firft ftadium of the difeafe, and gene¬
rally ends on the third day.
Blood taken from the lick on the fecond or third day,
is much more diffolved, the ferum more yellow, and the
craffamentum florid, loofe, fcarcely cohering, but undu¬
lates like fizy water when ftiaken, and fometimes has
dark blackilh fpots on its furface, (bowing a ftrong gan-
grenefeent diathefis.
About the third day, the pulfe, which was quick
and full before, now generally finks greatly, and be¬
comes very low : though fometimes it remains very
quick, yet in others it is not much quicker than when
the patient wras in health, but is always low ; the vo¬
miting becomes almoft incefl'ant if not fo before, and
the matter thrown up is black *, the patient then be¬
comes comatofe, with interrupted delirium. The third
in fome is very great, in others but little 5 the pulfe
ftill low and quick, attended with cold clammy fweats,
and fometimes with deliquium. The eyes, which wrere
inflamed and red before, and began to be of a more
dufkifti colour, now turn yellow ; and this yellownefs
alfo foon after appears round the mouth, eyes, temples,
and neck, and in a (hort time diffufes itfelf all over the
body. But this yellownefs is fo far from being always
an encouraging prognoftic, as fome would have it, that
it moft commonly proves a mortal fymptom. Some¬
times indeed, though feldom, this fuffufion of bile upon
the furface has proved critical •, but then it did not
come on till the eighth or ninth day, nor appear till the
coma and all the other bad fymptoms began to abate ;
and then in proportion as the yellownefs increafes, all
the bad fymptoms decreafe. But the cafe is moft com¬
monly quite the reverfe $ efpecially when the yellow¬
nefs comes foon on : and then it uftiers in the moft
fatal fymptoms of the difeafe, viz. a deep coma, a low,
vermicular, and intermitting pulfe, great haemorrhages
from various parts of the body, a delirium with labori¬
ous and interrupted refpiration, great anxiety, deep figh¬
ing, reftleffnefs, a fubfultus tendinum, coldnefs of the
extreme parts firft, and then all over the body, a falter¬
ing of the fpeech, tremors, and convulfions, which are
foon after followed by death. So that from the firft
appearance of the yellownefs we may fay the patient is
in the laft ftage of the difeafe, whether it terminates in
death or recovery.
It has been obferved, that, in fome ftrong fanguine
conftitutions, when the patients have not been bled to
a fufficient quantity in the beginning of the difeafe,
the pulfe has continued full, ftrong, and rapid, but ne¬
ver hard ; the face flufhed, eyes inflamed } the tongue
dry, with great third and heat, till the fecond or
laft ftage of the fever is come on, w'hen the pulfe has
N n 2 fuddenly
M E D I
fuddenly funk, and death foon after enfued. Yet in
others, who feemed to be of a plethoric habit, the
tongue has been moift all along, though they have
been delirious moll of the time, and the heat of their
{kin and the ftrength and quicknefs of their pulfe have
continued, after the firft llage of the difeafe was over,
pretty near to that of their natural Irate in health, till
within a few hours of death •, and when they have had
a coma on them, one who is not well acquainted with
the nature of this difeafe would, from the pulfe, heat,
breathing, and other fymptoms, have taken them to be
in a natural deep. Others, when the pulfe has begun
to fink, and the fatal period feemed to be juit approach¬
ing, to the great furprife of all prefent have recovered
their fenfes, fat up and talked pretty cheerfully for an
hour or two, and in the midlt of this feeming fecurity
have been fuddenly feized with convulfions which car¬
ried them off immediately.
In the latter llage of this fever, the blood is fo atte¬
nuated and diffolved, that we frequently fee it flowing
not only out of the nofe and mouth, but from the
eyes, and even through the pores of the {kin ; great
quantities alfo of black, half-baked, or half-mortified
blood, are frequently voided both by vomiting and by
ftool, with great quantities of yellow and blackiih pu¬
trid bile by the fame paflages; and the urine, which was
before of a high icteritious colour, is now almoft black,
and is frequently mixed with a confiderable quantity
of half-diilblved blood. The pulfe, which vms much
funk before, now becomes very low, unequal, and in¬
termitting ; the breathing difficult and laborious } and
the anxiety inexpreffible 5 an oppreffion with a burn¬
ing heat about the praecordia comes on, though the ex¬
tremities are cold, and often covered with cold clam¬
my fweats ; a conftant delirium follows ; and then a
total lofs of the outward fenfes as Well as the judgment,
with livid fpots in many parts of the body, efpecially
about the praecordia •, and fometimes gangrenes in other
parts of the body, which are very foon fucceeded by
death.
In a fhort time after death, the body appears much
more full of livid, large, mortified fpots, particularly
about the praecordia and hypochondres, efpecially the
right 5 which parts feem, even from the firit feizure, to
be the principal feat of this terrible difeafe * and, upon
opening the bodies of thofe who die of it, we generally
find the gall-bladder and biliary du£ts turgid, and filled
with a putrid blackifh bile ; and the liver, ftomach,
and adjoining parts, full of livid or blaekifh mor¬
tified fpots } and the whole corpfe foon putrefies
after death, and can be kept but a few hours above
ground.
Dr Lind is of opinion, that the remarkable diflblu-
tion of the blood, the violent hamrorrhages, black vo¬
mit, and the other fymptoms which characterize the
yellow fever, are only accidental appearances in the
common fever of the Weft Indies } that they are to be
efteemed merely as adventitious, in the fame manner
as purple fpots and bloody urine are in the fmallpox,
or as an hiccough in the dyfentery : like thefe they only
appear when the difeafe is attended with a high de¬
gree of malignity, and therefore always indicate great
danger. This opinion, he thinks, is confirmed by an
obfervation of Dr Wind’s, that in 17 5° t^ie crew
a Dutch Ihip of war tvere diftreffed by the yellow fe-
• 3
CINE. Pradice.
ver, accompanied w ith the black vomit j but when the Typhus,
{hip left the harbour, and changed the noxious land air j
for one more healthy, theiever continued, but was not
accompanied with the black vomit.
Difeafes fimilar to this fever, Dr Lind informs us,
may arife in any part of the world w here the air is in-
tenfely hot and unwholefome 5 and therefore he treats
as chimerical the notion of its being imported from one
part of the w orld to another. An example of this hap¬
pened at Cadiz in Spain, in the months of September
and OCtober 1764, when exceflive heat, and want of
rain for fome months, gave rife to violent, epidemic,
bilious diforders, refembling thofe of the Weft Indies,
of which 100 perfons often died in a day. At this time
the winds blew principally from the fouth, and after
funfet there fell an unufual and very heavy dew. But
his opinion on this fubjeCt is liable to firong objections.
And however the dileafe may originate, yet the late
introduction of it from Spain into the fortrefs of Gibral¬
tar, from which, by proper attention, it had been ex¬
cluded in former epidemics, demonftrates the contagious
nature of this fever beyond all poffibility of doubt.
It has been a matter of much difpute, whether the
yellow fever is of an infeCtious nature or not. Some
time ago it became an objeCt of confideration before
the Right Hon. the Lords Commiflioners of Trade and
Plantations, w here it was urged among other reafons,
for not removing the feat of government and juifice in
the ifland of Jamaica from Spanifti Town to Kingfton,
that there was danger from Greenwich hofpital, fituat-
ed near Kingfton, of an infeCtion from the yellow fever
being frequently communicated to that town. On this
affair a phyfician w'as confulted, w'ho had long praCtifed
in that ifland, and who gave it as his opinion, that from
the yellow fever in that ifland there was no infeCtion.
This was the opinion not only of that gentleman, but
of many others Avho had an opportunity of being well
acquainted with this fever in Jamaica. But this opinion
probably only arofe from thefe practitioners having con¬
founded the ordinary remittent fever of the Weft Indies,
which is often accompanied with bilious fymptoms, and
is from thence often denominated the yellow fever, with
the typhus iCteroides, a difeafe effentially different from
the bilious remittent which often prevails both in the
Weft and Eaft Indies. Dr Lind gives a remarkable
infiance of its being of an infeCtious nature.—A gen¬
tleman dying at Barbadocs of a yellow fever, his wear-
ing apparel and linen, packed up in a cheft, were fent
to his friends at Philadelphia 5 where, upon opening the
cheft, the family was taken ill; and the clothes being
unluckily hung abroad to be aired, they prefently dif-
fufed the contagion of the yellow fever over the whole
town, by which 200 perfons died.
In the defeription of the fame fever by Dr Lining,
as it appeared in South Carolina, there are feveral parti¬
culars confiderably different from that by Dr Hillary.
According to the former, people complained for a day
or two before the attack, of a headach, pain in the loins
and extremities, efpecially in the knees and calves of
the legs, lofs of appetite, debility, and a fpontaneous
laffitude. Some, however, were feized fuddenly, with¬
out any fuch previous fymptoms. After a chillinefs
and horror, with which this difeafe generally invades,
a fever fucceeded. The pulfe was very frequent, till
near the termination of the fever, and was generally
Prance. MED!
Febres. full, hard, and confequently ftrong : in foxne, it was
'— ' fmall and hard j in others, fort and Imall ; but in all
thofe cafes, it frequently varied in its fulnefs and hard-
nefs. Towards the termination of the fever, the pulfe
became fmaller, harder, and lefs frequent. In fome
there was a remarkable throbbing in the carotids and
in the hypochondria ; in the latter of which it was
fometimes fo great, that it caufed a conftant tremulous
motion of the abdomen. The heat generally did not
exceed 102 degrees of Fahrenheit’s thermometer j in
fome it was lefs ; it varied frequently, and was com¬
monly nearly equal in all parts, the heat about the prae-
cordla being feldom more intenfe than in the extremi¬
ties when thefe were kept covered. On the firft day
of the difeafe, fome had frequent returns of a fenfe of
chillinefs, though there was not any abatement of the
heat. In a few, there happened fo great a remiflion of
the heat for fome hours, when at the fame time the
pulfe was foft and lefs frequent, and the Ik in fo moift,
that one from thefe circumftances might reafonably
have hoped that the fever would only prove a remittent
or intermittent. About the end of the fecond day, the
heat began to abate. The Ikin was fometimes (though
rarely) dry j but oftener, and indeed generally, it wras
moift, and difpofed to fweat. On the firft day, the
fweating was commonly profufe and general ; on the
feeond day, it was more moderate : but on both thefe,
there happened frequent and Ihort remiflions of the
fvveatings ; at which times the febrile heat increafed,
and the patient became more uneafy. On the third
day, the difpofition to fweat was fo much abated, that
the fkin was generally dry •, only the forehead and
backs of the hands continued moift. The refpiration
was by no means frequent or difficult ; but was foon ac¬
celerated by motion, or the fatigue of drinking a cup
of any liquid. The tongue was moift, rough, and white,
even to its tip and edges. On the fecond day, its
middle in fome was brown. On the third day, the
whitenefs and roughnefs of the tongue began to abate.
The thirft in very few w'as great. A naufea, vomiting,
or frequent retchings to,vomit, efpecially after the ex¬
hibition of either medicines or food, came on generally
the third day, as the fever began to leffen j or rather
as the fulnefs of the pulfe, heat, and difpofition to fweat,
began to abate. Some indeed, but very few, on the
firft day, had a vomiting, either bilious or phlegmatic.
Very few complained of anxiety or oppreflion about the
praecordia or hypochondria, nor was there any tenfion
or hardnefs about the latter. On the firft day they ge¬
nerally dozed much, but were afterwards very wTatch-
ful. Reftleflhefs and almoft continual jactations came
on the fecond day. A great defpondency attended
the fick, and the ftrength was much proftrated from
the firft attack. The pain in the head, loins, &c. of
which they had complained before the attack, was
much increafed, and in fome the pain in the fore¬
head was very acute and darting; but thofe pains
went generally off the fecond day. The face was
fluflied 5 and the eyes were hot, inflamed, and unable
to bear much light. On the firft day, many of them
- at times were a little delirious, but afterwards not
until the recefs of the fever. The blood drawn by ve-
nefeftion had not any inflammatory cruft 5 in warm
weather, it was florid like arterial blood, and conti¬
nued in one foft homogeneous-like mafs, without any
CINE.
feparation of the ferum after it was cold. When
there was any feparation, the craffamentum was of a
very lax texture. The ftools, after the firft day, were
fetid, inclined to a black colour, and were very rarely
bilious, foft, or liquid, excepting when forced by art ;
for an obftinate coftivenefs attended the febrile ftate.
The urine was difcharged in a large quantity, wras
pale, fometimes limpid, and rarely of a higher than a
ilraw colour, except when the weather wTas very warm,
and then it was more faturated, of a deep colour, and
difcharged in fmaller quantities. It had a large cloud,
except when it xvas very pale or limpid j but more ge¬
nerally it had a copious w hite fediment, even on the
firft day of the fever. On the fecond day, the urine
continued to be difcharged very copioufly ; in fome
it wras then turbid, and depofited a more copious fedi¬
ment than on the firft day 5 this fediment was fome¬
times of a brownifli colour j in which cafe it was ge¬
nerally followed by bloody urine, either about the
end of the fecond or beginning of the third day.—
The colour and quantity of the urine, difcharged in
equal times, were remarkably variable, being now
limpid, then of a deeper colour 5 now difcharged in a
larger, then in a fmaller quantity ; which could not be
afcribed to any change made either in the quantity or
quality of the drink.
The fever accompanied with thofe fymptoms ter¬
minated on the third day, or generally in lefs than 72
hours from the firft attack, not by any affimilation or
coftion and excretion of the morbid matter : for if by
the latter, there would have been fome critical dif-
charge by fweat, urine, ftool, or otherwdfe, none of
which happened j and if by the former, nothing then
would have remained but great debility. This fever,
however, did not terminate in either of thefe falutary
ways, excepting in fome, who were happy enough to
have the difeafe conquered in the beginning by proper
evacuations, and by keeping up a plentiful fweat, till
the total folution of the fever, by proper mild dia¬
phoretics and diluents. But in thofe who had not that
good fortune, however tranquil things might appear,
yet the face of affairs was quickly changed : for this
period was foon fucceeded by the fecond Jladium; a
ftate, though without any fever, much more terrible
than the firft : the fymptoms in which w'ere the follow¬
ing. The pulfe, immediately after the recefs of the fe¬
ver, w'as very little more frequent than in health, but
hard and fmall. However, though it continued fmall,
it became, foon afterwards, flower and very foft 5 and
this foftnefs of the pulfe remained as long as the pulfe
could be felt. In many, in this ftage of the dileafe,
the pulfe gradually fubfided, until it became fcarce
perceptible ; and this, notwitliftanding all the means
ufed to fupport and fill it •, and when this w'as the
cafe, the ifteritious-like fuffufion, the vomiting, de¬
lirium, reftleffnefs, &c. increafed to a great degree.
In fome,. the pulfe, after being exceedingly fmall and
fcarce perceptible, recovered confiderably its fulnefs ;
but that favourable appearance was generally of but
Ihort continuance. The heat did not exceed the na¬
tural animal heat j and when the pulfe fubfided, the
fkin became cold, and the face, breaft, and extremi¬
ties acquired fomewhat of a livid colour. The fkin
was dry when the weather was cold, but was moift and
clammy when the weather was hot. The refpiration
M E D I
was natural, of rather flow. The tongue was moift,
and much cleaner than in the former ftage j its tip and
edges, as alfo the gums and lips, were of a more florid
red colour than ufual. Very few complained of third,
though they had a great deiire for cold liquors. The
vomiting or retching to vomit increafed, and in fome
was fo conftant that neither medicines nor aliment of
any kind were retained. Some vomited blood 5 others
only what was lad exhibited mixed with phlegm j and
others again had what is called the black vomit. The
retching to vomit continued a longer or fhorter time
according to the date of the pulfe ; for as that became
fuller, and the heat greater, the retching to vomit abat¬
ed, and e contra. The inquietude was very obdinate *,
and when they dozed their {lumbers were but
ftiort and unrefrednng. There were fome who were
drowfy •, but thefe always awaked, after the diorted
flumbers, with a great dejeftion of fpirits and drength.
The jaclations or redleffhefs were furprifing : it was
frequently fcarce podible to keep the patients in bed 5
though, at the fame time, they did not complain of
any anxiety or unealinefs ; but if afked how they did ?
the reply was, Very well. The debility was fo great,
that, if the patient was raifed ere<51 in the bed, or, in
forne, if the head was only raifed from the pillow,
while a cup of drink v'as given, the pulfe funk imme¬
diately, and became fometimes fo fmall, that it could
fcarce be felt *, at this time, they became cold, as in a
horripilatio, but without the anferine-like Ikin : their
lips and fkin, efpecially about the neck, face, and ex¬
tremities, together with their nails, acquired a livid
colour. The delirium returned and increafed ; it v'as
generally eondant in thofe whofe pulfe was fmall and
fubfiding. The indammation of the tunica conjunftiva
or white of the eyes increafed much, but v'ithout
pain. A yellownefs in the white of the eyes, if it did
not appear before in the febrile date, be,came now
very obfervable, and that ifteritious thud was foon dif-
fufed over the whole furface of the body, and w as conti¬
nually acquiring a deeper faffron-like colour. In fome,
indeed, no yellownefs wras obfervable, excepting in the
white of the eyes, until a little before death, when it
increafed vfcry quickly, efpecially about the bread and
neck. There were many fmall fpecks, not raifed above
the fkin, which appeared very thick in the bread and
neck, but lefs fo in the extremities, and were of a fear-
let, purple, or livid colour. In women the mendrua
downed, and fometimes exceflively, though not at their
regular period.
There was fuch a putrid diflblution of the blood in
this dadium of the difeafe, that there were haemorrhages
from the nofe, mouth, ears, eyes, and from the parts
which were blidered with cantharides. Nay, in the
years 1739 and 1745, there were one or two indances
of an haemorrhage from the fkin, without any apparent
puncture or lofs of any part of the fcarf-lkin.
An obdinate codivenefs continued in fome ; in others,
the dools wrere frequent and loofe: in fome they were
black, liquid, large, and greatly fatiguingin others,
when the dools were moderate, even though they were
black, they gave great relief’, in others, again, the
dools nearly refembled tar in fmoothnefs, tenacity, co¬
lour, and confidence.
The urine was difeharged in a large quantity, in
proportion to the drink retained by the patient : it
CINE. Prstfice.
was pale if the patient was not yellow *, but if yellow, Typhus,
then it was of a deep faffron-colour: in either cafe,
it had a fediment, or at lead a large cloud, which
remained at the bottom of the glafs ; in fome, it was
very turbid ; in others it was bloody : and the quan¬
tity of blood difeharged with the urine bore always
fome proportion to the date of the pulfe j when that
became fuller, the quantity of blood in the urine was
diminifhed 5 when the pulfe fubfided, the bloody
urine increafed, and even returned after it had ceafed
fome days, foon after the pulfe became fmaller. This
dage of the difeafe continued fometimes feven or eight
days before the patient died.
When this dadium of the difeafe terminated ia
health, it was by a recefs or abatement of the vomit¬
ing, hcemorrhages, delirium, inquietude, jaftations, and
idteritious-like fuffufion of the fkin and white of the
eyes 5 while, at the fame time, the pulfe became fuller,
and the patient gained drength, but very flowly. But
when it terminated in death, thofe fymptoms not only
continued, but fooner or later increafed in violence, and
were fucceeded with the following, which may be
termed the third Jladium of the difeafe, which quickly
ended in death. The pulfe, though foft, became ex¬
ceedingly fmall and unequal-, the extremities grew
cold, clammy, and livid; the face and lips, in feme,
were flufhed \ in others, they w-ere of a livid colour j
the livid fpecks increafed fo fad, that in fome the wTole
bread and neck appeared livid; the heart palpitated
drongly •, the heat about the prsecordia increafed
much •, the refpiration became difficult, with frequent
fighing j the patient now became anxious, and ex¬
tremely redlefs j the fweat flowed from the face, neck,
and bread 5 blood flowed from the mouth, or nofe,
or ears, and in fome from all thofe parts at once •, the
deglutition became difficult; the hiccoughs and fub-
fultus tendinum came on, and were frequent 5 the pa¬
tients trifled with their fingers, and picked the naps of
the bedclothes 5 they grew comatofe, or were condant-
ly delirious. In this terrible date, fome continued eight,
ten, or twelve hours before they died, even after they
had been fo long fpeechlefs, and without any percep¬
tible pulfation of the arteries at the wrids j whereas, in
all other acute difeafes, after the pulfe in the wrids
ceafes, death follows almod immediately. When the
difeafe was very acute, violent convulfions feized the
unhappy patient, and quickly brought this dadium to
its fatal end. After death, the livid blotches increafed
fad, efpecially about the face, bread, and neck, and
the putrefa&ion began very early, or rather increafed
very quickly.
Such was the progrefs of this terrible difeafe through
its feveral dadia. But in hot weather, and when the
fymptoms in the fird dage were very violent, it paffed
through thofe dages with fuch precipitation that there
was but little opportunity of didinguifb'mg its different
dadia, the whole tragedy having been finifhed in lefs
than 48 hours. It was remarkable, that, 1. The in¬
fection was increafed by warm and leffened by cold
weather. 2. The fymptoms in the feveral dadia were
more or lefs violent, according to the Teat or coolnefs
of the weather. In hot days, the fymptoms were not
only more violent, but in thofe who feemed in mode¬
rate weather to be on the recovery, or at lead in no
danger, the fymptoms were all fo greatly heightened,
when
practice.
Febres. when the weather grew confiderably warmer, as fre-
'"V”"-"''quently to become latal. In cool days, the fymptoms
were not only milder, but many who were apparently
in great danger in hot days were faved from the very
jaws of death by the weather becoming happily cooler.
3. The difeafe was generally more fatal to thofe who
lay in fmall chambers not conveniently fituated for the
admiflion of freth air, to thofe of an athletic and full
habit, to itrangers who were'natives of a cold climate,
to thofe who had the greatetl dread of it, and to thofe
who before the attack of the difeafe had overheated
themfelves by exercife in the fun, or by exceffive drink¬
ing of ftrong liquors ; either of which indeed fcemed
to render the body more fufceptible of the infection.
Laitly, The difeafe proved molt certainly fatal to vale¬
tudinarians, or to thofe who had been weakened by any
previous difeafe.
Caufes of, and perfons fubjeEl to, this difeafe. The
yellow fever attacks principally Europeans, efpecially
thofe who have but lately arrived in the hot climates.
Negroes are entirely exempt from it, though the mu-
lattoes and tawnies are as liable to be feized with it as
the whites themfelves. The caufe of the difeafe feems
to be a particular kind of contagion j but Dr Lind
feems to be of opinion, that the immediate caufe of
the fymptoms is a difpofition in the glutinous part of
the blood to feparate from the others, and to become
putrefcent. In fome perfons rvho have been bled in the
yellow fever, the blood has been obferved very vif-
cid ; the craifamentum covered with a yellow’ gluten
half an inch in thicknefs, and impenetrable to the fin¬
ger unlefs cut by the nail ; the ferum being at the fame
time of the confidence of a thin fyrup, and of a deep
yellow tinft. This ferum tailed bitter, and refembled
a compofition of foot. The appearances on dilfec-
tion, with his conclufions from them, we (hall give in
his own words : “ In a man who died on the eleventh
day of a yellow fever, whofe body emitted no bad
fmell 36 hours after death, and was Hill yellow, I
found all the bowels of the abdomen found ; the liver
and fpleen were remarkably fo ; as alfo the itomach
and inteftines. There was no fuffufion of the bile ei¬
ther in the inteftines or ftomach. The gall-bladder,
of the natural fize, contained the ufual quantity of
bile, fomewhat thicker than common, and grumous
(s).
“ Upon examining further, this difeafe was found
to have lain wholly on the left fide, where, within the
bread, was found near a quart of yellowilh water, in
which were many large flakes of yellowifh gluten, ap¬
pearing, by comparifon, precifely the fame with the
thick pellicle which had covered the blood taken from
his arm. Thefe flakes bore in feveral places a refem-
blance to a membranous fubflance beginning to be
converted into a purulent jellv. The pleura, both on
its infide and outfide, as alfo its continuation, the in-
vefling membrane of the lungs, were covered with
cakes of this gluten, hanging in fome places loofelv, in
others adhering more ftrongly : and all in different
287
ftates of yellow or purulent corruption. The right ca- Typhus,
vity of the bread, and all the other parts of his body, -v~—^
were found entirely free from difeafe.
“ His complaints had been chiefly in his bread ; and
a fmall quantity of blood taken from him two days be¬
fore his death, was covered with an impenetrable, yel¬
low, thick gluten ; the red portion below it being quite
loofe.
“In thofe fevers, I have alfo feen (fays Dr Lind)
the difeafe entirely confined to the heart and pericar¬
dium. In one who died on the tenth day of the fever,
without having been yellow, a quantity of pus and pu¬
rulent cruds were found mixed with the water of the
pericardium. I he heart in different places was exco¬
riated } and, together with the infide of the pericar¬
dium, was lined with a thick membranous cake, limilar
to that already mentioned on the lungs and pleura. In
fome places this cake had a purulent, in others a gela¬
tinous appearance, exactly rcfembling the cosgulum of
the blood. His complaints had been, a great oppref-
fion on the bread, and an extreme difficulty of breath-.
ing. In a third perfon, who died on the thirteenth
day of the fever, above two quarts of pus and purulent
jelly were found in the cavity of the belly. The fource
of fuch an extraordinary quantity of matter w^as not
from any preceding inflammation, nor any impofthume,
that wre could difeover ; but from innumerable ulcera¬
tions on the furface of the inteftines, omentum, mefen-
tery, and peritoneum. Neither did thofe ulcerations
(or excoriations, as they rather appeared in feveral
places) feem to be the primary fountains of the matter,
but to have been occafioned by its acrimony.
“ This purulent appearance feems to arife merely
from an extravafation of one of the component parts of
the blood, the gluten or fibrine as it is now called.
Blood taken from perfons in a fever, and frequently
even from perfons in perfe£t health, after Handing in a
clean velTel for a ftiort time, commonly feparates into
three diftimd portions ; viz. the ferum, or water of the
blood, the red concreted mafs, and a vifeid pellicle
termed theyfts*?, which fpreads itfelf on the top of the
red concretion. Some time ago, when making expe¬
riments with the blood taken from perfons in the feurvy,
I was furprifed to find it often covered with that fizy
cruft. 1 his induced me to extend my experiments
to large quantities of blood from different fubje&s,
which I had opportunities of infpe&ing at once in fo
large an holpital. For this purpole I one morning
ordered ten patients in the feurvy to be bled, taking
two ounces from each. A larger quantity was taken,
for its infpeftion, from two men in health. That day
I had oecafion to preferibe bleeding to a woman in
labour, two hours before her delivery ; to a girl of fix-
teen years of age afflifted with a lunacy proceeding
from the chlorofis ; to three patients in the rheumatifm 5
and to a perfon labouring under an obftrudlion of the
liver.
“ From a nice comparifon, and an examination of
the blood in thefe cafes, I found in general, that the
more
MEDICINE.
... In others who in this Yellow ftate, the bile in the gall-bladder was found of a thick ropy confiftence
like pitch, but the liver never appeared in the leaft affeaed. Dr Lind at firft in feveral bodies opened the head
only 5 but afterwards judged that all the cavities ought to be inlpeded.
288
MEDICINE.
Pra&ice.
Feb res.
more frze tliere was on tire top, and the thicker and
more vifcid this white pellicle Ihov/ed itfelf, the con¬
cretion below it was of a more loofe coherence. This
was not fo obfervable when only feme flight white
flreaks appeared on the top. But when much flze had
feparated itfelf, the red mafs became very foft at the
bottom of the veffel, and lefs compaft in its different
parts, in proportion to their diftance from the furface,
towards which this whitifti portion had afcended.
“ From this and from other experiments it appears,
that this cruff or pellicle is the natural gluten which be¬
comes ftrongly difpofed, in certain circumftances and
difeafes, to feparate itfelf. And whereas the ferum and
red concretion are eafily incorporated together, it will
be found, that this glue, after its feparation, becomes
immifcible with either. We have, by gentle drying,
converted it into a perfe&ly tough elaflic membrane •,
and, by the means of a fmall portion of the red mafs
being left adhering to it, into a fubftance refembling
mufcular flefli •, and it is capable of undergoing various
changes into corruption, in the fame manner as either
of thefe.
“ Now, I can fee no reafon why this gluten, in its
morbid Hate, may not feparate itfelf from the circulat¬
ing blood, and be depolited in the cavities of the body,
as readily as the ferum does in dropfies *, the former
having always a lefs difpolition than the latter to incor¬
porate with the mafs.
“ In differing perfons who died of fevers in Lon¬
don and Minorca, and w'here no infection was fufpedfl-
ed, appearances fimilar to thefe have alfo fallen under
the infpeftion of thofe accurate anatomifts Drs Hunter
and Cleghorn. Hence it may be prefumed very diffi¬
cult to diftinguifli fevers that are produced by infedtion,
from fome others. I cannot, however, be induced to
think, as thofe gentlemen feem to do, that thefe pre¬
ternatural fubftances which wTere found in the cavities
of the body are the confequence, but rather that they
are the caufe, of the inflammation and excoriations. I
believe thefe fubftances to be at firft difeafed extravafa-
ted gluten, and conjecture their different ftates greatly
to depend upon the different times at which they
were depoftted.
“ I have remarked, in a variety of dead bodies,
three different kinds of extravafation 5 thefe occurred in
fuch as had died of the fcurvy, of confumption, and of
fevers. In the former of thofe difeafes, red coagulated
blood is found extravafated in almoft all parts of the
body, not only into the tela cellulofa, but into the bel¬
lies of the mufeles, particularly of the legs and thighs,
which often become quite fluffed and even diftorted
with large grumous maffes. The inteftines and mefen-
tery are often fpotted alfo with extravafated blood *, and
I have feen large ecchymofes on the ftomach. Thofe
appearances at firft fight refembled fo many diftindt
mortifications ; and by this appearance fome anatomifts
have been deceived *, but, upon a nice examination, the
texture of the parts is found to be found and firm.
There is likewife, in that difeafe, fometimes, an extra¬
vafation of water, chiefly colledted in the tela cellu¬
lofa.
“ But as, in the limbs of fcorbutic perfons, it is ex¬
tremely difficult to make a good diffedlion by reafon of
fuch quantities of extravafated blood that everywhere
■obftrudt the operator 3 fo, on the contrary, the lower
extremities of thofe who have died confumptive, with Typhus,
fwelled legs, are, of all fubjedts, in the belt ftate to v——
afford a fatisfadlory view of the mufcles. The wa¬
ter enclofed in their legs having infinuated itfelf, by
paffing the tela cellulofa, into the fpaces between the
mufcles, the mufcles are eafily feparated from each
other 3 and their feveral origins and infertions may be
diftindtly traced by means of their having been cleanfed
and wathed by the water in the invefting cellular mem¬
brane. Thus there are extravafations of three forts 3
viz. Firft, The grumous mafs in the fcurvy 3 and this
I have often remarked where no ferum was obferved.
Secondly, The ferum alone in analarcous fwellings.
The third and laft is what was taken notice of in thofe
who died of fevers, being the gluten of the blood, ac¬
companied for the moft part with fome ferum 3 both of
them altogether confined to the large cavities of the
body.
“ I conjedture, that in thofe fevers there is always
an ulcerous or purulent difpofition in the blood 3 and
that the gluten is greatly difeafed. I have frequently
feen it have a true purulent appearance foon after it was
drawn off, when the patient feemed not very ill.
“ And I further conjedlure, that the mifchief often
lies within the breaft 5 as alfo that the great benefit de¬
rived from the very early application of blifters, in a
great meafure flows from fo many ulcerations and vents
being timely provided for the free difcharge of thofe
purulent and tainted particles from the body.
“ If an infedtion depends, as many have imagined,
on the admiffion of certain foreign particles into the
blood, this gluten feems to be primarily affedted by it 3
and a difcharge of this, by waffling thofe particles out
of the body, tends in a great meafure to remove that
difeafe.
“ It is an obfervation of the beft pradtical writers,
that iffues and fetons are moft excellent preferva-
tives againft receiving an infedtion, even that of the
plague itfelf. And indeed a fuppuration and plentiful
difcharge from a proper ulcer, whether produced by
nature or by art, feems to open a channel the beft ap¬
propriated for an exit out of the body to fome of the
moft malignant poifons. I hus the moft favourable
crifis in the plague, and in moft peftilential fevers, hap¬
pens Avhen nature excites tumors kindly fuppurating
in the groin or armpits, by whofe beneficial and plen¬
tiful difcharge the deadly poifon is expelled from the
conftitution.
“ I have obferved it to be amongft the moft certain
charadteriftics of the worft fevers, that the blifters ei¬
ther do not rife and fill, or difcharge fuch yellow,
greeniffi, fetid, and highly offenfive fluff, that even ex¬
perienced nurfes could give a pretty certain conjec¬
ture from the blifters of the different degrees of ma¬
lignity in the fever. We have more than once endea¬
voured to conceal the bad ftate of fome patients in the
hofpital 3 but a difeovery was always made of their
condition in the wafhhoufe, from the linen fent there
ftained with the difeharges from the bliftertd parts.
And indeed a careful infpedlion of the ftate and dif¬
charge from the blifters, together with their effedls,
furnifties us, in thofe difeafes, with fome of the moft
certain diagnoftics of their nature, and prognoftics of
their event.”
Prognojis. This diftemper, where it attacks with
violence,
pfa&ice*
Febres. violence, is generally fatal •, tlie prognofis therefore
mult be commonly unfavourable, and always uncer¬
tain 5 neither can any thing more be faid on this fub-
je£t, than that an abatement of the fymptoms already
enumerated affords a favourable prognoftic, and an in-
-creafe of them the contrary. ,
Cure. The cure of this terrible difeafe, according to
Dr Hilary, is very eafy and fimple. His indications
are, I. To moderate the too great and rapid motion of
the fluids, and abate the too great heat and violence of
the fever in the two firft days of the difeafe, as much
and as fafely as we can. 2. To evacuate and carry, out
of the body as much of the putrid bile and other hu¬
mours, and as expeditioufly and fafely as poflible. 3. To
put a flop to the putrefcent difpofltion of the fluids, and
to prevent the gangrenes frorp coming on, by fuitable
antifeptics.
The firft indication is anfwered by bleeding, which,
in the firfl: ftage of this fever, is fometimes abfolutely
neeelfary in fome degree : the quantity to be taken
away muft be determined by the age and ftrength of
the patients, the degree of plethora, fulnefs of the
pulfe, &c. When called at the beginning, he orders
12, 14, 16, 18, or 20 ounces of blood to be taken
away on the firfl: or fecond day j and if the patient’s
pulfe rife after the firfl: bleeding, or if the fever ftill
continue high and the pulfe full, he repeats the bleed¬
ing once on the days above mentioned. But bleeding
a third time is feldom or never required $ neither is
bleeding on the third day almoft ever neceflary ; and
when it is performed on that day, it ought to be done
with the greateft caution and judgment: neither fhould
a vein be opened after the third day in this fever, unlefs
fome very extraordinary fymptoms and circumftances
require it 5 which feldom or never happen. On that
day, indeed, the pulfe generally finks, and the blood
is in fuch a diflblved ftate, that bleeding mufl: be ac¬
counted highly pernicious. Neverthelefs, it is indif-
penfably neceflary in the beginning of the diftemper 5
and if omitted at that time, the violent heat and mo¬
tion of the blood increafe the putrefcence of the hu¬
mours to fuch a degree as to bring on the fatal confe-
quences much fooner than would otherwife have hap¬
pened. If blood-letting be thus advifed by Dr Hilary,
it has been ftill more ftrongly recommended by Dr
Ilufti, who, in his firft publication on the fubjedt of the
dreadful yellow fever which proved fo fatal at Phila¬
delphia, reprefented it as an almoft infallible remedy
for the difeafe. But the obfervations and experience of
others have by no means confirmed the praftice which
he recommended.
After bleeding, we come to the fecond indication
of cure, namely, to evacuate as much of the bilious
and putrid humours as foon and as fafely as we can.
The great irritation of the ftomach, by the putrid bi¬
lious humours conftantly attending this fever, with
almoft continual retchings and violent vomitings, feem
to indicate the giving of an emetic : but the ftomach
is always obferved to be fo violently ftimulated and ir¬
ritated, and moft commonly inflamed, by the acrimony
of the putrefcent bile, that any emetic, even the moft:
mild and gentle, given in the fmalleft dofe, brings on
an inceflartt vomiting, which continues, in fpite of all
remedies, till a mortification and death enfue. Inftead
of this, it is proper to give large draughts of warm
Vol. XIII. Part I.
289
water, which, without any additional ftimulus to the Typhus,
ftomach, evacuates its acrid and putrid contents, com- v
monly with great relief to the patient: the warn! water
alfo acts as an emollient fotus to the inflamed coats of
the ftomach \ and thus abates the inflammation, and
prevents gangrene and mortification from coming on.
After the patient has by this means vomited feven or
eight times, or oftener, and difcharged a great quantity
of yellow and blackifli bilious matter, a grain or a grain
and a half of thebaic extratt is given, in order to pro¬
cure fome refpite from the violent retching, vomiting,
and anxiety. The perfon is defired to take nothing in¬
to his ftomach for two hours after this, by which means
it is feldom or never rejedted 5 and thus all the fymp¬
toms are confiderably abated, the retching and vomit¬
ing either totally ceafe or are very much leflened, fo
that medicines may now be exhibited which the fto¬
mach would not have retained before. Thefe are cool¬
ing acid juleps, or other antifeptic remedies j but neither
nitre nor any of its preparations will commonly be found
to ftay on the ftomach, nor, according to Dr Hilary, are
the nitrous medicines, or even the common antiemetic
draughts, proper to be given in this difeafe, even though
they fhould agree with the ftomach, on account of their
attenuating property.
If the patient has not a ftool or two after drinking
the warm water arid vomiting, it is neceflary to give a
gentle purging clyfter 5 and when fix or eight hours
reft have been obtained, a gentle antiphlogiftic and an¬
tifeptic purge, in order to evacuate by ftool as much of
the bilious matter as we poflibly can. Or if the pa¬
tient has a purging before, which fometimes though
very rarely happens, a dofe of toafted rhubarb is given,
and an antifeptic anodyne after it has operated, to abate
and check the too great purging, but not to flop it, as
this evacuation has been always obferved to be of fer-
vice, provided it be not very violent.
After this indication is completely anfwered, the next
is to exhibit fuch proper antifeptic medicines as may
flop the putrefcent difpofition of the fluids. Here the
cinchona would feem to be the moft proper remedy j
but unluckily the ftomachs of the patients in this dif¬
eafe are fo much irritated, and fo apt to rejeft every
thing, that it cannot be retained in any form whatever.
In this cafe Dr Percival recommends columbo root, the
infufion' of wrhich is found to be a powerful antiemetie
and antiputrefcent medicine, and might perhaps fo far
alter the ftate of the ftomach as to make it bear the
bark. Dr Hilary, however, who was ignorant of the
virtues of columbo, fubftituted the radix ferpentarice
Virginiance with fuccefs. A flight infufion of this root
not only fat eafily on the ftomacli of the patients, but
moderately raifed the pulfe and fever, both of which
are now too low. The following receipt was found the
moft agreeable and efficacious :
]J> Rad. ferpent. Virginian. Jij.
Croc. Ang. 3 fs- M. et infunde vafe claufo in. aq.
bul. q. per horam unam ut col. Jvj. Adde aq.
menth. fimp. juj* Vin. Maderienf. ^iv. Syr. croc,
vel fyr. e mecon. Ji. Elix. vitriol, acid. q. f. ad
grat. acid. fap. Exhibe cochlearia duo vel tria fin-
gulis horis vel bihoris, vel faepius pro re nata.
By the ufe of this medicine, and foft light nourifh-
ment taken in fmall quantities, the pulfe is ufually kept-
0 0 up
MEDICINE.
29®
Febres.
163
M E D I
up and the diftemper goes off. But if, after taking
1 this a little while, Ave find that the pulfe does not rife,
but on the contrary that a coldnefs of the extreme parts
comes on, the medicines mud be made more warming,
by increafing the quantity of the fnakeroot and faffron,
or by adding vinum croceum, confeBio cardiac a, or the
like, but not by the ufe of volatile fpirits and falts,
which hurt by their ftimulating and dillolving qualities.
Blifters Dr Hilary reprobates in the ftrongelt terms,
and affirms that he has feen the place where a blifter
was applied turned perfectly black and fphacelated j fo
that if the fpine and end of the ribs had not hindered,
a large fquare paffage would have been opened into the
cavity of the thorax, had the patient lived a few hours
after it.
At the fame time that the ftrength of the patient is
kept up by the medicines above mentioned, or by
others fimilar, he gave repeated gentle purgatives every
fecond or third day, and fometimes, when the fymp-
toms Avere very urgent, every day, for four or five days
fucceflively. But if proper methods be taken in the
beginning of the difeafe, it is feldom that fuch a repe¬
tition of purging is neceffary.
Dr Hilary’s pi an of treating the yelloAV fever is, in
our opinion, as judicious as any that has yet been pro-
pofed. But, among the late Avriters, fome have re¬
commended mercury, particularly under the form of
calomel, as the moft efficacious remedy Avhich can be
employed. In fome cafes it has certainly been given
to an almoft incredible extent, in a very fhort time,
without exciting either purging or falivation. And it
cannot be denied, that patients have not unfrequently
recovered under the ufe of it. But calomel can no
more be reckoned an infallible remedy for this difeafe
than blood-letting.
Since the introdu&ion of cold affufion, in the cure
of typhus fevers, by Dr Currie, it has been imagined by
fbme, that this practice Avould afford a very efficacious
remedy in the typhus ifteroides, as Avell as in the typhus
mitior. But experience has not yet confirmed the uti¬
lity of this practice.
Some have fuggefted the internal ufe of the oxyge¬
nated muriatic acid, properly diluted, as' an article
from Avhich great benefit may be expected in the yel¬
low fever. This practice deferves, Ave think, a fair
trial: but the utility of it ftill remains to be determin¬
ed by experience.
To the genus of typhus alfo belong all thofe fevers
attended Avith very profufe and debilitating fweats, and
Avhich have fometimes, not Avithout good reafon, been
accounted plagues ; fuch as the Englifh fweating-fick-
nefs, Miliaris fudatoria, Sau-v. fp. 5. Ephemera fuda-
toria, Sauv. fp. 7. Ephemera Britannica, Caius de
ephem. Britan.
Genus VI. SYNOCHUS.
Synochus, Sauv. gen. 81. Lin. 13.
Lenta, Lin. 14.
Phrenitis, Vog. 18.
Eebris continua putrida, Boerh. 730.
This is a contagious diflemper, being a complication
of a fynocha and typhus 'y for the defeription and cure
of Avhich, Ave muff of confequence refer to what hath
been already faid concerning thefe difeafes.
2
CINE.
Prafli
The He flic Fever.
He&ica, Sauv. gen. 83. Lin. 24. Vog. 80. Sag. 684.
This difeafe is reckoned by Dr Cullen to be merely
fymptomatic •, as indeed feems very probable, fince it
generally accompanies abforption of pus into the
blood from internal fuppurations, or indeed from fuch
as are external, provided they be very large or of a
bad kind.
Defeription. The belt, perhaps the only proper, de-
feription of this diforder avc have is that by Dr Heber-
den. According to him, the appearance of the heftic
fever is not unlike that of the genuine intermittent j
from which, however, the difeafe is very different in
its nature, while at the fame time it is much more
dangerous. In the true intermittent, the three ftages
of cold, heat, and fweat, are far more diftin&ly mark¬
ed, the Avhole fit is much longer, the period Avhich it
obferves is more conftant and regular, and the inter-
miffions are more perfeft, than in the heftic fever.
For in the latter, CA'en during the cleareft remiffion,
there is ufually a feverith quicknefs perceptible in
the pulfe, which feldom fails to exceed the utmoft
limit of a healthy one by at leaft 10 ftrokes in a mi¬
nute.
The chilnefs of the hc&ic feA^er is fometimes fuccecd-
ed by heat, and fometimes immediately by a fAveat
Avithout any intermediate ftate of heat. The heat will
fometimes come on without any remarkable chilnefs
preceding j and the chilnefs has been obferved to go
off without being folloAved either by heat or fAveat.
The duration of thefe ftages is feldom the fame for
three fits together } and as it is not uncommon for one
of them to be Avanting, the length of the whole fit
muft vary much more than in the true intermittent >
but in general it is much Ihorter.
A patient fubjefted to he61ic fever is little or nothing
relieved by the occurrence of the fweat 5 but is often
as anxious and reftlefs under it as during the chilnefs or
heat. When the fweat is over, the fever Avill fome¬
times continue; and in the middle of the fever the chil¬
nefs Avill return; which is a moft certain mark of this
difeafe.
The he£Hc fevrcr Avill return Avith great exaftnels,
like an intermittent, for tAVo or perhaps three fits ; but
Dr Heberden informs us, that he does not remember
ever to have knoAvn it keep the fame period for four
fits fucceflively. The paroxyfm Avill noAv and then keep
off for 10 or 12 days; and at other times, especially
when the patient is very ill, it will return fo frequent¬
ly on the fame day, that the chilnefs of a new fit Avill
folloAV immediately the fweat of the former. It is not
unufual to have many threatenings of a fhivering in
the fame day ; and fome degree of droAvfinefs is apt to
attend the ceffalion of a fit.
The urine in a true intermittent is clear during the
fits and turbid during the intervals ; but in the heftic
fever it is liable to all kinds of irregularity. It Avill be
equally clear or turbid in both ftages; or turbid in the
fits and clear in the intervals; and fometimes it Avill be,
as in a true intermittent, clear during the fever, and
thick at the going oft*.
Hedftic patients often complain of pains like thofe
of the rheumatifm, Avhich either affeft by turns almoft
every
pra&ice.
MED!
Febr«. every part of the body, or elfc return conftantly to the
v—' fame part; which is often at a great diftance from the
feat of the principal diforder, and, as far as is known,
without any peculiar connexion with it. Thofe pains
are fo violent in fome patients, as to require a large
quantity of opium. As far as Dr Heberden has ob-
ferved, they are moft common where the hectic arifes
from fome ulcer open to the external air, as in cancers
of the face, bread, &c. Joined with this fever, and
arifing probably from one common caufe, he has been
furprifed to fee fwellings of the limbs, neck, or trunk
of the body, rife up almoft in an inftant, as if the part
was all at once grown fatter. Thefe fwellings are not
painful, hard, or difcoloured, and they continue for fe-
veral hours.
Dr Heberden has feen this fever attack thofe who
leemed in tolerable health, in a fudden and violent
manner, like a common inflammatory one; and like
that, alfo, in a very fhort time bring them into immi¬
nent danger of their lives j after which it has begun to
abate, and to afford hopes of a perfect recovery. But
though the danger might be over for the prefent, and
but little of a fever remain ; yet that little has foon de-
monftrated, that it was kept up by fome great mifchief
within, and, proving unconquerable by any remedies,
has gradually undermined the health of the patient, and
never ceafed except with his life. This manner of its
beginning, however, is a rare occurrence. It much
oftener diffembles its ftrength at firfl; *, and creeps on fo
flowly, that the fubjedls of it, though they be not per-
Feftly well, yet for fome months hardly think them-
felves ill; complaining only of being fooner tired with
exercife than ufual, of want of appetite, and of falling
away. But gentle as the fymptoms may feem, if the
pulfe be quicker than ordinary, fo as to have the artery
to beat 90 times and perhaps 120 times in a minute,
there is the greateft reafon to be apprehenfive of the
event. In no diforder, perhaps, is the pulfe of more
ufe to guide our judgment than in the he&ic fever :
yet even here we muff be upon our guard, and not
truft entirely to this criterion ; for one in about twenty
patients, with all the worft figns of decay from fome
incurable caufe, which irreliftibly goes on to deftroy
his life, will fhow not the fmalleft degree of quicknefs,
nor any other irregularity of the pulfe, to the day of
his death.
Caufes, &c. This fever will fupervene whenever
there is a great collection of matter formed in any part
of the body j but it more particularly attends upon the
inflammation of a fcirrhous gland, and even upon one
that is flight and only juft beginning j the fever grow¬
ing worfe in proportion as the gland becomes more in¬
flamed, ulcered, or gangrenous. And fuch is the ling¬
ering nature of thofe glandular diforders, that the firft
of thofe ftages will continue for many months, and the
fecond for fome years.
If this fcirrhous inflammation be external, or in the
lungs, or fome of the abdominal vifcera, where the
difturbance of their funftions plainly points out the
feat of the diforder, no doubt can be entertained con¬
cerning the caufe of the fever. But if the part affeCl-
ed be not obvious to the fenfes, and its precife func¬
tions be not known, the heftic, which is there only
part of the train of another difeafe, may be miftaken
for the primary or only affeCHon.
CINE.
Lying-in-women, on account of the violence fu-
ftained in delivery, generally die when affe&ed with'
this fever. Women of the age of near 50 and up¬
wards are particularly liable to it. For, upon the
ceffation of their natural difcharge, the glands of
the breafts, ovaries, or womb, too commonly begin
to grow fcirrhous, and proceed to be cancerous.
Not only thefe, but the glandular parts of all the
abdominal vifcera, are difpofed to be affected at this
particular time, and to become the feats of incurable
diforders.
The injuries done to the ftomaeh and liver by hard
drinking are attended with limilar fymptoms, and ter¬
minate in the fame manner.
Dr Heberden obferves, that the flighteft wound by
a fine-pointed inftrument is known upon fome occa-
fions to bring on the greateft difturbances, and the
moft alarming fymptoms, nay even death itfelf. For
not only the wounded part will fwell and be painful,
but by turns almoft every part of the body j and very
diftaat parts have been known to come even to fuppu-
ration. . Thefe fymptoms are conftantly accompanied
with this irregular intermittent, which lafts as long as
any of them remain.
Prognojts. This anomalous fever is never lefs dan¬
gerous than when it originates from a kindly fuppura-
tion, into which all the difeafed parts are melted down,
and for which there is a proper outlet.
The fymptoms and danger from fome fmall punc¬
tures, with their concomitant fever, moft frequently
give way in a few days; though in fome perfons they
have continued for two or three months, and in others
have proved fatal.
The inflammation of internal fcirrhous glands, or of
thofe in the breafts, fometimes goes off, and the fever,
which depended upon it, ceafes j but it much oftener
happens, that it proceeds to cancerous and gangrenous
ulcers, and terminates only in death. Death is alfo,
almoft univerfally, the confequence of hedlic fever
from tubercles of the lungs, which have in general at
leaft been confidered as glandular bodies in a fcirrhous
ftate.
Cure. It is not to be expedfed that the fame re¬
medies will in every cafe be adapted to a fever
which, arifing from very different caufes, is attend¬
ed with fuch a variety of fymptoms. A mixture of
aflhfoetida and opium has in fome perfons feemed fingu-
larly ferviceable in this fever, when brought on by a
fmall wound j but in moft other cafes the principal if
not the foie attention of the phyfician muft be employ¬
ed in relieving the fymptoms, by tempering the heat,
by preventing both coftivenefs and purging, by procur¬
ing fleep, and by checking the fweats. If, at the fame
time, continues Dr Heberden, he put the body into a*
good general health as may be, by air, exercife, and a
proper courfe of mild diet, he can perhaps do nothing
better than to leave all the reft to nature. In fome
few fortunate patients, nature appears to have fuch re-
fources, as may afford reafon for entertaining hopes of
cute, even in very bad cafes. For fome have recovered
from this fever attended with every fymptom of an
abdominal vifcus incurably difeafed, after all proba¬
ble methods of relief from art had been tried in vain,
and after the flelh and ftrength were fo exhaufted as t®
■leave fcarce any hopes from nature. In thofe deplora-
O 0 2 hie
291
Hecfhca.
292
MEDICINE.
Fhlegma- ble circumftances, there has arifen a fwelling not far
fias. ^ • 1 i-/- 1 i ^—j.
17®
^ .
172
from the probable feat of the diforder, and yet without
any difcoverable communication with it. This fwelling
has come to an abfcefs} in confequence of which the
pulfe has foon returned to its natural date, as have alfo
the appetite, flefh, and ftrength. What nature has per¬
formed in thofe rare cafes, Dr Heberden acquaints us,
he has often endeavoured to imitate, by making iffues
or applying blifters near the feat of the difeafe } but he
cannot fay with the fame fuccefs.
It feems at prefent, Dr Heberden obferves, to be
the opinion of many praftitioners, that gangrenes will
be flopped, and fuppuration become more kindly, by
the ufe of Peruvian bark) and therefore this remedy
is always either advifed or permitted in the irregular
fever joined with fuppurations and gangrenes. But he
affirms he does not remember ever to have feen any
good effect from cinchona in this fever unattended with
an apparent ulcer ; and even in gangrenes it fo often
fails, that in fuccefsful cafes, where it has been admi-
niftered, there muff be room for fufpieion that the fuc¬
cefs was owing to another caufe. Dr Heberden acT
knowledges, at the fame time, that he never faw any
harm from cinchona, in thefe, or .indeed in any other
cafes, except a flight temporary purging or ficknefs,
where it has happened to difagree with the ftomach,
or where the latter has been loaded by taking the me¬
dicine too faft, efpecially in dry bolufes wrapped in
wafer-paper.
In heftic illneffes, where all other means have proved
ineffectual, a journey to Bath is ufually propofed by
the friends, and wiftied for by the fick 5 but Dr He¬
berden juftly obferves, that, befldes the fatigue and
many inconveniences of a journey to a dying perfon,
the Bath waters are peculiarly hurtful in this fever,
which they never fail to increafe, and thereby aggra¬
vate the fufferings and haften the death of the pa¬
tient.
Order II. PHLEGMASIA.
Phlegmafiae membranofae et parenchyma'tofge, Saav.
Clafs III. Ord. I. II. %. 605.
Morbi febriles phlogiftici, Lin. Clafs III.
Febres continuae compolitae inflammatoriae, Vig.
Morbi acuti febriles, Boerh. 770.
Febres inflammatoriae, Hqffrn. II. 105. Junck. 61.
The phlegmafiae, or topical inflammations, are a
very numerous affemblage of difeafes. Their great
ehara&eriftics are, the general fymptoms of fever, and
a topical inflammation, attended with thelefion of fome
important fun&ion. In moft inftances, when blood is
drawn, it is found upon coagulation to be covered with
a buffy coat. Under this order, many important ge¬
nera are comprehended, each requiring a feparate con-
fideration.
Genus VII. PHLOGOSIS.
Sp. I. Phlogosis phlegmons.
Phlegmone auftorum, Suuv. gen. 15. Lin. 39. Vog.
351.
Inflammatio, Lin. 231. Boerh. 370. Junck. 20.
This difeafe is a fynocha fever, accompanied with an
Pra&ice,
inflammation of fome particular part either external or PMogofk
internal, and confequently it varies very much in its
form and the degree of danger attending it, according
to the fituation and functions of the part affeCted with
topical inflammation. To this fpecies, therefore, belong
the following difeafes : ,
Furunculus, Sauv. gen. 18. Vog. 352.
Tereminthus, Vog. 381.
Pupula, Lin. 275. Sauv. p. 6.
Varus, Vog. 436. Lin. 269. Sauv. p. 7.
Bacchia, Lm. 270.
Gutta rofea, Sauv. gen. 4.
Gutta rofacea, Vog. 437.
Hordeolum, Sauv. gen. 27. Lin. 276. Vog. 434.
Otalgia, Sauv. gen. if)1]. Lin. 44. Vog. 148.
Dolor otalgicus, Hojfm. II. 33^’
Parulis, Vog. 362.
Maftodynia, Sauv. gen. 210. Vog. 153.
Paronychia, Sauv. gen. 21. Lm. 258. Vog. 3)5.
Arthrocace, Sauv. gen. 78. Lin. 256.
Psedarthrocace, Vog. 419.
Spina ventofa, Boerh. 526.
Phimofis, Sauv. gen. 22. Lin. 297. Vog. 348.
Paraphimofis, Vog. 349.
For the cure of inflammations, Dr Cullen lays dow*
the following indications. I. To remove the remote
caufes when they are evident and continue to operate.
2. To take off the phlogiftic diathefis affeCting the
whole fyftem, or the particular part. 3. To take off
the fpafm of the particular part, by remedies applied to
the whole fyftem, or to the part itfelf.
The means of removing the remote caufes will rea¬
dily occur, from confidering the particular nature and
cireumftances of the different kinds. Acrid matters
muft be removed, or their aCtion muft be prevented,
by the application of demulcents. Comprefling and
overftretching pow’ers muft be taken away j and from
their feveral circumftances, the means of doing fo will
be obvious.
The means of taking off the phlogiftic diathefis of
the fyftem are the fame with thofe already mentioned
under the cure for fynocha. The means of taking off
the fpafm alfo from the particular part, are. much the
fame with thofe already mentioned. Only it is to be
remembered, that topical bleedings, fuch as cupping
with fcarifications, applying leeches, &c. are in this
cafe much more indicated ; and that fome of the other
remedies are to be directed more particularly to the
part affefted, as ftiall be more fully confidered when
we treat of thofe difeafes attended with particular in¬
flammations.
When a tendency to fuppuration is perceived, the
proper indication is to promote the production of per-
fe6t pus as much as poflible. For this purpofe various
remedies, fuppofed to poffeis a fpecific power, have
been propofed : but it does not appear that any of them
are poffeffed of a virtue of this kind 5 and, in Dr Cul¬
len’s opinion, all that can be done is to favour the
fuppuration by fuch applications as may fupport a mo¬
derate heat in the part, by fome tenacity confine the
perfpiration, and by an emollient quality may weaken
the cohefion of the teguments, and favour their erofion.
As all abfeeffes are occafioned by the effufion of fluids,
and as in the cafe of certain effufions a fuppuration be¬
comes
fWHce. M E D I
Phlegma- comes not only Unavoidable but delirable, it may be
fise- , fuppofed that molt of the means of procuring a refolu-
r tion, by diminiQiing the force of circulation, &c. ought
to be avoided. But as we obferve on the one hand,
that a certain degree of increafed impetus, or of the ori¬
ginal fymptoms of inflammation, is neceflary to produce
a proper fuppuration ; fo it is then efpecially neceflary
to avoid thofe means of refolution which may diminilh
too much the force of circulation. And on the other
hand, as the impetus of the blood, when violent, is found
to prevent the proper fuppuratipn 5 fo, in fuch cafes,
though a tendency to fuppuration may have begun, it
may be proper to continue thofe means of refolution
which moderate the force of the circulation. With re-
fpeft to the opening of abfeeffes when completely form¬
ed, fee the article Surgery.
When an inflammation has taken a tendency to gan¬
grene, that event is to be prevented by every poflible
means j and thefe muft be different according to the
nature of the feveral caufes : but after a gangrene has
in fome degree taken place, it can be cured only by
the feparation of the dead from the living parts. This
in certain circumftances can be performed, and moft
properly, by the knife. In other cafes it can be done
by exciting a fuppuratory inflammation on the verge
of the living part, whereby its cohefion with the dead
part may be everywhere broken off, fo that the latter
may fall off by itfelf. While this is doing, it is pro¬
per to prevent the further putrefaction of the part, and
its fpreading wider. For this purpofe various antifep-
tic applications have been propofed : but Dr Cullen is
of opinion, that while the teguments are entire, thefe
applications can hardly have any effeCt; and therefore
that the fundamental procedure mufl: be to fcarify the
part fo as to reach the living fubftance, and, by the
wounds made there, to excite the fuppuration required.
By the fame inciflons alfo we give accefs to antifeptics,
which may both prevent the progrefs of the putrefac¬
tion in the de&d, and excite the inflammation neceflary
on the verge of the living parts.
When the gangrene proceeds from lofs of tone, and
when this, communicated to the neighbouring parts,
prevents that inflammation which, as we have faid, is
requifite to the feparation of the dead parts from the
living, it will be neceflary to obviate this lofs of tone
by tonic medicines given internally j and for this pur¬
pofe cinchona has been found to be moft effectual.
But when the gangrene arifes from the violence of in¬
flammation, the bark may not only fail of proving a
remedy, but may do harm : for its power as a tonic is
efpecially fuited to thofe cafes of gangrene which pro¬
ceed from an original lofs of tone, as in the cafe of palfy
and oedema ; or in thofe cafes where a lofs of tone takes
place after the original inflammatory fymptoms are re¬
moved.
On the other hand, Mr Bell is of opinion, that in-
cifions made with a view to admit the operation of an-
tifeptic remedies in gangrenes, as well as the remedies
themfelves, muff be pernicious from the irritation they
occafion, and from the danger of wounding blood-
veffels, nerves, or tendons, and alfo by allowing a free
paffage for the putrefcent fluids into the parts not
yet affefted. And unlefs they be carried fo deep as
to reach the found parts, applications of the antifeptic
kind can never have any effeCl in anfwering the pur-
C I N E. 29:^
pofe for which they were intended. The fame author PMogofis.
alfo remarks, that all the advantages commonly obfer-
ved from the great number of applications recommend¬
ed for gangrene, are obtained with more eafe, and ge¬
nerally too with more certainty, from the ufe of fome
gentle flimulating embrocation j which, by exciting a
flight irritation upon the furface, efpecially when aflift-
ed by a free ufe of cinchona, produces for the moll part
fuch a degree of inflammation as is wifhed for. With '
this view he has frequently known a weak folution of
fal ammoniac, a dram of the fait to two ounces of vine¬
gar and flx of water, form a mixture of very proper
ftrength for every purpofe of this kind. But the degree
of ftimulus can eafily be either increafed or diminilhed
according to circumftances, by ufing a larger or fmaller
proportion of the fait.
Whenever, either by the means recommended, or by
a natural exertion of the fyftem, a flight inflammation
appears between the difeafed and found parts, we may
in general, with tolerable certainty, expedt, that in due
time the parts will be feparated ; and when a full fup¬
puration is once fairly eftablilhed, there can be little
doubt that the mortified parts will be foon and eafily
removed.
A complete feparation being effedted, the fore is to
be treated in the manner defcribed under the article
Surgery 5 with a proper attention, at the fame time,
to the fupport of the general fyftem by the continuance
of nourilhing diet, and cinchona with fuch quantities of
wine as may feem neceffary.
With regard to the bark, however, it is proper t©
take notice of another cafe of mortification in which it
is likewife unfuccefsful, as well as in that attended with
a high degree of inflammation ; and that is, in thofe
mortifications of the toes and feet, common in old
people, or Avhich arife from any caufe increafing the
rigidity of the veffels to fuch a degree as to prevent the
motion of the fluids through them. In this cafe Mr
Pott has difcovered, that all kinds of warm applications
are very unfuccefsful $ but by the free ufe of opium, to¬
gether with fedatives and relaxants externally applied,
he has frequently feen the tumefadtion of the feet and
ankles fubfide, the Ikin recover its natural colour, and
all the mortified parts feparate in a very ftiort time,
leaving a clean fore. But as to fcarifications, or any
other attempt to feparate artificially the mortified from
the found parts, he thinks them very prejudicial, by
giving pain ; which is generally of itfelf violent in this
difeafe, and which feems to have a great lhare in pro¬
ducing the other evils.
The other terminations of inflammation either do
not admit of any treatment except that of preventing
them by refolution, or properly belong to the article
Surgery.
Sp. II. Phlogosis erythema. 173
Erythema, Sauv. gen. 11.
Eryfipelas audtorum, Vog. 343.
Hieropyr. Vog. 344.
Anthrax, Sauv. gen. 19. Lin. 272. Vog. 353.
Carbo et carbunculus audtorum.
Erythema gangraenofum, Sauv. fp. 7.
Erythema a frigore.
Erythema pernio, Sauv. fp. 4.
Pernio, Lin, 259. Vog. 330.
Erythema
MEDICINE.
294
Phlegma- Erythema ambuflio, Saw. fp. 2.
, fii£' Eryfipelas ambuftio, Sauv. fp. 4.
v Combuftura, Lin. 245.
Combultio, Boerh. 476.
Encaufis, Vog. 347.
Erythema ab acri alieno applicate.
Eryfipelas Sinenfe, Sauv. fp. 7.
Erythema ab acri inquilino.
Erythema intertrigo, Sauv. fp. 5.
Intertrigo, Lin. 247. Vog. 50 2.
Erythema a compreflione.
Erythema paratrima, Sauv. fp. 6.
Erythema h pundlura, Sauv. fp. 9.
Eryfipelas a vefpis, Sauv. fp. 19.
Pfydracia a vefpis, Sauv. fp. 2.
Erythema cum phlegmone.
Eryfipelas phlegmonodes au&orum.
Erythema cum cedemate.
Eryfipelas fymptomaticum, Sauv. fp. 6.
The word erythema does not apply to any primary
difeafe, but to a great number of thofe cutaneous in¬
flammations denominated by another general term, viz.
the eryjipelas, or “ St Anthony’s fire $” and which be¬
ing commonly fymptomatic of fome other inflammation
or diforder, are to be removed only by removing the pri¬
mary difeafe : the erythema is found fcarcely to bear
any kind of warm application to itfelf; and is very apt,
if treated as a primary difeafe, to terminate in a gan¬
grene of the part affe&ed, or fome other diforder ftill
more dangerous. The difference between the phlegmon
or preceding fpecies, and erythema, according to Dr
Cullen, is, that, in the former, the inflammation feems
particularly to affeft the veffels on the internal furface
of the fkin, communicating with the lax adjacent cel¬
lular texture \ whence a more copious effufion, and that
too of ferum convertible into pus, takes place. In
the erythema the affe&ion is of the veffels on the ex¬
ternal furface of the fkin communicating with the rete
tnucofum. This affection does not admit of any effufion
but what feparates the cuticle, and gives occafion to the
formation of a blifter, while the fmaller fize of the vef¬
fels admits only of the effufion of a thin fluid very fel-
dom convertible into pus. For the cure of the fever
attended with erythema or eryfipelas, fee below •, and
for the external treatment of erythema, fee Surgery.
m Genus VIII. OPHTHALMIA.
Inflammation of the E TES.
Ophthalmia, Sauv. gen. 196. Lin. 43. Vog. 341.
Sag. 231. Junck. 24.
Chemofis, Vog. 46.
Ophthalmites, Vog. 47.
Inflammatio oculorum, Hojfm. II. 165.
Ophthalmia taraxis, Sauv. fp. 1.
Ophthalmia humida, Sauv. fp. 8.
Ophthalmia chemofis, Sauv. fp. 12.
Ophthalmia eryfipelatofa, Sauv. fp. 7.
Ophthalmia puftulofa, Sauv. fp. 6.
Ophthalmia phlyftaenodes, Sauv. fp. 21.
Ophthalmia choroeidea, Sauv. fp. 13.
Ophthalmia tenebricofa, Sauv. fp. 10.
Ophthalmia trachoma, Sauv. fp. 4.
Ophthalmia ficca, Sauv. fp. 5.
Ophthalmia angularie, Sauv. fp. 14^
Ophthalmia tuberculofa, Sauv. fp. 3.
Ophthalmia trichiafis, Sauv. fp. 2.
Ophthalmia cancrofa, Sauv. fp. 15.
Ophthalmia a fynechiS, Sauv. fp. 16.
Ophthalmia h lagophthalmo, Sauv. fp. 17.
Ophthalmia ab elcomate, Sauv. fp. 18.
Ophthalmia ab ungue, Sauv. fp. 19.
Ophthalmia a corneae fiftulS, Sauv. Ip. 20.
Ophthalmia uveae, Sauv. fp. 22.
Ophthalmia metaftatica, Sauv. fp. 24.
Ophthalmia fcrophulofa, Sauv. fp. 9.
Ophthalmia fiphylitica, Sauv. fp. 11.
Ophthalmia febricofa, Sauv. fp. 23.
From reading this long lift of diftinflions which
authors have invented in the ophthalmia, it is evident,
that by far the greateft part of them are fymptomatic,
or merely the confequence of other diforders prefent
in the habit j and therefore the remedies muft be
directed towards the removal of thefe primary difor-
ders j and when they are gone the ophthalmia will be
removed of courfe. Dr Cullen obferves, that the in¬
flammation of the eye may be confidered as of two
kinds •, according as it is feated in the membranes of
the ball of the eye, when it is named ophthalmia mem-
branarutn; or as it is feated in the febaceous glands
placed in the tarfus, or edges of the eyelids, in which
cafe it may be termed ophthalmia tarfl. Thefe two
kinds are very frequently conne&ed together, as the
one may excite the other j but they are ftill to be di-
ftinguifhed according as the one or the other may hap¬
pen to be the primary affeftion.
I. The inflammation of the membranes of the eye af¬
fects efpecially, and moft frequently, the adnata, and
appears in a turgefcence of its vefiels 5 fo that the red
veffels which are naturally there, become not only in-
creafed in fize, but many more appear than in a natural
ftate. This turgefcence of the veffels is attended with
pain, efpecially upon the motion of the ball of the eye ;
and this irritation, like every other, applied to the
furface of the eye, produces an effufion of tears from
the lachrymal gland.
The inflammation commonly, and chiefly, affefts
the adnata fpread on the anterior part of the bulb of
the eye; but ufually fpreads alfo along the continua¬
tion of the adnata on the infide of the palpebree j and
as that is extended on the tarfus palpebrarum, the ex-
cretories of the febaceous glands opening there are
alfo frequently affe&ed. When the affeftion of the
adnata is confiderable, it may be communicated to the
fubjacent membranes of the eye, and even to the reti¬
na itfelf-, which thereby acquires fo great fenfibility,
that every impreflion of light becomes painful. The
inflammation of the membranes of the eye is in differ¬
ent degrees, according as the adnata is more or lefs
affected, or according as the inflammation is either of
the adnata alone, or of the fubiacent membranes alfo j
and upon thefe differences, different fpecies have been
eftablilhed *, but they feem all to differ only in degree,
and are to be cured by the fame remedies more or lefs
employed.
The proximate caufe of ophthalmia is not different
from that of inflammation in general ; and the dif¬
ferent circumftances of ophthalmia may be explained
by
Fradlce.
Ophthal.
Practice. MEDICINE
Phlegma- by the difference of its remote caufes, and by the dif-
fiae.
_ ferent parts of the eye which it happens to afFed j as
may be underftood from what has been already faid.
We (hall therefore proceed to give an account of the
method of cure.
The great obje&s to be aimed at in the treatment
of ophthalmia, are, in the firlt place, the refolution
of the indammation which has already taken place j
and, fecondly, the removal of thofe conlequences which
frequently arife from the inflammation, efpecially if it
have been of long Handing. But befides thefe, while
it has appeared from former obfervation, that there is
a peculiar difpofition to the difeafe, pra6lices may often
be fuccefsfully employed to combat this difpofition, and
thus prevent the return of the affedlion.
The ophthalmia membranarum requires the reme¬
dies proper for inflammation in general ; and when the
deeper-feated membranes are affe&ed, and efpecially
when a pyrexia is prefent, large general bleedings may
be neceffary. But this laft is feldom requifite, and,
for the moil part, the ophthalmia is an affeclion mere¬
ly local, accompanied with little or no pyrexia. Ge¬
neral bleedings therefore have little effect upon it, and
the cure is chiefly to be obtained by topical bleedings,
that is, blood drawn from the veflels near the inflamed
part \ and opening the jugular vein, or the temporal
artery, may be confidered as in fome meafure of this
kind. It is commonly fufficient to apply a number of
leeches round the eye •, but it is perhaps Hill better
to draw blood by cupping and fcarifying from the
temples. In many cafes, the molt effectual remedy
is to fcarify the internal furface of the inferior eye¬
lid, and to cut the turgid veflels upon the adnata itfelf.
Befides bloodletting, purging, as a remedy fuited
to inflammation in general, has been confidered as pe¬
culiarly adapted to inflammation in any part of the
head, and therefore to ophthalmia ; and it is fometimes
ufeful : but, for the reafons given before with refpeft
to general bleeding, purging in the cafe of ophthal¬
mia does not prove ufeful in any proportion to the eva¬
cuation excited.— For relaxing the fpafm in the part,
and taking off the determination of the fluids to it,
bliftering near the part has commonly been found ufe¬
ful. When the inflammation does not yield to the ap¬
plication of blifters after topical bleeding, great bene¬
fit is often obtained by fupporting a difeharge from
the bliftered part, under the form of an iffue, by which
means a more permanent determination of blood from
the part is obtained.
It is probably alfo on the fame principle that the
good effects obtained from the ufe of errhine medicines
in obftinatef cafes of ophthalmia are to be accounted
for. By thefe errhines, in particular, which occafion
and fupport for fome time a great difeharge from the
nofe, great benefit has often been obtained. The
powder of afarabacca, or the infufion of hippocaftanum,
ihuffed up the noie at bedtime in proper dofes, are often
productive of the beff effects, when many other reme¬
dies have been tried in vain.
Ophthalmia, as an external inflammation, admits of
topical applications. All thofe, however, which in-
creafe the heat and relax the veflels of the part, prove
hurtful; and the admiffion of cool air to the eye, and
the application of cooling and aftringent medicines,
which at the fame time do not produce irritation, prove
ufeful. Of all thefe the folution of acetite of lead, af-
fiduoufly applied, is perhaps the beft. In the cure of
this diftemper, indeed, all irritation muff carefully be
avoided, particularly that of light; and the only cer¬
tain means of doing this is by keeping the patient in a
very dark chamber.
2. In the ophthalmia tarfi, the fame medicines may be
neceffary, as have been already recommended for the
ophthalmia membranarum. However, as the ophthal¬
mia tarfi may often depend upon an acrimony depofit-
ed in the febaceous glands of the part, fo it may re¬
quire various internal remedies according to the variety
of the acrimony in fault; for which we muff refer to
the confideration of fcrophula, fiphylis, or other dif~
eafes with which this ophthalmia may be connected ;
and where thefe fhall not be evident, certain remedies
more generally adapted to the evacuation of acrimony,
fuch as mercury, may be employed. In the ophthal¬
mia tarfi, it almoff conftantly happens that fome ul¬
cerations arc formed on the tarfus. Thefe require the
application of mercury and copper, which alone may
fometimes cure the whole affeclion ; and they may be
ufeful even when the difeafe depends upon a fault of
the whole fyftem.
Both in the ophthalmia membranarum, and in the
ophthalmia tarfi, it is neceflary to obviate that gluinfr
together of the eyelids 'which commonly happens in
lleep ; and which may be done by infinuating a little
of any mild unctuous medicine between the eyelids be¬
fore the patient lhall go to fleep.
The llighter kinds of inflammations from the duff
or the fun, may be removed by fomenting with warm
milk and water, adding a fmall portion of brandy j
and by anointing the borders of the eyelids with an-
guentum tuticc, or the like, at night, efpecially when
thofe parts are excoriated and fore. But in bad cafes
after the inflammation has yielded a little to evacua¬
tions,^ the catap/afma aluminis of the London Pharma¬
copoeia fpread on lint, and applied at bedtime, lias been
found the beft external remedy. Before the ufe of
the latter, the folution of ffilphate of zinc is preferibed
with advantage 5 and in violent pains it is of fervice
to foment frequently with a decoftion of white poppy-
heads. One of the moft common and moft difagree-
able confequences of ophthalmia, is an offufeation of
the cornea, fo far obftrucling the paffage of light as
to diminifli or prevent vifion. This is fometimes. fo
confiderable as to admit of removal by operation :
but in {lighter cafes it may often be removed by the
application of different gentle efcharotics j and iii this
way, without the leaft danger of any inconvenience,
good effefts are often obtained, from gently introdu¬
cing into the eye- at bedtime a powder confiffing of
equal parts of fupertartrite of potafs and fugar, reduced
together to a fine powder.
Where there is a difpofition to frequent returns of
this affeftion, cinchona is often employed with fuc-
cefs in combating it : But nothing in general anfwers
better than frequent and regular ^ cold bathino- of the
eyes.
Befidcs the various fpecies of ophthalmia which were-
before known in Britain, another has lately been intro¬
duced, that contagious ophthalmia, viz. with which the
Britifli
295
ey6
MEDICINE.
Phlcgtna-
fia:.
J75
Britiih troops were affe£led in Egypt, and which they
have imported into this ifland 'on their return from
thence.
Of this affedlion many intercfting accounts have been
publiihed. Perhaps the beft is an elaborate treatife by
Mr Edmonfton, who has had many opportunities of
witneffing the affeftion, and extenfive praftice in the
treatment of the difeafe, both in Egypt and in Britain.
To his work therefore we may refer thofe who with for
the molt full information refpefting it. We fhall only
obferve, that now, no doubt can be entertained refpeft-
inpf the contagious nature of the difeafe ; and that
therefore the firft great object neceliary in the treat¬
ment is the complete feparation of the difeafed from the
found.
Genus IX. PHRENITIS.
PHRENST, or Inflammation of the BRAIN.
Phrenitis, Sauv. gen. ioi. Lin. 25. Sag. gen. 301*
Boerh. 771. Hoffm. II. 131. Junck. 63.
Phrenifmus, Vog. 45.
Cephalitis, Sauv. gen. 109. Sag. gen. 310.
Sphacelifmus, Lin. 32.
Phrenitis vera, Sauv. fp. 1. Boerh. 771,
Phrenitis idiopathica, Lunch. 63.
Cephalalgia inflammatoria, Sauv. fp. 9.
Cephalitis fpontanea, Sauv. fp. 3.
Cephalitis Uriahs, Sauv. fp. 4.
Siriahs, Vog. 34.
Cephalitis Littriana, Sauv. fp. 5.
Dr Cullen obferves, that the true phrenitis, or in¬
flammation of the membranes or fubftance of the brain,
is very rare as an original difeafe : but, as a fymptom
of others, much more frequent ; of which the following
kinds are enumerated by different authors :
Phrenitis fynochi pleuritic a;, Sauv. fp. 2.
Phrenitis fynochi fanguineae, Sauv. fp. 4.
Phrenitis calentura, Sauv. fp. 11.
Phrenitis Indica, Sauv. fp. 12.
Cephalitis iEgyptiaca, Sauv. fp. 1.
Cephalitis epidemica anno 1510, Sauv. fp. 6.
Cephalitis verminofa, Sauv. fp. 7.
Cephalitis cerebelli, Sauv. fp. 8.
Phrenitis miliaris, Sauv. fp. 3.
Phrenitis variolofa, Sauv. fp. 5.
Phrenitis morbillofa, Sauv. fp. 6.
Phrenitis a plica, Sauv. fp. 8.
Phrenitis aphrodiliaca, Sauv. fp. 9.
Phrenitis a tarantifmo, Sauv. fp. 14.
Phrenitis hydrophobica, Sauv. fp. 15.
Phrenitis h dolore, Sauv. fp. 13.
Cephalitis traumatica, Sauv. fp. 2.
Defcription. The figns of an impending phrenitis
are, immoderate and continual watchings •, or if any
lleep be obtained, it is difturbed with dreams, and
gives no refrefhment •, acute and lading pains, efpe-
eially in the hind part of the head and neck } little
third;; a great and dow refpiration, as if proceeding
from the bottom of the bread } the pulfe fometimes
fmall and dow, fometimes quick and frequent *, a fup-
predion of urine ; and forgetfulnefs. The didemper
when prefent may be know by the following figns :
Pra&ice,
The veins of the head fwell, and the temporal arteries Phrenitis.
throb much ; the eyes are fixed, fparkle, and have a v—
fierce afpeiff 5 the fpeech is incoherent, and the patient
behaves very roughly to the bydanders, with furious
attempts to get out of bed, not indeed continually, but
returning as it were by paroxyfms j the tongue is dry,
rough, yellow, or black ; there is a coldnefs of the ex¬
ternal parts *, a pronenefs to anger ; chattering of the
teeth j a trembling of the hands, with which the fick
feem to be gathering fomething, and actually do gather
the naps off" the bed-clothes.
Caufes of, andperfons fubjeB to, this diforder. People
of a hot and bilious habit of body, and fuch as are of
a pafiionate difpofition, are apt to be affe&ed with
phrenitis. In the fame danger are thofe who make
much ufe of fpices, or are given to hot and fpirituous
liquors ; who have been expofed more than ufual to the
fun, or obliged to undergo immoderate dudies or watch¬
ings ; who are fubjeft to headachs, or in whom fome
cudomary hemorrhages have been dopped } or the dil-
eafe may arife from fome injury offered to the head ex¬
ternally. Sir John Pringle obferves, that the phrenitis,
when confidered as an original difeafe, is apt to attack
foldiers in the dimmer feafon when they are expofed
to the heat of the fun, and efpecially when adeep and
in liquor. A fymptomatic phrenitis is alfo more fre¬
quent in the army than elfewhere, on account of the
violence done to all fevers when the fick are carried in
waggons from the camp to the hofpital, where the very
noife or light alone would be fufficient, with more de¬
licate natures, to raife a phrenfy. From thefe and fi-
milar caufes, a date of aftive infiammation, affefting
fome parts within the cranium, is produced : and there
can be no doubt, that from this all the fymptoms of the
difeafe arife, and particularly that peculiar delirium
which characterizes it. But in what manner local dif-
eafes, even of the brain itfelf, produce affeCtions of the
mind, we are dill totally in the dark.
Prognofls. Every kind of phrenitis, whether idio¬
pathic or fymptomatic, is attended with a high degree
of danger •, and, unlefs removed before the fourth day,
a gangrene or fphacelus of the meninges readily takes
place, and the patient dies delirious. The following
are the molt fatal fymptoms : A continual and furious
delirium, with Watching 5 thin watery urine, white
feces, the urine and dools running off involuntarily,
or a total fuppredion of thefe excretions •, a ready dif¬
pofition to become dupid, or to faint; trembling, ri¬
gor, chattering of the teeth, convulfions, hiccough,
coldnefs of the extremities, trembling of the tongue,
Ihrill voice, a hidden ceffation of pain, with apparent
tranquillity. The following are favourable : Sweats,
apparently critical, breaking out 5 a feeming effort of
nature to terminate the difeafe by a diarrhoea •, a large
hemorrhagy from the nofe ; fwellings of the glands be¬
hind the ears *, haemorrhoids.
Cure. From what has been faid of the theory of
this difeafe, the cure mud entirely depend on obtaining
a refolution of the inflammation. The objefts chiefly
to be aimed at with this view are, 1. The removal of
fuch exciting caufes as' continue to operate. 2. The
diminution of the momentum of the blood in the cir¬
culating fydem in general. 3. The diminution of
impetus at the brain in particular : and, 4. The avoid-
1 ing
Practice. MED!
Phtegma- ing circumflances \rlucli tend either to accelerate the
hx- motion of tlie blood or to give determination to the
u-^v head.
Different pradices may be ufed with thefe inten¬
tions ; but the moft powerful remedies are to be im¬
mediately employed. Large and repeated bleedings
are efpeeially neceffary j and thefe too taken from
veffels as near as poffible to the part affefled. The
opening the temporal artery has been recommended,
and with fome reafon : but as the practice is attended
with inconveniences, perhaps the opening of the ju¬
gular veins may in general prove more effectual; with
which, however, may be joined the drawing of blood
from the temples by cupping and fcarifying. It is alfo
probable, that purging may be of more ufe in this than
in fome other inflammatory affections, as it may ope¬
rate by revulfion. For the fame purpofe of revulfion,
warm pediluvia are a remedy, but rather ambiguous.
The taking off the force of the blood in the veffels of
the head by an eredt pofture is generally ufeful. Bli¬
stering is alfo ufeful, but chiefly when applied near to
the part affedted. In Short, every part of the antiphlo¬
gistic regimen is here neceffary, and particularly the
admiflion of cold air. Even cold fubftances applied
to the head have been found ufeful j and the applica¬
tion of fuch refrigerants as vinegar is certainly proper.
Opiates are thought to be hurtful in every inflammatory
ftato of the brain. On the whole, however, it muff be
remarked, that pradtitioners are very uncertain with re¬
gard to the means proper to be ufed in this difeafe ; and
the more fo, that the fymptoms by which the difeafe is
commonly judged to be prefent, appear fometimes
without any internal inflammation -7 and on the other
hand, diffeClions have fliown that the brain has been
inflamed, where few of the peculiar fymptoms of inflam¬
mation had appeared before death.
i7< ^Genus X. CYNANCHE.
Cynanche, Sanv. gen. no. Lin. 33. Sag. gen. 300.
Angina, Vog. 49. H ffm. II. 125. Junch. 30.
Angina inflammatoria, Boerh. 798.
•77 Sp. I. CWANCHE TONSILLARIS.
The Inflammatory ^UJNST.
Cynanche tonfillaris, Sauv. fp. 1.
Angina inflammatoria, fp. 5. Boerh. 80 3.
Defcription. This is an inflammation of the raucous
membrane of the fauces, affeding principally that con¬
geries of mucous follicles which forms the tonfils ; and
irom thence fpreading along the velum and uvula, fo
as frequently to affedl every part of the mucous mem¬
brane. The difeafe appears by fome tumour and rednefs
of the. parts j is attended with a painful and difficult
deglutition ; a troublefome clamminefs of the mouth
and throat; a frequent but difficult excretion of mu¬
cus; and the whole is accompanied with pyrexia. The
inflammation and tumour are commonly at firft rnolt^
eonfiderable in one tonfil; and afterwards, abating in
that, increafe in the other. This difeafe is not con¬
tagious.
. Caufes of, and perfons fuhjeSi to, this diforder. This
difeafe is commonly occasioned bv cold externally ap¬
plied, particularly about the neck. It affedls efpecially
the young and fanguine; and a diipolition to it is often
Vol. XIII. Part I.
CINE.
acquired by habit. It occurs efpecially in the fpri-ng
and autumn, when viciffitudes of heat and cold fre¬
quently take place.
Prognofls. This fpecies of cynanche terminates fre¬
quently by refolution, fometimes by fuppuration, but
hardly ever by gangrene ; though in fome cafes floughy
fpots appear on the fauces : the prognofis therefore is
generally favourable.
Cure. As the principal morbid affiedlion in this
difeafe, on which all its charadterifing fymptoms im¬
mediately depend, is the adlive inflammation in the
tonfils and neighbouring parts, the objedl firft and
principally to be aimed at in the cure is to obtain a
refolution of this inflammation. Sometimes, however,
it is neceffary to have recourfe to pradlices, with the
view of obviating urgent fymptoms before a refolution
can be effedled : and in other cafes, where a refolution
cannot be obtained, it mutt be the aim of the pradti-
tioner to promote a fpeedy and favourable fuppuration.
After fuppuration has taken place, the proper means
of promoting a difeharge of the purulent matter will
conclude the cure. Here fome bleeding mav be ne¬
ceffary ; but large and general evacuations are feldom
beneficial. The opening of the ranular veins is an in-
fignificant remedy, according to Dr Cullen, but is recom¬
mended as efficacious by Sir John Pringle: more benefit,
however, may in general be derived from leeches to the
external fauces. The inflammation may be often reliev¬
ed by moderate aftringents, and particularly by acids
applied to the parts affedted. In many cafes, nothing
has been found to give more relief than the vapour of
warm water received into the fauces.
Befides thefe, bliftering, and ftill more frequently
rubefacient medicines, are applied with fuccefs, as well
as anliphlogiftic purgatives ; and every part of the an-
tiphlogiftic regimen is to be obferved, except the ap¬
plication of cold. Sir John Pringle recommends a
thick piece of flannel moiftened with two parts of
common fweet oil, and one of fpirit of hartfliorn (or
in a larger proportion, if the fkin will bear it), to be ap¬
plied to tlie throat, and renewed once every four or five
hours:. By this means the neck, and fometimes the
whole body, is put into a fweat, which after bleeding
either carries off or leffens the inflammation. When
the difeafe has a tendency to fuppuration, nothing-
will be more ufeful than receiving into the fauces the
fleams of warm water. Benefit is alfo obtained from
poultices applied to the external fauces. When the
abfeefs is attended with much fwelling, if it break not
ipontaneoufly, it ought to be opened by a lancet ; and
this does not require much caution, as even the in¬
flammatory flate mav be relieved by fome fcarification
of the tonfils. When this difeafe runs very rapidly to
fuch a height as to threaten fuffocation, it is fometimes
neceffarv to have recourfe to bronchotomy as the only
means of faving the life of the patient. But there is
reafon to believe that this operation has fometimes been
employed where it was not neceffarv : and we may
fafely venture to fay, that it is but feldom requifite ;
info much that Dr Cullen tells us, he has never in his
practice feen any cafe requiring bronchotomy,
Sp. II. Cynanche maligna.
The malignant, putrid, or ulcerous SORE THROAT,
Cynanche maligna, Sauv. fp. 3.
PP
ryg
Cynanche
M E D I
Cynanche ulcerofa, Sauv. var. a. Journ. de Med.
Cynanche gangraenoia, Sauv. var. b. Journ. de Med.
Ulcers faucium et gutturis anginofa et lethalia, Hif-
panis Gurrotillo, Lud. Mercat. confult. 24.
Angina uleerofa, Fothergill's Account of the ulce¬
rous fore throat, edit. 1751. Huxkam on the ma¬
lignant ulcerous fore throat, from 1751 to 1753.
Febris epidemics cum angina ulcufculofa, Douglas's
Praftical Hiftory,. Bolton, 1736.
Angina epidenaica, Ruffe/, Oeeon. Natur. p. 105.
Angina gangraenofa, Withering's Dilfert. Inaug. E-
dinb. 1766.
Angina fuffocativa, Bard's Inquiry, New York,
1711'
Angina maligna, Johnjlone on the malignant Angina,
Worcefter, 1779.
llijlory and Defcription. This diftemper is not par¬
ticularly deferibed by the ancient phylicians j though
perhaps the Syrian and Egyptian ulcers mentioned by
Areteeus Cappadox, and the peftilent ulcerated tonfils
we read of in Aetius Amideus, were of this nature.
Some of the fcarlet fevers mentioned by Morton feem
alfo to have approached near to it. In the beginning
of the laft century, a difeafe exactly fimilar to this is
deferibed by the phylicians of that time, as raging with
great violence and mortality in Spain and fome parts of
Italy •, but no account of it was publilhed in this coun¬
try till the year 1748, when a very accurate one was
drawn up by Dr Fothergill, and in 1752 by Dr Hux-
ham. The latter obferves, that this difeafe was prece¬
ded by long, cold, and wTet feafons j by which probably
the bodies of people were debilitated, and more apt to
receive contagion, which poflibly alfo might be produced
by the ftagnant and putrid waters.
The attack of this difeafe wTas very different in dif¬
ferent perfons. Sometimes a rigor, with fulnefs and
forenefs of the throat, and painful iliffnefs of the neck,
were the firft fymptoms complained of. Sometimes
alternate chills and heats, with fome degree of giddi-
nefs, drowlinefs, or headach, ufhered in the diftemper.
It feized others with more fevere feverifh fymptoms j
great pain of the head', back, and limbs 5 a vaft op-
preffion of the prseeordia, and continual fighing. Some
grow'n perfons went about for days in a drooping
ftate, with much uneafinefs and anxiety, till at laft they
wTere obliged to take to their beds.—Thus various was
the difeafe, fays Dr Huxham, at the onfet. But it com¬
monly began with chills and heats, load and pain of
the head, forenefs of throat, and hoarfenefs 5 fome
cough, ficknefs at ftomach, frequent vomiting and
purging, in children efpecially, which wrere fometimes
very fevere j though a contrary ftate was more com¬
mon to the adult. There wms in all a very great de-
jeclion of fpirits, very hidden wreaknefs, great heavi-
nefs on the breaft, and faintnefs, from the very begin-
ning. The pulfe in general was quick, fmall, and
fluttering, though fometimes heavy and undulating.
The urine was commonly pale, thin, and crude ; how¬
ever, in many grown perfons, it was paffed In fmall
quantities and high coloured, or like turbid wliey.
The eyes were heavy, reddifh, and as it were weeping;
CINE. praaice,
the countenance very often full, ftufhed, and bloated, Cynanche.
though fometirnes pale and funk. y—
How flight foever the diforder might appear in the
day-time, at night the fymptoms became greatly ag¬
gravated, and the feverifti habit very much increafed,
nay, fometimes a delirium occurred on the very nrft
night; and this exacerbation conftantly returned through
the w hole courfe of the difeafe. Indeed, when it w-as
conliderably on the decline, our author fays he has been
often pretty much furprifed to find his patient had palled
the whole night in a phrenfy, whom he had left toler¬
ably cool and fedate in the day.
Some few hours after the feizure, and fometimes-
cotemporary with it, a fwelling and forenefs- of the
throat was perceived, and the tonfils became very
tumid and inflamed, and many times the parotid and
maxillary glands fwelled very much, and very fud-
denly, even at the very beginning ; fometimes fo
much as even to threaten ftrangulation. '1 he fauces
alfo very foon appeared of a high florid red, or rather
of a bright crimfom, colour, very fiiining and glofify ;
and moft commonly on the uvula, tonfils, velum pa-
latinum, and back part of the pharynx, feveral whitilh
or alb-coloured fpots appeared fcattered up and down,
which oftentimes inereafed very iaft, and foon covered
one or both the tonfils, uvula, &c. : thofe in the event,
proved Houghs of fuperficial ulcers (which fometimes,
however, ate very deep into the parts). The tongue
at this time, though only wrhite and moift at the tip,
wTas very foul at the root, and covered with a thick,
yellowifh or brown coat. The breath alfo now be¬
gan to be very naufeous ; which offenfive fmell in¬
creafed hourly, and in fome became at length intole¬
rable, and that too fometimes even to the patients
themfelves.
The fecond or third day every fymptom became
much more aggravated, and the fever much more con-
fiderable ; and thofe that had ftruggled with it tole¬
rably w'ell for 30 or 40 hours, were forced to fubmit.
The reftleflhefs and anxiety greatly increafed, as well
as the difficulty in fwallowing. The head was very
giddy, pained, and loaded ; there was generally more
or lefs of a delirium ; fometimes a pervigilium and per¬
petual phrenfy, though others lay very ftupid, but
often ftarting and muttering to themfelves. The Ik in
was very hot, dry, and rough ; there was very rarely
any difpofition to fweat. The urine was pale, thin,
crude ; often yellowilh and turbid. Sometimes vo¬
miting was urgent, and fometimes a very great loofe-
nefs, in children particularly. The Houghs wTere now
much enlarged, and of a darker colour, and the fur¬
rounding parts tended much more to a livid hue. The
breathing became much more difficult; with a kind
of a rattling ftertor, as if the patient was actually
ftrangling, the voice being exceeding hoarfe and hol¬
low, exa£Uy refembling that from venereal ulcers in
the fauces : this noife in fpeaking and breathing was
fo peculiar, that any perfon in the leaft converfant with
the difeafe might eafily know it by this odd noife $
from whence indeed the Spaniffi phyfieians gave it the
name of garrotillo, expreffing the noife made by perfons
when they are ftrangled with a rope. Dr Fothergill
never obferved in one of them the ftirill barking noife
that we frequently hear in inflammatory cynanche. The
breath
PracUce.
phlegm a- breath of all the difeafed was very naufeous; of fome
fia!- infufferably fetid, efpecially in the advance of the di-
'''' " ftemper to a crifis; and many about the fourth or fifth
day fpit off a vaft quantity of {linking purulent mucus
tinged fometimes with blood : and fometimes the mat¬
ter was quite livid, and of an abominable fmell. The
noftrils 4ikewife in many were greatly inllamed and ex-
'coriated, continually dripping down a very tharp ichor
or fanious matter, fo exceffively acrid, that it not only
corroded the lips, cheeks, and hands of the children
that laboured under the difeafe, but even the fingers
and arms of the very nurfes that attended them : as
this ulceration of the noftrils came on, it commonly
caufed an almoft inceffant fneezing in the children 5
but few adults were affected with it, at leail to any
confiderablc degree. It was furpriiing what quantities
of matter fome children difeharged this way, which
they would often rub on their face, hands, and arms,
and blitter them all over. A hidden ftoppage of this
rheum from the mouth and noftrils actually choaked
ieveral children ; and fome fwallowcd fueh quantities
of it, as occafioned excoriations of the inteftines, vio¬
lent grin mgs, dyfentery, &c. nay, even excoriations
of the anus and buttocks. Not only the noftrils, fau¬
ces, &c. were greatly affedted by this extremely fliarp
matter, but the wind-pipe itfelf was fometimes much
corroded by it, and pieces of its internal membrane
were fpit up, with much blood and corruption *, and
the patients lingered on for a confiderable time, and
at length died tabid *, though there were more frequent
inftanees of its falling fuddenly and violently on the
lungs, and killing in a peri pneumonic manner.
Dr Huxham was aftoniftied fometimes to fee feveral
fwallow with tolerable eafe, though the tumour of the
tonfils and throat, the quantity of thick mucus, and the
rattling noife in breathing, were very terrible •, which
he thinks pretty clearly ftiows, that this malignant
angina was more from the acrimony and abundance of
the humours than the violence of the inflammation.
Moft commonly the angina came on before the ex¬
anthemata •, but many times the cuticular eruption
appeared before the fore-throat, and was fometimes
very conftderable, though there was little .or no pain
in the fauces: on the contrary, a very fevere angina
feized fome patients that had np manner of eruption;
and yet, even in thefe cafes, a very great itching and
defquamation of the {kin fometimes enfued ; but this
was chiefly in grown perfons, very rarely in children.
In general, however, a very confiderable efflorefcence
broke out on the furface of the body, particularly in
children ; and it moft commonly happened the feeond,
third, Or fourth day: fometimes it. was partial, fome¬
times it covered almoft the whole body, though very
feldom the face : fometimes it was of an eryfipela-
tous kind ; fometimes more puftular : the puftules
frequently eminent, and of a deep fiery red co¬
lour, particularly on the breaft and arms; but often¬
times they were very fmall, and might be better felt
than feen, and gave a very odd kind of roughnefs to
the Ikin. I. he colour of the efflorefcence wTas com¬
monly of a crimfon hue* or as if the {kin had been
Imeared over with iuice of rafpberries, and this even to
the fingers ends; and the Ikin appeared inflamed and
Swollen, as it were; the arms, hands, and fingers, were
eften evidently fo, and very ftiff, and fomewhat pain-
ful. This crimfon colour of the /kin feemed indeed Cynanehe.
peculiar to this difeafe. Though the eruption feldom ^
failed of giving fome manifeft relief to the patient, as
to anxiety, ficknefs at ftomach, vomiting, purging,
&c. yet there was obferved an univerfal fiery eruption
on fome perfons, without the leaft abatement of the
fymptoms, nay almoft every fymptom feemed more ag¬
gravated, particularly the fever, load at breaft, anxiety,
and delirium ; Dr Huxham knew more than one or two
patients die in the moft raging phrenfy, covered with
the ttioft univerfal fiery rafti he ever faw : fo that, as in
the highly confluent fmallpox, it feemed only to de¬
note the quantity of the difeafe, as he terms it.
He had under his care a young gentleman, about
12 years of age, wbofe tongue, fauces, and ton¬
fils, were as black as ink, and lie fwallowed with ex¬
treme difficulty ; he continually fpit off immenfe quan¬
tities of a black, fanious, and very fetid matter, for
at leaft eight or ten days: — about the feventh day, his
fever being fomewhat abated, he fell into a bloody
dyfentery, though the bloody, fanious, fetid expec¬
toration ftill continued, with a moft violent coqgh.
He at length indeed got over it, to the very great
furprife of every one that faw him. Now, in this pa¬
tient, a fevere and univerfal rafh broke out upon
the feeond and third day; and the itching of his
ikin was fo intolerable, that he tore it all over ids
body in a moft {hocking manner: yet this very
great and timely eruption very little relieved his fever
and phrenfy, or prevented the other dreadful iymp*
toms mentioned.
An early and kindly eruption, however, was moft
commonly a very good omen ; and, when fucceeded by
a very copious defquamation of the cuticle, one of the
moft favourable fymptoms that occurred : but when the
eruption turned of a dufky or livid colour, or prema¬
turely or fuddenly receded, every fymptom grew
worfe, and the utmoft danger impended, efpecially
if purple or black {pots appeared up and down, as
fometimes happened ; the urine grew limpid, and ccn-
vulfions came on, or a fatal fuffocation foon clofed the
tragedy.
The difeafe was generally at the height about the
fifth or fixth day in young .perfons, in the elder not
fo foon ; and the crifis many times was not till the
11th or 12th, and then very imperfect; fome adults,
however, were carried off in two or three days ;
the diftemper cither falling on the lungs, and killing
in a peripneumonic manner; or on the brain, in which
cafe the patient either died rating or comatofe. In fome,
the difeafe brought on a very troublefome cough, puru¬
lent expectoration,, hremoptoe, and hectic fever ; in
which they lingered on for feveral wet ks, and then died
tabid.
If a gentle eafy fweat took place on the third or fourth
day ; if the pul ft became more flow, firm, and equal ;
if the Houghs of the fauces calt off in a kindly manner,
and appeared at the bottom tolerably clean and florid ;
if the breathing was more foft and free, and fome de¬
gree of vigour and quickncls returned in the eyes ; all
was well, and a falutary crifis followed foon by a con¬
tinuance of the fweat, and a turbid, fubfiding, farina¬
ceous urine, a plentiful expectoration, and a very large
defquamation of the cuticle. But if a rigor came on,
and the exanthemata fuddenly difappeared or turned
P p 2 livid ;
MEDICINE.
300
Phlegma-
fiae.
MEDICINE,
livid ; if the pulfe grew very fmall and quick, and the
ikin remained hot and parched as it were, the breath¬
ing more difficult, the eyes dead and glaify, the urine
pale and limpid, a phrenfy or coma fucceeded, with a
coldiih clammy fweat on the face or extremities j life
was defpaired ot, efpeciaily if a lingultus and choaking
or gulping in the throat attended, with hidden, liquid,
involuntary, livid Itools, intolerably fetid. In fume
few patients, -Dr Huxham obferved, fome time before
the fatal period, not only the fact bloated, fallow, Ihin-
ing and greafy as it were, but the whole neck very much
fwollen, and oi a cadaverous look ; and even the whole
body became in fome degree oedematous ; and the im
preffion of a finger,would remain fixed in a part, the ikm
not riling again as ufual \ an indication that the blood
ftagnated m the capillaries, and that the elailicity of
the fibres was quite lolt.
Medical writers are Hill much divided in opinion,
whether the eynanche maligna is to be coniidered as
the fame difeafe with the fcarlatina anginola, after¬
wards to be treated of, or not. 'I his queftion will
afterwards come to be more fully difeuffed. At pre-
fen* we may only obferve, that although ulcerous fore
throats of a malignant nature often appear fporadical-
ly, yet that the difeafe above deferibed appears only
as an epidemic, and is always the confequence of con¬
tagion.
We have, therefore, no doubt that the cynanche ma¬
ligna of Huxham, Fothergill, and Cullen, is precifely
the fame difeafe with the fcarlatina anginofa of Sauvage,
Withering, and other late writers. This is abundantly
demonitrated by the diverfities which take place in the
appearance of the difeafe among children of the fame
family during the fame epidemic.
Prognojis. This may be eafily gathered from the
above defeription. The malignant and putrid tendency
of the difeafe is evident, and an increafe of the fymp-
toms which arife from that putrefeent difpofition of the
body mult give an unfavourable prognoftic. On the
contrary, a decreafe of thefe, and an apparent increafe
of the vis viler, are favourable : in general, what is
obferved to be favourable in the nervous and putrid
malignant fevers, is alfo favourable in this, and vice
verfa.
Caufes. Since the accurate accounts given by Dr
Fothergill and Huxham of the epidemics which pre¬
vailed about 50 years ago, this difeafe has frequently
been obferved at times epidemic in almoft every differ¬
ent part of Britain. Like fmallpox, meafles, and chin-
cough, it feems in every cafe to be the effedt of a pe¬
culiar and fpecific contagion. It has been obferved
to prevail, equally generally in every fituation, and at
every feafon ; and on expofure to the contagion, no
age, fex, or condition, is exempted from it. But the
having once had the difeafe, feems in this affection to
afford the fame fecurity againft future contagion as in
the fmall-pox : at leaf! inftances, where it can be faid
that the fame individual has been twice affedted with
it, are both very rare and very doubtful, as well as in
fmall-pox.
Cure. Like other febrile contagions, the malig¬
nant ulcerous fore throat is terminated only by a na¬
tural courfe $ and the chief bufinefs of the practi¬
tioner is to combat unfavourable occurrences. In
this the feptic tendency of the difeafe is chiefly to
4-
Pra&ice.
be kept in view. The debility with which it is at- t'ynanche.
tended renders all evacuations by bleeding and pur- ’'“""Y——'
ging improper, except in a few inllances where the
debility is lefs, and the inflammatory fymptoms more
con(iderable. The fauces are to be preferved from the
efleets of the acrid matter poured out upon them, and
are therefore to be frequently wallied out by antifeptic
gargles or injections j and the putrelcent flate of the
whole fyflem Ihould be guarded againfl and corredted
by internal antifeptics, efpecially by the Peruvian bark
given in the beginning and continued through the
courie of the difeale. Great benefit is alio often de¬
rived from the liberal ufe of the mineral acids. Both
the lulphuric and muriatic, in a flate of proper dilution,
have been highly extolled by different medical writers,
and are productive of the belt effedts in adlual pradtice,
when they can be introduced to a fufticient extent.
In particular, the oxygenated muriatic acid, as recom¬
mended by Mr Braithwaite, has been found productive
of the greateft advantages. Emetics, both by vomit-'
ing and naufeating, prove ufef'ul. When any eonfi.de-
rable tumor occurs, blitters applied externally will be
of ferviee, and in any cate may be proper to moderate
the inflammation.
Very lately, the internal ufe of the capficum annuum,
or Cayenne pepper, as it is commonly called, has been
highly celebrated in this affection ; and it is particular¬
ly faid to have been employed with Angular luccefs in
the Weft Indies.
But of all the remedies lately propofed, none has
been more highly extolled than the external ufe of cold
ivater. It has even been contended by fome that by
dallung cold water on the furface of the body, an im¬
mediate artificial cure of this difeafe may be obtained.
We are, however, fully perfuaded, that cold water will
no more deftroy the contagion of this difeafe than of
fmall-pox ; and we cannot help thinking that the prac¬
tice is feldom neceffary, and fometimes hurtful.
Sp. III. Cynanche tracheaeis. i7?
The Croup.
Cynanche trachealis, Sauv. fp. 5.
Cynanche laryngea aufftorum, Eller de cogn. et cur
rand. morb. feefl. 7.
Anginse inflammatoriae, fp. 1. Boerh. 801.
Angina latens et ditficilis, Dodon. obf. i&.
Angina interna, Tulp. 1. 1. obf. 51.
Angina perniciofa, Greg. Horjl. Obf. 1. iii. obf. 1.
Suftbcatio ftridula, Home on the Croup.
Afthma infantum, Millar on the Afthma and Chin-
cough.
Afthma infantum fpafmodicum, Rujh, Differtation,
Loud- 1770.
Cynanche ftridula, Crawford Differt. Inaug. Edin.
1771,
Angina epidemica anno 1743. Molloy apud Rutty's
fiiftory of the weather.
Morbus ftrangulatorius, Starr, Phil. Tranf. N° 495.
Morbus truculentus infantum, Francof. ad Viadrum
et in vicinia graffans ann. 1738. C. a Bergen.
A nova. N. C. tom. ii. p. 157.
Catarrhus fuffocativus Barbadenfis ann. 1758. Hil¬
lary"'s Difeafes of Barbadces.
Angina
Practice.
Phle^ma-
fiSB
Angina inflammatoria infantum, RuJJel, Oecon. nat.
P-.70*
Angina polypufa live membranacea Michealis. Ar-
gentorati 1778, etauctores ab eo allegati.
Tbe bed defcription of this difeafe we have in Dr
Cullen’s Practice of Phyfic. He informs us, that it
coniifts in an inflammation of the glottis, larynx, or
upper part of the trachea, whether it affeft the mem¬
branes of thefe parts or the mufcles adjoining. It
may arih- tir t in thefe parts, and continue to fubfift in
them alone ; or it may come to affeft thefe parts from
the cytranche toniillaris, or maligna, fpreading into
them.
In either way it has been a rare occurrence, and few
ihftances of it have been marked and recorded by phy-
ficrans. It is to be known by a peculiar croaking found
of the voice, by difficult refpiration^ with a fenfe of
ffrmtening about the larynx, and by a pyrexia attend-
kgit'
From the nature of thefe fymptoms, and from the
difl"e£Iion of the bodies of perfons who died of this dif-
eafe, there is no doubt of its being of an inflammatory
kind. It does not, however, always run the courfe of
inflammatory afFe&ions ; but frequently produces fuch
an obflruetion of the palfage of the air, as fuffocates,
and thereby proves fuddenly fatal.
It particularly proves fatal, in confequence of the
trachea being obftrufted by a membranous fubftance
lining the inlide of it, and very nearly approaching in
appearance to the inflammatory exudation often dif-
covered on the inteftinal canal in thofe dying of en¬
teritis.
If we judge rightly of the nature of this difeafe,
it will be obvious, that the cure of it requires the
nioft powerful remedies of inflammation to be em¬
ployed upon the very firft appearance of the fymptoms.
When a fuffocation is threatened, whether any reme¬
dies can be employed to prevent it, is not yet deter¬
mined by fufficient experience: but it is evident, that
in certain cafes the life of the patient can be preferved
only by the removal of that matter which obftrufls the
paflage of air through the trachea.
The accounts which books have hitherto given us
of inflammations of the larynx, and the parts connect¬
ed with it, amount to what ive have now faid ; and
many inltances are recorded of the difeafe happening
in adult perfons: but there is a peculiar affeCtion
of this kind happening to infants, which has been lit¬
tle taken notice of till lately. Dr Francis Home is the
firft who has given any diftinCt account of this difeafe 5
but, fince he wrote, feveral other authors have taken
notice of it, and have given different opinions concern-
ing it;
This difeafe feldom attacks infants till after they
have been weaned. After this period, the younger
they are, the more they are liable to the difeafe. The
frequency of it becemes lefs as children become more
advanced $ and there are few inftances of children a-
bove 12 years of age being affeCIed with it. It attacks
children of the midland countries, as well as thofe
who live near the fea *, but it occurs much more fre¬
quently at certain places than at others. It does not
appear to be contagious j and its attacks are fre¬
quently repeated in the fame child. It is often ma-
M E D I C I N E. 301
nifeftly the effect of cold applied to the body} and Cynanche.
therefore appears moft frequently in the winter and
fpring feafons. It very commonly comes on with the
ordinary fymptoms of a catarrh ; but fometimes the
peculiar fymptoms of the difeafe (how themfelves at the
very firft.
Thefe peculiar fymptoms are the following : A
hoarfenefs, with feme ftirillnefs and ringing found,
both in fpeaking and coughing, as if the noife came
from a brazen tube. At the fame time, there is a
fenfe of pain about the larynx, feme difficulty of re-
fpiration, with a whizzing found in infpiration, as if
the paflage of the air were ftraitened. The cough
which attends it, is commonly dry 5 and if any thing
be fpit up, it is matter of a purulent appearance, and
fometimes films refembiing portions of a membrane.
With all thefe fymptoms, there is a frequency of
pulfe, a reftleflnefs, and an uneafy fenfe of heat.
When the internal fauces are viewed, they are fome¬
times without any appearance of inflammation 5 but
frequently a rednefs, and even fwelling, appears y and
fometimes there is an appearance of matter like to
that rejected by coughing, together with the fymp¬
toms now deferibed, and particularly with great dif¬
ficulty of breathing, and a fenfe of ftrangling in Hhe
fauces, by which the patient is fometimes fuddenly
taken off.
Many diffe&ions have been made of infants who
had died of this difeafe, and almoft conftantly there
has appeared a preternatural fubftance, apparently
membranous, lining the whole internal furface of the
upper part of the trachea, and extending in the fame
manner downwards into feme of its ramifications.
This preternatural membrane may be eafily feparated,
and femetimes has been found feparated in part from
the fubjacent proper membrane of the trachea. This
laft is commonly found entire, that is, without any
appearance of erofion or ulceration; but it frequently
ftiows the veftiges of inflammation, and is covered
by a matter refembiing pus, like to that reje&ed by
coughing 5 and very often a matter of the fame kind
is found in the bronclffge, fometimes in confiderable
quantity.
From the remote caufes of this difeafe; from the
catarrhal fymptoms commonly attending it; from the
pyrexia eonftantly prefent with it j from the fame
kind of preternatural membrane being found in the
trachea when the cynanche maligna is communicated
to it} and from the veftiges of inflammation on the
trachea difeovered upon diffe&ion ; we muft conclude,
that this difeafe confifts in an inflammatory affedlioa
of the mucous membrane of the larynx and trachea,
producing an exudation analogous to that found on
the furface of inflamed vifeera, and appearing partly
in a membranous cruft, and partly in a fluid form re¬
fembiing pus.
Though this difeafe confifts in an inflammatory af-
fe6iion, it does not commonly end either in fuppuration
or gangrene. The moft troublefome circumftance of it
feems to confift in a fpafm of the mufcles of the glottis,
threatening fuffocation.
When this difeafe terminates in health, it is by re-
folution of the inflammation, by ceafing of the fpafm
of the glottis, by an expe&oration of the matter ex¬
uding from the trachea, and of the crufts formed
there, .
3°2 M EDI
Pblegrna- tliere, Jmd irequenlly it ends without any expeftora-
i tion, <3r at leatt with fuch only as attends an ordinary
catarrh. But in Tome inttances, a falutary termination
has very fpeedily taken place,_ in confequence of the
difeharge of the membranous fubftance from the trachea,
even under its proper tubular form.
When the difeafe ends fatally, it is by a fuffocation
feemingly depending upon a fpafm affedting the glot¬
tis 5 but fometimes, probably, depending upon a quan¬
tity of matter filling the bronchia;, or obftructing the
1 trachea.
As we fuppofe the difeafe to be an inflammatory af¬
fection, fo we attempt the cure of it by the ufual re¬
medies of inflammation. Bleeding, both general and
topical, has often given immediate relief, and, by be¬
ing repeated, has entirely cured the difeafe. Blifter-
ing alfo, near to the part affedted, has been found ufe-
ful. Upon the firft attack of the difeafe, vomiting,
immediately after bleeding, feems to be of confider-
able ufe, and fometimes fuddenly removes the difeafe.
But emetics are ftill more ufeful in advanced periods.
By the employment of thefe, the matter obftruCfing
the trachea, and inducing fpafmodic affeCHons, has of¬
ten been fuccefsfully removed, when the fituation of
the patient feemed to be aknoft defperate. And as in
the progrefs of the difeafe frefli effufions of this matter
are very apt to take place, the frequent repetition of
emetics becomes necciTary. It is often neceilary to
have recourfe to thefe operating the molt expeditioufly,
fuch as fulphate of zinc even in large dofes. In every
ilage of the difeafe, the antiphlogiftic regimen is ne-
ceffary, and particularly the frequent ufe of laxative
glyfters. Some practitioners confider mercury, parti¬
cularly under the form of calomel, as an almoft infalli¬
ble remedy in tins difeafe. It has particularly been
extolled by Mr James Anderfon, an eminent furgeon
in Edinburgh. But we are forry to fay that in fume
cafes at lead, after the faired trial, it has been found
to fail. Though we fuppofe that a fpafm affeCling the
glottis is often fatal in this difeafe, antifpafmodic medi¬
cines have not in general been found of great fervice.
Some, however, have drongly recommende d the ufe of
afafoetida under the form of injeClion; others place great
confidence in oil or oily mixtures, taken by the mouth:
1 at more immediate benefit is derived from tepid bath¬
ing, and the employment of fulphuric ether, both ex¬
ternally and internally.
By thefe, when the difeafe is fpafmodic, it is often
faccefsfully removed. But by much the mod danger¬
ous form of the diieafe is the inflammatory date giving
the ' xudation. And when this inflammatory exuda¬
tion has even been removed from the upper part of the
trachea, yet it lias fometimes proved fatal from the in¬
flammation and exudation extending to the branches of
the afpera arteria. By fuch an occurrence the writer
of the prefent article had the misfortune to lofe a fa¬
vourite fon ; an amiable youth', in the fourteenth year
of his age, who was highly admired and fincerely re¬
gretted by all to whom he was known.
■rSo Sp. IV. CyNANCHE PHARYNGEA.
Cynanche pharyngea, Sauv. fp. 6. Eller de eogn. et
cur. fed. 7.
Angina; inflam mat oriae, fp. 4. Boerh. 804.
This is not materially different from the cynanche
CINE. Practice,
tonfillaris j only that the Inflammation is faid to begin Pneumo.
in the pharynx, though Dr Cullen fays he never knew ’A
an indance of it. The fymptoms are almod the fame, '-“"V—
and the cure is precifely fo, with that of the cynanche
tonfillaris.
Sp. V. Cynanche parotidjea. iBi
Cynanche parotidoea, SaUv. fp. 14. Ga/lis Oreil-
lons et Ourles, Tijfot Avis au peuple, 116.
Encyclopedic, au mot Oreillons.
Angina externa, Ang/is the Mumps, Rnjfel cecon.
natur. p. 114. Scotis the Branks.
Catarrhus Bellinfulanus, Sauv. fp. 4.
Offervazioni di Girol. Gafpari, Venez. 1731.
Offervazioni di Targ. To-zetii, Racolta ima, p. 176.
This is a difeafe well known to the vulgar, but
little taken notice of by medical writers. It is often
epidemic, and manifeftly contagious. It comes on
with the ufual fymptoms of pyrexia, which is foon af¬
ter attended with a -confiderable tumor of the exter¬
nal fauces and neck. The fwelling appears fird as
a glandular moveable tumor at the corner of the
lower jaw 5 but it foon becomes uniformly diffufed
over a great part of the neck, fotnetimes on one fide
only, but more commonly on both. The fwelling
continues to increafe till the fourth day 5 but from
that period it declines, and in a few days more goes
off entirely. As the fwelling of the fauces recedes,
it not unfrequently happens that fome tumor affcTs
the tedicles in the male fex, or the breads in the
female. Thefe tumors are fometimes large, hard, and
fomewhat painful ; but are feldom either very painful
or of long continuance. The pyrexia attending this
difeafe is commonly flight, and goes off with the fuel¬
ling of the fatices j but fometimes, when the fwelling
of the tedicles does not fucceed to that of the fauces,
or when the one or the other has been fuddenly re-
preffed, the pyrexia becomes more confiderable, is of¬
ten attended with delirium, and has fometimes proved
fatal.
As this difeafe commonly runs its courfe without ei¬
ther dangerous or troublefome fymptoms, fo it hardly
requires any remedies. An antiphlogiftic regimen, and
avoiding cold, are all that will be commonly necefiary.
But when, upon the receding of the fwellings, the py¬
rexia comes to be confiderable, and threatens an affec¬
tion of the brain, it will be proper, by warm fomenta¬
tions, to bring back the fwelling •, and by vomiting,
bleeding, or blidering, to obviate the confequences of
its abfence-
Genus XI. PNEUMONIA. xSi
Febris pneumonica, Iloffm. II. i3t5.
Sp. I. Peripneumonia. 1S3
Peripneutnony, or Inflammation of the Lungs.
Peripneumonia, Sauv. gen. 112. Lin. 34. Vog. 51,
Sag. gen. 3x1. Boerh. 820. Juncker 67.
Peripneumonia pura five vera Audiorum, Suuv. fp. 1.
Peripneumonia gaflrica, Sauv. fp. 11. Morgagn. de
cauf. et fed. Epifi. xx. art. 30, 31.
Peripneumonia catarrhalis, Sauv. fp. 6.
Peripneumonia
Practice.
Ph!e?ma-
flEE.
MEDICINE.
ftotlia, Sydenh. fe£t. 6. cap. 4.
Morgagni de cauf. et fed. Epift.
Peripneumonia
Boerh. 867.
—v-"—' xxi. 11.—15
Peripneumonia putrida, Sauv. fp. 2.
Peripneumonia ardens, Sauv. fp. 3.
Peripneumonia maligna, Sauv. fp. 4.
Peripneumonia typhodes, Sfmn fp.
Amphimerina peripneumonica, Suuv. fp. 15.
i$4 Sp. II. Pleuritis.
The Pleurify, or Inflammation of the Pleura.
Pleuritis, Sauv. gen. 103. Lin. 27.. Vog. 56. Sag.
gen..303. Boer//. 875. Junch. 67.
Paraphrenefis, Sauv. gen. 102. Lin. 26.
Paraphtenitis, Fog. 51;. Boerh. 907.
Diaphragmitis, Sag. gen. 304,
Pleuritis vera, Sauv. fp. I. Boerh. 875. Verna
princeps morb. acut. pleuritis, 1. 1. cap. 2. 3.
Zeviani della parapleuritide, cap. 3, Morgagni
de fed. et cauf. morb. Epifl. xx. art. 56. xxi. 45.
Wendt de pleuruide, apud San difurt, thef. ii.
Pleuriiis pulmonis, Sauv. fp. 2. Zevian. dell, para-
pleur. iii. 28, &c.
Pleuropneumonia, pleuro-peri'pneumonia, peripneu-
mo-pleuritis Au61orum. Baronins de pleuri-pneu-
monia. 111. Hal/eri opufcul. patholog. obf. 13.
Morgagni de fed. et cauf. Epift. xx and xxi. paf-
fim. Cleghorn, Minorca, p. 247. Triller de pleuri-
tide, aph. 1, 2, 3. cap. i.
on pleurifies, &c. chap. i.
the army.
Pleuritis convulftva, Sauv. fp.
vol. i. p. 234.
Pleuritis hydrothoracica, Sauv. fp.
cauf. et fed. xx. 34.
Pleuritis dorfalis, Sauv. fp. 3. Verna, p< 3. cap. 8.
Pleuritis mediaftini, Sauv. fp. 3. P. Sa/. Div. de
affcc. part. cap. 6. Friend, Hift. Med. de Aven-
zoare.
Mediaftina, Vog. 52.
Pleuritis pericardii, Sauv. fp. 5. Verna, p. iii.
cap. 9.
Parapleuritis, Zeviani della parapleuritide.
Pleurodyne parapleuritis, Sauv. fp. 19.
Paraphrenefis diaphragmatica, Sauv. fp. 1. DeHaen.
Rat. med. i. 7. iii. p. 3 1.
Paraphrenefls pleuritica, Sauv. fp. 2.
Paraphrenefis hepatica, Sauv. fp. 3.
Under the general head of Pneumonia, Dr Cullen,
comprehends all inflammations of the thoracic vif-
«era, or membrane lining the infide of that cavity;
as the fymptoms do not always fufticiently diftinguifti
the feat of the affcftion, nor does a difference in the
fituation of the affected place make any difference in
the cure.
Dcfcription. Pneumonic inflammation, however va¬
rious in the feat, always difeovers itfelf by pyrexia,
difficult breathing, cough, and pain in fome part of
the thorax. It almoft always comes on with a cold
ftage, and is accompanied with the other fymptoms of
pyrexia; though in fome few inftances the pulfe may
not be more frequent, nor the heat of the body increa-
Ed beyond what is natural. Sometimes the pyrexia is
8. Hu'ham, Dilfert.
111. Pringle, Dif. of
13. Bianch. Hift:. hep.
15. Morgagni de
from the beginning accompanied with the other fymp¬
toms } but frequently it is formed fome hours before
them, and particularly before the pain be felt. The
pulfe for the molt part is frequent, full, ftrong, hard,
and quick 5 but, in a few inftances, efpecially in the
advanced ftate of the difeafe, it is weak, foft, and at
the fame time irregular. The difficulty of breathing
is moft confiderable in infpiration, both becaufe the
lungs do not eafily admit of a full dilatation, and be¬
caufe the dilatation increafes the pain attending the
difeafe. The difficulty of breathing is alfo greater
when the patient is in one pofture of the body rather
than another. It is generally greater when he lies on
the fide affeffed ; though fometimes the contrary hap¬
pens. Very often the patient cannot lie upon either
fide, and can find eafe only when lying on the back j
and fometimes he cannot breathe readily, except when
in fomewhat of an eredf pofture. The cough, in
different cafes, is more or lefs urgent or painful. It
is fometimes dry, or without any expedforation, efpe¬
cially in the beginning of the difeafe; but more com¬
monly it is, even from the beginning, moift, and the
matter fpit up various both in confiftence and colour,
and frequently it is ftreaked with blood. The pain is
alfo different in different cafes, and felt in different parts
of the thorax, but molt frequently in one fide. It has
been faid to affedt the right fide more frequently than
the left ; but tlus is uncertain, and we are fare that the
left fide has been very often affedted. Sometimes it is
felt as if it was under the fternum ; fometimes in the
back between the ftiouldcrs ; and when in the tides, its
place has been higher or lower, more forward or back¬
ward ; but the place of all moft frequently affedled is
about the fixth or feventh rib, near the middle of its
length, or a little more forward. The pain is often fe-
vere and pungent j but fometimes more dull and ob-
tufe, with a fenfe of weight rather than of pain. It is
moft efpecially fevere and pungent when occupying the
place laft mentioned. For the moft part it continues
fixed in one part, but fometimes (hoots from the fide to
the fcapula on one hand, or to the fternum and clavicle
on the other.
Dr Cullen fuppofes that the difeafe is always feat-
ed, or at lead begins, in fome part of the pleura, ta¬
king that membrane in its greateft extent, as now
commonly underftood ; that is, as covering not only
the internal furface of the cavity of the thorax, but al¬
fo as forming the mediaftinum, and as extended over
the pericardium, and over the whole furface of the
lungs. But as the fymptoms never clearly indicate
where the feat of the difeafe is, there is but little foun¬
dation for the different names by which it has been
diftinguilhed. The term pleurify is improperly limited
to that inflammation which begins in and chiefly af¬
fects the pleura coftalis. This Dr Cullen thinks is a
rare occurrence 5 and that the pneumonia much more
frequently begins in the pleura invefting the lungs,
producing all the fymptoms which belong to what
hath been called the pleuritis vera. The word f>ert-
pneumony has been applied to an inflammation begin¬
ning in the parenchyma, or cellular texture of the
lungs, and having its feat chiefly there. But to Dr
Cullen it feems very doubtful if any acute inflamma¬
tion of the lungs, or any dileafe which has been call¬
ed peripneumony, be of that kind. It feems probable,
that
303*
Pneumo-
MEDICINE.
that every acute inflammation begins in membranous
parts ; and in every dili'eftion of perfons who have died
of peripneumony, the external membrane of the lungs,
or forrte part of the pleura, has appeared to have been
confiderably affected. An inflammation of the pleura
covering the upper furface of the diaphragm, has been
diftinguithed by the appellation of paraphrenitis, as fup-
pofed to be aitended with the peculiar fymptoms of
delirium, rifus furdonicus, and other eonvulfive motions:
but it is certain, that an inflammation of that portion
of the pleura, and affe&ing alfo even the mufcular fub-
flanee of the diaphragm, has often taken place with¬
out any of the fymptoms above mentioned 5 and neither
the difleflions which have fallen under Dr Cullen’s
obfervation, nor any accounts of difleftions, fupport the
opinion that an inflammation of the pleura covering the
diaphragm is attended with delirium more commonly
than any other pneumonic inflammation.— It is to be ob-
ferved, however, that though the inflammation may be¬
gin in one particular part of the pleura, the morbid af-
feiiion is commonly communicated to the whole extent
of the membrane.
The pneumonic inflammation, like others, may ter¬
minate by refolution, fuppuration, or gangrene : but
it has alfo a termination peculiar to itfelf ; namely,
when it is attended with an eflufion of blood into the
cellular texture of the lungs, which, foon interrupt¬
ing the circulation of the blood through the vifcus,
produces a fatal fuffocation. This indeed appears to
be the moft common termination of pneumonic inflam¬
mation when it ends fatally , for upon the diffection
of almofl every perfon who has died of this difeafe, it
appears that fuch an effuiion had happened. From
the fame difleftions we learn, that pneumonic inflam¬
mation commonly produces an exfudation from the in¬
ternal furface of the pleura, which appears partly as a
loft vifcid cruft, often of a compact membranous form,
covering every where the furface of the pleura, and
particularly thofe parts where the lungs adhere to the
pleura coftalis, or mediaflinum 5 and this cruft feems
always to be the cement of fuch adhefion. Tire fame
exfudation (hows itfelf alfo by a quantity of a ferous
fluid commonly found in the cavity of the thorax •, and
fome exfudation or effufion is ufually found to have
been made into the cavity of the pericardium. It
feems likewife probable, that an effufion of this kind
is fometimes made into the cavity of the bronchise •,
for in fome perfons who have died after labouring
under a pneumonic inflammation for a few days only,
the bronchise have been found filled with a confider-
able quantity of ferous and thickilh fluid, which muft
be confidered rather as the effufion above mentioned,
having had its thinner parts taken off by refpiration,
than as a pus fo fuddenly formed in the inflamed part.
It is, however, not improbable, that this effufion, as
well as that made into the cavities of the thorax and
pericardium, may be a matter of the fame kind with
that which in other inflammations is poured into the
cellular texture of the parts inflamed, and there con¬
verted into pus •, but in the thorax and pericardium it
does not always put on this appearance, becaufe the
cruft covering the furface prevents the abforption of
the thinner part. This abforption, however, may be
compenfated in the bronchite, by the drying power of
the air j and therefore the effufion into them may af-
Pra&ice.
fume a more purulent appearance. In many cafes of Pneumo.
pneumonic inflammation, when the expectoration is nia-
very copious, it is difficult to fuppole that the whole
proceeds from the mucous follicles of the bronchi* j
and it feems probable that a great part of it may come
from the effufed ferous fluid juft mentioned j and this
too will account for the appearance of the expectora¬
tion being fo often purulent. Perhaps the fame thing
will account for that purulent matter found in the
bronchi*, which Mr de Haen fays he had often ob-
ferved when there was no ulceration in the lungs,
and which he accounts for in a very ftrange manner,
namely, by fuppofing a pus formed in the circulating
blood.
Dr Cullen is of opinion, that the effufion into the
bronchi* above mentioned often concurs with the ef¬
fufion of red blood into the cellular fubftance ol the
lungs to occafiori the fatal fuffocation which frequent¬
ly terminates peripneumony : that the eftufion of ferum
alone may have this effeCI : and that the lerum poured
out in a certain quantity, rather than any debility in
the powers of expeCloration, is the caufe of that ceffa-
tion of fpitting which precedes the fatal event; for in
many cafes the expectoration has ceafed, when no other
fymptoms of debility have appeared, and when, upon
diffeCtion, the bronchi* have been full of liquid matter.
Nav, it is even probable, that in fome cafes fuch an
effufion may take place without any fymptoms of vio¬
lent inflammation ; and in other cafes the effufion tak¬
ing place may feem to remove the fymptoms of in¬
flammation which had appeared before, and thus ac¬
count for thofe unexpected fatal terminations which have
fometimes happened.
Pneumonic inflammation feldom terminates by refo¬
lution, without being attended with fome evident eva¬
cuation. An h*morrhagy from the nofe happening on
fome of the firft days of the difeafe has fometimes put
an end to it •, and it is faid, that an evacuation from
the h*morrhoidal veins, a bilious evacuation by ftool,
and an evacuation of urine with a copious fediment,
have feverally had the fame effeCI ; but fuch occur¬
rences have been rare. The evacuation moft frequent¬
ly attending, and feeming to have the greateft effeCI in
promoting refolution, is an expeftoration of a thick,
white, or yellowilh matter, a little ftreaked with blood,
copious, and brought up without much or violent
coughing. Very frequently the refolution of this dif¬
eafe is attended with, and perhaps produced by, a fweat,
if it be warm, fluid, copious, over the whole body,
and attended with an abatement of the frequency of
the pu'lfe, heat of the body, and other febrile fymp¬
toms. Although, from the hiftory now given, it ap¬
pears that pleurify and penpneumony cannot with ,
propriety be confidered as different difeafes, yet it is
certain that in different cafes this affeCHon occurs
with an affemblage of fymptoms feparate and diftind.
Thus even Dr Cullen himfelf, in his Nofology, has
defined pleuritjs to confift in pyrexia, attended with
pungent pain of the fide, painful refpiration, difficulty
of lying down, particularly on the affe&ed fide, and
diftrefiing cough, in the beginning dry, but afterwards
humid, and often with bloody expeftoration. V bile
again he has defined peripneumony to confift in pyrexia,
attended with a dull pain under the tternum and be¬
tween the Ihoulders, anxiety, difficulty of breathing, hu-_
Practice.
Phlegma- mid cougTi, expectoration generally bloody, a foil puli'e,
il®- and a tumid livid appearance of the countenance. It is
highly probable, that the firft of thefe fets of fymptoms
chiefly arifes from a ftate of active inflammation, and
the fecond from eff'ufion. Thus, in certain cafes, the
fymptoms may appear perfectly feparate and diftind ;
but more frequently both inflammation and e flu lion are
united j and thus the fymptoms in both definitions are
in general combined in the fame patient. But ftill
pleuritis, ftricily fo called, may be confidered as charac¬
terized by the acute pungent pain at a particular fpot
of the cheft, and that pain much aggravated on a full in-
fpiration; while proper peripneumonia is diftinguifhed by
the dull gravative pain, extended over the whole cheft,
and by the laborious refpiration.
Caufes of, and perfons fubjeB to, this diforder. The
remote caufe of pneumonic inflammation is commonly
cold applied to the body, obftructing perfpiration, and
determining to the lungs, while at the fame time the
lungs themfelves are expofed to the aftion of cold.
Thefe circumftances operate chiefly wdren an inflamma¬
tory diathefis prevails in the fyftem ; and therefore
thofe principally affe&ed with this difeafe are perfons of
the greateft vigour, in cold climates, often in the winter
fcafon, but particularly in the fpring, when viciflitudes
of heat and cold are frequent. This difeafe, however,
may arife in any feafon when fuch varieties take place.
Other remote caufes alfo may have a fliare in produ¬
cing this diftemper ; fuch as every means of obftrudl-
ing, draining, or otherwife injuring, the pulmonary
organs. The pneumatic inflammation has fometimes
been fo much an epidemic, that it hath been fufpecl-
ed of depending on a fpecific contagion •, but Dr
Cullen never met with an inftance of its being conta¬
gious.
Prognofs. In pneumatic inflammations, a violent
pyrexia is always dangerous. The danger, however,
is chiefly denoted by the difficulty of breathing. When
the patient can lie on one fide only •, when he can lie on
neither fide, but only on his back when he cannot
breathe with tolerable eafe, except when the trunk of
his body is eredl •, when even in this pofture the breath¬
ing is very difficult, and attended with a turgefcence
and flufhing of the face, with partial fweats about the
head and neck, and an irregular pulfe ; thefe circum¬
ftances mark the difficulty of breathing in diff’erent de¬
grees •, and confequently, in proportion, the danger of
the difeafe. A frequent violent cough, aggravating the
pain, is always the fymptom of an obftinate difeale ;
and as the difeafe is feldom or never refolved without
fome expectoration, fo a dry cough muft always be an
unfavourable fymptom.
The proper charaCteriftics of the expectoration have
been already laid down ; and though an expectoration
which has not thefe marks muft indicate a doubtful
ftate of the difeafe, yet the colour alone can give no cer¬
tain prognoftic. An acute pain, very much interrupt¬
ing infpiration, is always the mark of a violent difeafe j
but not of a more dangerous difeafe than an obtufe pain,
attended with very difficult refpiration, demonftrating
effufion into the cells.
When the pains, which had at firft affeCIed one fide
only, ftiall afterwards fpread into the other *, or when,
leaving the fide firft affeCIed, they pafs entirely into the
other ; thefe are always marks of a dangerous dxfeafe.
Vol. XIII. Part I.
A delunun coming on during a pneumonic inflaihma- Pneumo-
tion is always a fymptom denoting much danger. , nia'
When pneumonic diforders terminate fatally7, it is
on one or other of the days of the firit week, from the
third to the feventh. This is the moft common cafe j
but, in a few inftances, death has happened at a later
period. When the difeafe is violent, but admitting of
refolution, this alfo happens frequently in the courfe of
the firft week j but in a more moderate difeaie the re¬
folution is often put off to the fecond week. T he dif¬
eafe generally fuffers a remifiion on fome of the days j,
from the third to the feventh : which, however, may
be often fallacious, as it fometimes returns again with
as much violence as before j and in fuch a cafe
with great danger. Sometimes it dilappears on the
third day, while an eryfipelas makes its appearance on
fome external part *, and if this continue fixed, the
pneumatic inflammation does not recur. If the difeafe
continue beyond the 14th day, it will terminate in a
fuppuration, or Phthisis. The termination by gan¬
grene is much more rare than has been imagined : and
when it does occur, it is ufually joined w ith the termi¬
nation by effufion 3 the fymptoms of the one being
hardly diffinguifhable from thofe of the other.
Cure. This muft proceed upon the general plan
mentioned under Synocha 3 but, on account of the
importance of the part affeCIed, the remedies muff be
employed early, and as fully as poffible : and thefe are
chiefly direCled with one -of three views, viz. for ob¬
taining a refolution of the inflammation in the thorax,
for mitigating the urgent fymptoms before a refolution
can be effeCted, and for counteracting or obviating the
confequences of the difeafe. VenefeCIion is the re¬
medy chiefly to be depended on 3 and may be perform¬
ed in either arm, as the furgeon finds molt convenient j
and the quantity taken away ought in general to be as
large as the patient’s ftrength will allow. The remif-
fion of pain, and the relief of refpiration, during the
flowing of the blood, may limit the quantity to be then
drawn 3 but if thefe fymptoms of relief do not appear,
the bleeding fhould be continued to a confiderable ex¬
tent, unlefs fymptoms of a beginning fyncope come on.
It is feldom that one bleeding, however large, will cure
this difeafe 3 and though the pain and difficulty of
breathing may be much relieved by the firtt bleeding,
thefe fymptoms commonly and after no long interval
recur, often with as much violence as before. In this
cafe the bleeding is to be repeated even on the fame
day, and perhaps to the fame quantity as before.
Sometimes the fecond bleeding may be larger than the
firft. There are perfons, who, by their conftitution,
are ready to faint even upon a fmall bleeding 3 and in.
fuch perfons this may prevent the drawing fo much
blood at firft-as a pneumonic inflammation may require :
but as the fame perfons are found to bear after-bleed¬
ings better than the firft, this allows the fecond and
fubfequent bleedings to be larger, and to fuch a quan¬
tity as the fymptoms of the difeafe may feem to re¬
quire.
Bleedings are to be repeated according to the flate
of the fymptoms, and they will be more effeCIual wrhen
praCIifed in the courfe of the firfi: three days than af¬
terwards 3 but they are not to be omitted though four
days of the difeafe may already have elapfed. If the
phyfician has not been called in time, or the firft bleed-
Q.1 >ngs
MEDICINE.
306
Phlegma- ings have not been fufficiently large, or even though
, they ihould have procured feme remiiTion, yet upon
the return of the urgent fymptoms, bleeding may be
repeated at any time within the firft fortniglit, or even
after iliat period, if a fuppuration be not evident, or if
after a feeming folution the difeafe ihall have returned.
With refpeet to the quantity of blood which may
be taken away with fafety, no general rules can be gi¬
ven •, as it inuft be very different according to the Hate
of the difeafe, and the conlfitution of the patient. In
an adult male of tolerable ftrength, a pound of blood is
a full bleeding. Any quantity above 20 ounces is a
large, and any quantity below 12 is a frnall, bleeding.
An evacuation of four or five pounds, in the eourfe of
two or three days, is generally as much as moil patients
will bear ; but if the intervals between the bleedings,
and the whole of the time dming which the bleedings
have been employed, have been long, the quantity taken
upon the whole may be greater.
When a large quantity of blood has been taken
from the arm, and it is doubtful if more can be taken
in that manner with fafety, fome blood may Hill be
taken by cupping and fcarifying. This will efpecially
be proper, when the recurrence of the pain, rather than
the difficulty of breathing, becomes the urgent fymp-
tom and then the cupping and fcarification ffiould be
made as near as poffible to the pained part.
An expe&oration fometimes takes place very early
in this difeafe; but if the fymptoms continue urgent,
the bleedings mufl be repeated notwithftanding the ex-
pe&oration : but in a more advanced Hate, and when
the fymptoms have fuffered a confiderable remffion, we
may then truft the cure to the expectoration alone. It
is not obferved that bleeding, during the firit days of
the difeafe, Hops expeftoration 5 on the contrary, it
has been often found to promote it •, and it is only in
a more advanced Hate of the difeafe, when the patient
has been already exhaulted by large evacuations and a
continuance of his illnefs, that bleeding feems to put
a flop to expeftoration ; and even then, this Itoppage
feems not to take place fo much from the powers of
expectoration being weakened by bleeding, as by its
favouring the ferous effufion in the bronchia;, already
taken notice of.
Befides bleeding, every part of the antiphlogiftic re¬
gimen ought here to be carefully employed j the pa¬
tient muft keep out of bed as much as he can bear j
muft. have plenty of warm diluting drinks, impregnat¬
ed with vegetable acids, accompanied with nitre or
fome other cooling neutral fait •, and the belly alfo
ought to be kept open by emollient clyfters or cool¬
ing laxative medicines. Vomiting in the beginning
is dangerous •, but in a fomewhat advanced Hate of the
difeafe emetics have been found the belt means of pro¬
moting expeCIoration. Fomentations and poultices
to the pruned part have been found ufeful; but blifter-
ing is found to be much more effectual. A blifter,
however, ought not to be applied till at lead one bleed¬
ing has been premifed, as venefeCHon is lefs effectual
when the irritation of a blifter is prefent. If the dif¬
eafe be moderate, a blifter may be applied immediately
after the firft bleeding •, but in violent cafes, where it
may be prefumed that a fecond bleeding may fton be
neceffary after the firft, it will be proper to delay the
blifter till after the fecond bleeding, when it may be
Pra£Uce;
fuppofed that the irritation occaHoned by the blifter Pneumo.
will be over before another bleeding becomes neceffary. 11 ia.
It may frequently be of ufe in this difeafe to repeat J
the bliftering •, and in that cafe the plafters ffiould al¬
ways be applied fomewhere on the thorax, for when
applied to more diftant parts they have lefs effect. The
keeping the bliftered parts open, and making what is
called a perpetual blijler, has much lefs effeCt than a re¬
peated bliftering.
Many methods have been propofed for promoting
expeCIoration, but none appear to be fufficiently effec¬
tual •, and fome of the expeCtorants, being acrid ftimu-
lant fubftances, are not very fafe. The gums ufually
employed feem to be too heating j the fquills lei's fo j
but they are not very powerful, and fometimes inconve¬
nient, by the conftant naufea they occafion. The vo¬
latile alkali may be of fervice as an expeCtorant, but
it ought to be referved for an advanced ftate of the
difeafe. Mucilaginous and oily demulcents appear to
be ufeful, by allaying that acrimony of the mucus
which occafions too frequent coughing •, and which
coughing prevents the ftagnation and thickening of
the mucus, and thereby its becoming mild. The re¬
ceiving into the lungs the fleams of warm water, im¬
pregnated with vinegar, has often proved ufeful in
promoting expeCIoration ; and, for this purpofe, the
machine called the Inhaler, lately invented by Dr
Mudge of Plymouth, promifes to be of great ferviee.
But of all others, the antimonial emetics, given in
naufeating dofes, are perhaps the moft powerful for
promoting expeCIoration. The kermes mineral has
been greatly recommended j but does not,, feem to be
more efficacious than tartrite of antimony or antimonial
wine ; and the dofe of the kermes is much more uncer¬
tain than that of the others.
Though this difeafe often terminates by a fpontaneous
fweating, this evacuation ought not to be excited by
art, unlefs with much caution. When, after fome re-
miffion of the fymptoms, fpontaneous fweats arife, they
may be encouraged •, but it ought to be without much,
heat, and without ftimulant medicines. If, however,
the fweats be partial and clammy only, and a great dif¬
ficulty of breathing ftill remain, it will be very danger¬
ous. to encourage them.
Phyficians have differed much with regard to the
ufe of opiates in pneumonic affeCtions. It appears,
however, that in the beginning of the difeafe, and
before bleeding and bliftering have produced fome re-
miffion of the pain, and of the difficulty of breathing,
opiates have had a bad tendency, by their increafing
the difficulty of breathing and other inflammatory
fymptems. But in a more advanced ftate of the dif¬
eafe, when the difficulty of breathing has abated, and
when the urgent fymptom is a cough, proving the
chief caufe of the continuance of pain and want of
reft, opiates may be employed with great advantage and
fafety. The interruption of the expeftoration which
they feem to occafion, is for a fhort time only 5 and they
feem often to promote it, as they occafion a ftaghation
of what was by frequent coughing diffipated infenfibly:
and therefore give the appearance of what phyficians
have called conco&ed matter.
Opium combined with calomel has of late been high¬
ly extolled in this and other inflammatory difeafes by
Dr Hamilton of Lynn Regis; who has given a full ac¬
count
MEDICI N E.
practice. MEDICINE.
phlegm*- count of the fuccefe attending his practice with this re-
fi*. medy for the fpace of 16 years, in the 9th volume of
the Edinburgh Medical Commentaries. And fince his
recommendation, the. fame remedy has often been em¬
ployed by others with great benefit.
1S6
1S7
VOMICA, or Abfcefs of the Lungs .
Vomica, Boerh. 835. Junck. 35.
Pleurodyne vomica, Sauv. fp. 21.
Phthifis fometimes follows pneumonia, though the
cafe is not frequent. The fymptoms of it fo much re¬
ferable ordinary phthifis, that it can moft properly be
treated of under that head.
Empyema.
This is another confequence of a pneumonia termi¬
nating unfavourably, and is oecafioned by the effufion
of a quantity of purulent matter into the cavity of the
thorax, producing a lingering and painful diforder, very
often incurable.
Defeription. The firft fign of an empyema is a ccf-
fation of the pain in the breaft, which before was con¬
tinual : this is followed by a fenfation of weight on the
diaphragm *, and a fluctuation of matter, fometimes
making a noife that may be heard by the byflanders :
the acute fever is changed into a heftic, with an exa¬
cerbation at night: a continual and troublelbme dry
cough remains. The refpiration is exceedingly diffi¬
cult, becaufe the lungs are prevented bv the matter
from fully expanding themfelves. The patient can lie
eafily on that fide where the matter is effufed, but not
on the other, becaufe then the weight of the matter
on the mediaftinum produces uneafinefs. The more
the hsdtic heat is augmented, the more is the body
emaciated, and its ftrength decayed. In fome there
is danger of fuffocation when they ftoop down, which
goes off when they alter that pofture of the body ; and
in fome there is a purulent fpitting.—Thefe fymptoms
are accompanied with great anxiety, palpitations of the
heart, and faintings. Sometimes the patients have a
fenfation like a hot vapour afeending from the cavity
of the thorax to their mouth. Others, in a more ad¬
vanced ftate of the difeafe, have a putrid tafte in the
mouth. At the fame time, profufe night fweats wafte
the body, and greatly weaken the patient. The face
at firft grows red on that fide where the matter lies, at
laft the Hippocratic face comes on, and the eyes become
hollow. The pulfe is quick, but more frequently in¬
termitting. Sometimes the nails are crooked, and puf-
tules appear on the thorax •, and frequently, according to
the teftimony of Hippocrates, the feet fwell, and, on
the affedled fide of the breaft, there is an inflation and
fwelling of the fldn.
Caufes, &c. An empyema may arife either from
the burfting of a vomica of the lungs, or from a fup-
puration taking place after the inflammatory ftage of
pneumonia ; or fometimes from a fuppuratidn in the cafe
of a quinfy, when the inflammation had extended to the
afpera arteria, from whence arifes a kind of bloody
fpittle, and the patients are afflidled with an empyema,
unlefs they die on the 7th day of the difeafe, according
to the obfervation of Hippocrates. It mav arife alfo
from external violence, as wounds of the thorax, &c.
blood extravafated, corrupted, or changed into pus.
Like the vomica, it is a rare diftemper, but may attack Peritoi
all thofe fubjeft to pneumonia. y-
Prognojis. Very few recover after an empyema
has been once formed, efpecially if the operation of
paracentefis be neglefted. After this operatiorris per¬
formed, if a great quantity of bloody fetid pus be dif-
charged, if the fever continue, and if the patient fpit
up a purulent, pale, frothy, livid, or green matter, with
a decay of ftrength, there is no hope : But when a
fmall quantity of pus, of a white colour, not very fetid,
is difeharged ", when the fever and third: prefently ceafe,
the appetite returns, and faices of a good confidence
are difeharged, the ftrength alfo returning in fome de¬
gree ; there is then hope of a perfect recovery. If
the matter be not dried up in feven weeks time, the
difeafe readily changes to a fiftulous ulcer, which is
very difficult to cure. An empyema affecting both
fides of the thorax is more dangerous than that which
affects only one.
Cure. This confifts in evacuating the purulent mat¬
ter contained in the cavity of the thorax, which is
belt done by the operation of paracentefis of the tho¬
rax. See Surgery. Afterwards the ulcer is to be
treated with abftergent and confolida!ing medicines,
and the fame internal ones are to be given as in a
Phthisis.
Genus XIII. CARDITIS.
Inflammation of the HEART.
Carditis, Sauv. gen. 111. Vog. 54.
Pericarditis, Vog. 53.
Carditis fpontanea, Sauv. fp. 1. Senac. Traite dc
Coeur, 1. iv. c. 7, Meckel, Mem. de Berlin, 1736.
Eryfipelas pulmonis, Lomm. Obierv. lib. ii.
Defcription. This difeafe is attended with all the
fymptoms of pneumonia, but in a higher degree ; it is
befides faid to be accompanied with hydrophobic fymp¬
toms, fainting, palpitation of the heart, a feeming mad-
nefs, a funk and irregular pulfe, watery eyes, and a
dejeded countenance, with a dry and black tongue.
On diffedion, the heart and pericardium are found
very much inflamed, and even ulcerated, with many
polypous concretions.
Caufes, &c. The fame as in the pneumonia.
Prognofs. In the carditis the prognofis is more un¬
favourable than in the pneumonia ; and indeed, unlefs
the difeafe very quickly terminates, it mult prove fatal,
on account of the conftant and violent motion of the
heart, which exafperates the inflammation, and increafes
all the fymptoms.
Cure. Here bleeding is neceffary in as great a de¬
gree as the patient can poftibly bear, together with
bliftering, and the antiphlogiilic regimen likewife car¬
ried to a greater height than in the pneumonia ; but the
general method is the fame as in other inflammatory
difeafes.
Genus XIV. PERITONITIS.
Inflammation of the PERI TO NJE VM.
Sp. I. Inflammation of the PERITONAEUM properly fo
called.
Peritonitis, Vog. 62. Lieutad. Hift. anat. med.lib. i.
Q. ft 2 obf.
iSt
iSt
3o8
.Fhlegma-
fiae.
IP9
ipa
MEDICINE.
obf. 3. Raygerus apud eund. lib. i. obf. 341. Mor-
gagn. de fed. LVII. 20.
Sp. II. Inflammation of the PERITONJEUM extended
over the Omentum.
Epiploitis, Sativ. gen. 106. Sag. gen. 308.
Omentitis, Vog. 61.
Oinenti inflamraatio, Boerh. 985. et 111. Van Swie-
ten, Comm. Stork. An. Med. I. 132. liulme on
the puerperal fever.
Sp. \\\. Inflammation of the Pe RJTONJEUM ftretched
over the Mefentery.
Mefenteritis, Vog. 60.
Enteritis mefenterica, Sauv. fp. 4.
Genus XV. GASTRITIS.
Inflajtimation of the STOMACH.
A. Gastritis Phlegmonodjea, or the genuine
Gaflritis.
Gaflritis legitima, Sauv. fp. 1. Eller, de cogn. et
cur. morb. feft. xii. Haller, obf. 14. hift. 3. Lieut.
Hift. Anat. Med. lib. i. 74.
Gaftritis eryfipelatofa, Sauv. fp. 4.
Cardialgia- inflammatoria, Sauv. fp. 13-. Tralles^ de
opio feft. ii. p. 231.
Thefe difeafes Dr Cullen has thought proper to con-
ftder all under the general head of Gastritis, as there
are no certain figns by which they can be diftinguilhed
from each other, and the method of cure muft be the
fame in all.
Defcription. The inflammation of the flomach is at¬
tended with great heat and pain in the epigaftric re¬
gion, extreme anxiety, an almoft continual and pain¬
ful hiccough, with a molt painful vomiting of every
thing taken into the ftomach. Sometimes a temporary
madnefs enfues ^ and there is an inftance in the Edin¬
burgh Medical Effays of. the diforder being attended
with an hydrophobia. The pulfe .is generally more
funk than in other inflammations, and the fever inclines
to the nature of a typhus. The diforder is commonly
of the remitting kind, and during the remiflions the
pulfe frequently intermits. During the height of the
difeafe, a mortal phrenfy frequently fupervenes. The
difeafe terminates on the fourth, feventh, or ninth day,
or from the eleventh to the fifteenth ; and is more apt
to end in a gangrene than pneumonic inflammations,
and more frequently in a fcirrhus than in an abfcefs.
Caufes, &c. The inflammation of the ftomach may
arife from any acrid fubftance taken into it 5 from
a vehement palhon, too large draughts of cold liquor,
efpecially when the perfon is very hot) from a furfeit}
a ftoppage of perfpiration $ repulfion of the gout 5 in-,
flammations of the neighbouring vifcera; or from,
external injuries, fuch as wmunds, contufions, &c.—
It affects chiefly thofe of a plethoric habit and hot
bilious conftitution.
Prognofls. This difeafe is always very dangerous,
and the prognofis doubtful, which alfo muft always be
in proportion to the feyerity of the fymptoms. A
eeffation of pain, coldnefs about the prsecordia, great
3..
Eradice,
debility, with a languid and intermitting pulfe, with Gaftritis.
an abatement of the hiccough, denote a gangrene and '—““y—J
fpeedy death. From the fenfibility of the ftomach
alfo, and its great connexion with the reft of the
fyftem, it muft be obvious, that an inflammation of
it, by whatever caufes produced, may be attended with
fatal confequences 5 particularly, by the great debility
it produces, it may prove fuddenly fatal, without run¬
ning through the ufual courfe of inflammations.—Its
tendency to admit of refolution may be known by its
having arifen from no violent caufe, by the moderate
ftate of the fymptoms, and by a gradual remiflion of
thefe fymptoms in the courfe of the firft or at moft of
the fecond wreek of the difeafe. The tendency to
gangrene may be fufpedted from the fymptoms con¬
tinuing with unremitting violence, notwithftandingthe
ufe of proper remedies ; and a gangrene already begun
may be known by the fymptoms above mentioned^
particularly great debility and hidden ceffation of pain.
The tendency to fuppuration may be known by the
fymptoms continuing but in a moderate degree for
more than one or two wTeeks, and by a confiderable re¬
miflion of the pain, while a fenfe of weight and anxiety
ftill remain. When an abfcefs has been formed, the
frequency of the pulfe is firft abated : but foon after
it increases, with frequent cold fliivering, and an exa¬
cerbation in the afternoon and evening 5 followed by
night fweats, and other fymptoms of hedlic fever. Thefs
at length prove fatal, unlefs the abfcefs open into ths
cavity of the ftomach, the pus be evacuated by vomit¬
ing, and the ulcer foon healed.
Cure. It appears from diffeftions, that the ftomach
may very often be inflamed when the charadteriftic
marks of it have not appeared j and therefore we are
often expofed to much uncertainty in the cure. But
when we have fufficient evidence that a ftate of adtive
inflammation has taken place in the ftomach, the prin¬
cipal objedt to be aimed at is to obtain a refolution.
Before, however, this can be accompliftied, it will
often be neceffary to employ meafures with the view of
obviating urgent fymptoms. When the fymptoms ap¬
pear in the manner above deferibed, the cure is to be
attempted by large and repeated bleedings employed
early in the difeafe 5 and from thefe we are not to be
deterred by the weaknefs of the pulfe, for it will com¬
monly become fuller and fofter after the operation.
A blifter ought alfo to be applied to the region of the
ftomach ; and the cure will be aflifted by fomenta¬
tions of the whole abdomen, and by frequent emollient
and laxative clyfters. The irritability of the ftomach
in this difeafe will admit of no medicines being thrown
into it} and if any can be fuppofed neceffary, they
muft be exhibited in clyfters. Diluting drinks may be
tried 5 but they muft be of the very mildeft kind, and
given in very fmall quantities at a time. Opiates, in
whatever manner exhibited, cannot be retained in the
ftomach during the firft days of the difeafe ; but when
the violence of the difeafe fliall have abated, and when
the pain and vomiting recur at intervals only, opiates
given in clyfters are frequently employed w'kh advan¬
tage -y and after bleeding and blifters no remedy is
more effectual either in allaying the pain or vomiting.
As foon as the ftomach will retain any laxative, gentle
refrigerant cathartics, taken by the mouth, fuch as>
the foda phofphorata, foda tartarifata, or th,e like*
are...
MEDICINE.
Pfa&ice.
phlegma- are productive of great benefit. A tendency to gan-
fi® grene in this difeafe is to be obviated only by the
 ' means juft now mentioned ; but when it does actually
fupervene, it admits of no remedy. A tendency to
fuppuration is to be obviated by the fame means em¬
ployed early in the difeafe. After a certain period it
cannot be prevented by any means whatever ; and,
when aftually begun, muft be left to nature 5 the only
thing that can be done by art being to avoid all irri¬
tation.
m B. Gastritis ErTSIPELATOSA, or the Erysipelatous
Gajlritis.
Defcription. This fpecies of inflammation takes place
in the ftomach mucli more frequently than the former.
From difleCtions it appears that the ftomach has been
often affeCted with inflammation, when neither pain
nor fever had given any notice of it j and fueh is juftly
looked upon to have been of the eryfipelatous kind.
This kind of inflammation alfo is efpecially to be ex-
peCted from acrimony of any kind applied to the fto¬
mach ; and would certainly occur much more frequent,
ly, were not the interior furface of this organ common¬
ly defended by mucus exfuding in large quantity from
the numerous follicles placed immediately under the
villous coat. On many occafions, however, the exfuda-
tion of mucus is prevented, or the liquid poured out is
of a lefs vifcid kind, fo as to be lefs fitted to defend the
fubjacent nerves *, and it is in fuch cafes that acrid mat¬
ters may readily produce an eryfipelatous affeCtion of
the ftomach.
In many cafes this kind of Inflammation cannot be
difcovered, as it takes place without pain, pyrexia, or
vomiting : but in fome it may 5 namely, when it
fpreads into the cefophagus, and appears on the pharynx
and on the whole internal furface of the mouth. When
therefore an eryfipelatous inflammation affefts the mouth
and fauces, and there fhall be at the fame time in the
ftomach an unufual fenfibility to all acrids, and alfo a
frequent vomiting, there can be little doubt of the fto-
mach’s being affefted in the lame manner. Even when
no inflammation appears in the fauces, if fome degree
of pain be felt in the ftomach, if there be a want of
appetite, an anxiety and frequent vomiting, an unufual
fenfibility with regard to acrids, fome thirft, and fre¬
quency of pulfe, there will then be room to fufpect an
inflammation in the ftomach 5 and fuch fymptoms, after
fome time, have been known to difcover their caufe by
the inflammation riling to the fauces or mouth. In¬
flammation of this kind is often difpofed to pafs from
one place to another on the fame furface, and, in doing
fo, to leave the place it had at firft occupied. Such an
inflammation has been known to fpread fucceflively
along the whole tracft of the alimentary canal; oeca-
fioning, when in the inteftines, diarrhoea, and in the
ftomach vomitings; the diarrhoea ceafing when the vo-*
rnitings came on, and the vomitings on the coming on
of the diarrhoea.
Caufes, &c. An eryfipelatous inflammation may
arife from acrid matters taken into the ftomach ; or
from fome internal caufes not yet well known. It fre¬
quently occurs in putrid difeafes, and in thofe recover¬
ing from fevers.
Cure. When the difeafe is occafioned by acrid mat¬
ters taken internally, and thefe may be fuppofed Hill
prefent in the ftomach, they are to be walhed out by
drinking a large quantity of warm and mild medicines,
and exciting gentle vomiting. At the fame, time, if
the nature of the acrimony and its proper corrector be
known, this Ihould be thrown in ; or if a fpecific cor¬
rector be not known, fome general demulcents Ihould
be employed.
Thefe meafures, however, are more fuited to prevent
than to cure inflammation after it lias taken place.
When this laft may be fuppofed to have happened, if it
be attended with a fenfe of heat, with pain and pyrexia,
according to the degree of thefe fymptoms, the mea¬
fures propofed for the cure of the other kind are to be
more or lefs employed. When an eryfipelatous inflam¬
mation of the ftomach has arilen from internal caufes,
if pain and pyrexia occur, bleeding may be employed
in perfons not otherwife weakened ; but in cafe of its
occurring in putrid difeafes, or where the patients are
already debilitated, bleeding is inadmifllble ; all that
can be done being to avoid irritation, and only throw¬
ing into the ftomach what quantity of acids and acef-
cent aliments it ftiall be found able to bear. In fome
conditions of the body in which this difeafe is apt to
occur, cinchona and bitters may feem to be indicated ;
but an eryfipelatous ftate of the ftomach will feldom al¬
low them to be ufed.
Genus XVI. ENTERITIS.
Inflammation of the INTESTINES.
Enteritis, Sauv. gen. 105. Lin. 29. Vog. 57. Sag.
gen. 307.
Inteftinorum inflammatio, Boerh. 959.
Febris inteftinorum inflammatoria ex mefenterio,
Hojfbi. ii. 170.
Sp. I. Enteritis Phlegmonodjea, or the Acute
Enteritis.
Enteritis iliaca, Sauv. fp. 1.
Enteritis colica, Sauv. fp. 2. Boerh. 963.
Defcription. This difeafe ftiows itfelf by a fixed pain
in the abdomen, attended with fever, vomiting, and co-
ftivenefs. The pain is often felt in different parts of the
abdomen, but more frequently fpfeads over the whole,
and is particularly violent about the navel.
Caufes, &c. Inflammations of the inteftines may arife
from the fame caufes as thofe of the ftomach j though
commonly the former will more readily occur from cold’
applied to the lower extremities, or to the belly itfelf.
It is alfo found fupervening on the fpafmodic colic, in¬
carcerated hernia, and volvulus.
Prognofls. Inflammations of the inteftines have the-
fame terminations with thofe of the ftomach, and the
prognofis in both cafes is much the fame.
Cure. The cure of enteritis is in general the fame
with that of gaftritis ^ but in this difeafe there is com¬
monly more opportunity for the introdu&ion of li¬
quids, of acid, acefcent, and other cooling remedies,
and even of laxatives; but as a vomiting frequently
attends the enteritis, care muft be taken not to excite
that vomiting by the quantity or quality of any thing
thrown into the ftomach. With regard to the fuppu-
ratioat
3io M E D I
Phlegma- ration and gangrene of the xnteftines following the en-
i teritis, the obfervations made refpefting thefe termina¬
tions of gaftritis are equally applicable in this difeafe.
Sp. II. Enteritis E R TSIPELATOSJ, or Erysipelatous
Enteritis.
Concerning this nothing farther can be faid, than
what hath been already delivered concerning the gaf-
tritis.
*<>8 ‘ Genus XVII. HEPATITIS.
Inflammation of the LlVEB.
Hepatitis, Sauv. gen. 113. Lin. 35. Vog. 58. Sag.
gen. 312. Boerh. 9^4. Hoffrn. ii. 14. Junck. 66.
Defcription. The inflammation of the liver is
thought, to be of two kinds, acute and chronic ; but
the latter very ofien does not difcover itfelf except by
an abfcefs found in the liver after death, and which
is fuppofed to have been occafloned by fome degree of
inflammation ; for this reafon the chronic inflammation
often efcapes obfervation, and we lhall here only treat
of the acute hepatitis.
The acute hepatitis is attended with confiderable fe¬
ver \ a frequent, Itrong, and hard pulfe ; high-colour¬
ed urine •, an acute pain in the right hypochondrium,
increafed by prefling upon the part. The pain is very
often in fuel) a part of the fide as to make it appear
like a pleurify j and frequently, like that, is increafed
on infpiration. The difeafe is alfo commonly attended
with a cough, which is generally dry, though fometimes
moift •, and when the pain thus refembles a pleurify, the
patient cannot lie eafily except upon the fide affefred.
The pain is frequently extended to the clavicle, and to
the top of the Ihoulder ; and is attended fometimes
with hiccough, and fometimes with vomiting. Some
have added jaundice, or a yellownefs of the eyes, to the
fymptoms of this diftemper •, but experience Ihows that
it has often occurred without any fuch fymptom.
When hepatitis is of the chronic kind, depending
more on an accumulation and effufion in the liver,
than on an increafed action of its fmall veffels, the pa¬
tient complains rather of a fenfe of weight than of
pain •, and the fever is by no means either acute or
conftant: but it often returns in paroxyfms fome-
what refembling the attacks of an intermittent. This
difeafe is very flow in its progrefs, frequently continu¬
ing for many months, and at lafl: terminating in a very
confiderable fuppuration. In moft cafes, however, it
may be difeovered by careful examination of the re¬
gion of the liver externally. By this means, a confi¬
derable enlargement of that vifeus may in general be
detedled.
Caufes, &c. The remote caufes of hepatitis are not
always to be difeerned, and many have been afligned
on a very uncertain foundation. It is principally a
difeafe of warm climates. It has been fuppofed that
the difeafe may be an afFeftion either of the ex¬
tremities of the hepatic artery, or thofe of the vena
portarum -, and the fuppofition is by no means impro¬
bable. The opinion, however, mofi: commonly adopted
is, that the acute hepatitis is an affection of the exter¬
nal membrane of the liver, and the chronic kind an af-.
3
C I N E. Praffice.
feftion of the parenchyma of that vifeus. The acute Hepatitis,
difeafe may be feated either on the convex or concave
furface of the liver ; and in the former cafe a more
pungent pain and hiccough may be produced, and the
refpiration is more confidtrably affedted. In the lat¬
ter there occurs lefs pain ; and a vomiting is produ¬
ced, commonly by fome inflammation communicated
to the fiomach. The inflammation on the concave
furface of the liver may be readily communicated to
the gall-bladder and biliary dudts: and this, perhaps,
is the only cafe of idiopathic hepatitis attended with
jaundice.
Prognofls. The inflammation of the liver, like
others, may end by refolution, fuppuration, or gan¬
grene j and the tendency to the one or to the other of
thofe events may be known from what has been al¬
ready mentioned concerning the prognofis in gaftritis.
The refolution of hepatitis is often the confequence of,
or is attended with, evacuations of different kinds. A
haemorrhage fometimes from the nofe, and fometimes
from the hsemorrhoidal veffels, gives a folution of the
difeafe. Semetimes the fame thing is accompliflied by
a bilious diarrhoea •, and fometimes the refolution is
attended with fweating, and an evacuation of urine
depofiting a copious fediment. Sometimes it may be
cured by an erylipelas appearing in fome external part.
When the difeafe has ended in fuppuration, the pus
collected may be difeharged by the biliary dudls 5 or,
if the fuppurated part does not adhere anywhere clofe-
ly to the neighbouring parts, it may be difeharged '
into the cavity of the abdomen : but if, during the firft
ftate of inflammation, the affefted part of the liver fhall
have formed a clofe adhefion to fome of the neighbour¬
ing parts, the difeharge after fuppuration may be va¬
rious, according to the different feat of the abfcefs.
When feated on the convex part of the liver, if the ad¬
hefion be to the peritonaeum lining the common tegu¬
ments, the pus may make its xvay through thefe, and be
difeharged outwardly : or if the adhefion fhall have
been to the diaphragm, the pus may penetrate through
this, and into the cells of the lungs j from whence it
may be difeharged by coughing. When the abfcefs is
feated on the concave part of the liver, in confequence
of adhefions, the pus may be difeharged into the
ftomach or inteftines \ and into thefe laft, either diredf-
ly, or by the intervention of the biliary duffs. Upon
a confideration of all thefe different circumftances,
therefore, together with the general principles of in¬
flammation, muff the prognofis of this difeafe be efta-
bliflied.
Cure. For the cure of hepatitis, we muff have re-
courfe to the general means of refolving other inflam¬
matory diforders. Bleeding is to be ufed according
to the degree of fever and pain. Blifters are to be
applied : fomentations of the external parts, emollient
clyffers, gentle laxatives, diluents and refrigerants,
are alfo ufeful. The cure, however, particularly in
warm climates, where the difeafe is much more com¬
mon than it is in Britain, is chiefly trufted to mercury.
Not only in cafes of the chronic kind, but in acute
hepatitis alfo, after an attempt has been made to al¬
leviate the urgent fymptoms by bleeding and buffer¬
ing, recourfe is immediately had to this powerful mi¬
neral. It is employed by different practitioners, and
phlegma
fiae.
Pradice. M
in diiTer^nt caias, under various forms. Some are
very fond of the ufe of calomel. But the preference
is in general given, and perhaps with jullice, to fric¬
tion with mercurial ointment over the region of the
liver. But under whatever form it may be employed,
it is neceffary that it fnould be introduced to fuch an
extent as to keep the patient on the verge of falivation
for fome length of time ; the duration being regulated
by the circumftanees of the cafe.
From the liberal ufe of mercury, there can be no
doubt that a fuccefsful refolution has been obtained
in many cafes, which would otherwife have infallibly
terminated in fuppuration. But notwithftanding the
moil: careful employment of it in fome cafes, fuppura¬
tion will enfue •, and then it is very doubtful whether
any benefit will be derived from the continuance of it.
But when a fuppuration has been formed, and the ab-
feefs points outwardly, the part mull be opened, the pus
evacuated, and the ulcer healed according to the ordi¬
nary methods in ufe for healing abfeeffes and ulcers in
other parts.
Chronic hepatitis often terminates in feirrhus.
Againll this, after mercury has failed, nitric acid
taken internally has fometimes been employed with
fuccefs.
Genus XVIII. SPLENITIS.
i^p Inflammation of the SPLEEN.
Splenitis, Sauv. gen. 114. Lin. 36. Vog. 59.
Junck. 67. Sag. gen. 313.
Lienis inflammatio, Boerh. 958. et Van Swieten,
Comm.
Splenitis phlegmonodasa, Sauv. fp. 1. Forefl, 1. xx.
obf. 5, 6. De Haen, apud Van Swieten, p. 958.
Pleu.ritis fplenica, Sauv. fp. 19.
Splenalgiav fuppuratoria, Sauv. fp. 3.
Defcription. This difeafe, according to Juncker,
comes on with a remarkable Ihivering, fucceeded by a
molt intenfe heat and very great thirl! j a pain and
tumour are perceived in the left hypochondrium, and
the paroxyfms for the molt part a flume a quartan form.
When the patients expofe themfelves for a little to
the free air, their extremities immediately grow very
cold. If a haemorrhage happens, the blood flows out
of the left noflril. The other fymptoms are the fame
xvith thofe of the hepatitis. Like the liver, the fpleen
is alfo fubjeft to a chronic inflammation, which often
happens after agues 5 and the tumour which fucceeds
the inflammation is in many cafes very confiderable, and
is called the ague cake, though that name is alfo fre¬
quently given to a feirrhous tumour of the liver fucceed-
ing intermittents.
Caufes, &.c. The caufes of this diftemper are in ge¬
neral the fame with thofe of other inflammatory difor-
ders ; but thofe which determine the inflammation to
that particular part more than another, are very much
unknown. It attacks perfons of a very plethoric and
fanguine habit of body rather than others.
Prognofls. What has been faid of the inflammation
of the liver applies alfo to that of the fpleen, though
the latter is lefs dangerous than the former. Here alfo
E D I C I N E.
1
a vomiting of black matter, which in other acute dif- Nephritis.
cafes is fuch a fatal fymptom, fometimes proves criti- —  
cal, according t© the teftimony of Juncker. Sometimes
the haemorrhoids prove critical; but very often the in¬
flammation terminates by feirrhus.
Cure. This is not at all different from what has been
already laid down concerning the hepatitis.
Genus XIX. NEPHRITIS. aco
Inflammation of the KlDNE TS.
Nephritis, Sauv. gen. 115.
Sag., gen. 314.
Nephritis vera, Sauv. fp. 1.
Lin. 37. Vog. 65.
Deflcription. The nephritis has the fame fymptoms
which take place in other inflammations ; but its diftin-
guhhing mark is the pain in the region of the kidney,
which is fometimes obtufe, but more frequently pun¬
gent. The pain is not increafed by the motion of the
trunk of the body fo much as a pain of the rheumatic
kind affecting the fame region. It may alfo frequently
be diftinguithed by the pain (hooting along the courfe
of the ureter, and it is often attended with a drawing up
of the tefticle, and a numbnefs of the limb on the fide
affected 5 though indeed thefe fymptoms mod common¬
ly attend the inflammation arifing from a calculus in
the kidney or ureter. The difeafe is alfo attended witli
frequent vomiting, and often with coftivenefs and colic
pains. I he urine is mod commonly of a deep red co¬
lour, and is voided frequently and in a fmall quantity
at a time. In more violent cafes the urine is common¬
ly colourlefs.
Caufes, &c. The remote caufes of this difeafe may
be various; as external contufion, violent or long-
continued riding; drains of the mufcles of the back
incumbent on the kidneys j various acrids in the courle
of circulation conveyed to the kidneys 5 and perhaps
fome other internal caufes mot yet well known : the
mod frequent is that of calculous matter obdruriing
the tubuh uriniferi,' or calculi formed in the pelvis of
the kidneys, and either (licking there or falling into the
ureter.
Prognofls. This is not different from that of other
inflammatory difeafes.
Cure. When any of thofe caufes operating as in¬
ducing the inflammation dill continue to aft, the fird
objeft in the cure mud be the removal of thefe ; but
the principal intention to be had in view, is the refolu¬
tion of the inflammation which has already taken place.
But when, notwithdanding efforts for this purpofe,
the difeafe terminates in fuppuration, it mud be the en¬
deavour of the praftitioner to promote the difeharge of
purulent matter, and the healing of the ulceration in
the kidney.
Thefe different objefts are principally accompliflied
by bleeding, external fomentation, frequent emollient
clyIters, antiphlogidic purgatives, and by the free ufe
of mild and demulcent liquids. The ufe of bliders is
fcarce admiflible, or at lead will require great care to
avoid any confiderable abforption of the cantharides.
The other fpecies of nephritis enumerated by authors
are only fymptomatic.
Genus
312
Phlegm a-
fiae.
y——J
201
MEDICINE.
202
203
2C4
Genus XX. CYSTITIS.
Inflammation of the BLADDER.
Cyftitis, Sauv. gen. 108. Lin. 31. Vog. 66. Sag.
gen. 309.
Inflammatio vellcae, Hoflin. ii. 157.
The Cystitis from Internal Caufes.
Cyftitis fpontanea, Sauv. fp. 1.
The Cystitis from External Caufes.
Cyftitis a cantharidibus, Sauv. fp. 2.
Cyftitis traumatica, Sauv. fp. 3.
The inflammation of the bladder from internal caufes
is a very rare diftemper ; and when it does at any time
occur, is to be cured in the fame manner with other
inflammations, avoiding only the ufe of blifters. When
the difeafe arifes from the internal ufe of thefe flies, cam¬
phor is recommended, befides other cooling medicines,
and particularly cooling and emollient clyfters.
Genus XXI. HYSTERITIS.
Inflammation of the UTERUS.
Pra&ice.
add to their diftention, and increafe their tendency to Rheumatic,
inflammation. rows-
Prognofls. An inflammation of the uterus may in L” r v—'**'
general be expected to produce an obftruftion of the lo¬
chia ; but the fever produced feldom proves fatal, un-
lefs the inflammation be violent, and end in a gan¬
grene.
Cure. This is to be attempted by the fame general
means already recommended, and the management of
this diforder entirely coincides with that of the puerpe¬
ral fever.
2.5
Genus II. RHEUMATISMUS.
The Rheumatism.
Rheumatifmus, Sauv. gen. 185. Lin. 62. Vog. 138.
Boerh. 1400. Lunch. 19.
Dolores rheumatici et arthritici, Hofl'tm II. 317.
Myofttis, Sag. gen. 301.
The Acute RHEUMATISM.
Rheumatifmus acutus, Sauv. fp. 1.
Rheumatifmus vulgaris, Sauv. fp. 2.
A. The Lumbago, or Rheumatifm in the Mufcles of ^
the Loins.
Hyfteritis, Lin. 38. Vog. 63.
Metritis, Sauv. ger\. 107. Sag. gen. 315.
Inflammatio et febris uterina, Hoflnt. II. 156.
Defcription. This difeafe is often confounded with
that called the puerperal or child-bed fever; but is
eflentially diftindl from it, as will be ftiown in its pro¬
per place. The inflammation of the uterus is often
apt to terminate by gangrene : there is a pain in the
head, with dilirium •, and the uterine region is fo ex¬
ceedingly tender, that it cannot bear the moft gentle
preffure without intolerable pain. When the fundus
uteri is inflamed, there is great heat, throbbing, and
pain, above the pubes j if its pofterior part, the pain is
more confined to the loins andreftum, with atenefmusj
if its anterior part, it ftioots from thence towards the
neck of the bladder, and is attended rvith a frequent ir¬
ritation to make Avater, Avhich is voided Avith difficulty j
and if its fides or the ovaria are affefted, the pains Avill
then dart into the infide of the thighs.
Caufes, &c. Inflammations of the uterus, and in¬
deed of the reft of the abdominal vifcera, are very apt
to take place in child-bed AATomen; the reafon of Avhich
feems to be the fudden change produced in the habit,
and an alteration in the courfe of the circulating
blood by the contradlion of the uterus after delivery.
The preifure of the gravid uterus being fuddenly taken
off from the aorta defcendens after delivery, the refift-
ance to the impulfe of the blood paffiog through all
the veffels derived from it, and diftributed to the con¬
tiguous vifcera, Avill be confiderably leffened : it A\rill
therefore rulh into thofe veffels with a force fuperior
to their refiftance 5 and, by putting them violently on
the ftretch, may occafion pain, inflammation, and fe¬
ver. This contraflion of the uterus alfo renders its vef¬
fels impervious to the blood Avhich had freely paffed
through them for the fervice of the child during preg¬
nancy ; and confequently a much larger quantity will
be thrown upon the contiguous parts, which will ftill
Lumbago rheumatica, Sauv. gen. 212. Sag. p. 1.
Nephralgia rheumatica, Sauv. Ip. 4.
B. The Sciatica, Ifchias, or Hip-Gout. 307
Ifchias rheumaticum. Sauv. 213. fp. 10.
C. The Baflard PleurisT, or Rheumatifm in the a#g
Mufcles of the Thorax.
Pleurodyne rheumatica, Sauv. gen. 148. fp. 3.
Pleuritis fpuria, Boerh. 878.
The other fpecies, which are very numerous, are
all fymptomatic *, as,
Lumbago plethorica, Sauv. fp. 3.
Ifchias fanguineum, Sauv. fp. 2.
Pleurodyne plethorica, Sauv. fp. 1.
Rheumatifmus hyftericus, Sauv. fp. 7.
Ifchias hyftericum, Sauv. fp. 3.
Pleurodyne hyfterica, Sauv. fp. 6.
Rheumatifmus faltatorius, Suuv. fp. 8.
Pleurodyne flatulenta, Sauv. fp. 4.
Pleurodyne a fpafmate, Sauv. Ip. 9.
Rheumatifmus fcorbuticus, Sauv. fp. 4.
Lumbago fcorbutica, Suuv. fp. 5.
Pleurodyne fcorbutica, Suuv. fp. II.
Ifchias fyphiliticum, Sauv. fp. 7.
Pleurodyne venerea, Sauv. fp. 5.
Lumbago fympathica, Sauv. fp. 13.
Lumbago a faburra, Sauv. fp. 8.
Pleurodyne a cocochylia, Sauv. fp. 7.
Rheumatifmus fallatorius verminofus, Sauv. fp. 8.
Ifchias verminofum, Sauv. fp. 8.
Pleurodyne verminofa, Sauv. fp. 2.
Rheumatifmus metallicus, Sauv. fp. 10.
Lumbago a hydrothorace, Sauv fp. 14.
Lumbago pfeudoifchuria, Sauv. Ip. 16.
Pleurodyne a rupto oefophago, Sauv. fp. 20.
Pleurodyne rachitica, Sauv. fp. 13.
Ifchias a fparganofi, Sauv. fp. 5.
Pleurodyna catarrhalis, Sauv. fp. 14.
Rheumatifmuf
Pra&ice.
Phlegma-
fix.
RhcumaLifmus necrofeos, Saw. fp. 14.
Rheumatifmus dorfalis, Sauv. fp. 11.
Lumbago a fatyriafi, Sauv. fp. 15.
Rheumatifmus febrieofus, Sauv. fp. 9.
Lumbago febrilis, Sauv. fp. 4.
&c. &.C.
M E D I
Defcription. The rheumatifm is particularly diftin-
guifhed by pains affeding the joints, "and for the moft
part the joints alone ; but fometimes alfo the mufcular
parts. Very often they {hoot along the courfe of the
mufcles from one joint to another, and are always much
increafed by the adion of the mufcles belonging to the
joint or joints affefted. The larger joints are thofe
moft frequently affe&ed, fuch as the hip-joint and
knees, of the lower extremities, and the {boulders and
elbows of the upper ones. The ancles and wrifts are
alfo frequently arfccled 5 but the fmaliet joints, fuch as
thofe of the toes or fingers, feldom fuffer. Sometimes
the difeafe is confined to one part of the body, yet
very frequently it affe&s many parts; and then it begins
with a cold ftage, which is immediately fucceeded by
the other fymptoms of pyrexia, and particularly by a
frequent, full, and hard pulfe. Sometimes the pyrexia
is formed before any pains are perceived j but more
commonly pains are felt in particular parts before any
fymptoms of fever occur. When no pyrexia is prefent,
the pain may be confined to one joint only ; but when
any confiderable pyrexia takes place, though the pain
may chiefly be felt in one joint, yet it feldom happens
that it does not affed feveral joints, often at the very
fame time, but for the moft part ftufting their place, and
having abated in one joint they become more violent in
another. 1 hey do not commonly remain long in the
fame joint, but frequently fhift from one to another, and
fometimes return to joints formerly affected 5 and in this
manner the difeafe often continues for a long time.
The fever attending thefe pains has an exacerbation
every evening, and is moft confiderable during the
night, when the pains alfo become more violent j and
it is at the fame time that the pains ihift their place
from one joint to another. Thefe feem to be alfo in¬
creafed during the night by the body being covered
more clofely, and kept warmer.
A joint, after having been for fome time affe&ed
with pain, commonly becomes alfo affeded with fome
fwelling and rednefs, which is painful to the touch. It
feldom happens that a fwelling coming on does not
take off the pain entirely, but it rarely fecures the joint
againft a return of it. This difeafe is commonly attend¬
ed with more or lefs fweating, which occurs early, but
is feldom free or copious, and feldom proves critical,
though it may give temporary relief of the pain. The
urine is high-coloured, and in the beginning without
fediment. This, however, does not prove entirely
critical, for the difeafe often continues long after fuch a
fediment has appeared in the urine. The blood is
always fizy. The acute rheumatifm differs from all
other inflammatory difeafes, in not being liable to ter¬
minate in fuppuration : this almoft never happens ^ but
the difeafe fometimes produces effufions of a tranfparent
gelatinous fluid into the (heaths of the tendons: but if
thefe effufions be frequent, it is certain that the liquor
muft often be abforbed j for it very feldom happens,
that confiderable or permanent tumours have been pro-
Vol. XIII. Part I,
C I N E. 313
duced, or fuch as required to be opened and to have the Rheumatif-
contained fluid evacuated. Such tumours, however, mus'
have fometimes occurred, and the opening made in them v
has produced ulcers very difficult to heal.
Sometimes rheumatifm will continue for feveral
weeks ; but it feldom proves fatal, and it is rare that
the pyrexia continues to be confiderable for more than
two or three weeks. While the pyrexia abates in its
violence, if the pains of the joints continue, they are
lefs violent ; more limited in their place, being confined
commonly to one or a few joints only ; and are lefs
ready to change their place.
It is often a very difficult matter to diftinguifh rheu¬
matifm from gout: but in rheumatifm there in general
occurs much lefs affection of the ftomach •, it affefts
chiefly the larger joints, and feveral of thefe are often
affefted with fevere pain at the fame time: it occurs
at an earlier period of life than gout ; it is not obferved
to be hereditary 5 and it can in general be traced fo
fome obvious exciting caufe, particularly to the attion
of cold.
Caufes, &c. This difeafe is frequent in cold, and
more uncommon in warm climates. It appears moft
frequently in autumn and fpring ; lefs frequently in
winter, while the froft is conftant; and, very feldom
during the heat of fum-mer. It may, however, occur
at any feafon, if viciffitudes of heat and cold be for the
time frequent For the moft part, the acute rheuma¬
tifm arifes from the application of cold to the body
when unufually warm ; or when the cold is applied to
one part of the body, whilft the other parts are kept
warm ; or laftly, when the application of the cold is
long continued, as when moift or wTet clothes are applied
to any part of the body.—Thefe caufes may affefl: per-
fons of all ages ; but the rheumatifm feldom appears
either in very young or in elderly perfons, and mofl:
commonly occurs from the age of puberty to that of
35. Thefe caufes may alfo affeft perfons of any confti-
tution, but they moft commonly affeft thofe of a fan-
guine temperament.
With refpeft to the proximate caufe of rheumatifm,
there have been various opinions. It has been im¬
puted to a peculiar acrimony ; of which, however, there
is no evidence 5 and the confideration of the remote
caufes, the fymptoms, and cure, render it very impro¬
bable. A difeafe of a rheumatic nature, however,
may be occafioned by an acrid matter applied to the
nerves, as is evident from the toothach, a rheumatic
affeftion generally arifing from a carious tooth. Pains
arifing from deep-feated fuppurations may alfo referable
the rheumatifm j and many cafes have occurred in
which fuch fuppurations occafioned pains refembling
the lumbago and ifehias; but from what has been al¬
ready faid, it feems improbable that ever any pure rheu¬
matic cafe fhould end in fuppuration.
The proximate caufe of rheumatifm has by many
been fuppofed to be a lentor in the fluids obftrudting
the veffels of the part ; but in the obfervations formerly
made, fufficient reafons have been already laid down
for reje&ing the do&rine of lentor. While wre cannot
therefore find either evidence or reafon for fuppofing
that the rheumatifm depends on any change in the ftate
of the fluids, we muft conclude that the proximate caufe
of it is the fame with that of other inflammations not
depending upon a dire<R ftimulus.
Rr
In
3*4 M E D I
lihcumatif- In the cafe of rheumatifm, it is fuppofed that the
‘n ^ . molt common remote caufe of it, that is, cold applied,
operates- efpecially on the veflels of the joints, theie be¬
ing lefs covered by a cellular texture than thofe of the
intermediate parts of the limbs. It is farther fuppofed,
that the application of cold produces a conitri£tion of
the extreme veffels, and at the fame time an increafe of
tone or phlogiiiic diathefis in the courfe of them, from
which arifes an increafed impetus of the blood, and at
the fame time a reliftance to the free paffage of it, and
confequently inflammation and pain. It is alfo fuppo¬
fed, that the refiltance formed excites the vis medicatrix
to a further increafe of the impetus of the blood *, and
to fupport this, a cold ftage arifes, a fpafm is formed,
and a pyrexia and phlogiftic diathefis are produced in
the whole fyitem.
Hence the caufe of rheumatifm appears to be exa£tly
analogous to that of inflammations depending on an in-
ertv.fed afflux of blood to a part while it is expofed to
the aftion of cold. But there feems to be further in
this difeafe fome peculiar affeflion of the mufcular fibres.
Thefe feem to be under fome degree of rigidity ; and
therefore lefs eafily admit of motion, and are pained
upon the exertions of it. This alfo feems to be the af-
fedlion which gives opportunity to the propagation of
pains from one joint to another, and which are moft
feverely felt in the extremities terminating in the joints,
becaufe beyond thefe the ofcillations are not propagated.
This affection of the mufcular fibres explains the man¬
ner in which drains and fpafms produce rheumatic af¬
fections ; and, on the whole, (hows, that with an in¬
flammatory affeCtion of the fanguiferous fyftem, there is
alfo in rheumatifm a peculiar affeCtion of the mufcular
fibres, which has a confiderable {hare in producing the
phenomena of the difeafe. And it wrould even appear,
that in what has commonly been called acute rheuma¬
tifm, in contradiftinCtion to the chronic, of which we
are next to treat, there exifts not only a {fate of aCtive
inflammation in the affeCted parts, but alfo of peculiar
irritability ; and that this often remains after the in¬
flammation is very much divniniflied or has even en¬
tirely ceafed. Hence a renewal of the inflammation
and recurrence of the pain take place from very flight
caufes •, and in the treatment of the difeafe both the
date of inflammation and irritability muff be had in
view.
Cure. For counteracting the ftate of aCtive inflam¬
mation, the chief aim of the praCtitioner muff be to
diminifh the general impetus of the circulation, and
the impetus at the part particularly affeCted. For
counteracting the ftate of irritability, he muff endea¬
vour to remove the difpofition to increafed aCtion in
the veffels •, to prevent the aCtion of caufes exciting
painful fenfations •, and to obviate their influence on
the part. The cure therefore requires, in the firft
place, an antipMogiftic regimen, and particularly a to¬
tal abftinence from animal food, and from all fermented
or fpirituous liquors ; fubftituting a mild vegetable or
milk diet, and the plentiful ufe of foft diluting liquors.
On this principle alfo, blood-letting is the chief remedy
of acute rheumatifm. The blood is to be drawn in large
quantity 5 and the bleeding is to be repeated in pro¬
portion to the frequency, fulnefs, and hardnefs of the
puife, and the violence of the pain. For the moft
CINE. _ Practice.
part, large and repeated bleedings during the firft daysHheumatif.
of the difeafe feem to be neceffary, and accordingly mus.
have been very much employed j but to this fome
bounds are to be fet j for very profufe bleedings occa-
fion a flow recovery, and are ready to produce a chronic
rheumatifm.
To avoid that debility of the fyftem which general
bleedings are apt to occafion, the urgent fymptom of
pain may be often relieved by topical bleedings 5 and
■when any fwelling or rednefs has come upon a joint,
the pain may very certainly be relieved by this eva¬
cuation : but as the pain and continuance of the difeafe
feem to depend more upon the phlogiftic diathefis of
the whole fyftem than upon the affection of particu¬
lar parts, fo topical bleedings will not fupply the place
of the general bleedings propolcd above in moft in-
ftances.
To take off the phlogiftic diathefis prevailing in this
difeafe, purging may be ufeful, if procured by medi¬
cines which do not ftimulate the whole fyftem, as neu¬
tral falts, and other medicines which have a refrigerant
power. Purging, however, is not fo ufeful as bleed¬
ing in removing the phlogiftic diathefis ; and when the
difeafe has become general and violent, frequent ftools
are inconvenient, and even hurtful, by the motion and
pain which they occafion.
Next to blood-letting, nothing is of fo much fervice,
both in alleviating the pains in this difeafe and in re¬
moving the phlogiftic diathefis, as the ufe of fudo-
rifics : and of all the medicines belonging to this clafs,
what has commonly been known by the name of Do¬
ver’s powder, a combination of powder of ipecacuan
and opium, is the raoft convenient and the moft ef¬
fectual. Copious fweating, excited by this medicine,
and fupported for 10 or 12 hours by tepid diluents,
fuch as decoCtion of the woods, or the like, will in
moft inftances produce a complete remiffion of the
pain : and by this practice, combined w ith blood¬
letting and proper regimen, the difeafe may often be
entirely removed.
If, however, after complete intermiffions from pain
for fome length of time have been obtained by thefe
means, it be found that there is a great tendency to a
return of the pains without any obvious caufe, recourfe
may be had with very great benefit to the ufe of the
Peruvian bark. By the early ufe of this, where a
complete intermiffion from pain is obtained, the ne-
ceffity of repeated blood-letting and fweating is often
fuperieded ■, but where a complete remiffion cannot be
obtained, it has been fafpefted by fome to be hurtful:
and in thefe cafes, when blood-letting and fudorifics
have been puftied as far as may be thought prudent,
without being produ&ive of the defired effeft, very
great benefit is often derived from the ufe of calomel
combined with opium, as recommended in the Edin¬
burgh Medical Commentaries, by Dr Hamilton of
Lynn Regis.
In this difeafe, external applications are of little
fervice. Fomentations in the beginning of the difeafe
rather aggravate than relieve the pains. The rube¬
facients and camphire are more effectual : but they
commonly only move them from one part to another,
and do not prove any cure of the general affeftion,
Bliftering may alfo be very effe&ual in removing the
pain
4
practice.
Phlegm*- pain from a particular part; but will be of little
fuc- ufe, except where the pains are much confined to one
place.
i09 ARTHRODYNIA, or Chronic RHEUMATISM.
Rheumatifmus chronicus Auftorum.
Defcription. When the pyrexia attending the acute
rheumatilm has ceafed ; when the fwelling and rednefs
of the joints are entirely gone, but pains llill continue
to affect certain joints, which remain itiff, feel uneafy
upon motion, changes of weather, or in the night time
only, the difeafe is then called the chronic rheumatifm,
as it often continues for a very long time.
The limits between the acute and chronic rheuma-
tifms are not always exactly marked. When the
pains are Rill ready to (bift their place j when they
are efpecially fevere in the night time ; when, at the
fume time, they are attended with fome degree of py¬
rexia, and with fome fwelling, and efpecially fome
redneis of the joints the difeafe is to be confidered as
partaking, of the nature of the acute rheumatifm. But
when there is no longer any degree of pyrexia remain¬
ing •, when the pained joints are without rednefs ;
when they are cold and Riff 5 when they cannot eafily
be made to fweat ) or when, while a free and warm
fweat is brought out on the re A of the body, it is only
clammy and cold on the pained joints ; and when, fur¬
ther, the pains of thefe are increafed by cold, and re¬
lieved by heat, applied to them ; the cafe is to be con¬
fidered as that of a purely chronic rheumatifm : or, per¬
haps more properly, the fir A of the conditions now de-
feribed may be termed the Rate of irritability, and the
fecond the Rate of atony.
The chronic rheumatifm, or rather the atonic, may
affeCl different joints ; but is efpecially apt to affedl
thofe which are furrounded with many mufcles, and
thofe of which the mufcles are employed in the mofl
conRant and vigorous exertions. Such is the cafe of
the vertebra; of the loins, the affection of which is named
lumbago ; or of the hip joint, when the difeafe is named
ifehias or fciatica.
Violent drains and fpaftns occurring on Ridden and
finnewhat violent exertions, bring on rheumatic affec¬
tions, which at firR partake of the acute, but very foon
change into the nature of the chronic, rheumatifm.—
Such are frequently the lumbago, and other affeflions,
which feem to be more feated in the mufcles than in
the joints. The didindHon of the rheumatic pains
from thofe refembling them which occur in the fiphylis
and fcurvy mud be obvious, either from the feat of the
pains, or from the concomitant fymptoms peculiar to
thofe difeafes. The didindlion of the rheumatifm from
the gout will be more fully underflood from what is laid
down under the genus Podagra.
Caufes, &c. The phenomena of the purely chronic
rheumatifm lead us to conclude, that its proximate
eaufe is an atony both of the blood-veffels and of the
mufeular fibres of the part affefted, together with
Rich a degree of rigidity and contraflion in the latter
as frequently attend them in a Rate of atony : and in¬
deed this atony, carried to a certain extent, gives rife
to a Rate of paralyfis, with an alraoft total lofs of mo¬
tion in the affe&ed limbs. The paralytic Rate of
fheumatidn therefore may be pointed out as a fourth
3
condition of the difeafe, often claiming the attention of Rfiew
the practitioner. , m ^
Cure. From the view jud now given of the proxi¬
mate caufe of chronic rheumatifm, the chief indication
of cure mufl be, to reflore the a£tivity and vigour of
the part, which is principally to be done by increafing
the tone of the moving fibres, but which may feme-
times alfo be aided by giving condenfation to the
fimple felid. When, however, the difeafe has dege¬
nerated into the Rate of paralyfis, the obje£ts to be
aimed at are, the refloration of a due condition to the
nervous energy in the part affeided ; the obtaining
free circulation of blood through the veffels of the
part; and the removal of rigidity in membranes and li¬
gaments.
For anfwering thefe purpofes, a great variety of re¬
medies, both external and internal, are had recourfe
to. The chief of the external are, the fupporting the
heat of the part, by keeping it conflantly covered with,
flannel ; the increafing the heat of the part by exter¬
nal heat, applied either in a dry or humid form ; the
diligent ufe of the flefh-brufl), or other means of fric¬
tion ; the application of ele&ricily in fparks or fliocks j
the application of cold water by affuflon or immerfien ;
the application of effential oils of the mod warm and
penetrating kind ; the application of fait brine 5 the
employment of the warm bath or of the vapour baths,
either to the body in general or to particular parts j
and, laflly, the employment either of exercife of the
part itfelf as far as it can eafily bear, or by riding or
other modes of geflation.
The internal remedies are, large dofes of effen¬
tial oils drawn from refinous fubflances, Rich as tur¬
pentine 5 fubflances containing Rich oils, as guaiac. j
volatile alkaline falls, &c. Thefe or other medicines
are direfted to procure fweat 5 and calomel, or feme
other preparation of mercury, in fmall dofes, may be
continued for feme time. But of all the remedies which
have been found ufeful in atonic rheumatifm, perhaps
the befl is cinchona. It is particularly ferviceable in
the earlier periods of the difeafe. It has often been
highly efficacious in preventing the degeneracy of the
inflammatory into the atonic Rate of the difeafe ; and
by Rime practitioners, particularly Dr Haygarlh of Bath,
it has been highly extolled in acute rheumatifm. Befides
thefe, there are feveral other remedies recommended.
The cicuta, aconitum, and hyofeiamus, have in par¬
ticular been highly extolled ; and an infufion of the
rhododendron chryfimthum is faid to be employed by
the Siberians with very great fuccefs. An account of
the Siberian mode of practice is given by Dr Matthew
Guthrie of PeterRiurgh, in the fifth volume of the
Edinburgh Medical Commentaries, and has been fol¬
lowed with fuccefs at other places. Among other in¬
ternal remedies for rheumatifm, the ufe of arfenic has of
late been recommended by Dr Bardftey of Liverpool.
It is advifed to be given under the form of the mi¬
neral dilution propofed by Dr Fowler as a remedy in
intermittent fever and in periodic beadachs. Under
this form, it is now afeertained by extenfive experience
that arfenic may be taken internally with as much
fafety as any other adivo medicine 5 and in feme cafes
of rheumatifm in which it has been employed at Edin¬
burgh, there is reafon to believe that it has been pro-
dudlive of benefit.
MEDICINE.
R r 2
Genus-
316
Phlegm a-
fice.
Genus XXIII. ODONTALGIA,
M E D I
the Toothach.
Odontalgia, Sauv. gen. 198. Lin. 45. Vog. 145.
Sag. gen. X 59. Junck. 25.
Odontalgia live rheumatifmus odontalgicus, Hojfm.
n- 33°-
Odontalgia cariofa, Sauv. fp. 1.
Odontalgia fcorbutica, Sauv. fp. 4*
Odontalgia catarrhalis, Sauv. Ip. 3.
Odontalgia arthritica, Sauv. fp. 6.
Odontalgia gravidarum, Sauv. fp. 2.
Odontalgia hyfterica, Sauv. Ip. 8»
Odontalgia llomachica, Sauv. fp. 9.
Defeription. This well-known difeafe makes its at¬
tack by a moll violent pain in the teeth, moil frequent¬
ly in the molares, more rarely in the incifores, reaching
fometimes up to the eyes, and fometimes backward
into the cavity of the ear. At the fame time there is
a manifell determination to the head \ and a remarkable
tenfion and inflation of the veifels takes place, not only
in the parts next to that where the pain is feated, but
over the whole head.
Caufes, &c. I he toothach is fometimes merely a
rheumatic affedlion, ariling from cold, but more fre¬
quently from a carious tooth. It is alfo a fymptom of
pregnancy, and takes place in fome nervous dilorders 5
it may attack perfons at any time of life, though it is
moll frequent in the young and plethoric.
Cure. Many empirical remedies have been propofed
for the cure of the toothach, but none have in any
degree anfwered the purpofe. When the affection is
purely rheumatic, bliltering behind the ear will almoil
always remove it ^ but when it proceeds from a cari¬
ous tooth* the pain is much more obltinate. In this
cafe it has been recommended to touch the pained
part with a hot iron, or with fulphuric acid, in order to
dellroy the aching nerve ; to hold ftrong fpirits in the
mouth 5 to put a drop of oil of cloves into the hollow
of the tooth, or a pill of equal parts of opium and
camphor : but one of the moll ufeful applications of
this kind is Itrong nitrous acid, diluted with three or
lour times its weight of fpirit of wine, and introduced
into the hollow of a tooth from which great pain arifes,
either by means of a hair pencil or a little cotton.
Cinchona has alfo been recommended, and perhaps with
more juftice, on account of its tonic and antifeptic
powers; but very often all thefe remedies will fail, and
the only infallible cure is the extraction of the tooth.
- See Surgery.
xii Genus XXIV. PODAGRA, the Gout.
Podagra, Vog. i*]$. Boerh. 1254.
Febris podagrica, Vog. 69.
Arthritis, Sauv. gen. 183. Lin. 60. Vog. 139. Sag.
gen. 142.
Dolor podagricus et arthritieus verus, Hojfm, II.
339*
Dolores arthritiei, Hojfm. II. 3x7.
Affedtus fpallico-arthritic!, Junck. 46.
$1% Sp. I. The Regular Gout.
Arthritis podagrica, Sauv. fp. I,
CINE.
Arthritis rachialgica, Sauv. Ip. it.
Arthritis telliva, Sai/v. fp. 4.
Sp. II. The Atonic Gout.
Arthritis melancholica, Sauv. fp. 6.
Arthritis hiemalis, Sauv. fp. 2.
Arthritis chlorotica, Sauv. fp. 5.
Arthritis allhmatica, Sauv. fp. 9.
Sp. III. The Retrocedent Gout.
Sp. IV. The Mifplaced Gout.
Defcription. What we call a paroxysm of the gout is
principally conllituted by an inflammatory affedlion of
fome of the joints. This fometimes comes on fudden-
ly, without any warning, but is generally preceded by
feveral fymptoms ; fuch as the cealing of a fweadng
which the feet had been commonly before afi'edled
with ; an unuiual coldnefs of the feet and legs; a fre¬
quent numbnefs, alternating with a fenfe of prickling
along the whole of the lower extremities j frequent
cramps of the mufcles of the legs j and an unufual tur-
gefcence of the veins.
While thefe fymptoms take place in the lower ex¬
tremities, the body is affedled wbth fome degree of
torpor and languor, and the fundlions of the flomach
in particular are more or lefs difturbed. The appe¬
tite is diminilhed 5 and flatulency, or other fymptoms
of indigeftion, are felt. Thefe fymptoms take place
for feveral days, fometimes for a week or two, before
a paroxyfm comes on 5 but commonly, upon the day
immediaLely preceding it, the appetite becomes keenet
than ufual.
The circumfiances of paroxyfms are chiefly the fol¬
lowing. They come on moil commonly in the fpring,
and fooner or later according as the vernal heat fuc-
eeeds fooner or latter to the winter’s cold, and, per¬
haps, fooner or later alfo, according as the body may
happen to be more or lefs expofed to viciffitudes of
heat and cold.
The attacks are fometimes felt firfl in the evening,
but more commonly about two or three o’clock in the
morning. The paroxyfm begins with a pain affefting
one foot, moll frequently in the ball or full joint of the
great toe, but fometimes in other parts of the foot.
With the attack of this pain, there is commonly more
or lefs of a cold fhivering 5 w'hich, as the pain in-
creafes, gradually ceafes j and is fucceeded by a hot
ftage of pyrexia, which contiques for the fame time
with the pain itfelf. From the firfl attack, the pain
becomes, by degrees, more violent, and continues in
this flate wdth great reflleffnefs of the whole body till
next midnight, after which it gradually remits ; and,
after it has continued for twenty-four hours from the
commencement of the firfl attack, it commonly ceafes
almoft entirely 5 and, with the coming on of a gentle
fweat, allows the patient to fall afleep. The patient,
upon coming out of this fleep in the morning, finds the
pained part affefled with fome rednefs and fwelling,
which, after having continued for fome days, gradually
abate.
When a paroxyfm has thus come on, although the
violent pain after 24 hours be confiderably abated,
the patient is not entirely relieved from it. For fome
days
Practice.
Podagra.
2l3
si4
2IS
Praaice. M E D I
Phlcgma- days he has every evening a return of more confiderable
<>*• pain and pyrexia, and thefe continue with more or lefs
violence till morning. After going on, in this manner,
for feveral days, the difeafe fometimes goes entirely off,
not to return till after a long interval.
When the difeafe, after having thus remained for
fome time in a joint, ceafes entirely, it generally
leaves the perfon in very perfect health, enjoying
greater eafe and alacrity in the fundtions of both bo¬
dy and mind than he had for a long time before ex¬
perienced.
At the beginning of the difeafe, the returns of it are
fometimes only once in three or four years : but as it
advances, the intervals become fhorter, and at length the
attacks are annual; afterwards they come twice each
year 5 and at length recur feveral times during the
courfe of autumn, winter, and fpringj and as, when the
fits are frequent, the paroxyfms become alfo longer, fo,
in the advanced ftate of the difeafe, the patient is hard¬
ly ever tolerably free from it, except perhaps for two or
three months in fummer.
The progrefs of the difeafe is alfo marked by the
parts which it affedts. At firft, it commonly affeds
one foot only ; afterwards every paroxyfm affedls both
feet, the one after the other ; and as the difeafe pro¬
ceeds, it not only affedls both feet at once, but, after
having ceafed in the foot which was lad attacked, re¬
turns again into the firft, and perhaps a fecond time
alfo into the other. Its changes of places are not only
from one foot to another, but front the feet into other
joints, efpecially thofe of the upper extremities ; fo that
there is hardly a joint of the body which, on one occa-
fion or another, is not aftedted. It fometimes affedts
two different joints at the very fame time ; but more
commonly it is at any one time fevere in a fingle ioint
only, and paffes in fucceflion from one joint to another j
fo that the patient’s afflidlion is often protradfed for a
long time. \
When the difeafe has often returned, and the paro¬
xyfms have become very frequent, the pains are com¬
monly lefs violent than they were at firft ; but the pa¬
tient is more affedled with ficknefs, and the other
fymptoms of the atonic gout, which fliall be hereafter
mentioned.
After the firft paroxyfm of the difeafe, the joints
which have been affedled are entirely reftored to their
former fupplenefs and ftrength : but after the difeale
has recurred very often, the joints affedled do neither
fo fuddenly nor entirely recover their former Hate, but
continue weak and ftiff; and thefe effedts at length pro¬
ceed to fuch a degree, that the joints lofe their motion
entirely.
In many perfons, but not in all, after the difeafe has
frequently recurred, concretions of a chalky nature are
formed upon the outfide of the joints, and for the moft
part immediately under the Ikin. The matter feems
to be depofited at firft in a fluid form, afterwards be¬
coming dry and firm. In their firm ftate, thefe con¬
cretions are a hard earthy fubftance, very entirely folu-
ble in acids. After they have been formed, they con¬
tribute, with other circumftances, to deftroy the mo¬
tion of the joints.
In moft perfons who have laboured under the gout
for many years, a nephritic affedlion comes on, and
difcovers itfelf by all the fymptoms which ultially at-
CINE. 317
tend calculous concretions in the kidneys, and which Podagra,
we lhall have occafion to defcribe in another place. "v-”—'
All that is neceffary to be obferved here is, that the
nephritic affedlion alternates with paroxyfms of the
gout; and that the two affedtions, the nephritic and
the gouty, are hardly ever prefent at the fame time.
This alfo may be obferved, that children of gouty or
nephritic parents commonly inherit one or other of
thefe dileales 5 but whether the principal difeafe of the
parent may have been either gout or nephritis alone,
fome of the children have the one and fome the other.
In fome of them the nephritic affection occurs alone,
without any gout fupervening ; and this happens to be
frequently the cafe with the female children of gouty
parents.
In the whole of the hiftory already given, we have
defcribed the moft common form of the difeafe, and
which therefore, however diverfified in the progrefs of
it, may be Hill called the regular ftate of the gout.—
Upon fome occafions, however, the difeafe affumes
different appearances : but as we fuppofe the difeafe
to depend always upon a certain diathefis, or difpofi-
tion ol the fyftem j fo every appearance which we can
perceive to depend upon that fame difpofition, w'e ftill
confider as fymptomatic, and view the difeafe to be a
cafe of the gout. The principal circumftance, in what
we term the regular gout, is the inflammatory affection
of the joints \ and whatever fymptoms we can perceive
to be connected with, or to depend upon, the difpofi¬
tion which produces that inflammatory affedlion, but
without its taking place or being prefent at the fame
time, we name the irregular gout.
Of fuch irregular gout there are three different ftates,
which may be named the atonic, the retrocedent, and
the mifplaced gout.
The firft is, when the gouty diathefis prevails in the
fyftem ; but, from certain caufes, does not produce the
inflammatory affedtion of the joints. In this cafe, the
morbid fymptoms which appear, are chiefly affedlions
of the ftomach, fuch as lofs of appetite, indigeftion, and
its various attendants of ficknefs, naufea, vomiting, fla- ‘
tulency, acid eradiations, and pains in the region of the
ftomach. Thefe fymptoms are frequently accompanied
with pains and cramps in feveral parts of the trunk and
the upper extremities of the body, which are relieved
by the difeharge of wind from the ftomach. Toge¬
ther with thefe affedlions of the ftomach, there com¬
monly occurs a coftivenefs 5 but fometimes a loofenefs,
with colic pains. Thefe affedlions of the alimentary
canal are often attended with all the fymptoms of hypo-
chondriafis, fuch as dejedtion of mind, a conftant and
anxious attention to the flighteft feelings, an imaginary
aggravation of thefe, and an apprehenfion of danger from
them.
In the fame atonic gout, the vifeera of the thorax
alfo are fometimes affedled, and palpitations, faintings,
and afthma occur.
In the head alfo occur headachs, giddinefs, apoplec¬
tic and paralytic affedlions.
When the feveral fymptoms now mentioned occur
in habits having the marks of a gouty difpofition,
this may be fufpedled to have laid the foundation for
them ; and efpecially when either, in fuch habits, a
manifeft tendency to the inflammatory affedlion has
formerly appeared, or when the fymptoms mentioned
are
3i8
Phlesma
fije.
MED
■ are intermixed with, and are relieved by feme degree
j °t the inflammatory gout. In fueh cafes there can
be no doubt of confidering the whole as a Hate of the
gout.
Another ft ate of the difeafe we name the retrocedent
gout, rhis occurs when an inflammatory ftate of the
joints has, in the ufual manner, come on, but without
arifing to the ordinary degree of pain and inflamma-
tion j or at leaft without thefe continuing for the ufual
time, or without their receding gradually in the ufual
manner ; thefe affections of the joints fuddenly and en¬
tirely ceafe, while fome internal part becomes affected.
The internal part moft commonly attacked is the fto-
mach ; which then is affeCted with anxiety, licknefs,
vomiting, or violent pain : but fometimes the internal
part is the heart, which gives occafion to a fyncope j
fometimes it is the lungs, which are affeCted with afth-
ma j and fometimes it is the head, giving, occafion to
apoplexy or palfy. In all thefe cafes there can be no
doubt that the fymptoms arc all a part of the fame dif¬
eafe, howrever different the affeCtion may feem to be in
the parts which it attacks.
”1 he third ftate of irregular gout, which we name
the mifplaced, is when the gouty diathefis, inftead of
producing the inflammatory affeClion of the joints,
produces an inflammatory affection of fome internal
part, and which appears from the fame fymptoms that
attend tne inflammations of thofe parts arifing from
other caufes.
Whether the gouty diathefis does ever produce fuch
inflammation of the internal parts without having firft
produced it in the joints, or whether the inflammation
of the internal part be always a tranllation from the
joints previoufly affefled, we dai-e not determine ; but,
®ven fuppofing the latter to be always the cafe, we
think the difference of the affedfion of the internal part
muff ftill diftinguifh the niifplaced from what we have
named the retrocedent gout.
With regard to the inifplaced gout, Dr Cullen, whom
we here follow, tells us, that he never met with any cafes
of it in his practice, nor does he find any diftindlly marked
by practical writers, except that of a pneumonic inflam¬
mation.
There are two cafes of a tranflated gout •, the one
of which is an affedfion of the neck of the bladder,
producing pain, ftrangury, and a catarrhus veficce: the
other is an affedlion of the rectum, fometimes indicated
by pain alone in that part, and fometimes by haemor-
rhoidal fymptoms. In gouty perfons fuch affedlions have
been known to alternate with inflammatory aftedlions
of the joints ; but whether thefe belong to the retroce¬
dent or to^ the mifplaced gout, Dr Cullen pretends not
to determine.
It is commonly fuppofed, that there are fome cafes
of rheumatifm which are fcarcely to be diftinguiihed
from the gout; but thefe, Dr Cullen thinks, are but
few j and that the two difeafes may be for the moft
part diftinguifhed with great certainty, by obferving
the predifpofition, the antecedent circumftances, the
parts affected, the recurrences of the difeafe, and its
connection with the fyftem j which circumftances, for
the moft part, appear very differently in the two dif¬
eafes,
( Caufes, &c. The gout is generally an hereditary
•diieafe : but feme perfons, without any hereditary dii-
1 C 1 N E. Praclict
pofttion, feem to acquire it j and in fome an hereditary Podagra
difpofition may be counteracted from various caufes.' 
It attacks the male fex efpecially ; but it fometimes
though more rarely, attacks alio the female. The fe¬
males liable to it are thofe oi the more robuft and full
habits 5 and it very often happens to thofe before the
menftrual evacuation has ceafed. Dr Cullen hath alfo
found it occurring in feveral females whofe menftrual
evacuations were more abundant than ufual.
The gout feldom attacks eunuchs ; and when it does4
fee ms to fall upon thofe who happen to be of a robuft
habit, to lead an indolent life, and to live very full. It
attacks efpecially men of robuft and large bodies, who
have large heads, are of full and corpulent habits, and
whofe fkins are covered with a thick rete mucofum,
which gives a coarfe furface. To fpeak in the ityle of
the ancient phyficians, the gout will ieldom be found to
attack thofe of a fanguine, or fuch as are of a purely
melancholic temperament ; but very readily thofe of a
cholenco-fanguine temperament. It is, however, very
difficult to treat this matter with precifion. The gout
feldom attacks perfons employed in conftant bodily
labour, or ‘thofe who live much upon vegetable ali¬
ment. It does not commonly attack men till after
the age of 35 j and generally not till a ftill later pe¬
riod. There are indeed inftances of the gout appear¬
ing more early ; but thefe are few in companion of
the others. When the difeafe does appear early in life,
it feems to be in thofe who have the hereditary difpoft-
tion very ftrong, and to whom the remote caufes here¬
after mentioned have been applied in a very coniider-
able degree.
As the gout is an hereditary difeafe, and affedls
men particularly of a certain habit, its remote caufes
may be confidered as predifponent and occafional.
The predifponent caufe, as far as exprefled by exter¬
nal appearances, has been already marked ; and phy¬
ficians have been very confident in affigning the occa¬
fional caufes : but in a difeafe depending fo much up¬
on a predifpofition, the affigning occafional cauies
muft be uncertain; as in the predifpofed the occa¬
fional caufes may not always appear, and in perfons
not predifpofed they may appear without effeft j and
this uncertainty muft particularly affect the cafe of the
gout.
The occafional caufes of the difeafe feem to be of
two kinds. Firft, Thofe which induce a plethoric
ftate of the body. Secondly, Thofe which in ple¬
thoric habits, induce a ftate of debility. Of the firft
kind are a fedentary, indolent manner of life, and a
full diet of animal food. Of the fecond kind of occa¬
fional caufes which induce debility are excels in venery j
intemperance in the ufe of intoxicating liquors; iudi-
geftion, produced either by the quantity or quality of
the aliments $ much application to ftudy or bufmefs,
night watching, exceffive evacuations *, the ceafing of
ufual labour ; a hidden change from a very full to a
very fpare diet \ the large ufe of adds and acefcents ;
and, laftly, cold applied to the lower extremities.
The former feem to act by increafing the predifpofi¬
tion ; the latter are commonly the exciting cades,
both of the firft attacks, and of the repetitions of die
difeafe.
With refped to the proximate caufe of the gout, it
has generally bssa thought that it depends on a cer¬
tain
Practice. • MEDICINE.
phlc-ma- tain tnorbitic matter always prefent in the body ; and
that this matter, by certain caufes, thrown upon the
^ * joints or other parts, produces the feveral phenomena of
the difeafe.
This doctrine, however ancient and generally re¬
ceived, appears to Dr Cullen to be very doubtful.
For,
Fir ft, There is no direct evidence of any morbific
matter being prefent in perfons difpofed to the gout.
There are no experiments or obfervations which ihow
that the blood or other humours of gouty perfotts are
in any refpe£t different from thofe of the found. Pre¬
vious to attacks of the gout, there appear no marks of
any morbid ftate of the fluids; for the difeafe generally
attacks thofe perfons who have enjoyed the moft perfedl
health, and appear to be in that ftate when the difeafe
comes on. At a certain period of the difeafe, a pecu¬
liar matter indeed appears in gouty perfons ; but this,
which does not appear in every inftance, and which
appears only after the difeafe has fubfifted for a long
time, feems manifeftly to be the effedt, not the caufe,
of the difeafe. Further, Though there be certain acrids
which, taken into the body, feem to excite the gout,
it is probable that thefe acrids operate otherwife in
exciting the difeafe, than by affording the material
caufe of it. In general, therefore, Dr Cullen thinks
there is no proof of any morbific matter being the caufe
of the gout.
Secondly, The fuppofitions concerning the particular
■nature of the matter producing the gout, have been fo
various, and fo contradictory, as to allow us to conclude,
that there is truly no proof of the exiitence of any of
them. With refpedl to many of thefe fuppofitions, they
are fu inconfiftent with chemical philofophy, arid with
the laws of the animal economy, that they muft be
entirely rejected.
Thirdly, The fuppofition of a morbific matter as the
caufe, is not confident with the phenomena of the difeafe,
particularly with its frequent and fudden tranflations
from one part to another.
Fourthly, The fuppofition is further rendered im¬
probable by this, that if a morbific matter did exift,
its operation ftiould bo fimilar in the feveral parts, which
it attacks : whereas it feems to be very different, being
ftimulant, and exciting inflammation, in the joints ; but
fedative and deftroying tone in the ftomach ; which,
upon the fuppofition of the fame particular matter a fling-
in both cafes, is not to be explained by any difference in
the part affefted.
Fifthly, Some faffs alleged in proof of a morbific
matter, are not confirmed ; fuch as thofe which would
prove the difeafe to be contagious. There is, however,
no proper evidence of this, the fafts given being not only
few, but exceptionable, and the negative obfervatiohs
innumerable.
Sixthly, Some arguments brought in favour of a
morbific matter are founded upon a miftaken explana¬
tion. 1 he difeafe has been fuppofed to depend upon
a morbific matter, becaufe it is hereditary. But the in¬
ference is not juft : for moft hereditary difeafes do not
depend upon any morbific matter, but upon a particular
Conformation of the ftruflure of the body tranfmitted
from the parent to the offspring ; and this laft appears
to be particularly the cafe in the gout. It may be alfo
obferved, that hereditary difeafes depending upon a
morbific matter, appear always much more early in life Poda
than the gout commonly does. '-■■■ v
Seventhly, The fuppofition of a morbific matter be¬
ing the caufe of the gout, has been hitherto ufelefs, as
it has not fuggefted any fuccefsful method of cure.
Particular theories of gout have often corrupted the
practice, and have frequently led from thole views
which might have been ufeful, and from that practice
which experience had approved. Further, Though
the fuppofition of a morbific matter has been generally-
received, it has been as generally neglefted in prac¬
tice. When the gout has affedted the ftomach, nobody-
thinks of correcting the matter fuppofed to be prefent
there, but merely of reftoring the tone of the moving
fibres.
Eighthly, The fuppofition of a morbific matter is
quite luperfiuous : for it explains nothing, without fup-
pofing that matter to produce a change in the ftate of
the moving powers; and a change in the ftate of the
moving powers, produced by other caufes, explains
e\ciy eucumftance without the fuppofition of a morbific
matter j and it may be obferved, that many of the caufes
exciting the gout, do not operate upon the ftate of the
fluids, but directly and folely upon that of the moving
powers.
Laftly, Dr Cullen contends that the fuppofition of
a morbific matter is fuperfluous *, becaufe, without thatj
the difeafe can be explained, he thinks, in a manner
more confiftent with its phenomena, with the laws of
the animal economy, and with the method of cure
which experience has approved. We now proceed to
give this explanation j out, before entering upon it, we
muft premile fome general obfervations which Dr Cul¬
len ftates.
The firft obfervation is, That the gout is a difeafe of
tiic whole fyftem, or depends upon a certain general
conformation and ftate of the body, which manifeftly
appears from the fafts above mentioned. But the ge¬
neral ftate of the fyftem depends chiefly upon the bate
of its primary moving powers ; and therefore the gout
may be fuppofed to be an affeftion of thefe.
The feeond obfervation is, That the gout is mani¬
feftly an affeftion of the nervous fyftem ; in which the
primary moving powers of the whole fyftem are lodged.
The occafional or exciting caufes are almoft all fuch
as aft direftly upon the nerves and nervous fyftem;
and the greater part of the fymptoms of the atonic or
retrocedent gout are manifeftly affeftions of the fame
fyftem. This leads us to feek for an explanation of the
whole of the difeafe, in the laws of the nervous fyftem
and particularly in the changes which may happen in
the balance of its feveral parts.
The third obfervation is, That the ftomach, which
has fo univerfal a confent with the reft of the fyftem
is the internal part that is the moft frequently, and
often very confiderably, affefted by the gout. The pa-
roxyfms of the difeafe are commonly preceded by an af¬
feftion of the ftomach ; many of the exciting caufes aft
firft upon the ftomach ; and the fymptoms of the atonic
and retrocedent gout are moft commonly and chiefly
affeftions of the fame organ. This obfervation leads
us to remark, that there is a balance fubfifting between
the ftate of the internal and that of the external parts j
and, in particular, that the ftate of the ftomach is con-
nefted with that of the external parts, fo that the
ftatet
3 20
Jphlegma- ftatc of tone in the one may be communicated to the
fiiC- other.
Thefe obfervations being premifed, Dr Cullen offers
the following pathology of the gout.
In fome perfons there is a certain vigorous and ple¬
thoric ftate of the fyftem, which at a certain period of
life is liable to a lofs of tone in the extremities. This
is in fome meafure communicated to the whole fyftem,
but appears more efpecially in the fundfions of the fto-
mach. When this lofs of tone occurs while the energy
of the brain ftill retains its vigour, the vis medicatrix na¬
tures is excited to reft ore the tone of the parts \ and ac-
complifhes it, by exciting an inflammatory affedlion in
fome part of the extremities. When this has fubfifted
for fome days, the tone of the extremities and of the
whole fyftem is reftored, and the patient returns to his
ordinary ftate of health.
This is the courfe of things in the ordinary form of
the difeafe, which we name the regular gout; but there
are circumftances of the body, in which this courfe is
interrupted or varied. Thus, when the atony has taken
place, if the readtion do not fucceed, the atony continues
in the ftomach, or perhaps in other internal parts ; and
produces that ftate which Dr Cullen, for reafons now
obvious, named the atonic gout.
A fecond cafe of variation in the courfe of the gout
is, when to the atony the readlion and inflammation
have to a certain degree fucceeded, but from caufes
either internal or external the tone of the extremities
and perhaps of the whole fyftem is weakened ; fo that
the inflammatory ftate, before it had either proceeded
to the degree, or continued for the time, requifite for
reftoring the tone of the fyftem, fuddenly and entirely
ceafes : whence the ftomach, and other internal parts,
relapfe into the ftate of atony *, and perhaps have that
increafed by the atony communicated from the extre¬
mities : all which appears in what has been termed the
retrocedent Jlate of the gout.
A third cafe of variation from the ordinary courfe
of the gout, is, when to the atony, ufually preceding,
an inflammatory readlion fully fucceeds, but has its
ufual determination to the joints prevented by fome
circumftances 5 and is therefore diredled to fome inter¬
nal part, where it produces an inflammatory affcdlion,
and that ftate of things which we have named the mif-
placed gout.
Though this theory of Dr Cullen’s be fupported
with much ingenuity, yet we may confidently venture
to alfert, that on this fubjedl he has been lefs fuccefs-
ful in eftablifhing his own opinions, than in combating
thofe of others j and this theory, as wrell as others
formerly propofed, is liable to numerous and unfur-
mountable objedlions. According to the hypothefis,
a vigorous and plethoric habit ftiould in every cafe
exift prior to the appearance of gout \ which is by no
means confiftent with fad! : nor is it true that a vi¬
gorous and plethoric habit is liable at a certain age
to a lofs of tone in the extremities 5 which is another
neceffary condition in the hypothefis. Lofs of tone
often occurs in the extremities without exerting any
peculiar influence on the ftomach ; and why a lofs of
tone in the ftomach fhould excite the vis medicatrix na¬
tural to reftore it, by exciting an inflammatory affec¬
tion in fome part of the extremities, is very incon¬
ceivable. Were the hypothefis true, every dyfpeptic
patient fhould infallibly be affected with gout 5 which Pochgr,
however, is by no means the cafe. In ftiort, every ftep
in the theory is liable to unfurmountable objedfions $
and it by no means, any more than former liypothe-
fes, explains the phenomena of the difeafe, particu¬
larly Avhat Dr Cullen has himfelf fo accurately point¬
ed out, the conned!ion of gouty with calculous com¬
plaints.
A very ingenious work has lately been publithed by
an anonymous author, entitled “ A Treatife on Gravel
and upon Gout $” in which the fources of each are in-
veftigated, and effedlual means of preventing or re¬
moving thefe difeafes recommended. In this treatife
an attempt is made to prove, that both difeafes de¬
pend upon a peculiar concreting acid, the acid of cal¬
culi, or the I it hie or uric acid, as it has been ftyled by
fome. He fuppofes this acid, copftantly prefent to a
certain degree in the circulating fluids, to be precipita¬
ted by the jntrodudlion of other acids ; and in this man¬
ner he explains the influence of acid wines and other
liquors, as claret, cyder, &c. inducing gout ; for he
confiders the circumftance chiefly conftituting the dif¬
eafe as being an inflammation in parts of which the
fundlions have been interrupted by the redundant acid
precipitated. Although this theory be fupported with
much ingenuity, yet it is alfo liable to many objections.
The fudden attack of the affe&ion ; its fudden tranfi-
tion from one part of the body to another; the inftant
relief of one part when another comes to be affeCled ;
and the various anomalous forms which the difeafe puts
on, having an exaft refemblance to different affeclions j
are altogether irreconcileable to the idea of its depend¬
ing on any fixed obftruCtion at a particular part arifing
from concreting acid. Nor dees the plan of prevention
and cure which he propofes, and which confifts chiefly
in abftinence from acid, and in the deftru&ion of acid,
by any means correfpond in every particular to the beft
eftabliftied fadfs refpeCling the treatment of gout 5 to
which w7e next proceed.
Cure. In entering upon this, we muft obferve, in the
firft place, that a cure has been commonly thought im-
pofiible } and Ave acknoAvledge it to be very probable,
that the gout, as a difeafe of the Avhole habit, and very
often depending upon original conformation, cannot be
cured by medicines, the effe&s of which are always
very tranfitory, and feldom extend to the producing
any confiderable change of the Avhole habit.
It would perhaps have been happy for gouty per¬
fons if this opinion had been implicitly received by
them •, as it would have prevented their having been
fo often the dupes of felf-interefted pretenders, avIio
have either amufed them with inert medicines, or have
ralhly employed thofe of the moft pernicious tendency.
Dr Cullen, who has treated of the cure of the difeafe
with great judgment, as he has done the theory with
much ingenuity, is much difpofed to believe the impofli-
bility of the cure of the gout by medicines ; and more
certainly ftill inclined to think, that, whatever may be
the poffible porver of medicines, yet no medicine for
curing the gout has hitherto bedn found. Although
almoft every age has prefented a neAv remedy, all hither¬
to offered have, very foon after, been either negle£led
as ufelefs, or condemned as pernicious.
But though unAvilling to admit the poAver of medi¬
cines, yet he contends, that a great deal can be done
toAvards •
MEDICINE.
practice.
MEDICINE.
Phiegma- towards the cure of the gout by a regimen : and he
fise. is firmly perfuaded, that any man who, early in life,
k—" v will enter upon the conftant practice of bodily labour,
and of abltinence from animal food, will be preferved
entirely from the difeafe.
Whether there be any other means of radically cur¬
ing the gout, the Dodtor is not able to fay. There
are hiftories of cafes of the gout, in Avhich it is faid,
that by great emotions of mind, by wounds, and by
other accidents, the fymptoms have been fuddenly
relieved, and never again returned; but how far
thefe accidental cures might be imitated by art, or
would fucceed in other cafes, is at leait extremely un¬
certain.
The pradlices proper and neceffary in the treatment
of the gout, are to be confidered under two heads :
Tirft, As they are to be employed in the intervals of
paroxyfms j or, fecond/y, As during the time of thefe.
In the intervals of paroxyfms, the indications are, to
prevent altogether the return of paroxyfms 5 or at leaf!
to render them lefs frequent and more moderate. Dur¬
ing the time of paroxylms, the indications are, to mo¬
derate the violence and Ihorten the duration of them
as much as can be done with fafety.
It has been already obferved, that the gout may be
entirely prevented by con ‘ant bodily exercife, and by
a low diet; and Dr Cullen is of opinion, that this pre¬
vention may take place even in perfons who have a he¬
reditary difpofition to the difeafe. Even when the dif-
pofition has difcovered itfelf by feveral paroxyfms of
inflammatory gout, he is .perfuaded that labour and
abltinence will abfolutely prevent any returns of it for
the reft of life. Thefe, therefore, are the means of an-
fwering the firft indication to be purfued in the inter¬
vals of paroxyfms.
Exercife in perfons expofed to the gout, in Dr Cul¬
len’s opiniop, operates by anfwering two purpofes:
One of thefe is the ftrengthening of the tone of the
extreme velfels; and the other, the guarding againft a
plethoric ftate. For the former, if exercife be em¬
ployed early in life, and before intemperance has weak¬
ened the body, a very moderate degree of it will an-
fwer the purpofe; and, for the latter, if abftinence be
at the fame time obferved, lefs exercife will be necef¬
fary.
With refpeft to exercife, this in general is to be ob¬
ferved, that it thould never be violent ; for if violent, it
cannot be long continued, and muft always endanger
the bringing on an atony in proportion to the violence
of the preceding motions.
It is alfo to be obferved, that the exercife of gefta-
tion, though confiderable and conftant, will not, if it
be entirely without bodily exercife, anfwer the purpofe
of preventing the gout. For this end, therefore, the
exercife muft be in fome meafure that of the body ; and
muft be moderate, but at the fame time conftant and
continued through life.
In every cafe and circumftance of the gout in which
the patient retains the ufe of his limbs, bodily exer-
eife, in the intervals of paroxyfms, wdll be always ufe-
iul •, and in the beginning of the difeafe, when the
difpofttion to it is not yet ftrong, exercife may prevent
a paroxyfm which otherwife would have come on. In
more advanced ftates of the difeafe, however, when
there is fome difpofition to a paroxyfm, much walking
Vol. XIII. Part L
will bring it on; either as it weakens the tone of the
lower extremities, or as it excites an inflammatory
difpofition in them; and thus it feems to be that
fprains or contufions often bring on a paroxyfm of the
gout.
Abflinence, the other part of the regimen for pre¬
venting the gout, is of more dithcult application. If an
abltinence from animal food be entered upon early in
life, while the vigour of the fyitem is yet entire, Dr
Cullen has no doubt of its being both fafe and elfeftual;
but if the motive for this diet fhall not have occurred
till the conftitution has been broken by intemperance,
or by the decline of life, a low diet may then endanger
the induction of an atonic ftate.
Further, If a low diet be entered upon only in the
decline of life, and be at the fame time a very great
change from the former manner of living, the with¬
drawing of an accuftomed ftimulus of the fyftem may
readily throw it into an atonic ftate.
The fafety of an abftemious courfe will be greater
or lefs according to the management of it. Ani¬
mal food efpeeially difpofes to the plethoric and in¬
flammatory ftate, and that food is to be therefore
efpecially avoided ; but on the other hand, vegetable
aliment of the loweft quality is in danger of weak¬
ening the fyftem too much by not affording fufficient
nouriihment, and more particularly of weakening the
tone of the ftomach oy its acefcency. It is therefore
a diet of a middle nature that is to be chofen ; and
milk is precifely of this kind, as containing both ani¬
mal and vegetable matter.
As approaching to the nature of milk, and as being
a vegetable matter containing the greateft portion of
nouriihment, the farinaceous feeds are next to be cho¬
fen, and are the food moft proper to be joined with
milk.
With refpeft to drink, fermented liquors are ufeful
only when they are joined with animal food, and that
by their acefcency *, and their ftimulus is only necef¬
fary from cuftom. When, therefore, animal food is
to be avoided, fermented liquors are unneceffary ; and
by increafing the acefcency of vegetables, thefe liquors
may be hurtful. The ftimulus of fermented or fpiri-
tuous liquors is not neceffary to the young and vigor¬
ous, and when much employed impairs the tone of
the fyftem. Thefe liquors, therefore, are co be a oid-
ed, excepting as cuftom and the declining ftate of the
fyftem may have rendered them neceflary. For prevent¬
ing or moderating the regular gout, water is the only
proper drink.
With refpeft to an abftemious courfe, it has been
fuppnfed, that an abftinence from animal food and
fermented liquors, or the living upon milk and fari-
nacea alone for the fpace of one year, might be fuf¬
ficient for a radical cure of the gout: and it is poflible
that, at a certain period of life, in certain circumfiances
of the conftitution, fuch a meafure might anfwer the
purpofe. But this is very doubtful : and it is more
probable, that the abftinence muft, in a great meafure,
be continued, and the milk diet be perfifted in, for the
remainder of life. It is well known, that feveral per¬
fons who had entered on an abftemious courfe, and
had been thereby delivered from the gout, have, how¬
ever, upon returning to their former manner of full
living, had the difeafe return upon them with as much
S s - violence
!2I
Podagr
322 M E D I
Phlegma- violence as before, or in a more irregular and more dan-
, gerous form.
It lias been alleged, that, for preventing the return
of the gout, blood-letting or fcarifications of the feet,
frequently repeated, and at Hated times, may be prac-
tifed with advantage j but of this Dr Cullen tells us he
has had no experience j and the benefit of the practice
is not, as far as vve know, confirmed by the obfervation
of any other praclitioner.
lixercife and abitinence are the means of avoiding the
plethoric Hate which gives the difpoiition to the gout ;
and are therefore the means propofed for preventing the
paroxyfins, or at lead for rendering them lefs frequent and
more moderate. But many circumftances prevent the
fteadinefs neceffary in purfuing thefe meafures } and
therefore in fuch cafes, unlels great care be taken to
avoid the exciting caufcs, the dheafe may frequently re¬
turn, and, in many cafes, the preventing of paroxvfms
is chiefly to be obtained by avoiding thofe exciting
caufes already enumerated.
A due attention in avoiding thefe different caufes
will certainly prevent fits of the gout ; and the taking
care that the exciting caufes be never applied in a great
degree, will certainly render fits more moderate when
they do come on. But, upon the whole, it will appear,
that a very tlrift attention to the general conduft of
life is in this matter neceffary ; and therefore, when
the predifpofitiqn has taken place, it will be extremely
difficult to avoid the difeafe.
Dr Cullen is firmly perfuaded, that by obviating
the predifpofition, and by avoiding the exciting caufes,
the gout may be entirely prevented : but, as the mea¬
fures neceffary for this purpofe will, in moft cafes, be
purfued with difficulty, and even with relu&ance, men
have been very defirous to find a medicine which might
snfwer the purpofe without any reftraint on their man¬
ner of living. To gratify this defire, phyficians have
propofed, and, to take advantage of it, empirics have
feigned, many remedies. Of vffiat nature feveral of
thefe remedies have been, it is difficult to fay : but of
thofe which are unknown, we conclude, from their
having been only of temporary fame, and from their
having foon fallen into neglect, that they have been
either inert or pernicious. We ffiall therefore make no
inquiry after them j and (hall now remark only upon
one or two knoAvn remedies for the gout which have
been lately fafliionable.
One of thefe is what has been named in England
the Portland powder. This is not a new medicine,
but is mentioned by Galen, and, with feme little va¬
riation in its compofition, has been mentioned by the
writers of almoft every age fince that time. It ap¬
pears to have been at times in faffiion, and to have
again fallen into neglccff ; and Dr Cullen thinks that
this laff has been owing to its having been found to
be, in many inflances, pernicious. In every inftance
which he has known of its exhibition for the length
of time preferibed, the perfons who had taken it were
indeed afterwards free from any inflammatory affec¬
tion of the joints j but they were affeeffed with many
fymptoms of the atonic gout $ and many, foon after
finiffiing their courfe of the medicine, have been at¬
tacked with apoplexy, afthma, or dropfy, which proved
fatal.
Another remedy which has had the appearance of
CINE.
preventing the gout, is alkali in various forms ; fueh as Podagra,
the fixed alkali, both mild and cauftic, lime water,
foap, and abforbent earths ; and of late the alkaline
aerated water has been more fafliionable than any
other. Since it became common to exhibit thefe me¬
dicines in nephritic and calculous cafes, it has often
happened that they were given to thofe who were at
the fame time fubjeeft to the gout 5 and it has been ob-
ferved, that under the ufe of thefe medicines, gouty per¬
fons have been longer free from the fits of their difeafe.
That, however, the ufe of thefe medicines has entirely
prevented the returns of gout, Dr Cullen does not
know $ becaufe he never pufhed the ufe of them for a
long time, being apprehenfive that the long-continued
ufe of them might produce a hurtful change in the ftate
of the fluids.
As the prevention of gout depends very much on ffip.
porting the tone of the ftomach, and avoiding indigef-
tion ; fo coflivenefs, by occafioning this, is very hurtful
to gouty perfons. It is therefore neceffary for fuch per¬
fons to prevent or remove coftivenefs, by a laxative
medicine, when needful ; but it is at the fame time
proper, that the medicine employed ffiould be fueh
as may keep the belly regular, without much purging.
Aloetics, rhubarb, magnefia alba, oleum ricini, or
flowers of fulphur, may be employed, as the one or the
other may happen to be belt fuited to particular per¬
fons.
Thefe are the feveral meafures to be purfued in the
intervals of the paroxyfms ; and we are next to mention
the meafures proper during the time of them.
As during the time of paroxyfms the body is in a
feveriffi ftate, no irritation fliould then be added to it 5
every part, therefore, of the antiphlogiftic regimen,
except the application of cold, ought to be ftricftly ob-
ferved.
An exception to the general rule, however, may oc¬
cur when the tone of the ftomach is weak, and when
the patient has been before much accuftomed to the ufe
of ftrong drink ; for then it may be allowable, and
even neceffary, to give feme animal food and a little
wine.
That no irritation is to be added to the fyftem du¬
ring the paroxyfms of gout, except in the cafes men¬
tioned, is agreed upon among phyficians : but it is a
more difficult matter to determine, whether, during
the time of paroxyfms any meafures may be purfued
to moderate the violence of rea£lion and of inflamma¬
tion. Dr Sydenham has given it as his opinion, that
the more violent the inflammation and pain, the pa-
roxyfm will be the fhorter, as well as the interval be¬
tween the prefent and the next paroxyfm longer 5
and, if this opinion be admitted as juft, it will forbid
the ufe of any remedies which might moderate the
inflammation 5 which is, to a certain degree, undoubt¬
edly neceffary for the health of the body. On the
other hand, acute pain preffes for relief; and although
a certain degree of inflammation may feem abfolutely
neceffary, there is reafon to believe, a moderate degree
of it may anfwer the purpofe } and it is even pro¬
bable, that in many cafes the violence of inflammation
may weaken the tone of the parts, and thereby invite
a return of paroxyfms. It feems to be in this way,
that, as the difeafe advances, the paroxyfms become
more frequent.
From
fine.
Practice. s M E D I
Phlegma- From thefe laft confiderations, it feems probable,
that, during the time of paroxyfms fome meafures
^ may be taken to moderate the violence of the inflam¬
mation and pain, and particularly, that in firit pa*
roxyfms, and in the young and vigorous, blood-letting
at the arm may be praftifed with advantage : but this
praflice cannot be repeated often with fafety ; becaufe
blood-letting not only weakens the tone of the fyitem,
but alfo contributes to produce plethora. However,
bleeding by leeches on the foot, and upon the inflamed
part, may be praclifed and repeated with greater fafety ;
and in fiances have been known of its having been em¬
ployed with fafety to moderate and ftiorten paroxyfms ;
but how far it may be carried, we have not had experi¬
ence enough to determine.
Befides blood-letting and the antiphlogiftic regimen,
it has been propofed to employ remedies for moderating
the inflammatory fpafm of the part affefted, fuch as rvarm
bathing and emollient poultices. Thefe have fometimes
been employed with advantage and fafety ; but, at other
times, have been found to give occafion to a retroceflion
of the gout.
Bliftefing is a very effe&ual means of relieving and
difeufling a paroxyfm of the gout; but has alfo fre¬
quently had the effeft of fendering it retrocedent.
The flinging with nettles is analogous to bliftering;
and probably would be attended with the fame danger.
The burning with moxa, or other fubftances, is a re¬
medy of the fame kind 5 but though not found hurtful,
there is no fufficient evidence of its proving a radical
cure.
Camphor, and fome aromatic oils, have the power
of allaying the pain, and of removing the inflammation
from the part aftefled : but thefe remedies commonly
make the inflammation only fhift from one part to an¬
other, and therefore with the hazard of its falling up¬
on a part where it may be more dangerous ; and they
have fometimes rendered the gout retrocedent.
# Among other remedies which have of late been
highly extolled during a paroxyfm of gout, fome have
recommended the ufe of ftrong purgatives frequently
repeated j others have highly extolled the affiduous ap*
plication of cold water to the affe&ed foot. But we
may fafely veriture to aflert that both praflices are very
doubtful, if not very dangerous.
From thefe reflexions it will appear, that fome dan¬
ger muft attend every external application to the parts
afleXed during a paroxyfra ; and that therefore the
common praXice of committing the perfon to patience
and flannel alone, is eftablifhed upon1 the befl: founda¬
tion. Opiates give the rnoft certain relief from pain ;
but, when given in the beginning of gouty paroxyfnw,
it has by fome been thought that they occafion there
to return with greater violence. When, however, the
paroxyfms (hall have abated in their violence, but (till
continue to return, fo as to occafion painful and reft-
lefs nights, opiates may be given with fafety and ad¬
vantage \ efpecially in the cafe of perfons advanced in
life, and who have been often affeXed with the dif-
eafe. When, after paroxyfms have ceafed, fome fwel-
ling and rtiftnefs ftill remain iti the joints, thefe fymp-
toms are to be difeufled by the diligent ule of the
flefli-bruih. Purging immediately' after a paroxvftn
will be al ways employed with the hazard of bringing
*t on again j but keeping the belly gently open even
C I N E.
during the continuance of the paroxyfm is highly pro¬
per.
1 hus far of the regular gout. We now proceed
to coniider the management of the difeafe when it has
become irregular.
In the atonic gout, the cure is to be accompliihed
by carefully avoiding all debilitating caufes ; and by
employing, at the fame time, the means of ftrengthen-
ing the fyftem in general, and the ftomach in particu¬
lar.
For ftrengthening the fyftem in general, Dr Cullen
recommends frequent exercife on horfeback, and mo¬
derate walking. Cold bathing alfo may anlwer the
purpofe; and may be fafely employed, if it appear to
be powerful in ftimulating the fyftem, and be not ap¬
plied when the extremities are threatened with any
pain.
For fupporting the tone of the fyaem in general,
when threatened with atonic gout, fome animal food
ought to be employed, and the more acefcent vege¬
tables ought to be avoided. In the fame cafe, fome
wine alfo may be neceflary ; but it fhould be in mo¬
derate quantity, and of the leaft acefcent kinds, and if
every kind of wane {hall be found to increafe the aci¬
dity of the ftomach, ardent fpirits and water muft be
employed.
For ftrengthening the ftomach, bitters and the Pe¬
ruvian bark may be ufed ; but care muft be taken that
they be not eonftantly employed for any great length
of time.
The moft effeXual medicine for ftrengthening the
ftomach is iron, which may be employed under various
preparations 5 but the beft appears to be the ruft in
fine powder, which may be given in large dofes.
For fupporting the tone of the ftomach, aromatics
may be exhibited ; but fhould be ufed with caution,
as the frequent and copious ufe of them has an op-
pofite effeX ; and they fhould therefore be given only
in compliance with former habits, or for palliating pre-
fent fymptoms.
When the ftomach happens to be liable to indigef-
tion, gentle vomits may be frequently given, and pro¬
per laxatives fhould be always employed to obviate or
to remove coftivenefs.
In the atonic gout, or in perfons liable to it, to
guard againft cold is efpecially neceflary ; and the moft
certain means of doing this, is by repairing to a warm,
climate during the winter feafon. In the more violent
cafes, bliftering the lower extremities may be ufeful j
but that remedy fhould be avoided when any pain
threatens the extremities. In perfons liable to the
atonic gout, iffues may be eftabliftied in the extremi¬
ties as in fome meafure a fupplement to the difeafe.
A fecond cafe of the irregular gout, is the retro¬
cedent.
When this affeXs the ftomach and inteftines, relief
is to be inftantly attempted by the free ufe of ftrong
wines, joined with aromatics, and given warm ; or, if
thefe fhall not prove powerful enough, ardent fpirits
muft be employed, and are to be given in a large dofe.
In mode! ate attacks, ardent fpirits, impregnated with
garlic or with afafoetida, may be ufed •, or, even
without the ardent fnirits, a folutibrt of afafbetida
with the volatile alkaft, may an Aver the purpofe. O-
piates are often an effeXual remedy j and may be
S s 2 joined
324
Phlegma- joined with aromatics, as in the eleftuarium opiatum ",
t fia'' or they may be ufefully joined with volatile alkali and
'”’"v camj)hor. Mulk has likewife proved ufeful in this
difeafe.
When the affe&ion of the ftomach is accompanied
with vomiting, this may be encouraged, by taking
draughts of warm water, at firft with wine, and af¬
terwards without it ", having at length recourfe, if ne-
ceffary, to feme of the remedies above mentioned, and
particularly the opiates.
In like manner, if the inteftines be affefted with
diarrhoea, this is to be at firft encouraged by taking
plentifully of weak broth ; and when this lhall have
been done fufficiently, the tumult is to be quieted by
opiates.
When the retrocedent gout (hall afxedt the lungs,
and produce afthma, this is to be cured by opiates, by
antifpafmodics, and perhaps by bliltering on the back
or breaft.
When the gout, leaving the extremities, fliall affeft
the head, and produce pain, vertigo, apoplexy, or palfy,
our refources are very precarious. The moft probable
means of relief is, bliftering the head ; and, if the gout
fliall have receded very entirely from the extremities,
blifters may be applied to thefe alfo. Together with
thefe blifterings, aromatics, and the volatile alkali, may
be thrown into the ftomach.
The third cafe of the irregular gout is the mfplaced;
that is, when the inflammatory affedlion of the gout,
inftead of falling upon the extremities, falls upon fome
internal part. In this cafe, the difeafe is to be treat¬
ed by blood-letting, and by fuch other remedies as
would be proper in an idiopathic inflammation of the
fame parts.
Whether the tranflation fo frequently made from the
extremities to the kidneys, is to be confidered as an
inftance of the mifplaced gout, feems uncertain : but
Dr Cullen is difpofed to think it fomething different 5
and therefore is of opinion, that, in the nephralgia cal-
culofa produced upon this occafion, the remedies of in¬
flammation are to be employed no farther than they
may be fometimes neceffary in that difeafe, arifing from
other caufes than the gout.
Befides what have been mentioned, a variety of other
practices may be neceffary and proper againft the vari¬
ous anomalous fymptoms, which are at times produced
by irregular gout. But of thefe we cannot propofe to
treat. And we may conclude with obferving, that in
every form of gout, the cure principally depends on
avoiding occafional caufes, particularly luxury and lazi-
nefs.
Genus XXV. ARTHROPUOSIS.
Lumbago pfoadica, Sauv. fp. 6. Forihjce, Practice of
Phyfic, part ii. p.. 70.
Lumbago apoftematofa, Sauv. fp. 12.
Lumbago ab arthrocace, Sauv. p. 17.
Ifchias ex abfceffu, Sauv. fp. 6.
Morbus coxarius, De Haen, Rat. Med. Vol. I.
c. xxxii.
This is a difeafe very much refembling the rheuma-
tifm 5 but differing both from it and the gout, in that
it occafions fuppurations, which they feldorw or never
do. It frequently, according to Sauvages, attacks the
Pradice.
pfoas mufele j and occailons excruciating pains, and krylipeiaSi
then colledlions of purulent matter. y—
The only cure, if fuppuration cannot be prevented, is
to lay open the part where the matter is contained,
which would otherwife be abforbed, and occalion a
fatal heftic.
Order III. EXANTHEMATA. 2,7
Exanthemata, Sag. Clafs X.
Phlegmafise exanthematicas, Sauv. Clafs III. Ord. I.
Morbi exanthematici, Lin. Clafs I. Ord. II.
Febres exanthematicae, Vog. Clafs I. Ord. II.
Genus XXVI. ERYSIPELAS.
St Anthont's Fire. 21a
Eryfipelas, Sauv. gen. 97. Lin. 10. Sag. gen. 296.
Febris eryfipelacea, Vog. 68. Fiojfm. II. 98.
i
Sp. I. Erysipelas with B/iflers. 2l9
Eryfipelas rofeum, Sauv. fp. 1. Sennert. de febr. lib.
ii. c. 15.
Febris eryfipelatofa, Sydenham, feft. vi. cap. 5.
Eryfipelas typhodes, Sauv. fp. 2.
Eryfipelas peftilens, Sauv. fp. 5.
Eryfipelas contagiofum, Sauv. fp. 9.
Defcription. The eryfipelas of the face, where this
affedtion very frequently appears, comes on with a
cold {hivering, and other fymptoms of pyrexia. The
hot ftage of this is frequently attended with a confu-
fion of the head, and fome degree of delirium 5 and
almoft always with drowfinefs, and perhaps coma.
The pulfe is always frequent, and commonly full and
hard.—When thefe fymptoms have continued for one,
two, or at moft three days, an erythema appears on
fome part of the face. This at firft is of no great
extent 5 but gradually fpreads from the part it firft
occupied to the other parts of the face, till it has
affected the whole *, and frequently from the face it
fpreads over the hairy fcalp, or defeends on fome
part of the cheek. As the rednefs fpreads, it com¬
monly leaves, or at leaft is abated in the parts it had
before occupied. All the parts which the rednefs
affedls are alfo affedled with fome fwelling, which
continues for fome time after the rednefs has abated.
The vEole face becomes confiderably turgid ", and the
eyelids are often fo much fwelled as entirely to fliut
up the eyes. When the rednefs and fwelling have
continued for fome time, there commonly arife, fooner
or later, blifters of a larger or fmaller fize on feveral
parts of the face. Thefe contain a thin colourlefs li¬
quor, which fooner or later runs out. The furface of
the Ikin, in the bliftered places, fometimes becomes li¬
vid and blackifti ; but this feldom goes deeper, or dif-
covers any degree of gangrene affedting the cutis vera.
On the parts of the face not affefted with blifters, the
cuticle fuffers, towards the end of the difeafe, a confi-
derable defquamation. Sometimes the tumor of the
eyelids ends in a fuppuration.
The inflammation coming upon the face does not
produce any remiflion of the fever which had before
prevailed ", and fometimes the fever increafes with the
fpreading and increafing inflammation. The inflamma-.
tiors
MEDICINE.
Pra6Uce. M E D I
Exanthe- tion commonly continues for eight or ten days ; and
mata- for the fame time, the fever and fymptoms attending
"—'v““',“it alfo continue. In the progrefs of the difeafe, the
delirium and coma attending it fometimes go on in-
creafing, and the patient dies apopleflic on the feventh,
ninth, or eleventh day of the difeafe. In fuch cafes
it has been commonly fuppofed, that the difeafe is
tranflated from the external to the internal parts.
But Dr Cullen thinks that the affedlion of the brain
is merely a communication from the external affeddion,
as this continues increaling at the fame time with the
internal. When a fatal event does not take place,
the inflammation, after having affedded the whole face,
and perhaps the other external parts of the head,
ceafes, and with that the fever alfo 5 and, without
any other crilis, the patient returns to his ordinary
health. This difeafe is not commonly contagious 5
but as it may arife from an acrid matter externally
applied, fo it is poflible that the difeafe may fome¬
times be communicated from one perfon to another;
and certainly there are feveral well authenticated in-
ftances of its prevailing in fuch a manner, even in par¬
ticular wards of hofpitals, as to leave no doubt re-
fpefting its contagious nature. Perfons who have
once laboured under this difeafe are liable to returns
of it.
Prognojts. The event of this difeafe may be fore-
feen from the Hate of the fymptoms which denote
more or lefs the affedtion of the brain. If neither
delirium nor coma come on, the difeafe is feldom
attended with any danger ; but when thefe fymp¬
toms appear early in the difeafe, and are in a con-
fiderable degree, the utmoft danger is to be appre¬
hended.
Cure. The erylipelas of the face is to be cured,
according to the opinion of moil practitioners, much
in the fame manner as phlegmonic inflammations; by
blood-letting, cooling purgatives, and by employing
every part of the antiphlogiftic regimen. Many ob-
fervations, however, would lead us to conclude, that
in not a few cafes the concomitant fever has here a
tendency to the typhoid type ; and therefore evacua¬
tions, apparently ferviceable in the firft inftance, have
afterwards a bad effect. The evacuations of blood¬
letting and purging are to be employed more or lefs
according to the urgency of fymptoms j particularly
thofe which mark an affection of the brain. As the
pyrexia continues, and often increafes with the inflam¬
mation of the face, fo the evacuations above mention¬
ed are to be employed at any time of the difeafe.
When, however, the fever, in place of marks of the
phlogiftic diathefis, particularly a full, hard, and ftrong
pulfe, is attended with fymptoms of great debility,
and with a fmall pulfe eafily compreflible •, evacua¬
tions, particularly under the form of blood-letting,
mud be ufed with very great caution. Even in fuch
cafes, however, the ufe of refrigerant cathartics may
ftill be perfifted in with more fafety and greater ad¬
vantage. But whether evacuants have been employed
or not, when fymptoms of debility run to a great
height, and marks of a putrefeent tendency appear,
recourfe muff be had to wine and the cinchona.
In cafes which at the commencement require evacua¬
tion, thefe are often in the after periods employed with
very great benefit.
CINE.
In this, as in other difeafes of the head, when that
part happens to be the feat of eryfipelas, it is proper
to put the patient, as often as he can eafily bear it,
into fomewhat of an ereeff pofture \ and as there is al¬
ways an external affedlion, fo various external applica¬
tions have been propofed to be made to the part afteeff-
ed ; but almoft all of them are of doubtful effeeff.
An eryfipelas frequently appears on other parts of
the body befides the face, and fuch other eryfipelatous
inflammations frequently end in fuppuration j but thefe
cafes are feldom dangerous. At coming on they are
fometimes attended with drowfinefs, and even with fome
delirium ; but this feldom happens, and thefe fymptoms
do not continue after the inflammation is formed ; and
Dr Cullen does not remember to have feen an in¬
ftance of the tranflation of an inflammation from the
limbs to an internal part 5 and though thefe inflam¬
mations of the limbs be attended with pyrexia, they
feldom require the fame evacuations as the eryfipelas
of the face.
Sp. II. Erysipelas with PhlyBence.
Eryfipelas zofter, Sauv. fp. 8.
Zona 5 Anglis, The Shingles, Rujfel de tab. gland.
/ p. 124. Hill. 35.
Herpes zofter, Sauv. Ip. 9.
This differs from the former in no other way than
in being attended with an eruption of phlyclenae or
fmall watery bladders on feveral parts of the body.—
The method of cure is the fame.
Genus XXVII. PESTIS, the Plague.
Peftis, Sauv. gen. 91. Lin. 2. Lunch. 78.
Febris peftilentialis, Vog. 33. Hoffm. II. 93.
Peftis benigna, Sauv. fp. 2. Peftis Maffilienfis,
Clafs III. Traite de la pefte, p. 41. Ejufdem
peftis, Cl. jta, Traite, p. 228.
Peftis remittens, Sauv. fp. 9.
Peftis vulgaris, Sauv. fp. 1. Peftis Mafiil. Cl. II.
Traite, p. 38. Ejufd. Cl. III. et IV. Traite,
p. 225, &c. Waldfchmidt. de pefte Holfatica,
apud Hulleri, Dili. Praft. Tom. V. Chenot. de
pefte Tranfylvanica, 1755, 1759, De Haen^Pzt.
Med. pars xiv.
Peftis Egyptiaca, Sauv. fp. 11. A/pin. de Med.
Egypt.
Peftis interna, Sauv. fp. 3. Peft. Maffil. Cl. I.
Traite, p. 37—224.
Hijlory. Of this diftemper Dr Cullen declines giv¬
ing any particular hiftory, becaufe he never faw it;
from the accounts of other authors, however, he is
of opinion, that the circumftances peculiarly charac-
teriftic of it, efpecially of its more violent and dan¬
gerous ftates, are, 1. The great lofs of ftrength in
the animal funflions, which often appears early in the
difeafe. 2. The ftupor, giddinefs, and confequent
ftaggering, which refembles drunkennefs, or the head-
ach and various delirium, all of them denoting a great
diforder in the fundftions of the brain. 3. Anxiety,
palpitation, fyncope, and efpecially the weaknefs and
irregularity of the pulfe, denoting a confiderable di-
fturbance in the aftion of the heart. 4. Naufea and
vomiting, particularly the vomiting of bile, whichihowa
, an.
325
Peftis.
220
225
a
M E D I
an accumulation of vitiated bile in the gall-bladder and
biliary dufts, and from thence derived into the in-
teftines and itomach ; and which denote a coniiderable
1'pafm, and lofs of tone in the extreme vefl'els on the
furface of the body. 5. The buboes and carbuncles,
which denote an acrimony prevailing in the fluids ;
and, laftly, L'he petechiae, hsemorrhag es, and colliqua¬
tive diarrhoea, which denote a putrefeent tendency pre¬
vailing in a great degree in the mafs of blood.
To thefe charadteriftics of the plague enumerated
by Dr Cullen, we lhall add one mehtioned by Sir John
Pringle, which, though perhaps lefs frequent than
the others, yet feems worthy of notice. It is this,
That in the plague there is an extraordinary enlarge¬
ment of the heart and liver. In nine difleftions of
bodies dead of the plague at Marseilles, this extraor¬
dinary enlargement of the heart is taken notice of in
all of them, and of the liver in feven of them. The
account was fent to the Royal Society by M. Didier,
one of the phyficians to the king of France, and has
been publilhed in the Philofophical Tranfaftions. In
the firll cafe, the author takes notice, that “ the heart
was of an extraordinary bignefs j and the liver was of
double the natural fize.—Cafe 2. The heart was of a
prodigious bignefs, and the liver much enlarged.—
Cafe 3. I he heart double the natural bignefs.—Cafe 4.
I he heart was very large, and the liver was bigger
and harder than ordinary.—Cafe 5. L'he heart was of
a prodigious bignefs.—Cafe 6. The heart was larger
than in its natural ftate 5 the liver alfo was very large.
—Cafe 7. I he heart was of a prodigious fize, and
the liver was very large.—Cafe 8. The heart was
much larger than natural, and the liver of a prodi¬
gious fize.—Cafe 9. The heart was double the natural
bignefs, and the liver was larger than ordinary.”—
This preternatural enlargement, Sir J. Pringle thinks, is
owing to the relaxation of the folid parts, by which
means they become unable to refill the impetus of blood,
and therefore are eafily extended 5 as in the cafe of in¬
fancy, where the growth is remarkably quick. And a
fimilar enlargement he takes notice of in the feurvy, and
other putrid difeafes.
A very elaborate work has lately been publilhcd on
the fubjeft of the plague by Dr Patrick Ruffel, for¬
merly phyfician to the Britilh taftory at Aleppo. In
this work, a very full hiftory is given of the various
forms and varieties of the difeafe. He makes particular
obfervations on the following fvraptoms, which, in ad¬
dition to the peftilential eruptions, he confiders as the
moll important concomitants of plague, viz. fever, deli¬
rium, coma, impediment or lofs of fpeech, deafnefs,
muddinefs of the eyes, white tongue, ftate of the pulfe,
refpiration, anxiety, pain at the heart, inquietude, de¬
bility, fainting, eonvulfion, appearances of the urine,
perfpiration, vomiting, loofenefs, and haemorrhage j and
he concludes thefe remarks with fotne obfervations on
the occurrence of the plague with pregnant women.
To point out more diftinflly the liable varieties of the
difeafe, he arranges the peftilential cafes which fell un¬
der Ins obfervation at Aleppo under fix elafies : and he
concludes his defeription with a very minute and parti¬
cular account of the peftilential eruptions, appearing
under the form either of buboes, carbuncles, or other
exanthemata. The prefence of the two firft, he ob-
ibrves, either feparately or conjundtly, leaves the nature
4.
CINE. Praaict.
of the dillemper unequivocal. But fatal has been the Pettis,
error of raftdy pronouncing a diftemper not to be a'—'
plague from their abfence. Buboes affedled the in¬
guinal, axillary, parotid, maxillary, and cervical glands.
But the firft were the moft commonly affedled, and the
two latter feldom obferved to fwell, without either the
parotid fuelling at the time, or foon after. Of the
carbuncles, Dr Ruilel deferibes five different varieties.
The other exanthemata, which he obferved fometimes,
though lefs frequently, attending the plague, were pe-
teehiae, a marbled appearance of the ikin, an eryfipe-
latous redneis, llreaks of a reddifh purple or livid co¬
lour, vibices or weals, and large blue or purple fpots,
the maculce tnctgnce of authors. In fome cafes, an ex¬
traordinary concurrence of eruptions took place, which
was chiefly obferved among ehildren under 10 years
of age.
. Caufes, &c. From a confideration of the fymptoms
above mentioned, Dr Cullen concludes, that the plague
is owing to a fpecifie contagion, often fuddeniy pro¬
ducing the moft confiderable debility in the nervous
fyftem, or moving powers, and a general putrefeency
in the fluids, Dr Ruffel alfo confiders the difeafe as
being univerfally the confequenee of what may be call¬
ed pejlilential contagion; and has judicioufly repelled
the objedtions which have been brought againft this
dodtrine.
Prevention. Here we muft refer to all thofe me¬
thods of preventing and removing the incipient con¬
tagion of putrid fevers, which have been fo fully enu¬
merated. Dr Cullen is perfuaded that the difeafe ne¬
ver arifes in the northern parts of Europe, but in eon-
fequence of being imported from fome other country.
The magiftrate’s firft care, therefore, ought to be, to
prevent the importation j and this may generally be
done by a due attention to bills of health, and to the
proper performance of quarantines*—With refpedl to
the latter, he is of opinion, that the quarantines of
perfons may with fafety be much lefs than 40 days j
and if this were allowed, the execution of the quaran¬
tine would be more exadl and certain, as the tempta¬
tion to break it would be in a great meafure avoided.
With refpedl to the quarantine of goods, it cannot be
perfect unlefs the fufpedted goods be unpacked, duly
ventilated, and other means be employed for cortedl-
ing the infedtien they may carry •, and if all this be pro¬
perly done, it is probable that the time commonly pre-
feribed for quarantine may alfo be ftiortened.
A feeond meafure in the way of prevention is re¬
quired, when an infedtion has reached and prevailed in
any place, to prevent that infedtiort from {^reading in¬
to others. This can only be done by preventing the
inhabitants or the goods of any infedled place from
going out of it till they have undergone a proper
quarantine.
The third meafure, and which ought to be em«
ployed with great care, is, to prevent the infedtion
from fpreading among the inhabitants of a place in
which it has arifen. And in this cafe, a great deal
may be done by the magiftrate : x. By allowing as
many of the inhabitants as are free from infedlion, and
are not neceffary to the fervice of the plate, to go out
of it. 2. By difeharging all affemblies, or unmeef-
fary intercut:'-fe of the people. 3. By ordering fome
neceffary communications to be performed without
contadl.
Prance. MED!
Exanthe- contaft. 4. By making fuch arrangements and pro-
m!t:t- , vifions as may render it eafy for the families remaining
u ' to Ihut themfelves up in their own houfes. 5. By al¬
lowing perfons to quit houfes where an infe&ion ap¬
pears, upon condition that they go into lazarettos.
6. By ventilating and purifying, or deftjroying, at the
public expence, all infected goods. 7. By avoiding
hofpitals, and providing feparate apartments for infe&ed
perfons.
L he fourth and laft part of the bufinels of preven¬
tion refpe&s the conduft of perfons neceifarily remain¬
ing in infected places, efpecially thofe obliged to have
feme communication with perfons infected. Thofe
obliged to remain in places infected, but not to have
any near communication with the Tick, mult avoid all
near communication with other perfons or their goods ;
and it is probable, that a fmall diitanee will ferve, if,
at the fame time, there be no dream of air to carry
the effluvia of perfons or goods to fome diftance. Thofe
who are obliged to have a near communication with
the lick ought to avoid any of the debilitating caufes
which render the body fufceptible of infe&ion, as a
fpare diet, intemperance in drinking, excefs in venery,
cold, fear, or other depretTmg pallions of the mind.
A full diet of animal food is alfo to be avoided, be-
caufe it increafes the irritability of the body, and fa¬
vours the operation of contagion 5 and indigeftkm, whe¬
ther from the quantity or quality of the food, contri¬
butes very much to the. fame end.
Befides thefe, it is probable that the moderate ufe
of wine and fpirituous liquors, moderate exercile, and
the cold bath, may be of ufe ; tonic medicines alfo, of
which cinchona is defervedly accounted the chief, may
be ufed with fome probability of fuccefs. If any
thi ng is to be expedfed from antifepties, Dr Cullen
thinks camphor preferable to every other. In gene¬
ral, however,\ every one is to be indulged in the medi¬
cine of which he has the bell opinion, provided it is
not evidently hurtful. Whether iffues be ufeful in pre-
ferving from the effedts of contagion, is a matter of
doubt. Dr Rulfel in his treatife enters very fully
into the conlideration of the means of prevention,
both with refpedl to quarantines, lazarettos, and bills
of health. He is of opinion, that the prefent laws on
thefe fubjedts are in many refpedfs defedfive : and he
thinks, that a fet of new regulations would have the
heft chance of a deliberate and impartial difeuffion in
the fenate, if the inquiry were taken at a time free
from all apprehenfion of immediate danger.
Cure. According to Dr Cullen, the indications are
the fame as in fever in general, but are not all equally
important. The meafures for moderating the violence
of readlion, which operate by diminilMng the adlion of
the heart and arteries, have feldom, he thinks, any
phee here, excepting that the antiphlogiftic regimen is
generally proper. Some phyficians have recommended
bleeding, and Sydenham even feems to think it an ef-
fedlual cure j but Dr Cullen fuppofes, that for the moft
part it is unneceffary, and in many cafes might do much
hurt. Dr Ruffel, however, who on this fubjedl fpeaks
Irom experience and adtual obfervation, is of a differ¬
ent opinion. With moft of his patients, a fingle bleed¬
ing was employed with advantage j and even where
the fick under his infpedtion were bled oftener than
[CINE.
once, he did not find that the low ftate was thereby
hurried on. Purging hqs alfo been recommended ; and
in fome degree it may be ufeful in drawing off the
putrefeent matter frequently prefent in the inteftines;
but a large evacuation in this way may certainly be
hurtful.
Ihe moderating the violence of readlion, as far as
it can be done, by taking off the fpafm of the ex¬
treme veffels, is a meafure, in Dr Cullen’s opinion,
of the utmoft neceiuty in the cure of the plague j and
the whole of the means formerly mentioned, as fuited
to this indication, are extremely proper. T}ie giving
an emetic, at the firft approach of the difeafe, would
probably be of great fervice 5 and it is probable, that,
at fome other periods of the difeafe, emetics might be
ufeful, both by evacuating bile abounding in the ali¬
mentary canal, and by taking off the Ipalm of the ex¬
treme veffels. Indeed Baron Alh, and fome other
of the Ruffian practitioners, represent the early and
repeated ufed of emetics as the only effedtual mode of
cure.
According to the obfervations of Dr de Mertens,
who wrote a very interefting treatife on the fatal plague
which raged at Mofcow in 1771, and which carried off
upwards of 30,000 inhabitants in the fpace of one
month, emetics were often of the greateft fervice.
From fome principles with refpedf to fever in gene¬
ral, and with refpedt to the plague in particular, Dr
Cullen is of opinion, that after the exhibition of the
firft vomit, the body fhould be difpofed to fweat: but
this Iweat Ihould be raifed only to a moderate degree,
though it muft be continued for 24 hours or more if
the patient bears it eafily. The fvveating is to be ex¬
cited and conduced according to the rules laid down
under Synocha ; and muft be promoted by the plenti¬
ful ufe of diluents rendered more grateful by vege¬
table acids, or more powerful by being impregnated
with fome portion of neutral falts. To fupport the
patient under the continuance of the fweat, « little
weak broth, acidulated with the juice of lemons, may
be given frequently, and fometimes a little wine if
the heat of the body be not confiderable. If fudorific
medicines be judged neceffary, opiates will be found
more eileclual and fafe } but they Ihould not be com¬
bined with aromatics, and probably may be more effec¬
tual if joined with a portion of emetics and of neutral
falts.. But if, notwithftanding the ufe of emetics and
fudorifics in the beginning, the difeafe fhould ftill con¬
tinue, the cure muft turn upon the ufe of means for ob¬
viating debility and putrefcency j and for this purpofe
tonic medicines, efpecially cinchona and cold drink, are
the moft proper.
Genus XXVIII. VARIOLA.
T/ie Smallpox.
Variola, Smiv. gen. 92. Lin, 3. Sag. gen. 290..
Febris variolofa, Vog. 35. Hojfm. II. 49.
Varioke, Boerh. 1371. Junck. 76.
Sp. I. Dijlintt Smallpox.
Variola difereta benigna, Sauv. fp. 2.
Variolae regulares diferetae, Sydenh. fe£l. iff. cap. 2.
Variolas
327
Peltis.
223 ■
22.3
328
Exanthe¬
mata.
324
S
M E D I
Variolas difcretae limplices, Hclvet. Ob. fp. I.
Variola difcreta complicata, Sauv. fp. 2. Hclvet.
fp. 2.
Variolas anoraalae, Sydenh. fedl. iv. cap. 6.
Variola difcreta dyfenteriodes, Sauv. fp. 4. Sy-
denh. fe£t. iv. cap. 1.
Variola difcreta veficularis, Sauv. fp. 5.
Variola difcreta cryftallina. Mead, de variol. cap. 2.
Variola difcreta verrucofa, Sauv. fp. 6. Mead.
ibid.
Variola difcreta filiquofa, Sauv. fp. h]. Freind
Ope*, p- 358-
Variola difcreta miliaris, Sauv. fp. 8. Helvet. Obf.
fP- 3*
Sp. II. The Confluent SMALLPOX.
Variola confluensj Sauv. fp. 9.
Variolas regulares confluentes, arm. 166J. Syden¬
ham, fedl. iii. cap. 2.
Variolas confluentes fimplices, He/vet. Obf. fp. I.
Variola confluens cryftallina, Sauv. fp. 10.
Variola japonica, Kempfer.
Veficulae divas Barbaras, C. Pis. Obf. 149.
Variola confluens maligna, Helvet. Obf. fp. I.
Variola confluens cohasrens, Sauv. fp. II.
Variola confluens maligna, Helvet. fp. 2.
Variola confluens nigra, Sauv. fp. 12. Sydenham,
fedl. v. cap. 4
Variola confluens maligna, Helvet. fp. 3.
Variola fanguinea. Mead de variolis, cap. 2.
Variola confluens corymbofa, Sauv. fp. 13.
Variola confluens maligna, He/vet. fp. 4.
Deflcription. In the diftinct fmallpox, the difeafe
Begins with a fynocha or inflammatory fever. This
fever generally comes on about mid-day, with fome fymp-
toms of a cold ftage, and commonly with a eonfi-
derable languor and drowfinefs. A hot ftage is foon
formed’, and becomes more confiderable on the fecond
and third day. During this courfe children are liable
to frequent ftartings from their flumbers •, and adults,
if they are kept in bed, are difpofed to much fweat-
ing. On the third day, children are fometimes
affefted with one or two epileptic fits. I owards the
end of the third day the eruption commonly appears,
and gradually increafes during the fourth •, appearing
firft on the face, and fucceftively on the inferior
parts, fo as to be completed over the whole body on
the fifth day. From the third day the fever abates,
and by the fifth it entirely ceafes. The eruption
appears firft in fmall red fpots hardly eminent, but by
degrees riling into pimples. There are generally but
few on the face *, but, even when more numerous, they
are feparate and diftinft from one another. On the
fifth or fixth day, a fmall veficle, containing an almoft
colourlefs fluid, appears on the top of each pimple.
For two days thefe veficles increafe in breadth only,
and there is a fmall hollow pit in their middle, fo that
they are not raifed into fpheroidical puftules till the
eighth day. Thefe puftules from their firft formation
continue to be furrounded with an exacfly circular in¬
flamed margin, which, when they are numerous, diffufes
fome inflammation over the neighbouring fkin, fo as to
give fomewhat of a damafk-rofe colour to the fpaces
-between the puftules. As the puftules increafe in fize,
CINE. Practice
the face fwells confiderably if they are numerous Variola,
on it ; and the eye lids particularly are fo much'—~y—-
fwelled, that the eyes are entirely ftiut. As the difeafe
proceeds, the matter in the puftules becomes by degrees
more opaque and white, and at length affumes a
yellowdih colour. On the 1 ith day the fwelling of
the face is abated, and the puftules feem quite full.
On the top of each a darker fpot appears j and at this
place the puftule, on the nth day, or foon after, is
fpontaneoufty broken, and a portion of the matter
oozes out *, in confequence of which the puftule is
Ihrivelled, and fubfides 5 while the matter oozing out
dries, and forms a cruft upon its lurface. Sometimes
only a little of the matter oozes out, and what remains
in the puftule becomes thick and even hard. After
fome days, both the crufts and . the hardened puftules
fall off, leaving the Ikin which they covered of a
brownifti red colour •, nor doth it refume its natural
colour till many days after. In fome cafes, where
the matter of the puftules has been more liquid, the
crufts formed from it are later in falling olf, and the part
they covered fuffers fome defquamation, which occa-
fions a fmall hollow or pit.
On the legs and hands the matter is frequently
abforbed ; fo that at the height of the difeafe, thefe
puftules appear as empty as veficles. On the 10th
and I ith days, as the fwelling of the face fubfides,
a fwelling arifes in the hands and feet j but which
again fubfides as the puftules come to maturity.—
When the puftules on the face are numerous, fome
degree of pyrexia appears on the icth and nth
davs •, but difappears again after the puftules are fully
ripened, or perhaps remains in a very flight degree
till the puftules on the feet have finiftied their courfe $
and it is feldom that any fever continues longer in the
diftimft fmallpox. When the puftules are numerous
on the face, upon the fixth or feventh day fome uneafi-
nefs of the throat, with a hoarfenefs of the voice, comes
on, and a thin liquid is poured out from the mouth.
Thefe fymptoms increafe with the fwelling of the
face ; and the liquids of the mouth and throat be¬
coming thicker are with difficulty thrown out •, and
there is at the fame time fome difficulty in fwallovung,
fo that liquids taken in to be fwallowed are frequently
reiefted or thrown out by the nofe. But all thefe
affeftions of the fauces are abated as the fwelling of
the face fubfides.
In the confluent fmallpox all the fymptoms above
mentioned are much more fevere. The eruptive fever
particularly is more violent; the pulfe is more fre¬
quent and more contra&ed, approaching to that ftate
of pulfe which is obferved in typhus. The coma is
more confiderable, and there is frequently a delirium.
Vomiting alfo frequently attends, efpecially at the
beginning of the difeafe. In very young infants
epileptic fits are fometimes frequent on the firft days
of the difeafe, and fometimes prove fatal before any
eruption appears, or they ullier in a very confluent
and putrid fmallpox. But at the fame time, it has
been juftly remarked by Dr Sydenham, and other ac-
curate obfervers, that epileptic attacks more frequently
precede diftindt and mild than malignant and confluent
fmallpox. The eruption appears in the confluent more
early on the third day, and it is frequently preceded or
accompanied with an eryfipelatous effloreicence. Some¬
times
Praftice.
Ejanthe- times tlie eruption appears in clufters like the mealies.
mat- When the eruption is completed, the pimples are al-
i-—y—ways more numerous upon the face, and at the fame
time {mailer and lefs eminent. Upon the eruption the
fever fuffers fome remiflion, but never goes off entire¬
ly 5 and after the fifth or lixth day it increafes again,
and continues to be confiderable throughout the re¬
maining part of the difeafe. The velicles formed on
ihe top of the pimples appear fooner ; and while they
increafe in breadth, they do not retain a circular, but
are every way of an irregular figure. Many of them
Tim into one another, infomuch that very often the
face is covered with one veficle rather than with a
number of puftules. The veficles, as far as they are
any way feparated, do not arife to a fpheroidal form,
but remain fiat, and fometimes the whole of the face
appears an even furface. When the puftules are in any
meafure feparated, they are not bounded by an in¬
flamed margin, but the part of the Ikin that is free
from puftules is commonly pale and flaccid. The li¬
quor that is in the puftules changes from a clear to an
opaque appearance, and becomes whitilh or brownifti,
but never acquires the yellow colour and thick, con-
fiftence that appears in the dtilincf fmallpox. The
fvTelling of the face, which only fometimes attends
the diftindt fmallpox, always attends the confluent
kind j it alfo comes on more early, and arifes to a
greater height, but abates confiderably on the tenth
or eleventh day. At this time the puftules or veficks
break and fhiivel •, pouring out at the fame time a
liquor, which is formed into brown or black crufts,
which do not fall off for a long time after. Thofe
of the face, in falling off, leave the Ikin fubjedl to a
defquamation, which pretty certainly produces pit-
tings. On the other parts of the body the puftules
! * of the confluent fmallpox are more diftir & than on
the face ; but never acquire the fame maturity and
confiftence of pus as in the properly diftincl kind.—
The falivation, which fometimes only attends the
diftin£t fmallpox, very eonftantly attends the confluent •,
and both the falivation and the affeftion of the fauces
above mentioned occur, efpecially in adults, in a higher
degree. In infants a diarrhoea comes frequently in
place of a falivation.
In this kind of fmallpox there is often a very con-
fiderable putrefcency of the fluids, as appears from
petechiefc, from ferous veficles, under which the {kin
(hows a difpofition to gangrene, and from bloody urine
or other haemorrhages •, all of which fymptoms fre¬
quently attend this difeafe. In the confluent fmall¬
pox alfo, the fever, which had only fuffered a remiffion
from the eruption to the maturation, at or immediate¬
ly after this period is frequently renewed again with
confiderable violence. This is what has been called
the fecondary fever, and is of various duration and
event.
Caufes, &c. It is evident that the fmallpox is origi¬
nally produced by a contagion j and that this contagion
is a ferment with refpeft to the fluids of the human
body, which aftimilates a confiderable portion of them
to its own nature : or, at leaft, we have every reafon to
believe that a fmall quantity of contagious matter in¬
troduced, is fomehow multiplied and increafed in the
circulating fluids of the animal body. This quantity
paffes again out of the body, partly by inlenfible per-
Vol. XIII. Part I.
329
fpiration, and partly by being depofxted in puftules : Variola.
The caufes which determine more of the variolous mat- ~*
ter to pr.{fs by perfpiration, or to form puftules, are
probably certain circumltances of the fldn, which de-
termbie more or lefs of the variolous matter to flick in
it, o'r to pafs freely through it. The circumftance of
the {kin, which feems to determine the variolous matter
to flick in it, is a certain ftate of inflammation de¬
pending much on the heat of it : thus we have many
inftances of parts of the body, from being more heated,
having a greater number of puftules than other parts.
Thus parts covered with plafters, efpecially thofe of
the ftimulant kind, have more puftules than others.
—Certain circumftances alfo, fuch as adult age,
and full living, determining to a phlogiftic diathefis,
•feem to produce a greater number of puftules, and
vice verfa. It is therefore probable, that an inflam¬
matory ftate of the whole fyftem, and more particu¬
larly of the Ikin, gives occaiion to a greater number of
puftules •, and the caufes of this may produce moft of
the other circumftances of the confluent fmallpox, fuch
as the time of eruption, the continuance of the fever,
the effufion of a more putrefeent matter, and lefs fit
to be converted into pus, together with the form and
other circumftances of the puftules.
Prognojis. The more exaffly the difeafe retains
the form of the diftimft kind, it is the fafer ; and the
more completely the difeafe takes the form of the
confluent kind, it is the more dangerous. It is only
when the diitinft kind (hows a great number of pu¬
ftules on the face, or other wife by fever or putref-
cencv, approaching to the circumftances of the con¬
fluent, that the diftinft kind is attended with any dan-
gcr.
In the confluent kind the danger is always very
confiderable 5 and the more violent and permanent
the fever is, the greater the danger ; and efpecially
in proportion to the increafe of the fymptoms of pu-
trefeenev. When the putrid difpofition is very great,
the difeafe fometimes proves fatal before the eighth
day 5 but in moft cafes death happens on the eleventh,
and fometimes not till the fourteenth “or feventeenth
day.
Though the fmallpox may not prove immediately
fatal, the more violent kinds are often followed by a
morbid ftate of the body, fometimes of very dan¬
gerous event. Thefe confequenees, according to Ur
Cullen, may be imputed fometimes to an acrid matter
produced by the preceding difeafe, and depofited in
different parts •, and fometimes to an inflammatory dia-
thefis produced and determined to particular parts or
the body.
Since the introduffion of fmallpox into Europe, there
is perhaps no difeafe which has produced a greater num¬
ber of deaths. But, fortunately, a dii’covery is now made,
by which there is reafon to hope that this loathfome dil-
eafe may be altogether exterminated ; its prevention,
viz. by the inoculation of the vaccine or cowpox.
This moft important difeovery we owe to the fuc-
eefsful exertions of Ur Edward .Tenner •, to whom, for
thefe exertions, repeated rewards have been voted by
the Briti'fli fegi flat lire, but who unqueftionably enjoys
a much higher reward in the fatisfadlion of having con¬
ferred an ineftimable blefling on the human fpe-
cies.
T t
MEDICINE.
For
33° M E D I
mata.C ^or ^.n account of the progrefs of this difcovery, we
1 — t refer our readers to Dr Jenner’s publication. Here
we fhall only obferve, that it had long been remarked
in lome parts of England, particularly in the neigh¬
bourhood of Berkley, where Dr Jenner refided, that
cows were liable to a puftular difeafe on their udders,
fomewhat refembling fmallpox ; that this difeafe was
communicated by contaft to the fingers of thofe em¬
ployed in milking the cows ; and, finally, that thofe
thus infeded with cowpox, were completely protected
againft the contagion of fmallpox.
Founding^ on thefe obfervations, Dr Jenner afcertain-
ed by experiment, that the inoculation of vaccine mat¬
ter was an infallible preventive of fmallpox 5 and that
this vaccine matter had efjual power in preventing va¬
riola when transferred from one human fubject to an¬
other, as when obtained immediately from the cow.
It is not therefore wonderful that this practice of vac¬
cine inoculation ihould loon have become general,
both in Britain and in every quarter of the world.
Nor is it perhaps furpnfing, that it Ihould have been
violently oppofed by ignorant and obftinate men.
Hence numerous publications have of late appeared
both for and againft this practice. Many miftakes have
undoubtedly been committed by ignorance and inatten¬
tion } and thus the preventive has been fuppofed to
fail. For the beft account both of the method of per¬
forming the operation, of conveying the vaccine mat¬
ter from one place to another, and of the lefts of con-
ftitutional affedion in thofe cafes in which the inflam¬
mation is flight, and in which no fever is perceptible,
we may refer our readers to a treatife publifhed at E-
dinburgh in 1802, by Mr James Bryce, entitled Prac¬
tical Obfervations on the Inoculation of Cowpox.
Of the efficacy of vaccine inoculation as a preventive
©f fmallpox, few candid men will entertain any doubt,
after the following report on vaccination, from the
Royal College of Phyfieians in London, ordered to be
printed on the 8th of July 1807, by the Britifti parlia¬
ment.
REPORT, &c.
The Royal College of Phyficians of London, hav-
ing received his majefty’s commands, in compliance
with an addrefs from the houfe of commons, “ to in¬
quire into the ftate of vaccine inoculation in the united
kingdom, to report their opinion and obfervations up¬
on that pradice, upon the evidence which has been
adduced in its fupport, and upon the caufes which have
hitherto retarded its general adoption ;—have applied
themfelves diligently to the bufinefs referred to them.
Deeply imprefled with the importance of an in¬
quiry which equally involves the lives of individuals,
and the public profperity, they have made every exer¬
tion to inveftigate the fubjed fully and impartially. In
aid of the knowledge and experience of the members
of their own body, they have applied feparately to each
of the licentiates of the college ; they have correfpond-
ed with the colleges of phyficians of Dublin and Edin-
burgh ; with the colleges of furgeons of London, Edin¬
burgh, and Dublin ; they have called upon the focie-
ties eftabliflied for vaccination, for an account of their
pradice, to what extent it has been carried on, and
what has been the refult of their experience j and they
CINE. I'rafUce.
have, by public notice, invited individuals to contri- Variola
bute whatever information they had feverally colleded.1 v-—
They have in confequence been furniftied with a mafs
of evidence communicated with the greateft readinefs
and candour, which enables them to fpeak with confi¬
dence upon all the principal points referred to them.
I. During eight years which have elapfed fince Dr
Jenner made his difcovery public, the progrefs of vac¬
cination has been rapid, not only in all parts of the
united kingdom, but in every quarter of the civilized
world. In the Britifti iflands fome hundred thoufands
have been vaccinated, in our poffeflions in the Eaft In¬
dies upwards of 800,000, and among the nations of
Europe the praftice has become general. Profeflional
men have fubmitted it to the faireft trials, .and the pub¬
lic have, for the moft part, received it without preju¬
dice. A few indeed have flood forth the adverfaries
of vaccination, on the fame grounds as their predecef-
fors who oppofed the inoculation for the fmallpox,
falfely led by hypothetical reafoning in the inveftiga-
tion of a fubjeft which muft be fupported, or rejefted,
upon fafts and obfervation only. With thefe few ex¬
ceptions, the teftimony in favour of vaccination has
been moft ftrong and fatisfa&ory, and the pra&ice of
it, though it has received a check in fome quarters, ap¬
pears ftill to be upon the increafe in moft parts of the
united kingdom.
II. The college of phyficians, in giving their obfer¬
vations and opinions on the praftice of vaccination, think
it right to premife, that they advance nothing but
what is fuppported by the multiplied and unequivocal
evidence which has been brought before them, and
they have not confidered any fails as proved but what
have been ftated from ailual obfervation.
Vaccination appears to be in general perfeilly fafe :
the inftances to the contrary being extremely rare.
The difeafe excited by it is flight, and feldom prevents
thole under it from following their ordinary occupa¬
tions. It has been communicated with fafety to preg¬
nant women, to children during dentition, and in their
earlieft infancy 5 in all which refpedts it poffeffes mate¬
rial advantages over inoculation for the fmallpox j
which though productive of a difeafe generally mild,
yet fometimes occafions alarming fymptoms, and is in a
few cafes fatal.
The fecurity derived from vaccination againft the
fmallpox, if not abfolutely perfect, is as nearly fo as
can perhaps be expefted from any human difcovery •,
for amongft feveral hundred thoufand cafes, with the
refults of which the college have been made acquaint¬
ed, the number of alleged failures has been furprifing-
ly final], fo much fo, as to form certainly no reafonable
objeiftion to the general adoption of vaccination 5 for it
appears that there are not nearly fo many failures, in 2
given number of vaccinated perfons, as there are deaths
in an equal number of perfons inoculated for the fmall¬
pox. Nothing can more clearly demonftrate the fupe-
riority of vaccination over the inoculation of the fmall¬
pox, than this confideration 5 and it is a moft import¬
ant fad, which has been confirmed in the courfe of
this inquiry, that in almoft every cafe, where the fmall¬
pox has fucceeded vaccination, whether by inoculation
or by cafual infeftion, the difeafe- has varied much from
its ordinary courfe ; it has neither been the fame in the
violence, nor in the duration of its fymptoms, but has,
with
Practice. M E D I
Exanthe- with Very fevr exceptions, been remarkably mild, as if
mata. the fmallpox liad been deprived, by the previous vac-
cine difeafe, of all its ufual malignity.
The teftimonies before the college of phyficians are
very decided in declaring, that vaccination does lefs
imfchief to the conflitution, and lefs frequently gives
rife to other difeafes, than the fmailpox, either natural
or inoculated.
1 he college feel themfelves called upon to Hate this
ftrongly, becaufe it has been obje£ted to vaccination,
that it produces new, unheard-of, and monftrous dif¬
eafes. Of fuch aflertions no proofs have been produ¬
ced, and, after diligent inquiry, the college believe
them to have been either the inventions of defigning,
or the miftakes of ignorant men. In thefe rtfpecls
then, in its mildnefs, its fafety, and its confluences,
the individual may look for the peculiar advantages of
vaccination. The benefits which flow from it to fo-
ciety are infinitely more confiderable, it fpreads no in-
feftion, and can be communicated only by inoculation.
It is from a confideration of the pernicious effetls of
the fmallpox, that the real value of vaccination is to be
eftimated. The natural fmallpox has been fuppofed to
deftroy a fixth part of all whom it attacks 5 and that
even by inoculation, where that has been general in
pariflies and towns, about one in 300 has ufually died.
It is not fufficiently known, or not adverted to, that
nearly one-tenth, fome years more than one-tenth of
the whole mortality in London, is occafioned by the
fmallpox j and however beneficial the inoculation of the
fmallpox may have been to individuals, it appears to
have kept up a conftant fource of contagion, which has
been the means of increafing the number of death^ by
what is called the natural difeafe. It cannot be doubt¬
ed that this mifchief has been extended by the inconli-
derate manner in which great numbers of perfons, even
fince the introduction of vaccination, are ftill every
year inoculated with the fmallpox, and afterwards re¬
quired to attend two or three times a-week at the
places of inoculation, through every ft age of their ill-
nefs. -
From this, then, the public are to expeCt the great
and uncontroverted fuperiority of vaccination, that it
communicates no cafual infeCHon, and, while it is a
protection to the individual, it is not prejudicial to the
public.
III. The college of phylicians, in reporting their
obfervations and opinions on the evidence adduced in
fupport of vaccination, feel themfelves authorifed to ftate
that a body of evidence fo large, fo temperate, and fo
confiftent, was perhaps never before collected upon any
medical queftion. A difcovery fo novel, and to which
there was nothing analogous known in nature, though
refting on the experimental obfervations of the inventor,
was at firft received with diffidence : it was not, how¬
ever, difficult for others to repeat his experiments, by
which the truth of his obfervations was confirmed, and
the doubts of the cautious were gradually difpelled by
extenfive experience. At the commencement of the
praClice, almoft all that were vaccinated were after¬
wards fubmitted to the inoculation of the fmallpox 5
many underwent this operation a fecond, and even a
third time, and the uniform fuccefs of thefe trials
quickly bred confidence in the new difcovery. But the
evidence of the fecurity derived from vaccination againft
CINE
the fmallpox does not reft alone upon thofe who after¬
wards underwent, variolous inoculation, although a-
mounting to many thoufands ; for it appears, from nu¬
merous obfervations communicated to the college, that
thole who have been vaccinated are equally fecure
againft the contagion of epidemic fmallpox. Towns, *
indeed, and diftricts of the country in which vaccina¬
tion had been general, have afterwards had the fmall¬
pox prevalent on all fides of them without fuffering
from the contagion. There are alfo in the evidence a
few examples of epidemic fmallpox having been fub-.
dued by a general vaccination. It will not, therefore,
appear extraordinary that many who have communicat¬
ed their obfervations ffiould ftate, that though at firft
they thought unfavourably of the practice, experience
had now removed all their doubts.
It has been already mentioned, that the evidence is
not univerfally favourable, although it is in truth near-
ly fo, for there are a few who entertain fentiments dif¬
fering widely from thofe of the great majority of their
brethren. The college, therefore, deemed it their du- ;
ty, in a particular manner, to inquire upon what
grounds and evidence the oppofers of vaccination refted
their opinions. From perfonal examination, as well as
from their writings, they endeavoured to learn the full
extent and weight of their objeflions. They found
them without experience in vaccination, fupporting
their opinions by hearfay information and hypothetical
reafoning 5 and, upon inveftigating the fails which
they advanced, they found them to be either mifappre-
hended or mifreprefented ; or that they fell under the
defcription of cafes of imperfefl fmallpox, before noti¬
ced, and which the college have endeavoured fairly to
appreciate.
I he practice of vaccination is but of eight years
Handing, and its promoters, as well as opponents, muft
keep in mind, that a period fo ftiort is too limited to af-
certain every point, or to bring the art to that perfec¬
tion of which it may be capable. The truth of this
will readily be admitted by thofe acquainted with the
hiltory of inoculation for the fmallpox. Vaccination is
now, however, well underftood, and its charafler accu¬
rately defcribed. .Some deviations from the ufual courfe
have occafionally occurred, which the author of the
practice has called fpurious cowpox, by which the pub¬
lic have been milled, as if there were a true and a falfe
cowpox j but it appears, that nothing more was meant,
than to exprefs irregularity or difference from that com¬
mon form and progrefs of the vaccine puftule from
which its efficacy is inferred. Thole who perform vac¬
cination ought therefore to be well inftruaed, and
ftiould have watched with the greateft care the regular
progrefs of the puftule, and learnt the moft proper time
for taking thfe matter. There is little doubt that fome
of the failures are to be imputed to the inexperience of
the early vaccinators, and it is not unreafonable to ex-
pe& that farther obfervation will yet fuggeft many im¬
provements that will reduce the number of anomalous
cafes, and furniffi the means of determining, with great¬
er precifion, when the vaccine difeafe has been effec¬
tually received.
I hough the college of phyficians have confined them-
felves in eftimating the evidence to fuch fa6ts as have
occurred in their own country, becaufe the accuracy of
them could beft be afcertained, they cannot be infenfi-
T t 2 blc
M E D I
fcle to tTi^ thefe receive from the reports of
the fucceftful introduftion of vaccination, not only into
every part of Europe, but throughout the vaft continents
of Afia and America.
IV. Several caufes have had a partial operation in re¬
tarding the general adoption of vaccination ; foule writ¬
ers have greatly undervalued the fecurity it affords,
while others have confidered it to be of a temporary na¬
ture only; but if any feliartce is to'be placed on the
Hatements which have been laid before the college, its
power of protefnng the human body from the fmall-
jpd'x, though not perfect indeed, is abundantly fufficient
to recommend it to the prudent and difpaiTionate, espe¬
cially as the fmAlpox, in the few inftartces where it has
Tubfequentiy occurred, has been generally mild and
transient. The opinion that vaccination affords but a
temporary fecurity is Supported by no analogy itr na¬
ture, nor by the fa<fls which have hitherto occurred.
Although the experience of vaccine inoculation be on¬
ly of a few years, yet the Same difeafe, contradted by
the milkers of cows in fome diftridls, has been long
‘ehoug'h known, to afeertain that, in thetn at leaft, the
unlufceptibillty of the fmallpox contagion does not wear
out by time. •»
Another caufe, is the charge againfl: vaccination of
producing various new difeafes of frightful and monftrous
appearance. Reprefentations of fome of thefe have been
’exhibited in prints in a way to alarm the feelings of pa¬
rents, and to infufe dread and apprehenlion into the minds
of the uninformed. Publications with fucb reprefenta-
f ions have been widely circulated, and though they origi¬
nate either in grofs ignorance, or wilful mifreprefentation,
yet they have leffened the confidence of many, particu¬
larly of the lower claffes, in vaccination ; no permanent
'tffedls, however, in retarding the progrefs of vaccina¬
tion, need be apprehended from fuch caufes, for, as
foon as the public fhall view them coolly and without
furprife, they will excite contempt, and not fear.
Though the college of phyficians are of opinion that
the progrefs of vaccination has been retarded in a few
places by the above caufes, yet they conceive that its
general adoption has been prevented by caufes far
more powerful, and of a nature wholly different. The
lower orders of fociety can hardly be induced to adopt
precautions againft evils which may be at a diftance;
nor can it be expedit'd from them, if thefe precautions
are attended with expence. Unlefs therefore, from
the immediate dread of epidemic fmallpox, neither vac¬
cination nor inoculation appear at any time to have
been general, and when the caufe of terror has paffed
by, the public have relapfed again into a ftate of indif¬
ference and apathy, and the falutary pradtice has come
to a (land. It is not eafy to fuggeft a remedy for an
' evil fo deeply imprinted in human nature. To inform
and inftruct the public mind may do much, and it will
probably be found that the progrefs of vaccination in
different parts of the united kingdom will be in propor¬
tion to that inftrudtion. Were encouragement given to
vaccination, by offering it to the poorer claffes without
expence, there is little doubt but it would in time fu-
perfede the inoculation for the fmallpox, and thereby
various fources of variolous infedtion would be cut off;
but till vaccination becomes general, it will be impof-
lible to prevent the conftant recurrence of the natural
fmallpox by means of thofe who are inoculated, except
CINE.
it fhould appear proper to the legiilature to adopt, in
its wifdom, fome meafure by which thole wrho (till, from
terror or prejudice, prefer the fmallpox to the vaccine
dife&fe, may, in thus confulting the gratification of their
own feelings, be prevented -from doing miiohief to their
neighbours.
From the whole of the above confiderations, the col¬
lege of phyficians feel it their duty ftrongly to recom¬
mend the pradtice of vaccination. They have been
led to this conclufion by no preconceived opinion, but
by the molt unbiaffed judgment, formed from an irre-
fiftible weight of evidence which has been laid before
them. For When the number, the refpedlability, the
difintereilednefs, and the extenfive experience of its ad¬
vocates, is compared with the feeble and imperfedt tef-
thnonies of its few oppofers ; and when it is confidered
that many, who were once adverfe to vaccination, have
been convinced by further trials, and are now to be
ranked among its warmelt fupporters, the truth teems
to be eftablithed as firmly as the nature of fuch a quef-
tioir admits ; fo that the college of phyficians conceive
that the public tnay reafonably look forward with fome
degree of hope to the time When all oppofiticn fhall
' ceafe, and the general concurrence of mankind ihall at
length be able to put an end to the ravages at leafi, if
not to the exiftenee, of the fmallpox.
LUCAS PEPYS, President,
Royal College of PliyScians, 7
loth of April, 1807. y
Ja. Hervey, Regijlcr.
APPENDIX.
N* 1.
To the Royal College of PUTSICIANS of London.
Gentlemen,
I am ordered by the King and Queen’s College of
Phyfieians, in Ireland, to thank the Royal College of
Phyficians of London for the communication they have
had the honour to receive from them, of certain propo-
fitions relative to vaccination, whereon his majelty has
been pleaded to diredl an inquiry to be inftituted, and
in the profeeution of which, the co-operation of the
college in Ireland is requefted.
And I am dire died to acquaint you, that the faid
college having referred the inveffigations of thefe pro-
pofitions to a committee, have received from them a re¬
port, of which the inclofed is a copy; and that they
defire the fame may be conlidered as containing their
opinion upon the fubjedt.
I have the honour to be,
Gentlemen,
Your molt obedient humble fervant,
By order of the King and Hugh Ferguson,
Queen’s College of Phy- Regijler.
ficians in Ireland.
Dublin, I Ith Nov. 1806.
“ The pradtice of vaccination was introduced into
this
pra&ice. M E D I
Exanthe- thb city about tbe beginning of the year 1801, and ap-
mata. pears to. have made inconfiderable progrefs at firft. A
variety of caufes operated to retard its general adoption,
amongft which the novelty of the practice, and the ex¬
traordinary eflefts attributed to vaccination, would na¬
turally take the lead.
“ Variolous inoculation had been long, aim oil exclu-
'fively, in the hands of a particular branch of the pro-
feflion, wfhofe prejudices and interefts were itrongly op-
pofed to the new praftice 5 and by tl>eir being the ufual
medical attendants in families, and efpecially employed
in the diieafes of children, their opinions had greater
efreft upon the minds of parents. The fmallpox is ren¬
dered a much lefs formidable difeafe in this country by
the frequency of inoculation for it, than it is in other
parts of his majefty’s dominions, where prejudices a-
gainft inoculation have prevailed 5 hence parents, not
unnaturally, objefted to the introduction of a new dif¬
eafe, rather than not recur to tbit, with the mildnefii
and fafety of which they were well acquainted.
“ In the beginning of the year 1804, the cowpox in-
llitution was eitablilhed under the patronage of the earl
of Hardwicke, and it is from this period that wre may
date the general introduction of vaccination into this
city, and throughout all parts of Ireland.
“ The fuccefs of the Lnftitution, in forwarding the
new practice, is to be attributed in a great meafure to
the refpectability of the gentlemen who fuperintended
it, and to the diligence, zeal, and attention of Dr La-
batt, their fccretary and inoculator. In order to Ihew
the progrefs which has been made in extending vacci¬
nation, your committe refer to the reports of the Cowpox
Inftitution for the.laft two years, and to extracts from
their regifter for the prefent year.
f
Patients
Inoculated.
Packets i[fued
to Practition¬
ers in general.
Packets to
Army
Surgeons.
1804
I^°5
1806
Total
578
IC32
*356
776
1124
I34°
236
I78
220
2966
3240
634
“ In the above flatement, the numbers are averaged
to the end of the prefent year, on the fuppofition of pa¬
tients reforting to the inftitution as ufual. The corre-
fpondence of the inftitution appears to he very general
throughout every part of Ireland, and by the accounts
received, as well from medical practitioners as others,
the fuccefs of vaccination ft eras to be uniform and ef¬
fectual. At the prefent period, in the opinion of your
committee, there are few individuals in any branch of
the profeflion, who oppofe the praCtice of vaccination in
this part of his majefty’s dominions.
“ It is the opinion of your committee, that the prac¬
tice of cowpox inoculation is fafe, and that it fully
anfwers all the purpofes that have been intended b) its
introduction. At the fame time, your committee is
willing to allow that doubtful cafes have been reported
to them as having occurred, of p(jrf<'ns fuffering rrom
fxnallpox, who had been previoufly vaccinated. Upon
5
C I N E,
minute inveftigation, however, it has been found, that
thefe fuppofed inftances originated generally in error,v
mifreprefentation, or the dithculty of diferiminating be¬
tween fmallpox and other eruptions, no eafe having
come to the knowledge of your committee, duly authen¬
ticated by refpectable and competent judges, of genuine
fmallpox fucceeding the regular vaccine difeafe.
“ The practice of vaccination becomes every day-
more extended 5 and, when it is conlidered that the
period at which it came into general ufe in Ireland is to
be reckoned from fo late a date, your committee is of
opinion, that it has made already as rapid a progrefs as.
could be expefled.
(Signed) “ James Cleghorn.
“ Daniel Mills.
“ Hugh Ferguson.”
333
V ariola.
N° II.
Plnjficccns Hall, Edinburgh 26th Nov,. 1806.
Gentlemen,
THE Royal College of Phylicians of Edinburgh have
but little opportunity themfelves of making obfervations
on vaccination, as that practice is entirely conduced
by furgeon apothecaries, and other medical practitioners
not of their college, and as the effeCts produced by it
are fo inconfiderable and flight, that the.aid of a phy-
fician is never required.
The College know that in Edinburgh it is univerfal-
ly approved of by the profeflion, and by the higher and
middle ranks of the community j and that it has been
much more generally adopted by the lower orders of
the people than ever the inoculation for fmallpox
Avas, and they believe the fame to obtain all over Scot¬
land.
With regard to any caufes Avhich have hitherto pre¬
vented its general adoption, they are acquainted Avith
none except the negligence or ignorance of parents
among the common people, or their miftaken ideas of
the impropriety or criminality of being acceflary to the
production of any difeafe among their children, or the
difficulty or impoffibility, in fome of our country di-
ftriCts, of procuring vaccine matter, or a proper perfon
to inoculate.
The evidence in favour of vaccination appeared to
the Royal College of Phyficians of Edinburgh fo ftrong
and decifive, that in May laft, they fpontaneoufly and
unanimoufly eleCted Dr Jenner an honorary fellow of
their college j—a mark of diftiiiCtion Avhich they very
rarely confer, and which they confine almoft exclufively
to foreign phyficians of the firft eminence.
They did this with a vieAV to publifh their opinion
with regard to vaccination, and in teftimony of their
conviClion of the immenfe benefits Avhich have been,
and which Avill in future be derived to the world, from
inoculation for the cowpox, and as a mark of their
fenfe of Dr Jenner’s very great merits and ability in
introducing and promoting this invaluable praClice.
I have the honour to be,
Gentlemen,
Your moft obedient humble fervant,
Th. Spens, C. R. M. Ed. Pr.
To the Royal College of
Phyficians of London.
N° III.
334-
Exanthe¬
mata.
M E D I
n° m.
At a fpeclal court of afliftants of the Royal
College of Surgeons, convened by order of
the Mafter, and holden at the College on
Tuefday the 17th day of March 1807 j
Mr Governor Lucas in the chair :
Mr Long, as chairman of the board of curators, re¬
ported, that the board are now ready to deliver their re¬
port on the fubjeft of vaccination.
It was then moved, feconded, and refolved, that a
report from the board of curators, on the fubjeft of vac¬
cination, which was referred to their confideration by
the court of afliftants, on the 2ift day of November
laft, be now received.
Mr Long then delivered to Mr Governor Lucas
(prefiding in the abfence of the mafter) a report from
the board of curators.
It was then moved, feconded, and refolved, that the
report, delivered by Mr Long, be now read $ and it
was read accordingly, and is as follows.
To the Court of Afliftants of the Royal College of Sur¬
geons in London.
THE report of the Board of Curators, on the
fubjeft of vaccination, referred to them by
]■ , the court, on the 21ft day of November
\ 1806; made to the court on the 17th of
March 1807.
The court of afliftants having received a letter from
the Royal College of Phyficians of London, addreffed
to this college, ftating, that his majefty had been gra-
cioufly pleafed, in compliance with an addrefs from the
honourable Houfe of Commons, to direft his Royal
College of Phyficians of London to enquire into the
ftate of vaccination in the united kingdom, to report
their obfervations and opinion upon that practice, upon
the evidence adduced in its fupport, and upon the caufes
which have hitherto retarded its general adoption j that
the college were then engaged in the invertigation of
the feveral propofitions thus referred to them, and re-
quefting this college to co-operate and communicate
Avith them, in order that the report thereupon might
be made as complete as poflible.
And having, on the 21ft day of November laft, re¬
ferred fuch letter to the confideration of the board of
curators, with authority to take fuch fteps refpetfting
the contents thereof as they ftiould judge proper, and
report their proceedings thereon, from time to time, to
the court : the .board proceeded with all poflible dif-
patch to the confideration of the fubjeft.
The board being of opinion, that it would be proper
to addrefs circular letters to the members of this col¬
lege, with a view of collecting evidence, they fub-
mitted to the confideration of the court, holden on the
15th day of December laft, the drafts of fuch letter
as appeared to them beft calculated to anfwer that end ;
and the fame having been approved by the court, they
caufed copies thereof to be fent to all the members
of the college in the united kingdom, whofe refi-
dence could be afeertained, in the following form $
viz.
I
cine. Praaice
_ Variola,
“ The Royal College of Surgeons being defirous v-—'
to co-operate with the Royal College of Phyficians of
London, in obtaining information refpeCting vaccination,
fubmit to you the following queftions, to which the fa¬
vour of your anfwer is requefted.
“ By order of the Court of Afliftants,
“ Okey Beleour, Secretary”
Lincoln’s-Inn-Fields,
Dec. 15. 1806.
“ 1 ft, How many perfons have you vaccinated ?
“ 2d, Have any of your patients had the fmallpox
after vaccination ? In the cafe of every fuch occurrence,
at what period was the vaccine matter taken from the
veficle ? How was it preferved ? How long before it
was inferted ? What was the appearance of the inflam¬
mation ? And what the interval between vaccination
and the variolous eruption ?
“ 3d, Have any bad effedts occurred in your expe¬
rience in confequenee of vaccination ? And if fo, what
were they ?
“ 4th, Is the pradlice of vaccination increafing or
decreafing in your neighbourhood ? If decreafing, t«
what caufe do you impute it ?”
To fuch letters the board have received 426 an-
fwers : and the following are the refults of their invef-
tigation :
The number of perfons, ftated in fuch letters to have
been vaccinated, is 164,381.
The number of cafes in which fmallpox had followed
vaccination is 56.
The board think it proper to remark under this head,
that, in the enumeration of cafes in which fmallpox has
fucceeded vaccination, they have included none but
thofe in which the fubjefl was vaccinated by the fur-
geon reporting the fa£ts.
The bad confequences which have arifen from vacci¬
nation are, eruptions of the fldn in 66 cafes, and in¬
flammation of the arm in 24 inftances, of which three
proved fatal.
Vaccination, in the greater number of counties from
which reports have been received, appears to be increaf¬
ing j it may be proper, however, to remark, that, in the
metropolis, it is on the decreafe.
The principal reafons afligned for the decreafe are,
Imperfeft vaccination.
Inftances of fmallpox after vaccination.
Suppofed bad confequences.
Publications againft the practice.
Popular prejudices.
And fuch report having been confidered, it was
moved, feconded, and
Refolved, That the report now read be adopted by
this court, as the anfwer of the court to the letter of
the Royal College of Phyficians, of the 23d day of Oc¬
tober laft, on the fubjeft of vaccination.
Refolved, That a copy of thefe minutes and refolu-
tions, figned by Mr Governor Lucas (prefiding at this
court in the prefence of the mafter) be tranfmitted by
the fecretary to the regifter of the Royal College of
Phyficians.
(Signed) Wm. Lucas.
N° IV.
practice.
£xanthe-
niata.
MEDICINE.
N° IV.
Sir, _ _ Edinburgh, March 3. 1807.
I mentioned in my former letter, that I would take
the earlieft opportunity of laying before the Royal
College of Surgeons of Edinburgh, the communi¬
cation with which the Royal College of Phylicians
of London had honoured them, on the 23d of O£lo-
ber lafl: :
I am now directed by the Royal College to fend the
following anfwer on that important fubjeft.
The pra&ice of vaccine inoculation, both in private,
and at the vaccine inftitution eftablilhed here in 1801,
is increafing fo rapidly, that for tw'o or three years pall,
the fmallpox has been reckoned rather a rare occurrence,
even among the lower orders of the inhabitants of this
city, unlefs in fome particular quarters about twelve
months ago ; and, among the higher ranks of the inha¬
bitants, the difeafe is unknown.
The members of the Royal College of Surgeons have
much pleafure in reporting, that, as far as their experi¬
ence goes, they have no doubt of the permanent fecuri-
ty againlt the fmallpox which is produced by the con-
llitutional affeflion of the cowpox ; and that fuch
has hitherto been their fuccefs in vaccination, as alfo
to gain for it the con-fidence of the public, infomuch
that they have not been required, for fome years
pall, to inoculate any perfon with fmallpox who had
not previoully undergone the inoculation with the cow-
pox.
The members of the Royal College have met with
no occurrence in their pradlice of cowpox inoculation,
which could operate in their minds to its difadvantage ;
and they beg leave particularly to notice, that they
have feen no inltance of obllinate eruptions, or of new
and dangerous difeafes, which they could attribute to
the introduftibh among mankind of this mild preventive
of fmallpox. The Royal College of Surgeons know
of no caufes which have hitherto retarded the adop¬
tion of vaccine inoculation here; on the contrary, the
pradice has become general within this city j and
from many thoufand packets of vaccine matter having
been fent by the members of the Royal College, and
the vaccine inllitution here, to all parts of the country,
the Royal College have reafon to believe that the prac¬
tice has been as generally adopted throughout this part
of the united kingdom as could have been expeded
from the diltance of fome parts of the country from
proper medical afliftance, and other circumftanees of
that nature.
I have the honour to be,
Sir,
Your moll obedient fervant,
Wm Farquharson,
Prefident of the Royal College and Incorpo¬
ration of Surgeons of Edinburgh.
N° V.
Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland,
Sir, Dublin, Februry ^th, 1807.
I am direded to tranfmit to you the inclofed report
•f a committee of the College of Surgeons in Ireland,
to whom was referred a letter from the Royal College
of Phyficians in London, relative to the prefent Rate of
vaccination in this part of the united kingdom j and to
Hate, that the College of Surgeons will be highly gra¬
tified by more frequent opportunities of correfponding
with the Englilh College of Phyficians on any fubjed
which may conduce to the advancement of fcience, and
the welfare of the public.
I have the honour to be,
Sir,
Your moll obedient humble fervant,
James Henthorn, Secretary.
At a meeting of the Royal College of Surgeons
in Ireland, holden at their Theatre, on Tuef-
day the 13th day of January 1807.
Francis M‘Evoy, Esq. Prefident.
Mr Johnfon reported from the committee, to whom
was referred a letter from the College of Phyficians,
London, relative to the prefent Hate of vaccination in
the united kingdom, &c. &c. that they met, and came
to the following refolutions :
That it appears to this committee, That inoculation
with vaccine infedion is now very generally adopted
by the furgical praditioners in this part of the united
kingdom, as a preventive of fmallpox.
That it appears to this committee, that from the
25th day of March 1800 to the 25th of November
1806, 11,504 perfons have been inoculated with vac¬
cine infedion at the difpenfary for infant poor, and
2831 at the cowpox inftitution, making a total of
i4»3355 exclufive of the number inoculated at hofpi-
tals and other places, where no regiftry is made and
preferved.
I hat it is the opinion of this committee, that the
cowpox has been found to be a mild dileafe, and rarely
attended with danger, or any alarming fymptom, and
that the few cafes of fmallpox which have occurred in
this country, after fuppofed vaccination, have been fa-
tisfadorily proved to have arifen from accidental cir-
cumftances, and cannot be attributed to the want of
efficacy in the genuine vaccine infedion as a preventive
of fmallpox.
That it is the opinion of this committee, that the
caufes which have hitherto retarded the more general
adoption of vaccination in Ireland, have, in a great
meafure, proceeded from the prejudices of the lower
claffes of the people, and the intereft of fome irregular
praditioners.
To which report the College agreed.
Extrad from the minutes,
James Henthorn, Secretary.
After this report, we cannot help thinking that the
Britifti legifiature would be fully warranted for palling
an ad prohibiting the inoculation of fmallpox under
very fevere penalties, and ordering all thofe who may
be fubjeded to fmallpox by accidental contagion to be
confined to lazarettos, or at leaft to their own houfes,
under a proper guard, to prevent the communication of
infedion, till their complete recovery. By fuch an
ad, there is good ground to believe, that the loathfome
and dangerous difeale of fmallpox wTould in a few years
be exterminated in Britain. -
But
!-u>
336
Exantlie-
ma* .
226
M E D I
But althou^'h providence lias thus fvrnifhed mankind
with an ea;y mode of preferring their offspring from
the danger of fmallpox, by the inoculation of the eow-
pox at an early period of life, yet not a few deaths
from the natural fmallpox have occurred in Britain even
during the courfe of the prefefit year.
When the preventive lias not been duly employed,
after the contagion of variola is introduced into the
body, nothing yet known will prevent the difcafe from
running its courfe, either under the mild or confluent
form and the endeavours of the medical practitioner
are altogether to be emplbyed in rendering that courfe
as favourable as potable by mitigating fymptoihs.
In the mild or diftlnct fmallpox, the flricteft anti-
phi ogi flic regimen is to be enjoined. Gentle refriger¬
ant cathartics are often ufeful, and mild diluents fliould
be copioufly employed,. Under thefe remedies the dif-
eafe will generally run its courfe without much incon¬
venience. But it will fometimes be neceffary to em¬
ploy remedies for obviating particular urgent fy mptoms,
luch as gargarifms or bliflers for affe&ions of the
throat.
In the malignant fmallpox, befides the fame refriger¬
ant plan of cure which is bed; accommodated to the
mild, as the fecondary fever Srews evident marks of a
putrid tendency, it is neceiTary to employ thofe reme¬
dies which are accommodated to typhus, and accord¬
ingly recourfe is not only had to opiates and cardiacs,
but to wine, cinchona, and the mineral acids.
Genus XXIX. VARICELLA.
Chickenpox.
Varicella, Vog. 42.
Variola Ivinphatica, Saw. fp. 1.
Ar\g\b, The Chicken pox, Edin. Med.EfTays,vol.ii.
art. 2. near the end. Hebenlen, Med. Tranfact.
art. 17. The WATER T-POX.
This is in general a very flight difeafe; and is at¬
tended with fo little danger, that it would not merit
any notice, if it were not apt to be confounded with
the fmallpox, and thus give occafion to an opinion
that a perfon might have the fmallpox twice in his
life; or they are apt to deceive into a falfe fecurity
thofe who have never had the fmallpox, and make
them believe that they are fafe when in reality they
are not. This eruption breaks out in many, accord¬
ing to Dr Hebe.rden, without any illnels or previous
iign •, in others it is preceded by a flight degree of
chilnefs* laffitude, cough, Broken fleep, wandering
pains, lofs of appetite, and feverifh Rate for three
days.
In fome patients the chickenpox make their firft ap¬
pearance on the back ; but this perhaps is not eon-
ftaut. Mo'ft of them are of the common fize of the
fmallpox, but fome are lefs. Dr Heberden never faw
them confluent, nor very numerous. The greateft
ntunber was about 12 on the face, and 200 over the
reft of the body.
On the flrfl; day of the eruption they are reddifh.
On the fecond day there is at the top of moft >f them
a very fmal! bladder, about, the flze of a millet feed.
This is fometimes full of a watery and colourlefs, fome-
C I N E. _ ^ ' Prafficc.
times of a yellowifti liquor, contained between the cu- Varicella.1
tide and Ikin. On the fecond, or, at the fartheft, on '
the third day from’the beginning of the eruption, as
many of thefe pocks as are not broken feem arrived at
their full maturity- $ and thofe which are fulleft of that
yellow liquor very much refemble what the genuine
fmallpox are on the fifth or filth day, efpecially where
there happens to be a larger fpace than ordinary oc¬
cupied by the extravafated ferum. It happens to moft
of them, either on the firft day that this little: bladder
arifes, or on the day after, that its. tender cuticle is
burft by the accidental rubbing of the clothes, or by
the patient’s hands to allay the itching which attends
this eruption. A thin ' fcab is then formed at the top
of the pock, and the fwelling of the other part abates,
without its ever being turned into pus, as it is in the
'fmallpox. Some few efeape being burft j and the little
drop of liquor contained in the vefxcle at the top of
them, grov;s yellow and thick, and dries into a fcab.
On the fifth day of the eruption they are almoft all
dried and covered with a flight cruft. The inflamma¬
tion of thefe pocks is very fmall, and the contents of
them do not feem to be owing to fuppuration, as in the
finalIpox, but rather to what is extravafated under the
cuticle by the ferous Veffels of the fkin, as in a common
blifter. It is not wonderful, therefore, that this liquor
appears fo foon as on the fecond day ; and that, upon
the cuticle being broken, it is prefently fucceeded by a
flight fcab : hence too, as the true fkin is fo little af-
fefted, no mark or fear is likely to be left, unlt-Xs in one
or two pocks, where, either by being accidentally much
fretted or by fome extraordinary fiiarpnefs of the con¬
tents a little ulcer is formed in the fkin.
The patients fcarce fuffer any thing throughout the
whole progress of this illnefs, except fome languidnefs
of ftrength, fpiriis, and appetite •, ail which is pro¬
bably owing to the confining of themfelves to their
chamber.
Remedies are not likely to be much wanted in a dif-
eafe attended with hardly any inconvenience,and which
in fo fhert a time is certainly cured of itfelf.
The principal marks by which the chickenpox may
be dillinguifhed from the fmallpox are,
1. The appearance, on the fecond-or third day from
the eruption, of that veficle full of ierum upon the top
of the pock.
2. The cruft, which covers the pocks on the fifth
day ; at which time thofe of the fmallpox are not at
the height of their fuppuration.
Foreign medical writers hardly ever mention the
name of this diftemper: and the writers of our own
country fcarce mention any thing more of it than its
name. Morton fpeaks of it as it he fuppofed it to be
a very mild genuine fmallpox. But thefe two diftem-
pers are certainly totally different from one another,
not only on account of their different appearances above
mentioned, but becaufe thofe who have had the fmall-
pox are capable of being infe6led rvith the chicken-
pox ; but thofe who have once had the chickenpox
are not capable of having it again, though to fuch as
have never had this diftemper, it feems as infe&ious as
the fmallpox. Dr Heberden wetted a thread in the
moft conco&ed pus-like liquor of the chickenpox
which he could find; and after making a flight inci-
practice.
MEDICINE.
s- flan, it was confined upon tlie arm of one who had for¬
merly had it; the little wound healed up immediately,
and Ihowed no ligns of any infe£tion.
From the great fimilitude between the Iavo diftem-
pers, it is probable, that inftead of the fmattpox, fome
perfons have been inoculated from the chickenpox j
and that the diftemper which lias fucceeded, has been
miftaken for the fmallpox by hafty or unexperienced
obfervers.
There is fometimes feen an eruption, concerning
which Dr Heberden is in doubt whether it be one of
the many unnoticed cutaneous difeafes, or only a more
malignant fort of chickenpox.
This diforder is preceded for three or four days by
all the fymptoms Avhich forerun the chickenpox j but
in a much higher degree. On the fourth or fifth day
the eruption appears, with a very little abatement of
the fever : the pains likewife of the limbs and back ftill
continue, to which are joined pains of the gums. The
pox are redder than the chickenpox, and fpread Avider ;
and hardly rife fo high, at lea ft not in proportion to
their fize. Inftead of one little head or veficle of a
ferous matter, thefe have from four to ten or tAvelve.
They go off juft like the chickenpox, and are diftin-
guiftiable from the fmallpox by the fame marks 5 be-
fides Avhich, the continuance of the pains and fever af¬
ter the erruption, and the degree of both thefe, though
there be not above 20 pocks, are circumftances never
happening in the fmallpox.
327 Genus XXX. RUBEOLA.
Measles.
Rubeola, Sauv. gen. 94. Lin. 4. Sag. 293.
Febris morbillofa, Vog. 36. Hoffm. II. 62.
Morbilli, Junck. 76.
Sp. I. The Regular MEASLES.
Rubeola vulgaris, Sauv. fp. 1.
Morbilli regulares, Sydenh. feci. iv. cap. 5.
Var. 1. The Anomalous MEASLES.
Rubeola anomala, Sauv. fp. 2.
Morbilli anomali, Sydenh. fe£t. v. cap. 3.
Var. 2. The MEASLES attended Avith ^uinfy.
Var. 3. The Measles, Avith Putrid Diathefts of the
Blood.
328 Sp. II. The VaRLOLODES.
In Scotland commonly called the Nirles.
Rubeola variolodes, Sauv. fp. 3.
Defcription. This difeafe begins with a cold ftage,
which is foon folloAved by a hot, Avith the ordinary
fymptoms of third, anorexia, anxiety, ficknefs, and
vomiting 5 and thefe are more or lefs confiderable in
different cafes. Sometimes from the beginning the
fever is (harp and violent : often, for the firft two days,
it is obfeure and inconfiderable j but aLvays becomes
violent betore the eruption, which commonly happens
on the fourth day. This eruptive fever, from the be¬
ginning. of it, is alrvays attended Avith hoarfenefs, a
frequent hoarfe dry cough, and often with fome diffi¬
culty of breathing. At the fame time, the eyelids
Voe. XIII. Part I.
are fomeAvhat fu elled } the eyes are a little inflamed, ( ^
and pour out tears ; and Avith this there is a coryza,
and frequent fneezing. For the moft part, a conftant
droAvfinefs attends the beginning of this difeafe. The
eruption, as avc have faid, commonly appears upon the
fourth day, firft on the face, and fucceffively on the
lower parts of the body. It appears firft in fmall red
points 5 but foon after, a number of thefe appear in
clufters, which do not arife in vifible pimples, but, by
the touch, are found to be a little prominent. This
is the cafe on the face ; but, in other parts of the
body, the prominency, or roughnefs, is hardly to be
perceived. On the face, the eruption retains its red-
nefs, or has it increafed, for two days j but on the third,
the vivid rednefs is changed to a broAvnifh red ; and
in a day or tAvo more the eruption difappears, Avhile
a mealy defquamation takes place. During the Avhole
time of the eruption, the face is fomewhat turgid,
but feldom confiderably fwelled. Sometimes, after
the eruption has appeared, the fever ceafes entirely :
but this is feldom the cafe j and more commonly the
fever continues or is increafed after the eruption, and
does not ceafe till after the defquamation. Even
then the fever does not ahvays ceafe, but continues
Avith various duration and effecl. Though the fever
happen to ceafe upon the eruption’s taking place, it is
common for the cough to continue till after the fte-
fquamation, and fometimes much longer. In all cafes,
while the fever continues, the cough alfo continues,
generally Avith an increafe of the difficulty of breath¬
ing ; and both of thefe fymptoms fometimes arife to
a degree Avhich denotes a pneumonic affection. This
may happen at any period of the difeafe 5 but very
often it does not come on till after the defquamation of
the eruption.
After the fame period, alfo, a diarrhoea frequently
comes on, and continues for fome time,
It is common for meafles, even Avhen they have not
been of a violent kind, to be followed by inflammatory
affedlions, particularly ophthalmia and phthifis. If
blood be drawn from a vein in the meafles, with cir¬
cumftances neceffary to favour the feparation of the
fibrine, this abvays appears feparated, and lying on the
furface of the craflamentum, as in inflammatory dif¬
eafes. For the moft part, the meafles, even Avhen vio¬
lent, are Avithout any putrid tendency 5 but in fome
cafes, fuch a tendency appears both in the courfe of
the difeafe, and efpecially after the ordinary courfe of
it is finifhed.
Caufes. The meafles are occafioned by a peculiar
kind of contagion, the nature of which is not under-
ftood ; and which, like that of the fmallpox, affedls a
perfon only once in his life.
Prognojis. From the defcription of this diftemper
already given, it appears that the meafles are attended
Avith a catarrhal affedftion, and Avith an inflammatory
diathefis to a confiderable degree 5 and therefore the
danger of them is to be apprehended chiefly from the
coming on of a pneumonic inflammation.
Cure. In meafles, as Avell as in fmallpox, the dif¬
eafe from its nature muft neceffarily run a determined
courfe ; and therefore the foie aim of a practitioner is
to conduCl this courfe in the eafieft manner, by prevent¬
ing and obviating urgent fymptoms.
From the confideration mentioned in the prognofis,
U u it
-■'i 'y
odJ
ubeoia.
33*
Exanthe- it will be obvious, that the remedies efpecially neceffary
, rnata’ ; are thofe which may obviate and diminilh the indam-
matory diathelis j and therefore, in a particular man¬
ner, blood-letting. This remedy may be employed at
any time in the courfe of the difeafe, or after the or¬
dinary courfe of it is finilhed. It is to be employed
more or lefs, according to the urgency of the fymp-
toms of fever, cough, and dyfpncea •, and generally
may be employed very freely. But as the fymptoms
of pneumonic inflammation feldom come on during the
eruptive fever, and as this is fometimes violent imme¬
diately before the eruption, though a fufficiently mild
difeafe be to follow ; bleeding is feldom very neceflary
during the eruptive fever, and may often be referved
for the times of greater danger which are perhaps to fol¬
low.
In all cafes of mealies, where there are no marks of
putrefcency, and where there is no reafon, from the
known nature of the epidemic, to apprehend putref¬
cency, bleeding is the remedy molt to be depended
upon : but afliftance may alfo be drawn from cooling-
purgatives ; and from bliftering on the tides or between
the flioulders. The dry cough may be alleviated by
the large ufe of demulcent pc florals, mucilaginous,
oily, or fweet. It may, however, be obferved, with
refneft to thefe demulcents, that they are not fo power¬
ful in involving and correfting the acrimony of the
mats of blood as has been imagined j and that their
chief operation is by lubricating the fauces, and thereby
defending them from the irritation of acrids, either ari-
ling from the lungs or diftilling from the head. For
moderating and quieting the cough in this difeafe, opi¬
ates certainly prove the molt effeftual means, whenever
they can be fafely employed. In the mealies, in which
an inflammatory Hate prevails in a confiderable degree,
opiates have indeed by feme been fuppofed to be inad-
iniflible : but experience abundantly demonftrates, that
the objeftion made to their ufe is merely hypothetical :
and even in cafes Avhere, from a high degree of pyrexia
and of dyfpnoea, there is reafon to fear the prefence, or
at leaf! the danger, of pneumonic inflammation, opiates
are highly ufeful, after bleeding, to obviate or abate the
inflammatory Hate, has been duly employed : in fuch
cafes, while the cough and xvatchfulnefs are the urgent
fymptoms, opiates may be fafely exhibited, and with
great advantage. In all the exanthemata, there is an
acrimony diffufed over the fyilem, which gives a con-
iiderable irritation; and for obviating the effedls of this,
opiates are ufeful, and always proper, when no particu¬
lar contraindication prevails.
When the defquamation of the mealies is finilhed,
though then there (hould be no diforder remaining,
phyficians have thought it neceflary to purge the pa¬
tient feveral times, with a view to draw off what have
been called the dregs of this difeafe ; that is, a portion
of the morbific matter which is fuppofed to remain
long in the body. Dr Cullen does not rejeft this fup-
pofition 5 but at the lame time cannot believe that the
remains of the morbific matter, diffufed over the whole
mafs of blood, can be wholly draxvn off by purging ;
and therefore thinks, that, to avoid the confequenee
of the mealies, it is not the drawing off the morbific
matter which we need to ftudy, fo much as to obviate
and remove the inflammatory Hate of the fyftem which
had been induced by the difeafe. With this laft view,.
Pra&ice,
indeed, purging may ftill be a proper remedy; but Miliaria,
bleeding, in proportion to the fymptoms of inflamma- y—J
tory dilpofition, is ftill more fo.
From our late experience of the ufe of cold air in
the eruptive fever of the fmallpox, feme phyficians
have been of opinion that the praftice may be tranf-
ferred to the mealies ; but this point has not yet been
determined by fufficiently extenfive experience. We
are certain, that external heat may be very hurtful in
the mealies, as in moft other inflammatory difeafes ;
and therefore, that the body ought to be kept in a
moderate temperature during the whole courfe of the
difeafe : but how far, at any period of the difeafe,
cold air may be applied with lafety, is ftill uncertain.
Analogy, though fo often the refource of phyficians,
is frequently fallacious ; and further, though, the ana¬
logy with the fmallpox might lead to the application of
cold air during the eruptive fever of the mealies, the
analogy with catarrh teems to be againft the prac¬
tice.
When the eruption is upon the Ikin, there are many
inftances of cold a:r making it dilap pear, and thereby
producing much diforder in the fyftem ; and there arc
alfo frequent inftanees of thefe fymptoms being removed
by reftoring the heat of the body, and thereby again
bringing out the eruption.
Upwards of 20 years ago, inoculation for the mealies
was propofed, and pradlifed in feveral inftances with
fuccefs, by Dr Home of Edinburgh. His method of
communicating the infection was, by applying to an
incifion in each arm cotton moiftened with the blood
of a patient labouring under the mealies ; but with
others who have made ftmilar trials, the attempt has
not yet fucceeded. Attempts have been made to ino¬
culate this difeafe by means of the fluid difeharged
under the form of tears, the fquamae falling from the
furface and the like ; but there is realbn to believe,,
that where it was imagined the infedlion had thus been
communicated, the contagion was only carried about
the perfon inoculating and communicated in the ordi¬
nary way.
From inoculation of the mealies, it is imagined that
feveral advantages may be obtained; and among others,
it is thought the forenefs of the eyes may be mitigated,
the cough abated, and the fever rendered lefs fevere.
But the practice rvas never much employed, and now is
fcaree ever heard of.
Genus XXXI. MILIARIA. 22|
The Miliart Fever^
Miliaria, Lin. 7.
Miliaris, Sauv. gen. 9.^. Sag. gen. 295.
Febris miliaris, Fog. 37.
Febris pm-purata rubra et alba miliaris, Hojfm. II. 68.
Febris purpurea feu miliaris, Junck. 73.
Germanis der Friefel. God. Weifch. Hift. Med de
novo puerperarum morbo, qui der Friefel dicitur,
Lipf- 1655.
Hamilton, de febr. miliar. 1710. Font anus, de febr.
mil. 1747. A/lioni miliar. 1758. Fordijce, de
febr. mil. 1748. Fifcher, de febr. mil. 1767. De
Haen, de divif. febr. 1760, et in Ration, med. paf-
fim. Matt. Collin ad Baldinger de miliar. 1764.
Miliaris
MEDICINE.
Pradice.
Mxnari.s benlgna, Sam, fj). i.
Miliaris maligna, fp. 2.
Miliaris recidivans, ip. 1,
Miliaris Germanica, Sauv. fp. 5.
Miliaris Boia, Sauv. fp. a.
Miliaris Britannica, Sauv. fp. i.
Miliaris nova febris, Sydenh. Sched. monit, Sauv.
fp. d.
Miliaris fudatoria, Sauv. fp. e.
Miliaris nautica, Sauv. fp. g.
Miliaris purpurata, Sauv. fp. h.
Miliaris laftea, Sauv. fp. c.
Miliaris puerperarum, Sauv. fp. k.
Miliaris fcorbutica, Sauv. fp. L
Miliaris critica, Sauv. fp. b.
Hi/lory and Defcription. This difeafe is faid to have
been unknown to the ancients, and that it appeared
for the firft time in Saxony about the middle of the
laft century. It is faid to have fmce fpread from
thence into all the other countries of Europe ; and
fmce the period mentioned, to have appeared in
many countries in which it had never appeared be¬
fore.
From the time of its having been firft taken notice
of, it has been defcribed and treated of by many dif¬
ferent writers ; and by all of them, till very lately, has
been confidered as a peculiar idiopathic difeafe. It is
faid to have been conftantly attended with peculiar
fymptoms. It comes on with a cold ftage, which is
often confiderable. The hot ftage, which follows, is
attended with great anxiety, and frequent fighing.
The heat of the body becomes great, and foon pro¬
duces profufe fweating, preceded, however, with a
fenfe of pricking, as of pin points in the fkin ; and
the fweat is of a peculiar rank and difagreeable odour.
The eruption, appears fooner or later in different per-
fons, but at no determined period of the difeafe. It
feldom or never appears upon the face 5 but appears
firft upon the neck and breaft, and from thence often
fpreads over the whole body.
The eruption named miliary, is faid to be of two
kinds 5 the one named the red, the other the white mi¬
liary. The former, which in Englifh is ftriftly named
a rujb, is commonly allowed to be a fymptomatic af-
fedlion j and as the latter is the only one that has any
pretenfions to be confidered as an idiopathic difeafe, it
is this only that we thall more particularly defcribe and
treat of under this genus.
What is then called the white miliary eruption, ap¬
pears at firft like the red, in very fmall red pimples,
for the moft part diftinfl, but fometimes clutfered to¬
gether. Their little prominence is better diftinguifh-
ed by the finger than by the eye. Soon after the ap¬
pearance of this eruption, and, at leaft, on the fecond
day, a fmall veficle is vifible upon the top of the pim¬
ples. At firft the veficle i* whey-coloured : but foon
becomes white, and Hands out like a little globule.
In two or three days, thefe globules break, or are rub¬
bed off'; and are fucceeded by fmall crufts, which foon
after fall off in Imall fcales. While one fet of pimples
takes this courfe, another fet arifes to run the fame $ fo
that the difeafe often continues upon the fkin for many
days together. Sometimes when one crop of this erup-
uon has difappeared, another, after fome interval, is
M E D I C I N E.
produced. And it has been further obferved, that in
fome perfons there is fuch a difpofition to this difeafe,
that they have been affe&ed with it feveral times in the
courfe of their lives.
-I his difeale is faid to affefl both fexes, and perfons
of all ages and conftitutions : but it has been obferved
at all times, to affedt efpecially, and moft frequently,
lying-in women.
It is often accompanied with violent fymptoms, and
has frequently proved fatal. The fymptoms, however,
attending it are very various; but no fymptom, or
concourle of fymptoms, are fteadily the fame in different
perfons, fo as to give any fpecific character to the difeafe.
When the difeale is violent, the moft common fymptoms
are phrenetic, comatofe, and convulfive affections, which
are alfo fymptoms of all fevers treated by a very warm
regimen.
While there is fuch a variety of fymptoms appearing
in this dileale, it is not to be expected that any one par¬
ticular method of cure can be propofed ; and, accord-
ingly, we find in different writers different methods
and remedies prefcribed j frequent difputes about the
moft proper 5 and thofe received and recommended by
fome, oppofed and deferted by others.
It appears, however, to Dr Cullen, very improbable,
that this was really a new difeafe, when it was firft:
confidered as fuch. There are very clear traces of it
in authors who wrote long before that period j and
though there were not, we know that ancient deferip-
tions were often inaccurate and imperfeft, particularly
with refpeft to cutaneous affe&ions ; and we know alfo
that thole affedlions which commonly appeared as fymp¬
tomatic only, were often neglefted, or confounded to¬
gether under a general appellation.
The antecedent fymptoms of anxiety, fighing, and
pricking of the Ik in, which have been fpoken of as pe¬
culiar to this difeafe, are, however, common to many
others : and perhaps to all thofe in which fweatings are
forced out by a warm regimen. Of the fymptoms faid
to be concomitant of this eruption, there are none which
can be affirmed to be eonftant and peculiar but that of
fweating. This, indeed, always precedes and accom¬
panies the eruption : and, while the miliary eruption
attends many different difeafes, it never, however, ap¬
pears in any of ffiefe but after fweating ; and in perfons
labouring under the fame difeafes it does not appear, if
in fuch perfons fweating be avoided. It is therefore
probable, that the eruption is the effeift of fweating :
and that it is the effe6t of a matter not before prevail¬
ing in the mafs of blood, but generated under particu¬
lar circumftances in the Ikin itfelf. That it depends
upon particular circumftances of the fldn, is alfo pro¬
bable from its being obferved that the eruption feldom
or never appears upon the face, although it affedts the
whole of the body befides; and that it comes upon
thofe places efpecially which are more clofely covered ;
and that it can be brought out upon particular places
by external applications.
It is to be obferved, that this eruptive difeafe dif¬
fers from the other exanthemata in many circumftan¬
ces, efpecially the following ; that it is not contagious,
and therefore never epidemic; that the eruption ap¬
pears at no determined period of the difeafe 5 that the
eruption has no determined duration ; that fucceffive
eruptions frequently appear in the courfe of the fame
" U u 3 f iver,
MEDICINE. Praaice
fever, and that fueh eruptions frequently recur in the
courfe of the fame perfon’s life. All this renders it
very probable, that, in the miliary fever, the morbific
matter is not a fubfifting contagion communicated to
the blood, and thence, in coni'equence of fever and
aflimilation, thrown out upon the furface of the body,
but a matter occafionally produced in the fkin itfelf
by fweating.
This conclufion is further rendered probable from
hence, that, while the miliary eruption has no fymp-
toms or concourfe of fymptoms peculiar to itfelf, it,
upon occafions, accompanies almoft every febrile dif-
eafe, whether inflammatory or putrid, if thefe happen
to be attended with fweating; and from thence it may
be prefumed, that the miliary eruption is a fymptomatic
affection only, produced in the manner we have faid.
But as this fymptomatic affection does not always
accompany every inltance of fweating, it may be pro¬
per to inquire, what are the circumitances which efpe-
eially determine this eruption to appear ? And to this
Dr Cullen gives no full and proper anfwer. He can¬
not fay that there is any one circumftance which in all
cafes gives occafion to this eruption $ nor can he fay
what different caufes, in different cafes, may give oc¬
cafion to it. There is only one obfervation that can be
made to the purpofe; and it is, that thefe perfons, fweat¬
ing under febrile difeafes, are efpecially liable to the
miliary eruption, who have been previoufly -weakened
by large evacuations, particularly of blood. This will
explain why it happens to lying-in women more fre¬
quently than to any other perfons; and to confirm this
explanation, he has obferved, that the eruption hashappen-
ed to other women, though not in childbed, but who
had been much fubjeCted to a frequent and copious
menffruation, and to an almoft conftant Jluor albus. He
lias alfo obferved it to have happened to men in fevers,
after wounds from which they had fuffered a great lofs
of blood.
Further, That this eruption is produced by a certain
ftate of debility, is, he thinks, probable, from its fo of¬
ten attending fevers of the putrid kind, which are al¬
ways accompanied with great debility. It is true, that
it alfo fometimes attends inflammatory difeafes, when it
cannot be accounted for in the fame manner •, but he
believes it may be obferved, that it efpecially attends
thofe inflammatory difeafes in which the fweats have
been long protrafted, or frequently repeated, and
which have thereby produced a debility, and perhaps
a debilitating putrid diathefis.
That, however, the miliary eruption is not neceffarily
or even generally connefted with a certain ftate of de¬
bility, is abundantly evident from its being entirely
wanting in by much the greater number of inftances
of typhoid fever, and in a variety of other difeafes
where every poflible degree of debility occurs : And
that it is not connected with any certain ftate of debi¬
lity, ftill farther appears, both from the condition of
thofe affetted with it in different inftances, which in
point of ftrength is very various, and likewfife from
the continuance of frefti eruptions with the fame indi¬
vidual, although during that time in very different
flates with refpeft to debility. It appears, therefore,
much more probable, that it depends on fome peculiar
ftate of the furface, induced by the concurring influ¬
ence of certain predifpofing and occafional caufes.
I
It appears fo clearly that this eruption is always a Miliaria,
fymptomatic and factitious affedtion, that Dr Cullen '-—-v—«.
is perfuaded it may be, in moft cafes, prevented mere¬
ly by avoiding fweats. Spontaneous fweatings, in the
beginning of difeafes, are very rarely critical 5 and
all fweatings not evidently critical lliould be pre¬
vented, or at leaft moderated 5 and the promoting
them, by increafing external heat, is commonly very
pernicious. Even critical fweats fhould hardly be en¬
couraged by fuch means. If, therefore, fpontaneous
fweats arife, they are to be checked by the coolnefs
of the chamber ; by the lightnefs and loofenefs of the
bedclothes; by the perfons laying out their arms and
hands 5 and by their taking cold drink : and in this
way Dr Cullen thinks he has frequently prevented
miliary eruptions, which wrere otherwife likely to have
appeared, particularly in puerperal women.
But it may happen, when thefe precautions have
been negledted, or from other circumftances, that a mi¬
liary eruption does actually appear ; and the queftion
will then be put, how the cafe is to be treated ? This
is a queftion of confequence ; as there is reafon to be¬
lieve that the matter here generated is often of a vi¬
rulent kind j it is often the offspring of putrefcency j
and, when treated by increafing the external heat of
the body, it feems to acquire a virulence which produ-
.ces thofe fymptoms mentioned above, and proves cer¬
tainly fatal.
It has been an unhappy opinion with moft phyfi-
cians, that eruptive difeafes were ready to be hurt by
cold and that it was therefore neceflary to cover up
the body very clofely, and thereby increafe the exter¬
nal heat. We now know that this is a miftaken opi¬
nion j that increafing the external heat of the body is
very generally mifehievous j and that feveral eruptions
not only admit, but require the application of cold air.
Dr Cullen is perfuaded, therefore, that the pra&ice
which formerly prevailed in the cafe of miliary erup¬
tions, of covering up the body clofely, and both by
external means and internal remedies encouraging the
fweatings which accompany this eruption, was highly
pernicious, and commonly fatal. He is therefore of
opinion, that even when a miliary eruption has appear¬
ed, in all cafes in which the fweating is not manifeftly
critical, we ftiould employ all the means of flopping
the fweating that are mentioned above; and he has
fometimes had occafion to obferve, that even the ad-
miflion of cool air was fafe and ufeful.
This is, in general, the treatment of miliary erup¬
tions : but at the fame time, the remedies fuited to the
primary difeafe are to be employed 5 and therefore
when the eruption happens to accompany inflamma¬
tory affe&ions, and the fulnefs and hardnefs of the
pulfe or other fymptoms fhow an inflammatory ftate
prefent, the cafe is to be treated by blood-letting,
purging, and other antiphlogiftie remedies.
On the other hand, when the miliary eruption
attends difeafes in which debility and putrefcency
prevail, it -will be proper to avoid all evacuations, and
to employ tonic and antifeptic remedies, particularly
the cinchona, cold drink, and cold air.
The moft diftrefling circumftance attending this af-
feflion, is the almoft unfupportable ficknefs at fto-
mach which frequently occurs, and which is often ob¬
ferved to precede frefh eruptions taking place during
the
practice. M EDI
Exanthe- the courfe of the difeafe. With the view of counter-
mata. a£Hng and alleviating this fymptom, recourfe is had to
wine and other cordial medicines. But with many
patients nothing is found to have fo much influence
as the ufe of camphor, particularly when introduced
gradually in fmall doles, under the form of the mijlu-
ra camphorata of the London Pharmacopoeia, or of
the emu/Jio camphorata of that of Edinburgh.
Genus XXXII. SCARLATINA.
Scarlet Fever.
Scarlatina, Sauv. gen. 98. Vog. 39. Sag. 294.
Junck. 75.
Sp. I. The Mild Scarlet Fever.
Scarlatina febris, Sauv. fp. 1. Sydenham, feft. vi.
cap. 2.
Sp. II. The Scarlet Fever with Ulcerated Sore
Throat.
Scarlatina anginofa. Withering on the Scarlet Fe¬
ver.
The mild fcarlet fever is defcribed by Sydenham,
who tells us that he can fcarce account it a difeafe)
and indeed nothing more feems to be neceffary in the
treatment of it than an antiphlogillic regimen, avoid¬
ing the application of cold air and cold drink. The
difeafe, however, often rages epidemically, and is attend¬
ed with very alarming fymptoms, in which cafe it is
called fcarlatina anginofa.—The belt defcription of this
dirtemper has been publiihed by Dr Withering in the
year 1778. This difeafe made its appearance, we are
told, at Birmingham and the neighbouring villages,
about the middle of May 1778. It continued in all its
force and frequency to the end of O&ober 5 varying,
however, in fome of its fymptoms, as the air grew cold¬
er. In the beginning of November it was rarely met
with ; but towards the middle of that month, when the
air became warmer, it increafed again, and in fome
meafure refumed thofe appearances it pofleffed in the
fummer months, but which it had loft during the cold
winds in October.
It affefted children more than adults; but feldom
occurred in the former under two years of age, or in
the latter if they had pafled their fiftieth year.
Defcription. With various general fymptoms of
fever, the patient at firft complains of a dejection of
fpirits, a flight forenefs or rather ftiflfnefs in the neck,
with a fenfe of ftraitnefs in the mufcles of the neck
and ftioulders, as if they were bound with cords.
The fecond day of the fever this forenefs in the throat
increafes, and the patients find a difficulty in fwallow-
ing: but the difficulty feems lefs occafioned by the
pain excited in the attempt, or by the ftraitnefs of
the paffage, than by an inability to throw the ne-
ceflary mufcles into aclion. The fkin feels hot and dry,
but not hard 5 and the patients experience frequent,
fmall, pungent pains, as if touched with the point of
a needle. I he breath is hot and burning to the lips,
and thirft makes them wifh to drink; but the ten¬
dency to ficknefs, and the exertions neceflary in deglu¬
tition, are fo unpleafant, that they feldom care to
CINE. 341
drink much at a time. They have much uneafinefs Scarlatina,
alfo from want of reft during the night. In the
morning of the third day, the face, neck, and breaft,
appear redder than ufual : in a few hours this rednefs
becomes univerfal } and increafes to fuch a degree of
intenfity, that the face, body, and limbs, refemble a
boiled lobfter in colour, and are evidently fwollen.
Upon preffure the rednefs vanifhes, but foon returns
again. The fkin is fmooth to the touch, nor is there
the leaf! appearance of pimples or puftules. The eyes
and noftrils partake more or lefs of the general rednefs 5
and in proportion to the intenfity of this colour in the
eyes, the tendency to delirium prevails.
Things continue in nearly this ftate for two or
three days longer, wThen the intenfe fcarlet gradually
abates, a brown colour fucceeds, and the fkin be¬
coming rough, peels off in fmall feales. The tume¬
faction fubfides at the fame time, and the patients gra¬
dually recover their ftrength and appetite.
During the whole courfe of the difeafe, the pulfe
is quick, fmall, and uncommonly feeble, the urine
fmall in quantity ; the fub-maxillary glands fomewhat
enlarged and painful to the touch. The velum pen¬
dulum palati, the uvula, the tonfils, and gullet, as far
as the eye can reach, partake of the general rednefs
and tumefaCtion j but although collections of thick
mucus, greatly refernbling the fpecks or floughs in the
putrid fore throat, fometimes occur, yet thofe are eafiiy
wafhed off 5 and real ulcerations of thofe parts Averc
never obferved.
Thefe are the moft ufual appearances of this difor-
der ; but it too frequently affumes a much more fatal
form. In fome children the delirium commences in a
few hours after the firft attack *, the fkin is intenfely
hot; the fcarlet colour appears on the firft or fecond
day, and they die very early on the third. Others
again, Avho furvive this rapid termination, inftead of
recovering, as is ufual, about the time the fkin begins
to get its natural colour, fall into a kind of lingering,
and die at laft in the courfe of fix or eight wfeeks.
In adults, circular livid fpots Avere frequently ob¬
ferved about the breaft, knees, and elboAVS • alfo large
blotches of red, and others of Avhite intermixed, and
often changing places.
In the month of OClober, when the air became
/colder, the fcarlet colour of the fkin Avas both lefs
frequent and lefs permanent. Many patients had no
appearance of it at all \ while others, efpecially adults,.
had a feAV minute red pimples, croAvned with Avhite
pellucid heads. The infide of the throat Avas con-
fiderably tumefied, its colour a dull red, fometimes
tending to a livid. The pulfe beat in general 130
or 140 ftrokes in a minute ; Avas fmall, but hard,
and fometimes fufficiently fo to juftify the opening of
a vein 5 and the blood thus taken away, in every in-
ftance, Avhen cool, appeared fizy, and the Avhole crafla-
mentum firm.
Happy Avould i <. be, Dr Withering obferves, if the
baneful influence of this diforder terminated Avith the
febrile fymptoms. But in ten or fifteen days from
the ceffation of the fever, and Avhen a complete re¬
covery might be expected, another train of fymptoms
occurs, Avhich at laft frequently terminate fatally.
The patients, after a few days amendment, feel a
foroetliing that prevents their farther approach to
health $
342 M E D I
Esanthe- health j an unaccountable languor and debility pre-
, n^ta' vail, a fliffnefs in the limbs, an accelerated pulfe,
ditlurbed fleep, difrelith to food, and a fcarcity of
urine. Thefe fymptoms, we are told, are foon fuc-
ceeded by fwellings of a real droplical nature, form¬
ing fometimes an anafarca, and on other occafions an
afcites ; and not unfrequentiy fcarlatina has proved fa¬
tal, from fupervening hydrothorax in confequence of
the elfufion of water into the theft. It is unnecefl'ary
to remark, that when this happens, a fatal termina¬
tion is more hidden than from any other modification
of dropfy.
Dr Withering, after examining the accounts given
of this difeafe by different authors, proceeds to the diag-
nofis. It may be diftinguithed, he obferves, from the
petechial fever, by the eruption in the latter appearing
feldom before the fourth day, by the regularity and di-
Itindlnefs of the fpots, and by its principally occupying
the neck, the back, and the loins. On the other hand,
in the fcarlet fever, the eruption generally appears about
the third day 5 and confifts either of broad blotches, or
elfe one continued rednefs, which fpreads over the face
and the whole body.
In the fever called purpura, the puftules are pro¬
minent, keep their colour under preflure, and never
appear early in the difeafe j whereas in the fcarlet fe¬
ver, the eruption appears more early, is not prominent,
but perfectly fmooth to the touch, and becomes quite
white under preffure.
Although the purple fever and fcarlatina may be
eonne&ed by fome general caufe, yet our author takes
occafion to obferve, that they cannot be mere modifi¬
cations of the fame eruption : for examples occur,
he fays, of the fame perfon being firft feized with one
of thefe diforders, and afterwards vrith the other ;
but he never met with an inftance of the fame perfon
having the fcarlet fever twice } and he believes it to
be as great an improbability as a repetition of the
fmallpox.
This diforder is particularly diftinguifhed from the
meafles, we are told, by the want of that cough, wa¬
tery eye, and running at the nofe, which are known
to be the predominant fymptoms in the early ftate
of the meafles, but are never known to exift in the
fcarlatina.
From the erysipelas this difeafe is diftinguilhable,
by the limited feat of the former, together with its not
being contagious.
The cynanche maligna, howrever, is, according to Dr
Withering, more difficult to diftinguiffi from this difeafe
than any other*, and yet the diftindlion is, he thinks, a
matter of the greateft importance, as the method of
treatment, according to him, ought to be extremely
different.—Although, in a number of circumftances,
theft two difeafes bear a very great refemblance, yet,
with a little attention, the one may in general he thinks,
be diftinguiftied from the other. From Dr Fother-
giU’s account of the fore throat at*« nded with ulcers,
our author has made out the following charudlerifti-
cal circumftances of the two dileafes, contrafted to one
anot her.
Scarlati' a Anginofa. | Angina Gangrenofa.
Se fon. . Summer . . Au- I Stufon. . Spring . . Win-
tumu. j ter.
cine;
scarlatina Anginofa.
Air.. Hot . . . Dry.
Places. High . . Dry . . .
Gravelly.
Subjects. Vigorous. Both
foxes alike. . Bobult in
molt danger. .. .
Shin. Full fcarlet . . . .
fmooth . . If pimply,
the pimples white at
the top . . Always dry
and hot.
fyes. Shining, equable,
intenfe rednefs, rarely
watery.
Throat. In fummer, ton-
fils, &c. little tume¬
fied j no Hough . . In
autumn, more fu'elled.
Integuments feparating
. . Sloughs white.
Breath. Very hot, but not
fetid.
Voice. In fummer, natural.
Bowels. Regular at the
acceffion.
Blood. Buffy. . Firm.
Termination. The 3d, 5th,
8th, or 1 ith day.
Nature. Inflammatory.
Pra&icc,
Angina Gangrenofa. S.arktin*.
Air.. Warm . . Moift.
Places. Clofe. . Low . .
Damp. . Marftiy.
Subjects. Delicate .. Wo¬
men and ft male chil¬
dren. Rotmit auults not
in danger.
Skin. Red tindl . . pim¬
ply. . 1 lie pimples red¬
der than the interftices
. . bedewed with fweat
towards morning.
Eyes. Inflamed and wa¬
tery, or funk and dead.
Throat. Tonfils, &c. con-
fiderably fvvelled and
ulcerated . . . Sloughs
dark brown.
Breath. Offenfive to the
patients and affiftants.
Voice. Flat and rattling.
Bowels. . Purging at the
acceffion.
Blood. . Florid . . Tender.
Termination. No ftated
period.
Nature. Putrid.
It is not pretended, Dr Withering remarks, that all
the above-contrafted fymptoms will be met with in
every cafe. It is enough, he obferves, that fome of
them appear *, and that if, conjoined with the confi-
deration of the prevailing conftitution, they enable us
to direft that mode of treatment which will moft con¬
tribute to the relief of the fick.
But notwithftanding the attention which Dr Wi¬
thering has bellowed upon this fubjefr, we are Hill
decidedly of opinion, that the difeafe which he has fo
accurately defcribed under the title of fcarlatina angino¬
fa, is in reality the fame affection with the malignant
ulcerous fore throat of Huxham and Fothergill. Dur¬
ing different epidemics, this difeafe, like fmallpox and
meafles in different feafons, is confiderably varied in
its appearance. But ftill there occurs fuch a fimila-
rity as clearly marks the famenefs of the affection.
And indeed this, as in the cafe of the fmallpox, is
abundantly demonftrated by infection from one con¬
tagion giving protection again ft fucceeding ones, al¬
though the appearances be much varied. This has parti¬
cularly appeared at Edinburgh, where the difeafe has of
late prevailed as an epidemic on five different years, viz.
I782-8D i797-98> ar,d 1804-5.
During the firft of thefe occaficns, in the greater part of
patients, the fore throats were of a very gangrenous and
malignant nature : during the fecund, the difeafe more
commonly appeared under the form of what might be
called fmple fcar/atina : and durir g the other epi-
di. mics, the contagion was,, if we may be allowed the ex-
nreffi n, of an intermediate nature. But it n- farther to
be rema ki-d, that during every one of thole epidemics,
w hen fevtral children of a family were at the fame time
fubjeCted
5.
Pra^ice.
Exanthe- fibjefted to the infeftion, in one the difeafe would have
mata. been attended with almoft all the fymptoms mentioned
in the column of fcarlatina anginofa, with refpeft to
fkin, eyes, throat, breath, bowels, termination of the
affetlions, &c. In another, would have occurred all
the fymptoms with refpecl to thofe particulars which
he has mentioned under the column of angina gan-
grenofa. While at the fame time, in numberlefs in-
ftances, even in the fame patient, the difeafe at its
commencement has thown evident marks of an inflam¬
matory, and at its termination of a putrid tendency.
And there cannot be a doubt, that both the fcarlatina
anginofa of Withering, and the cynanche maligna, as
deferibed by Fothergill and Huxham, have occurred in
every feafon and iituation, and have affedted perfons of
every age and conflitution not before fubjeded to either
difeafe.
Caufes. i. Dr Withering affirms, that the immediate
caufe of this difeafe is a poifon of a peculiar kind com¬
municable by contagion.
2. I hat this poifon firft takes poffeffion of the
mucous membrane lining the fauces and the nofe j
and either by its adion upon the fecretory glands,
or upon the mucus itfelf, affimilates that mucus to its
own nature,
3. That it is from this beginning, and from this on¬
ly, that it fpreads to the ftomach, &c. and at length
ads upon the fyftem at large.
4. L hat its fird adion upon the nerves is of a feda-
tive or debilitating nature.
5. That in confequence of certain law's of the ner¬
vous fyftem, when the debilitating effeds operate upon
the fenforium commune, a readion takes place ; and
that this readion is, cceteris paribus, proportioned to the
debilitating power.
6. That, in confequence of this readion of the
nervous fyftem, the vibratory motion of the capillary
blood-veffels dependant thereon is greatly increafed 5
an unufually large quantity of blood is accumulated in
thofe veflels ; the heart and large blood-veffels are de¬
prived of their cuftomary proportion ; and hence, though
ftimulated to more frequent contradion, the pulfe muft
neceffariiy be feeble.
7. That as violent exertions are followed by debility,
upon the collation of the fever, the capillary veffels,
which had aded with fuch unufual violence, are left in
a ftate of extreme debility, and are long in recovering
their tone; hence it is that fo many patients afterwards
become droplical.
Dr Withering next proceeds to the confideration of
the difterent remedies, which either are at prefent in
common ufe, or have been recommended as proper in
this difeafe.
Cure. Blood-letting has been recommended by au¬
thors 5 but fuch was the ftate of the pulfe in this dif-
order, at leaft during the fummer months, that it H'as
not in any inftance thought advifable to take away
blood. In fome cafes, indeed, where the fiery red-
nefs of the eyes feemed to demand the ufe of leeches,
they were had recourfe to, but never with any ad¬
vantage. In the harveft months, when the pulfe was
niore firm, and when fuffocation feemed to be threaten-
e 1 from the fwelling in the fauces, blood-letting wras
fometimes advifed $ but ftill with lefs advantage than
343
one wmuld have expe&ed in almoft any other fitua- Scarlatina.
Vomiting.] This, Dr Withering obferves, feems to
be the remedy of nature ; and he is furprifed how it
ftiould have been omitted by feveral authors w ho have
gone before him. Vomiting, he fays, moft amply ful¬
fils the indications ariling both from a confideration of
the caufe and of the effefts j and a liberal ufe of the re¬
medy he holds forth as the true foundation for fuccefs-
ful practice in fcarlet fever and fore throat. His com¬
mon form of emetic is a combination of tartar emetic
and ipecacuanha, given in pretty fmart dofes 5 and thefe
are to be repeated at leaft once in 48 hours, and in the
worft cafes fo often as twice in 24 hours.
Purging.] The action of purgatives is confidered
by Dr Withering as altogether repugnant to the cura¬
tive indications in this difeafe : for the poifons, as for¬
merly remarked, being received into the fyftem by the
fauces, the operation of a purge, inftead of difeharging
it, can only promote its diffufion along the alimentary
canal ; and, in fact, w'e are told, that when even a
fpontaneous purging fupervenes in this difeafe, the pa¬
tients fink fo amazingly fait, that it is not within the
reach of art to fupport them. When, however, a con-
fiderable quantity of acrid matter paffing from the fauces
into the ftomach, makes its way to the redtum, a conffi-
derable degree of loofenefs often takes place. And al¬
though evacuations from the fyftem in general by means
of cathartics may be hurtful, yet patients often obtain
great relief from a free difeharge of this matter 5 and
by difeharging it, purgatives have the effedt even of
preventing an evacuation from the fyftem, which would
otherwife take place.
Sudorifics. Cordials. Alexipharmics.] None of
thefe remedies were found beneficial. With refpedt to
cordials, Dr Withering obferves, that although they
feem to be indicated by the great lofs of ftrength and
feeble pulfe, yet the certain confequence of their ufe
always was, an increafe of reftleifnefs, of the delirium,
and of the heat.
Diuretics.] Thefe were found very beneficial. The
vegetable fixed alkali is recommended as the moft pro¬
per article of this kind : a dram or twp may be eafily
fwallow'ed every 24 hours, by giving a fmall quantity
in every thing the patient drinks. Diuretics, however,
have been found principally ferviceable, by pradlitioners
in general, in thofe cafes where the urine is obferved
to be fcanty, and where dropfical fymptoms have taken
place.
Cinchona.] No medicine, we are told, ever had
a fairer trial in any difeafe than the Peruvian bark
had in this epidemic 5 for the feeble pulfe, great pro-
ftration of ftrength, with here and there a livid fpot,
were thought to be fuch undeniable evidences of a pu¬
trid tendency, that cinchona wras poured down not
with a fparing hand. But this was only at firft ; for
thefe livid fpots and the floughs in the throat being
found to be the effects of inflammation inftead of pu¬
trefaction, and the bark inftead of diminilhing, rather
increafing thefe fymptoms, it was at laft entirely laid
afide by Dr Withering in his practice. But although
cinchona may not have been fuccefsful with a particu¬
lar epidemic at a particular place 5 yet from the con¬
curring teftimony of many practitioners, it is very com¬
monly
MEDICINE
344 . MEDICINE.
Exanthe- monty found to be productive of good effects . And
mata. there is perhaps no remedy on which greater depend-
'~J"" V"" 1 ance is in general put, particularly in the advanced pe¬
riods of the difeafe, whete the foetor is confiderable.
Upon the fame principles that cinchona was pre*
fcribed, fixable air was at firft likewife advifed, but
with no evident effects either one way 01 another*
Dulcified acids were alfo had recourfe to, but with no
advantage.
Opiates.] Thefe, although recommended by lome
authors for the removal of inquietude and watchlulnefs,
yet in this epidemic, inftead of effefting thefe purpofes,
always inereafed the diltrefs of the patient.
Blifters.] In the fiimmer appearance of the difeafe,
blifters Avere universally detrimental } they ne\rer failed
to haften the delirium 5 and if the cafe wras of the
worft kind, they too often confirmed its fatal tendency.
But although this may have been the cafe during the
epidemic which Dr W ithering defcribes, it has bj no
means been generally obferved. On the contrary, by
the early application of blifters to the external fauces,
both the glandular fwellings and likewife the difcharge
from the mouth and fauces have been much dimmifh-
ed ; and pradffitioners have believed, not without pro¬
bable reafon, that the after-affeftions of the throat
were lefs confiderable than Avould otherwife have been
the cafe.
Injected gargles of contrayerva decodtion, Iweetened
with oxymel of fquills, &c. Avere found very beneficial
in bringing always large quantities of vifcid ropy fluff
from the fauces.
The immerfion of the feet and legs in warm Avater,
although it did no harm, yet did not either procure
fleep or abate the delirium, as it frequently does in
other kinds of fever.
As in fummer it Avas found difficult to keep the pa¬
tients fufficiently cool, they Avere ordered to lie upon
a mattrefs inftead of a feather-bed } a free circula¬
tion of air Avas kept up } and where the patients ftrength
Avould admit of it, they Avere ordered frequently out
of doors. Animal food and fermented liquors Avere
denied them, and nothing alloAved but tea, coffee,
chocolate, milk and Avater, gruel, barley-water, and
fuch articles. , . , r r
With refpeft to the dropfical diforder Avhich io ire-
quently fucceeds to this complaint, it Avas never obfer¬
ved, Dr Withering remarks, Avhen the preceding fymp-
toms had been properly treated,
When called upon to patients in the dropfical ftate,
lie began his practice by a dofe of calomel at night,
and a purgative in the morning. When a febrile
pulfe attended the other fymptoms, emetics Avere uft-
ful, as Avell as the faline draughts and other neutral
falts. When great debility, comatofe or peripneu-
monic fymptoms occurred, bliffers Avere found very ler-
A’iceable : but Avhen dropfical fymptoms were the prin¬
cipal caufe of complaint, fmall dofes of rhubarb and
calomel Avere advifed •, recourfe Avas alfo had to diluted
folutions of fixed alkalies, fquills, Seltzer Avaters, and
other diuretics.
When the urine flows freely, fteel and other tomes
are recommended } together Avith gentle exercife, high-
feafoned food, Avine, and the wearing of flannel in con-
ta61 with the Ikin.
Dr Withering concludes his effay Avith an enumera-
PnuTice
tion of feveral cafes, treated according to the principles Urticaria,
above laid down. The fuccefsful termination of thefe ‘'■““v—
cafes demonftrates the propriety of the practice Avhich
he has recommended ", at leaft for the epidemic under
the form in which it then appeared.
Since Dr Withering’s publication, two other prac¬
tices have obtained confiderable celebrity in this difeafe.
The one is daihing cold water on the furface of the
body in the manner recommended by Dr Currie in
proper fevers. It is, hoAvever, very certain that al¬
though this may obviate fymptoms, and particularly
diminifti the heat when very urgent, yet it never pro¬
duces an artificial termination of the difeafe as fome
have alleged. When the contagion of fcarlatina is in¬
troduced into a human body, never before fubjedted to
the difeafe, it muff, like fmallpox and meafles, run a
certain courfe, and the attention of the practitioner
muff merely be employed in endeavouring to render
that courfe as mild as he can, principally by obviating
urgent fymptoms.
The other remedy lately introduced, and highly
commended in fcarlatina anginofa, is the oxygenated
muriatic acid. This has been particularly extolled by
Mr John Ayrey BraithAvaite, furgeon at Lancafter.
One dram of the oxygenated muriatic acid is mixed
Avith eight ounces of diftilled Avater. This quantity he
diredts to be taken by a patient at the age of puberty
every day. But the quantity muff be regulated by the
age and Situation of the patient. This remedy alfo is
only ufeful as obviating fymptoms, particularly the af-
feCtion of the throat. But Avith this intention Ave have
often employed it with great advantage.
Genus XXXIII. URTICARIA.
Nettle-rash.
Febris urticata, Vog. 40.
Uredo, Lin. 8.
Purpura urticata, Lunch. 75.
Scarlatina urticata, Sauv. fp. 2.
Eryfipelatis Ipecies altera, Sydenham, feCI. vi.
cap. 6.
Febris fcarlatina, et febris urticata, Meyferey,
Mai. des armees, 291 et feq.
Defcripiion. This difeafe has its Englilh name of
nettle-rafli from the refemblance of its eruption to that
made by the Ringing of nettles. Thefe little elevations
upon the Ikin in the nettle-rafh often appear inftant-
aneoufly, efpecially if the Ikin be rubbed or fcratched,
and feldom ftay many hours in the fame place, and
fometimes not many minutes. No part of the body is
exempt from them j and where many of them rife to¬
gether, and continue an hour or two, the parts are
often confiderably fwelled ; which particularly happens
in the face, arms, and hands. Thefe eruptions will
continue to infeft the fkin, fometimes in one place and
fometimes in another, for one or tAvo hours at a time,
two or three times every day, or perhaps for the
greateft part of the 24 hours.—In fome perfons they
laft only a few days, in others many months } nay,
fometimes the difeafe has laffed for years with very
flrort intervals.
But though the eruption of the urticaria refembles,
-as already obferved, that produced by the flinging of
nettles,
Pra&ice. M E D I
Exanthe- nettles, it is foilietimes accompanied with long weals,
Lm"ta~ , as if the part had been ftruck with a whip. ° What-’
^ ever be the thape of thefe eminences, they always ap¬
pear folid, without having any cavity or head con¬
taining either water or any other liquor ; and this
affords an eafy mark whereby this difeafe may be di-
ftinguifhed from the itch. For it often happens, that
the inluffeiable itching with which this eruption is at¬
tended, provokes the patient to fcratch the parts fo
violently, that a fmall part of the cuticle on the top of
thefe little tumors is rubbed off; a little fcab fuceeeds ;
and, when the fwelling is gone down, there is left an
appearance hardly to be diilinguilhed from the itch,
but by the circumflance juft now mentioned. The,
nettle-rafh alfo further differs from the itch, in not
being infectious.
Caufes, &c. Dr Heberden is inclined to aferibe
this diftemper to fume mechanical caufe outwardly ap¬
plied to the fkin. He obferves, that moft people fuf-
ior in a fimilar manner from the real flinging of nettles.
Cowhage, or, as it is corruptly called, cow-itch, a
fort of phafeolus, or French bean, the pod of which
is covered over with a kind of down or hair, and the
eftect of which upon the {kin is much the fame as that
of nettles } and almoft any hairs cut equally fliort, and
fprinkled upon the {kin, whenever they happen to flick
in it, will make the part itch or fmart in liich a man¬
ner as to give great uneafmefs ; it is alfo a confiderable
time before the {kin can be cleared of the finer ones,
when once they are ftrewed upon it.
Reaumur, in the fourth memoir of his Hiftory of
InfeCts, deferibes a fpecies of caterpillars to which be-
lou.g a fort of hairs almoft mvifible to the naked eve,
which are eafiily detached, and frequently float in the
air round their neft, though it have not been at all
diiturbed. 1 he touch of thefe hairs has a fimilar effeCt
witli the cow-itch •, that is, they occafion intolerable
itchings with little bumps and rednefs, arifing fome-
times to a flight inflammation, d hefe he found would
continue four or five days, if the animal or the neft
had been much handled ; and though they had not
been touched at all, yet, by only walking near their
nefts, the lame effedls would be brought on, but for a
{hotter time; Thefe hairs affea the {kin in this man¬
ner by flicking in it, as he could perceive with a tdafs of
a great magnifying power •, for with one of a fmall power
th< v were not vifible. ] heuneafy fenfations caufed by
thefe fmall wounds, not only, as'he fays., laft feveral
davs, but move from one part of the body to another 5 fo
that they will ceafe upon one wrift, and immediately
begin on the other; from the wrift they will go to the
fingers or the face, or even to the parts of the b dy
which are covered. He fuppofes, that the motions of
tne body, when much of this fine down lies near or upon
the Ikin, may drive it from one part to another,1
CINE.
will produce fomething like this eftedt on the parts
wnich they touch, and undoubtedly trom the fame
caufe. ,
Dr Heberden alks, Is it impoflible that the nettle-
rafli ftiould arife from the fame caufes. or from others
fimilar, which we mils by looking too deeply for
them in the blood and humours ? Such, fays he, may
have been its origin in iome inftances, where it has
lafted only a tew days ; but -where this affection has
continued tor fome years, in perfons who change their
linen every day, and who bathe frequently all the
time, it can hardly be aferibed to fuch an external
caufe. He has obferved it frequently to arife from
cantharides : but though it has continued many weeks
inter the removal of the blifter, yet it might be lu-
pedfed that this arofe from the fine fpiculae of the
cantharides flicking all this time about the fkin •, it
being cuftomary to ftrew much of the dry powder of
the cantharides over the blifter-plafter, whence it may
readily be carried to other parts of the body. But it
is certain that fimilar effedis will fometimes follow the
internal ufe of wild valerian root, or the eating of iilh
not fufficiently drefi'ed 5 mufcles, Ihrimps, and even
honey, and the kernels of fruits, will alfd fometimes
produce fymptoms of a fimilar kind. But whatever
be its caufe, Dr Heberden never faw any reafon to
fuppofe that the nettle-rafh had in any way vitiated
the humours to fuch a degree as to require the ufe of
internal remedies 5 and if the itching could be cer¬
tainly and expeditioufly allayed, there would be no
occafion for any farther cure. He concludes this
nflory of the diforder with a cafe communicated
to him by.DrMunfey, phyfician of Chelfia College
and in which the difeafe appeared with uncommon
violence.
W. A. aged near 30, of a thin {pare habit, was
345
Urticaria.
change what was lying there inoffenfively to a fituation
fit to make it. penetrate into the fkin. Neither cold
water, nor oil, nor fpirit of wine, with which the
parts affedhed were bathed, had any effeeff in removing
tae ttchmg.. He thinks the moft efficacious remedy
which he tried tor this complaint was, to rub the parts
jtrongiy with parfley, which inftantly leffened the fen-
a'!.°ns’ anc^ aftor two or three hours, entirely freed the
patient from them. It is alfo well known, that many
tpeer s of caterpillars, by only walking over the hands,
' OL. All I. Pari I.
ftized with a diforder attended with fymptoms of a
very, uncommon kind. Whenever he went into the
air, if the fun fhined bright, he was feized with a
tickling of his flefh on thofe parts expofed to the fun :
this-tickling, by his continuing in the air, increafed to
a violent itching, attended with great heat and pain :
tne fkin would then be almoft as red as vermilion, and
thicicen like leather 5 and this remained till lie went out
of the open air, and then abated in about jj or 20 mi¬
nutes. Phis happened only w hen the fun was above
the horizon ; at other times he was w hat he called
qwte wet!.—But it was not owing to the heat of the
fun ; for the fun in winter afftefed him full as much,
ir not more, and the heat of the fire had no fuch ef-
fedl. I hus he was confined to the houfe for 10 years.
Ire tried feveral hofpitals, and had advices from many
phyficians, without the leaft abatement- of his com¬
plaints. At laft it was agreed by a confultation of
phyficians, that he fhould try dipping in fait water 3
wdiich he did at Yarmouth for 13 weeks, without any
vifible amendment. One hot day, having pulled oft'
his clothes and gone into the fea in the middle of the
day, the heat diffufed itfelf lo violently all over his
body that, by the time be had put on his clothes,
his eyefight began to fail, and he was compelled to lie
clown upon the ground to favc himfelf from falling. The
moment he lay down, the faintnefi went off: upon this
he got.up again; but had no foontr arifen, than he
found himfelf in the former condition: he therefore lay
X x down.
34<5
Exanthe¬
mata.
rtyz
MEDICINE. Practice,
down again, and Immediately recovered. lie continued
alternately getting up and lying down, till the diforder
t>egan to be exhaufted, which was in about half an
hour •, and he was frequently obliged to have recourfe
to the fame expedient.
Having at laft accidentally met with Dr Monfey,
this phyfician queftioned him concerning the caufe of
the diforder ; but nothing could be gueffed at, ex¬
cepting that the patient owned he had one winter
lived entirely upon bullock’s liver and porter, from
inability to purchafe better vi&uals. A comrade lived
with him at that time, on the fame provifions 5 and
he alfo was affefted in a fimilar manner, though in a
lefs degree, and had recovered. This patient was then
hr ft put upon a courfe of Dover’s fweating powder
without any effeft, and afterwards tried a courfe of ni¬
trous ones with the fame bad fuccefs. At laft Dr
Monfey determined to try the effe<ft of mercury, which
happily proved effe&ual in removing this ohftinate and
uncommon diftemper. The patient began with taking
five grains of calomel for three nights running, and a
cathartic next morning. In this courfe he went on for
near a fortnight, at the end of which he found him-
felf very fenftbly relieved. This encouraged him to go
on rather too boldly, by which means a flight faliva-
tion enfued ) however, that went off foon, and in about
fix weeks he was quite well.—Some time after, he was
threatened with a return of his diforder ; but this was
effectually relieved by a dofe of calomel, which he had
afterwards occafion to repeat for the fame reafon, and
with the fame fuccefs 5 but at laft the diforder feemed
to be radically cured, by his having no further fymp-
toms of a relapfe.
Genus XXXIV. PEMPHIGUS.
Pemphigus, Sauv. gen. 93. Sag. 291.
Morta Lm. 1.
Febris bullofa, Vog. 41.
Pemphigus major, Sauv. fp. 1.
Exanthemata ferofa, C. Pifon. Obf. 150.
Febris pemphygodes, Ephern. Germ. D. I. A. viii.
Obf. 56.
Pemphigus caftrenfis, Sauv. fp. 2.
Febres fyneches, cum veficulis per peCtus et col-
lum fparfis, Morton. App. ad Exerc. II.
Pemphigus Helveticus, Sauv. fp. 3* Langhans in
Act. Helvet. vol. ii. p. 260. et in Befchreibung
des Siementhals, Zurich 1753.
This is a very rare difeafe, infomuch that Dr Cul¬
len declares he never faw it. He declines taking the
deferiptions of foreign phyficians : we {hall therefore
content ourfelves with giving an inftance of this very
uncommon diftemper, as it was obferved in the Infir¬
mary at Aberdeen, and was treated by the late Dr
David Stuart, then phyfician to that hofpital, who
foon after publiftied an account of it in the Edinburgh
Medical Commentaries. A private foldier of the 73d
regiment, aged eighteen years, formerly a pedlar, and
naturally of a healthy conftitution, was received into
the hofnital at Aberdeen on the 25th of April. About
twenty days before that, he had been feized with the
meafles when in the country ; and, in marching to
town, on the fecond dav of their eruption, he was ex-
pofed to cold 3 upon which they fuddenly difappeared.
Having arrived at Aberdeen, he was quartered in a Pemphigus,
damp, ill-aired, under-ground apartment. Pie then 1,1" v
complained of ficknefs at ftomach, great oppreffion
about the prcecordia, headach, laffitude, and weari-
nefs, on the leaft exertion ; with ftiffnefs and rigidity
of his knees and other joints. The furgeon of the re¬
giment vifited him : he was purged, but with little
benefit. About ten days before, lie obferved on the
infide of his thighs a number of very fmall, diftinft,
red fpots, a little elevated above the furface of the
fkin, and much refembling the firft appearance of fmall-
pox. This eruption gradually fpread itfelf over his
whole body, and the puftules continued every day to in-
creafe in fize.
Upon being received into the hofpital, he complain¬
ed of headach, ficknefs at ftomach, oppreflion about
the preecordia, thirft, fore throat, with difficulty of
fwallowing 3 his tongue was foul, his {kin felt hot and
feverifti 3 pulfe from no to 120, rather depreffed 3
belly coftive 3 eyes dull and languid, but without deli¬
rium. The whole furface of his {kin was interfperfed
with veficles, or phly&senae, of the fize of an ordinary
walnut 3 many of them were larger, efpecially on the
arms and breaft. In the interftices, between the vefi¬
cles, the appearance of the {kin was natural, nor was
there any rednefs round their bafe 3 the diftance from
one to another was from half an inch to a hand-
breadth or more. In fome places two or three were
joined together, like the puftules in the confluent fmall-
pox. A few veficles had burft of themfelves, and form¬
ed a whitilh fcab or cruft. Thefe were chiefly on the
neck and face 5 others ftiowed a tolerably laudable pus.
However, by far the greateft number were perfectly
entire, turgid, and of a bluiffi colour. Upon opening
them, it was evident that the cuticle elevated above
the cutis, and diftended with a thin, yellowifh, femi-
pellucid ferum, formed this appearance. Nor was the
furface of the cutis ulcerated or livid 3 but of a red
florid colour, as when the cuticle is feparated by a
blifter, or fuperficial burning. No other perfon la¬
boured under a fimilar difeafe, either in the part of the
country from which he came, or when he refided in
Aberdeen.
This cafe was treated in the following manner. The
largeft of the veficles were fnipped, and dreffed with
unguent, e lap. calaniinan. In the evening he was vo¬
mited with a folution of tartar emetic, given in fmall
quantities and at intervals. This alfo procured two
loofe ftools. And he was ordered for drink, water-
gruel acidulated with lemon juice.
“ April 16. He ft ill complained of ficknefs, fome
oppreffion about his breaft, and fore throat 3 he had
flept little during the night 3 his tongue was foul and
blackiffi 3 his {kin, however, was not fo hot as the pre¬
ceding dav 3 his urine was high-coloured, but had the
appearance of feparation 3 his pulfe 90, and foft 3 moft
of the fores on the trunk of the body looked dean.
Others, particularly where the veficles were confluent,
feemed beginning to ulcerate, and to have a bluiffi fub-
livid appearance. They were dreffed afreffi with ce¬
rate. and he was ordered the following medicines :
R, Decod. Cort Peruvian. 3yj. Vini rubr. Lufitan.
Jiij. M. Hujus mixtune capiat tertiaqua-
que hora.
“ His
Praflice. M E D I
Exa. the- “ His acidulated drink was continued j and on ac-
mata. count of the very offenfive fmell on approaching near
him, feme vinegar was placed in a bafon before the
bed, and fpnnkled on the floor j and the room was
kept properly aired.
“ April 17. His fores looked tolerably clean, un-
lefs on his arms and thighs j where they were livid, a
little ulcerated, and difeharged a bloody ichor.
“ His headach, ficknefs, &c. were almofi: gone ; his
tongue was rather cleaner; pulfe 68, and foft. As
the deeoftion of the bark fat eafily on his itomach, the
following prefeription was ordered :
Pulv. fubtiliff. Cort. Peruv. 56. Vini rubri Lu-
litan. Aquae foman. aa 31s. M. ft. Hauft. tertia
quaque hora repetend.
The acidulated drink was continued, and frefh dreflings
applied to the fores.
“ April 18. The little ulcers in his arms and thighs
Hill difeharged a bloody ichor, and looked ill *, his other
complaints were better j pulfe 8 2. The bark had not
naufeated him, and it was continue d as well as his for¬
mer drink.
“ April 19. His fores looked much cleaner and
better 5 the fever was gone, his pulfe natural, and he
had no complaint but weaknefs and a troublefome
itching of the Ikin : The Peruvian bark, &c. were
continued.
“ April 20. Some of the ulcers ftill poured forth a
bloody ichor j moft of them, however, looked well,
and had begun to heal—fever gone—medicines conti¬
nued.
“ From the 21ft of April, he went on gaining
ftrength, and his fores appeared to heal fall ; he was
defired to take only four dofes every day •, and by the
27th his fores, &c. were totally dried up—he had no
complaint, and was difmilfed cured.”
Since the publication of this cafe of pemphigus by
Dr Stuart, obfervations on this difeafe have been pu-
blifhed by Dr Stephen Dickfon of Dublin, in the Tranf-
aftions of the Royal Iriih Academy. In thefe obfer¬
vations, an account is given of fix different cafes which
Dr Diekfon has had an opportunity of feeing. Judging
from thefe, Dr Dickfon thinks that Dr Cullen’s defini¬
tion of this difeafe requires correction 5 and that it
ought to be defined, “ a fever accompanied with the
fucceflive eruption, from different, parts of the body,
internal as well as external, of veficles about the fize of
an almond, which become,turgid with a faintly yellowifh
ferum, and in three or four days fubfide.”
From the cafes which have fallen under Dr Dick-
fon’s obfervation, he concludes, that the difeafe varies
confiderably as to its mildnefs or malignity. In three
of the cafes which he has feen, the fymptoms were ex¬
tremely mild, but in the other three ftrong fymptoms of
putrefcency were manifefted, and the life of the patient
was in great danger. With refpeft to the method of
cure, he is of opinion, that the general fymptoms of
weaknefs, and tendency to putrefadion, obvioufly point
out the proper treatment. Nourifhment muft be fupplied,
and the Peruvian bark and wine carefully adminiftered}
and when veficles appear on internal parts, irritation
muft be guarded againft by opiates, demulcents, and
gentle laxatives.
Some additional obfervations on the fubjeff of pem-
C I N E.
phigus have lately been publifhed in the London Me¬
dical Journal by Mr Thomas Chriftie. From a cafe
which Mr Chriftie deferibes, he is difpofed to agree
with Dr Dickfon in thinking that fometimes at leaft
pemphigus is not contagious. He remarks, however,
that the pemphigus deicribed by fome foreign writers
was extremely infectious 5 which he thinks may lead
to a divifion of the difeafe into twro fpecies, the pem¬
phigus fimplex and complicatus : both of which, but
efpecially the laft, feem to vary much with refpeft to
mildnefs and malignity.
347
Aphtha.
Genus XXXV. APHTHA.
The Thrush.
Aphtha, Sauv. gen. 100. Lin. 9. Sag. 298.
Boerh. 978. HoJf?n. II. 478. Junck. 137.
Febris aphthofa, Vog. 44.
The only idiopathic fpecies is the thrufh to which
infants are fubjedt j (Aphtha laCtucimen, Sauv. fp. 1.)
The aphthae are whitilh or ath-coloured pultules, in¬
vading the uvula, fauces, palate, tonfils, infide of the
cheeks, gums, tongue, and lips. They for the molt,
part begin at the uvula, fending forth a glutinous mu¬
cus, and the pUftules covering all or the greatefl:
number of the parts above mentioned, with a thick
whitiih cruft adhering moft tenacioufly. This .emit
does not induce an efehar on the parts on which it
lies by eating into them, but comes oft' in whole pieces
after the puftules have arrived at maturity. This will
often happen in a ihort time, fo that the throat and
internal parts of the mouth are frequently obferved to
be clean, which a few years before were wholly cover¬
ed with white crufts. Neither is this difeafe confined
to the throat and fauces, but is faid to affeCI the cefo-
phagus, ftomach, and all parts of the alimentary canal.
Of this indeed there is no other proof, than that, after
a great difficulty of fwafiowing, there is fometimes an
immenfe quantity of aphthae evacuated by ftool and
vomiting, fueh as the mouth could not be thought ca¬
pable of containing.
Caufes, &c. The aphthous fever feems to be pro¬
duced by cold and moifture, as it is found only in the
northern countries, and efpecially in marfhy places j
and in them the aphthae often appear without any fever
at all.
Prognojis. There is no fymptom by which the
coming out of aphthae can be foretold, though they are
common in many fevers; but they themfelves are in
general a bad fymptom, and always fignify a very te¬
dious diforder: the danger denoted by them is in pro¬
portion to the difficulty of deglutition; and a diar¬
rhoea accompanying them is likewife bad. This in¬
deed generally carries off old people when tliev be¬
come affedted with aphthae. The dark-coloured aph¬
thae alfo are much more dangerous than fuch as aie of
a brown or afh colour ; but it is a good fign when the
appetite returns, and the dark-coloured ones are fuc-
ceeded by others of a whiter colour. Neither are thofe
which are unaccompanied with fever fo dangerous as
the other kind.
Cure. As the aphthae are feldom a primary difeafe,
we muft generally endeavour to remove the diforder
upon which they depend, after which they will all
X x 2 off} %
.343 M E D I
> but in the mean time we are not to neglect appli-
^ ‘ cations to the aphthae themfelves, fuch as detergent and
foftening gargles made of the decoition of ligs, with the
addi’i m of honey of rofes, a little vinegar, and feme
tiniture of myrrh.
*34 Order IV. HiEMORRHAGLE.
Hjemo e r hages.
Haemorrhagic, Vog. Clafs II. Ord. I. Hqtfm. II.
194. Jiinck. 5.
Sanguifluxus, Sauv. Clafs IX. Ord. I. Sag. Clafs V.
Ord. I.
*35 Genus XXXVI. EPISTAXIS.
Bleeding at the Nose.
Eaemorrhagia, Sauv. gen. 239. Lin. 1^. Sag. gen.
174.
Hemorrhagia narium, Hoffm. II 196. Junck. 6.
Hsemorrhagia plethorica, Sauv. fp. 22. Hojfm. II.
198.
The other fpecies enumerated by authors are all
y mptomatic,
Defcription. The milder fpecies of this haemorrhage
comes on more frecjuently in fummer than in winter,
and for the molt part without giving any warning', or
being attended with any inconvenience $ but the lefs
benign kind is preceded by feveral remarkable fymp-
toms. X hefe are, congeltions of the blood fometimes
in one part, and fometimes in another, and which are
often very troublefome in the Tides of the head : there
is a rednefs of the cheeks 5 an inflation of the face,
and of the veflels of the neck and temples \ a tinnitus
aurium ; a heavy pain of the eyes, with a prominence,
drynefs, and fparks 5 there is a vertiginous affedion of
the head, with an itching of the nodrils, and a fenfe of
weight, especially about the root of the nofe. In fome
the fleep is dillurbed with dreams about blood, fire, &c.
Frequently the belly is coftive, there is a diminution of
the quantity of urine, a fuppreflion of fweat, coldnefs of
the lower extremities, and tenfion of the hypochondria,
efpecially the right one.
Caufes, &c. This haemorrhage may occur at any
time of life ^ but moll commonly happens to vounp*
perfons, owing to the peculiar Hate of the fyllem at
that time. Sometimes, however, it happens after the
and during the Hate of manhood, at which time
it is to be imputed to a plethoric fiate of the fyllem • to
a determination of the blood, by habit, to the veflels of
the nofe 5 or to the particular weaknefs of thefe vef-
fels.
In all 1 hele calcs the dileale may be confidered as an
arterial haemorrhage, and depending upon an arterial
plethora *, but it fometimes occurs in the decline of
life, and may then be confidered as the fign of a ve¬
nous plethora in the veffels of the head. It often hap¬
pens at anv period of life in certain febrile difeafes,
which are altogether or partly of an inflammatory na¬
ture, and which fhow a particular determination of the
blood to the veflels of the head. As by this evacua¬
tion, other difeafes are often removed, it may on thefe
4
CINE. Pradice.
occafions be deemed truly critical. It happens to per- Epiftaxis.
fons of every conllitution and temperament ; but moll—y'«—'
frequently to the plethoric and fanguine, and more com¬
monly to men than women.
Prognojis. In young people, the bleeding at the
nofe may be conlidered as a flight difeafe, and fcaree
worth notice. But, even in young perfons, when it re¬
curs very frequently and in great quantity, it is alarm¬
ing •, and is to be confidered as a mark of an arterial
plethora, which in the decline of life may give the
blood a determination to parts from which the hemor¬
rhage would be more dangerous j and this will require
more particular attention, as the marks of plethora and
congellion preceding the hmmorrhage are more confi-
derable, and as the flowing of the blood is attended
with a more confiderable degree of febrile diforder.
Thefe confequences are more efpecially to be dreaded,
when the epidaxis happens to perfons after their xy.u.n,
returning frequently and violently. Even in the de¬
cline of life, however, it may be confidered as in itfelf
very falutary ; but at the fame time it is a mark of a
dangerous Hate of the fyllem, i. e. of a flrong tend¬
ency to a venous plethora in the head, and it has ac¬
cordingly been often followed by apoplexy, pally, &c.
When it happens in febrile difeafes, and is in pretty
large quantity, it may be generally confidered as criti¬
cal and falutary ; but it is very apt to be too profufe,
and thus becomes dangerous. It fometimes occurs du¬
ring the eruptive fever of fome exanthemata, and is in
fuch cafes fometimes falutary ; but if thefe exanthema¬
ta be accompanied with any putrid difpofition, this hse-
morrhage, as well as artificial bloodlettings, may have
a very bad tendency.
Cure. The treatment in cafes of epiflaxis may be
referred to two heads, ill, The treatment during the
time of the difeharge ; and, 2dly, The treatment after
the difeharge is ftopt, with the view of preventing the
return of it; During the former of thefe periods, it
is neceflary in the firft place to confider whether the
difeharge ftiould be left to its natural courfe or flop¬
ped by artificial means. In determining this quefiion,
regard muft be paid to the quantity of \he difeharge \
the appearance of the blood ; the conftitution with
which epiftaxis occurs; the former habit of the pa¬
tient ; and the confequences which refult from the
difeharge. When, from due confideration of thefe cir-
cumftances, there is reafon to fear that further eva¬
cuation would be attended with bad comequences,
though this difeafe has been generally thought very
flight, it fhould feldom be left to the conduit of na¬
ture ; and in all cafes it fliould be moderated by keep¬
ing the patient in cool air, by giving cold drink, by
keeping the body and head ereil, by avoiding any
blowing of the nofe, fpeaking, or other irritation ; and
if the blood has flowed for fome time without (bowing
any tendency to flop, we are to attempt the fuppreb
fion of the haemorrhage, by prefling the noftril from
which the blood flows, wafliing the face with cold wa¬
ter, or applying this to fome other parts of the body.
Thefe meafurcs Dr Cullen judges to be proper even on
the firfl attacks, and even in young perfons where the dif¬
eafe is in the lead hazardous : but they will (till be more
requifite if the difeafe frequently recurs without any
external violence ; if the returns happen to perfons not
difpofect
MEDICI N E.
pradice.
Hxmor- difpofed to a plethoric habit; and more particularly if
rhagiai. n0 figns of plethora appear in the fymptonis preceding
U"”v the difcharge.
When the bleeding is fo profufe that the pulfe be¬
comes weak and the face pale, every means muft be
ufed to put a flop to it, and that whether the patient
be young or old. Befides thofe methods above men¬
tioned, we mud ufe aftringents both internal and ex¬
ternal •, but the latter are the moft powerful, and the
choice of thefe may be left to the furgeon. The in¬
ternal aftringents are either vegetable or foftil; but
the vegetable aftringents are feldom powerful in the
cure of any haemorrhages except thofe of the alimen¬
tary canal. The foftil aftringents are more a£Hve, but
differ conftderably in ftrength from one another.—
The chalybeates appear to have little ftrength : the
preparations of lead are more powerful •, but cannot be
employed, on account of their pernicious qualities, un-
lefs in cafes of the utmoft danger. The tinBura fatur-
ninct, or antiphthifica, is a medicine of very little effica¬
cy, either from the fmall quantity of lead it contains,
or from the particular date in which it is. The fafeft
and at the fame time the moft powerful aftringent, feems
to be alum.
For fupprefling this and other haemorrhages, many
fuperftitious remedies and charms have been ufed, and
faid to have been employed with fuccefs. This has
probably been owing to the mi'lake of the by-ftanders,
who have fuppofed that the fpontaneous ceffation of
the haemorrhage was owing to their remedy. At the
fame time Dr Cullen is of opinion, that fuch remedies
have fometimes been ufeful, by imprefting the mind
with horror or dread. Opiates have fometimes proved
fuccefsful in removing haemorrhages; and when the
fulnefs and inflammatory diathefis of the fyftem have
been previoufly taken off by bleeding, they may, in Dr
Cullen’s- opinion, be ufed with fafety and advantage.
Ligatures have been applied upon the limbs, for retard¬
ing the return of the venous blood from the extremi¬
ties 5 but their ufe feems to be ambiguous. In the cafe
of profufe haemorrhages, no care is to be taken to pre¬
vent the patient from fainting, as this is often the moft
certain means of flopping them.
236 Genus XXXVII. HAEMOPTYSIS.
Spitting of Blood.
Haemoptyfis, Sauv. gen. 240. Lin. 179. Fog. 84.
Sag. gen. 175. .hwch. 8.
Haemoptoe, Boerh. 1198.
Sanguinb fluxus ex pulmonibus, Hoffm. II. 202.
Sp. I. HteMOPTTSIS from Plethora.
Sp. II. H7P.M0PTYSIS from External Violence.
Haemoptyfis accidentalis, Sauv. fp. 1.
He moptyfis habitualis, Sauv. fp. 2.
Hiemoptyfis traumatica, Sauv. fp. 12.
Sp. ITT. HEMOPTYSIS with Plthifis.
Haemoptyfis phthilica, Sauv. fp. 9.
Haemoptyfis ex tuberculo pulmonum, Sauv. Ip. 10.
Sp. IV. The Calculous HMM0PTYS1S.
Haemoptyfis calculofa, Suuv. Ip. 14.
Sp. V. The Vicarious HEMOPTYSIS.
Haemoptyfis catamenialis, Sauv. fp. 4.
Haemoptyfis periodica, Sauv. fp. 5.
Defcription. This haemorrhage commonly begins with
a fenle of weight and anxiety in the cheft, fome unea-
finefs in breathing, pain of the breaft or other parts of
the thorax, and fome fenfe of heat under the fternum :
and very often it is preceded by a faltifli tafte in the
mouth. Immediately before the appearance of blood,
a degree of irritation is felt at the top of the larynx.
The perfon attempts to relieve this by hawking, -which
brings up a little florid and fomewhat frothy blood.
The irritation returns; and in the fame manner blood
of a fimilar kind is brought up, with fome noife in the
windpipe, as of air palling through a fluid. Some¬
times, however, at the very firit, the blood comes up
with coughing, or at leaft fomewhat of coughing, and
accompanies the hawking above mentioned.
I he blood is often at firft in very fmall quantity, and*
foon difappears ; but in other cafes, efpecially when it
frequently recurs, it is in greater quantity, and often
continues to appear at times for feveral days together.
It is fometimes profufe, but rarely in fuch quantity as
either Dy its excefs or by a fudden fuffocation to prove
immediately mortal.
It is not always eafy to difeover whether the blood
evacuated by the mouth proceeds from the internal
fur lace of the mouth itfelf, from the fauces or adjoin¬
ing cavities of the noife, from the ftomach, or from
the lungs. It is, however, very neceffary to diftinguilh.
thefe different cafes; and for this Dr Cullen offers the
following confiderations.
1. When the blood proceeds from fome part of the
internal furface of the mouth, it comes out without
any hawking or coughing; and generally, upon in-
fpedftion, the caufe is evident.
2. When blood proceeds from the fauces, or adjoin¬
ing cavities of the nofe, it may be brought out by haw¬
king, and fometimes by coughing. In this cafe, there
may be a doubt concerning its real fource, and the pa¬
tient may be allowed to pleafe himfelf with the thoughts
that the blood does not come from the lungs. But the
phyfician muff remember that the lungs are much more
frequently the fource of a haemorrhage than the fauces.
The latter feldom happens but to perfons who have be¬
fore been liable to a haemorrhage from the nofe, or to
fome evident caufe of erofion j and in moft cafes, by
looking into the fauces, the diftilhflion. of the blood
from thence will be perceived..
3. When blood proceeds from the lungs, the man¬
ner in which it is brought up will commonly Ihow from
whence it comes •, but, independent of that, it may
alfo be known from the caufes of hiemoptyfis from
the lungs, to be afterwards mentioned, having pre-.
ceded.
4. WThen vomiting accompanies the throwing out
of blood from the mouth, we may generally know the
fource from whence it proceeds, by confidering that
blood does not proceed fo frequently from the ftomach
as from the lungs : that blood proceeding from the
ftomach commonly appears in greater quantity than
from the lungs. .1 he pulmonary blood alfo is ufually
of a florid colour, and mixed with a little frothy
mucti.s
mucus only ; but the blood from tlie ftomacb is of a
darker colour, more grumous, and mixed with the
other contents of the ftomach. The coughing or
vomiting, as the, one or the other happens hrit to
arife, may fometimes point out the fource of the blood ;
and this has alfo its peculiar antecedent ixgns and
caul’es.
Callies, &c. A haerooptyfis may be produced at any
time of life by external violence 5 and, in adult per-
fons, while the arterial plethora prevails in the fyftem,
i. e. from the age of 16 to 35, a hsemoptyfis may at
any time be produced merely by a plethoric Hate of
the lungs. More frequently, however, it arifes from
a faulty proportion between the capacity of the lungs
and that of the reft of the body. Thus it is often an
hereditary difeafe, which implies a peculiar and faulty
conformation.
This dileafe efpecially happens to perfons, who dif-
cover the fmaller capacity of their lungs by the nar-
rowmefs of their cheft, and by the prominence of their
Ihoulders •, which laft is a mark of their having been
long liable to a difficulty of refpiration. In fuch cafes,
too, the difeafe very frequently happens to perfons of
a fanguine temperament, in whom particularly the ar¬
terial plethora prevails. It happens alfo to perfons of a
ilender delicate make, of which a long neck is a mark \
to perfons of much fenlibility and irritability, and there¬
fore of quick parts ; to perfons who have formerly been
liable to haemorrhages from the nofe : to thofe who
have fuffered a fuppreffion of any ufual haemorrhage,
the molt frequent initance of which is in females who
have fuffered a fuppreffion of their menftrual flux •, and,
laftly, to perfons who have fuffered the amputation of a
limb.
All this conftitutes the predifponent caufe of hae-
moptyfis •, and the difeafe may happen merely from
the predifponent caufe arifing to a confiderable height.
But in thofe who are already predifpofed, it is often
brought on by the concurrence of various occafional
and exciting caufes. One of thefe, and perhaps a fre¬
quent one, is external heat j which, even when in no
great degree, brings on the difeafe in fpring, and the
beginning of fummer, while the heat rarefies the blood
more than it relaxes the folids, which had before been
contracted by the cold of winter. Another exciting
caufe is a hidden diminution of the weight of the at-
xnofphere, efpecially when concurring with any effort
in bodily exercife. The effort alone, may often be the
exciting caufe in thofe who are already predifpofed •, and
more particularly any violent exercife of refpiration. In
the predifpofed, alfo, the difeafe may be occafioned by
any degree of external violence.
Progtiqfis. Haemoptyfis may fometimes be no more
dangerous than a haemorrhage from the nofe ; as when
it happens to females, in confequence of a fuppreffion
of their menfes •, when, without any marks of predif-
pofition, it arifes from external violence 5 or, from
whatever caufe it may proceed, when it leaves no cough,
dyfpncea, or other affeCtion of the lungs, behind it.
But, even in thefe cafes, a danger may arife from too
large a wound being made in the vefftls of the lungs,
from any quantity of red blood being led to ftagnate in
the cavity of the bronchiae, and particularly from any
determination of the blood being made into the veffels
. Praftice.
of the lungs, which by renewing theTcemorrhage may Hsemop.
have thefe confequences. tyfis.
Cure. In the treatment of this difeafe, with a view ''““’V—-1
of flopping the difeharge, it is firft neceifary to have
recourle to thofe mealures which tend to diminilh the
impetus by which the blood is expelled. This is to
be effeCled by a removal of plethora when it exifis ; by
diminifhing the general impetus of circulation \ by di-
miniihing local increak d action when it takes plaet in
the veffeis of the lungs j and by producing a detei mi-
nation of blood to other parts of the fyltem remote
from the lungs. But befides praCtices diminifhing
impetus, it is often alfo neceffary to employ fuch as
augment the refiftance to the paltage of blood through
the ruptured veffeis of the lur\gs. With thefe views
a variety of practices may be employed, particularly
blood-letting, refrigerants, fedatives, aftrxngents, and
the like.
On this fubjeCt Dr Cullen differs from thofe who
preferibe chalybeates and cinchona in the cure of hae-
moptyiis. Both of thefe, he obferves, contribute to
increafe the phlogiftic diathefis then prevailing in the
fyftem, and the haemoptyfis from predifpofition is al¬
ways accompanied with fuch a diathefis. Inftead of
thefe, therefore, he recommends blood-letting in great¬
er or fmaller quantity, and more or lefs frequently re¬
peated as the fymptoms fliall direCt. At the fame
time cooling purgatives are to be employed, and every
part of the antiphlogiftic regimen is to be flriCtly
enjoined. In the London Medical' Obfervations, the
ufe of nitre is greatly recommended by Dr Dickfon, to
whom its efficacy wras made known by Dr Letherland,
phyfician to St Thomas’s Hofpital. The molt commo¬
dious method of exhibiting it he found was in an elec¬
tuary. Four ounces of conferve of rofes wrere made in¬
to an eledtuary with half an ounce of nitre } of w hich
the bulk of a large nutmeg was diredted to be given,
four, fix, or eight times a day, according to the urgency
of the cafe. The good effedts of this, he tells us, have
often aftonifhed him : and when given early in the dif¬
eafe, he fays he can depend as much upon it for the
cure of an hcemoptyfis, as on cinchona for the cure of
an intermittent. He agrees with Dr Cullen, however,
that in thofe cafes where there is any hardnefs in the
pulfe, and which almolt always happens, there is a ne-
ceffity for venefedtion. A cool regimen, and quiet of
body and mind, are certainly ufeful 5 but Dr Cullen
obferves that fome kinds of geftation, fuch as failing,
and travelling in an eafy carriage on fmooth roads, have
often proved a remedy. W hen the cough is very trou-
blefome, it is abfolutely neceffary to exhibit frequently
a fmall dofe of an opiate. Dr Dickfon alfo informs us,
that the nitre joined with fpermaceti, or pulv. e traga-
canth. comp, has produced equally good effedts with the
eledtuary above mentioned ; in the compofition of which
he at firlt confidered the conferve only as a vehicle for
the nitre, though he means not to infinuate that the
former is totally deftitute of efficacy.
WTien this hsemorrhage has refifted other modes of
cure, and there is reafon to apprehend, even from the
mere quantity of blood evacuated, that the patient may
fink under the difeharge, blilters, particularly when
applied to the breaft, are often had recourfe to with
great advantage j and the fulphuric acid, properly di¬
luted,
practice. M E D I
Hseraor- luted, both as an aftringent and refrigerant, is often
^rhagiie- employed with very good effe&s.
PHTHISIS.
237
Pulmonart Consumption.
Phthifis, Sativ. gen. 276. Lin. 208. Vog. 319.
Sag. 1 Ol. Junch. 33.
Phthifis pulmonis, Boerk. 1196.
Affedlio phthifica, five tabes pulmonalis, Hoffm. II.
284. •
,.5 Sp. I. The Incipient PHTHISIS, without expectoration
of Pus.
Phthifis incipiens, Morton Phyfiolog. L. II. cap. 3.
Phthifis ficca, Sauv. fp. 1.
Sp. II. The Confirmed PHTHISIS, with an expectora¬
tion of Pus.
Phthifis confirmata auBorum.
Phthifis humida, Sauv. fp. 2.
Sometimes, notwithftanding all the care that can be
taken, the hoemoptyfis will degenerate into a phthifis
pulmonalis, or confumption of the lungs j and ibme-
times haemoptyfis will be the confequence of this dan¬
gerous diforder. It has indeed been fuppofed, that
an ulceration of the lungs, or phthifis, was the natural
and almoft neceffary confequence of hasmoptyfis : but
according to Dr Cullen, this is in general a miftake ;
for there are many inftanees of a hsemoptyfis from
external violence without being followed by any ulcer¬
ation. The fame thing has often been obferved where
the haemoptyfis arofe from an internal caufe ; and this
not only in young perfons, when the difeafe returned
for feveral times, .but when it has often recurred during
the courfe of a long life j and it may eafily be conceiv¬
ed, that a rupture of the veflels of the lungs, as well as
of the veffels of the nofe, may be fometimes healed.
The caufes of phthifis, therefore, Dr Cullen reduces to
five heads. 1. A haemoptyfis. 2. A fuppuration of
the lungs in confequence of a pneumonia. 3. A ca¬
tarrh. 4. An afthma 5 and, 5. Tubercles.
1. When a phthifis arifes from a limmoptyfis, it is
probable that it is occafioned by particular circum-
ftances •, and what thefe circumftances are, may not al¬
ways be eafily known. It is pofiible, that merely the
degree of rupture, or frequently repeated rupture, pre¬
venting the wound from healing, may occafion an ul¬
cer ; or it is pofiible, that red blood effufed, and nofe
brought up entirely by coughing, may, by ftagnating
in the bronchise, become acrid, and erode the parts.
But thefe hypothefes are not fupported by any certain
evidence ; and from many obfervations we are led to
think, that feveral other circumftances muft concur in
producing the difeafe from haemoptyfis.
2. The fecond caufe of an ulceration of the lungs
mentioned above is a fuppuration formed in confe¬
quence of pneumonia. When a pneumonia, with fymp-
toms neither verv violent nor very flight, has conti¬
nued for many days, it is to be feared it will end in a
fuppuvation j. but this is not to be determined by the
number of days ; for, not. only after the fourth, but
even after the tenth dav, there have been examples of
a pneumonia ending by a refolution 3 and if the dif-
CINE.
351
eafe has fuffered fome intermiffion, and again recurred, Phthifis.
there may be inftances of a refolution happening at a
much later period from the beginning of the difeafe
than that now mentioned. But if a moderate difeafe,
in fpite of proper remedies employed, be protrafted to
the 14th day without any confiderable remiflion, a fup¬
puration is pretty certainly to be expeifted 3 and it will
be more certain ftill, if no figns of refolution have ap¬
peared, or if an expectoration which had appeared fliall
have again ceafed, and the difficulty of breathing has
continued or increafed, while the other fymptoms have
been rather abated.
That in a pneumonia, the effufion is made which
may lay the foundation of a fuppuration, may be con¬
cluded from the difficulty of breathing becoming
greater when the patient is in a horizontal pofture, or
when the patient can lie more eafily on the affeded
fide. That, in fuch cafes, a fuppuration is adually
begun, may be inferred from the patient’s being fre¬
quently affeded with flight cold fhiverings, and with a
fenfe of cold felt fometimes in one fometimes in an¬
other part of the body. We form the fame conclu-
fion alfo from the ftate of the pulfe, which is com¬
monly lefs frequent and fofter, but fometimes quicker
than before. That a fuppuration is already formed,
may be inferred from there being a confiderable re-
miffion of the pain which had before fubfifted ; while
with this the cough, and efpecially the dyfpnoea, con¬
tinue, and are rather increafed. At the fame time
the frequency of the pulfe is rather increafed, the fe-
verifh ftate fuffers confiderable exacerbations every even¬
ing, and by degrees a hedic fever in all its circum¬
ftances comes to be formed.
In this ftate of fymptoms, we conclude very confi¬
dently, that an abfeefs, or, as it is called, a vomica, is
formed in fome part of the pleura, and moft frequently
in that portion of it invefting the lungs. Here purulent
matter frequently remains for fome time, as if encloled
in a cyft 3 but commonly not long before it comes to
be either abforbed and transferred to fome other part
of the body, or breaks through into the cavity of the
lungs, or into that of the thorax. In the latter cafe it
produces the difeafe called empyema; but it is when
the matter is poured into the cavity of the bronchite
that it properly conftitutes the phthifis pulmonalis. In
the cafe of empyema, the chief circumftances of a
phthifis are indeed alfo prefent : but we Ihall here con-
fider only that cafe in which the abfeefs of the lungs
gives occafion to purulent expe6toration.
An abfeefs of the lungs, in confequence of pneumo¬
nia, is not always followed by a phthifis : for fome¬
times a hedic fever is not formed ; the matter poured
into the bronchia; is a proper and benign pus, which
frequently is coughed up very readily, and fpit out 5
and sj.ough this purulent expedoration fiiould continue
for fome time, if it be without heftie fever, the ulcer
foon heals, and every morbid fymptom difappears.
This has fo frequently happened, that we may con¬
clude, that neither the accefs of the air, nor the con-
ftant motion of the lungs, will prevent an ulcer of
thefe parts from healing, if the matter of it be well-
conditioned. An abfeefs of the lungs, therefore, does
not neceffarily produce phthifis pulmonalis 3 and if it
be followed by fuch a difeafe, it muft be in confe¬
quence of particular circuniitances which corrupt the
purulent
352 M E D I
I^eimor' purulent matter produced, render it unfuitable to the
t i healing of the ulcer, and at the fame time make it af¬
ford an acrimony, which, abforbed, produces a he£tic
fever and its confequences.
I he corruption of the matter of fuch abfcelfes may
be owing to feveral caufes ; as, r. That the matter ef-
fufed during the inflammation had not been a pure fe-
rum flt to be converted into a laudable pus, but had been
joined with other matters which prevented that, and
gave a confiderable acrimony to the whole. Or, 2. That
the matter effufed and converted into pus, merely by
long ftagnation in a vomica, or by its connexion with
an empyema, had been fo corrupted as to become unfit
for the purpofe of pus in the healing of the ulcer.
Thefe feem to be poffible caufes of the corruption of
matter in abfceffes, lo as to make it the occafion of a
phthifis in perfons otherwife found j but it is probable
that a pneumonic abfcefs efpecially produces phthifis
when it happens to perfons previoufly difpofed to that
difeafe, and therefore only as concurring with fome
other caufes of it.
3. The third caufe fuppofed to produce a phthifis
is a catarrh *, which, in many cafes, feems in length of
time to have the expecforation of mucus proper to it
gradually changed to an expeftoration of pus ; and at
the fame time, by the addition of a heftic fever, the
difeafe, which "was at firfl a pure catarrh, is changed
into a phthiiis. But this fuppofition is, in the opinion
at leaft of fome phyficians, liable to feveral difficulties.
The catarrh is properly an affection of the mucous
glands of the trachea and bronchiae, analogous to the
coryza and lefs violent kinds of cynanche tonlillaris,
which very feldom end in fuppuration. And although
a catarrh fhould be difpofed to do fo, the ulcer produ¬
ced might readily heal up, as it does in the cafe of a
cynanche tonfillaris ; and therefore fhould not produce
a phthifis.
Farther, The catarrh, as purely the effedt of cold, is
generally a mild diftafe as well as of fliort duration ;
and, according to Dr Cullen, there are at moft but
very ferv of the numerous cafes of it, which can be faid
to have ended in a phthifis. In all thefe cafes in which
this ftems to have happened, he thinks it probable that
the perfons affected were peculiarly predifpofed to
phthifis j and the beginning of phthifis fo often refem-
files a catarrh, that it may have been miftaken for fuch
a difeafe. It often happens alfo, to increafe the fal¬
lacy, that the application of cold, which is the moft
frequent caufe of catarrh, is alfo frequently the exciting
caufe of the cough, which proves to be the beginning
of a phthifis.
Pvlany phyficians have fuppofed that an acrimony of
the fluids eroding fome of the veflels of the lungs is a
frequent caufe of ulceration and phthifis j but this ap¬
pears to Dr Cullen to be a mere fuppofition. Fie ac¬
knowledges, that in many cafes an acrimony fubfifting
in fome part of the fluids is the caufe of the difeafe $
but obferves that it is at the fame time probable, that
this acrimony operates by producing tubercles, rather
* than by any direfl erofion.
But, notwithftanding thefe objeftions, experience
affords numerous examples of cafes in which a difeafe
long fubfifting under the form of catarrh has at laft de¬
generated into phthifis, and proved fatal from fuper-
vening hedlic fever. It muft, however, at the fame
© 1 N E- Pfaflice.
time be allowed, that catarrh, degenerating into-a hthifis
chronic Hate alter fubfiiling for many years, has of it-
felf often proved fatal without inducing phthifis.
4. It phthifis does not frequently follow catarrh, it
is ft ill more rarely a conlequence of aithma. Innumer¬
able examples are unqueftionably afforded of that dif¬
eafe fubfifting for many years without any fymptom
whatever of phthiiis as a conlequence of it. But, at
the fame time, there are unqueftionable examples of
phthifis deriving its origin from aithma ; which, how¬
ever, probably happens only in cales whei c a peculiar
Hate of the lungs at the fame time takes place. But,
without the concurrence of afthma, this fiate would
not of it felf have been fuffieient for indicino the af-
fedtion.
5. Of all the caufes formerly mentioned, phthifis
molt frequently arifes from tubercles. Dr Simmons
informs us, that he has had opportunities of infpedting
the bodies of many people who died in this way, and
never found them totally abient. Fie has liken ilc ieen
them in fubjedts of different ages, who had been trou¬
bled with no fymptoms of an affedtion of the breaft
during their lifetime. In thefe, however, they were
fmall, and few in number. T his proves that they may
exift without inconvenience till they begin to difturb
the fundtions of the lungs by their lize and number j
or till fome degree of inflammation be excited, either
by accidental caufes, or by certain changes that take
place within the ir fubftance j for as yet we know but
little of their true nature. Thefe little tumors vary in
their eonfiftence; in fome they are compofed of a
pulpy fubftance, and in others approach more to the
nature of feirrhus. I hey are molt commonly formed
in confequence of a certain conftitutional predifpofi-
tion ; but whatever is capable of occafioning a morbid
irritability of the lungs feems alfo to be capable of ge¬
nerating them. Thus the ipafraodic afthma frequent¬
ly ends in tubercles and confumption •, and it is not
unufual for millers, ftone-cutters, and others, to die
coniumptivc, from their being fo conftantly expofed
to dull, which in tbefe cafes probably adts by produ¬
cing fimilar concretions : Dr Kirkland obferves, that
feythe-grinders are fubjedf to a difeafe of the lungs,
from particles of fand mixing with iron duft, which
among themfelves they call the grinders rot. Tu¬
bercles, however, in by much the greater number of
inftances, have their fource from a fcrophulous dif-
pofttion and fome eminent phyficians have fuppofed
that the generality of pulmonary confumptions are of
this kind. This notion, however, they have perhaps
carried too far : they have probably been milled by
thofe tuberculous concretions which, without good rea-
fon, have been fuppoftd to be difeafed glands, and of
courfe analogous to the glandular affedlions we meet
with in the fcrophula. Tubercles may likewife fome-
times be owing to the fuddden repulfion of cutaneous
eruptions,^ or of the matter of exanthemata, &c. or to
other caufes.
The perfons who are moft liable to confumption are
thofe of a fair complexion, fine and foft fkin, florid
cheeks, and a {lender make ; with high cheek-bones,
hollow temples, long neck, fhoulders Handing out like
wings, narrow cheft, and a remarkable prominence of
the proceffes of the os facrum. To thefe marks we
may add, that offound teeth, w hich, as the difeafe ad-
vaneft.
Praaice. MEDICINE.
Haemor- vances, ufually become of a milky white colour, and be found to do this more effectually than the ufe of
rbagiae- tnore or lefs tranfparent. Of thofe who are carried off focks and a flannel under-waiftcoat. The ufe of flan-
L by this difeafe, Dr Simmons afl'erts, the greater num- nel has been condemned by feveral medical writers as
ber will be found never to have had a carious tooth, increafing the infenlible perfpiration ) but in the nre-
'Ihis circumfiance, however, does not feem to us to fent cafe, to fay nothing of feme others in which it
hold fo generally as Dr Simmons is difpofed to ima- may be ufeful, it will in general be found to have the
gine ■: and inltances not unfrequently occur of patients belt effeCts. It will prevent a too great determina-
dying of phthifis, although they have had many teeth tion to the lungs, and fliould not be left off till the
fubjeCted to caries $ and fome of thefe beginning even approach of fummer. In fome few inltances in which
at an early period of life. flannel was found to have a dilagreeable effeCt, a piece
Perfons of the above defcription often remain for of dimity worn over the breaft next the fkin, will pre-
a long time without feeling any other inconvenience vent the return of colds and coughs in perfons of a de-
than fome oppreflion at the brealt in moiit ■weather, licate habit, who had before been liable to them on the
or in hot apartments. Their breathing is ealily hur- flighted; occafions. Shirts made of cotton cloth are
ried, fometinaes by the flighteft motion j and they be- much more efteCtual than linen in preferving an equable
•come languid, paler, and thinner. All this time, temperature of the furface, and guarding againfl: the
however, they feel no heat or painful fenfation in the a&ion of external cold; while at the fame time they
breaft. As the evil increafes, the patient begins to are much more pleafant to moft people than even the
be attacked with a flight, frequent, and dry eough, fineft flannel. In thefe cafes, circumlxances that are
which is moft troublefome in the night time. But feemingly of the moft trifling nature become of im-
this, by proper care, is often relieved; and the patient portance.
remains in this ftate for a conftderable time, and even Sometimes the cough is occafioned by an immediate
for many years, if he be fen Able of his danger, and inflammation of fome part of the lungs, from fome
careful to guard againft it by a fuitable manner of liv- of the ufual caufes of inflammation; and when this
ing. More commonly, however, we find the cough happens, no time is to be loft in removing it. To do
increafing, and fometimes accompanied with more or this will perhaps require more than one bleeding, to-
lefs catarrh. This is ufually aferibed to cold ; and gether with a ftrid attention to a cooling plan of diet,
but too generally negleftcd, till the difeafe becomes diluting drinks, the inhalation of warm fteams, and if
alarming by its obftinacy- and its effefts. This may convenient, the ufe of the warm bath ; but above all,
be confidered as the beginnings or firft period, of the the fpeedy application of a large bliller as near as may
difeafe. During this ftage, the cough is fometimes be to the fuppofed feat of the inflammation. The
dry from the firft : and fometimes when it begins in cough, in this cafe, will often remain after the original
the form of a catarrh, is attended with more or lefs complaint is abated. A prudent ufe of opiates at
expeftoration of mucus. bedtime, either by themfelvesor combined with gummy
When the cough begins in the form of a catarrh, and mucilaginous medicines, will then generally be ufe-
and appears to be occafioned by an increafed fecretion ful as a fedative and antifpafmodic.
•of a thin faltifti mucus irritating the membrane of the In this, as well as in the catarrhal cough juft now
trachea, all judicious praflitioners agree in recom- mentioned, many practitioners are too eager to admi-
mending an attention to regimen, the free ufe of dilut- nifter cinchona, with the viewr, as they term it, of bra-
ing. liquors, bland emulfions, fmall dofes of nitre, the cing up the patient: but this never fails to increafe the
taking away a few ounces of blood if there be much cough, and of courfe to do great and very irreparable
inflammation, the inhaling the fteams of w-arm water mifehief.
by means of the machine contrived for that purpofe, And here it will not be foreign to our fubject to
and the occafional ufe of fuch a dofe of elixir parego- obferve, that a fymptomatic cough, which has its rife
ricum as will be fufficient to allay the irritation of the not from catarrh, or from an immediate inflammation of
bronchi*, and to promote a gentle moifture on the the lungs, but from their fympathy with the ftomach,
Ikin. Tbefc methods will generally be found to be has fometimes laid the foundation of phthifis, from its
efficacious, efpecially if the patient’s chamber be of a having been miftaken, and of courfe improperly treat-
moderate temperature, and he carefully avoid expofure ed. It feems to be owing to a redundancy or vitiated
to a cold, damp, or raw air, till the complaint be re- ftate of the bile, or to fome affeftion of the ftomach,
moved. In cafes in which the cough has been obfti- which it is perhaps not eafy to define. It is fomelimes
nate, and the inflammatory fymptoms confiderable, a concomitant of other bilious fymptoms ; and when
Dr Simmons has often experienced .the great advan- this happens to be the cafe, it cannot eafily be miftaken;
tages of the warm bath, the heat of which did not but we fometimes find it occurring fmgly, and in gene-
exeeed 92°. When this is had recourfe to, the patient ral attacking perfons of a fedentary life. Dr Stoll of
ftiould remain in it only a very few minutes, and go Vienna, who has noticed this cough, has very properly
foon afterwards to bed; but not with a view to force given it the name of tujjis Jlomachica. This complaint
a fweat by an increafed weight of bedclothes, as is too is fo far from being relieved by bleeding, that it con-
often injudicioufly praftifed. ftantly grows worfe after it, efpecially if the evacuation
Patients of a confumptive habit, who have had an be in any confiderable quantity. The oily remedies fel-
attack of this kind at the beginning of winter, are dom fail to exafperate this cough, which at firft is dry,
particularly liable to a return of the complaint during frequent, and often extremely violent, but which fel-
the continuance of the cold feafon, on the flighteft oc- dom fails to give way to one or two gentle pukes, and
cafion and with greater violence. A relapfe is there- the occafional ufe of mild cathartics. The cough, as in.
fore to be carefully guarded againft ; and nothing will other cafes, often continues from habit after the caul*
Vol. XIII. Part I. Y y that
Phthisis.
354 ... M E D I
Hssmor- tliat gave rife to it lias been removed, and may then be
, riiagise. checked by opiates.
When the difeafe has been neglefted, or our at¬
tempts to remove it in the beginning has failed, both
of which circumftances but too frequently happen,
the patient begins to complain of a forenefs, and of
flight lancinating pains (hooting through the breaft,
fometimes in the direction of the mediaftinum, and
fometimes confined chiefly to one fide. The forenefs
is pretty conftant, and much increafed by the cough.
The pain in the fide often prevents the patient from
lying on the fide affected 5 and this inability of lying
except on one fide, frequently occurs even when no
fuch pain is felt. In this ftage of the difeafe, flufh-
ing heats are felt on the palms of the hands and foies
of the feet: the breathing is fliort and laborious •, and
it is not long before the patient begins to expectorate
a thin and frothy phlegm, at firft in fmall quantities,
coughed up with difficulty, and fome pain of the brealt,
and now and then ftreaked with blood : this may be
confidered as the inflammatory period of the difeafe, to
which fucceeds the fuppurativeJiage. In the latter, the
expectoration becomes more copious and purulent, the
breath proportionably offenfive, and the exacerbations
of the heCtic fever more confiderable : an increafed
quicknefs of the pulfe comes on about the middle of
the day ; but the moft confiderable paroxyfm of the fe¬
ver is at night, and at firft continues till towards morn¬
ing, commonly till three or four o’clock, when it ter¬
minates in a fweat, which ufually begins upon the
breaft. As the difeafe advances, thefe fweats become
more profufe, and fometimes come on almoft as foon
as the pulfe begins to quicken, but without affording
any relief to the patient. During the exacerbations,
■we obferve a circumfcribed rednefs of the cheeks,
while the reft of the face is pale, and appears as if it
were not clean wafhed. The coftivenefs that com¬
monly accompanies the beginning of the difeafe is
ufually fucceeded by a diarrhoea \ the fpitting leffens,
and all the purulent matter feems to be carried down¬
wards. The wafting of the fat and the lofs of nourifh-
ment occafion the nails to curve inwards, the hair to fall
off, and the eyes to fink in their fockets. In the mean
time, the legs commonly fwell ; till at length death
clofes a feene which is melancholy to all but the patient
himfelf, who in general continues fenfible to the lafl
moment, and even then indulges a vain hope of pro¬
longing a miferable exiflence. In fome cafes, and that
not unfrequently, a delirium comes on towards the clofe
of the difeafe.
The heftic fever that attends this and fome other
chronic difeafes, is evidently the effeft of acrimony,
and moft commonly of pus abforbed and carried into
the circulation. The nature of this acrimony, and the
different irritability of different patients, are probably
the fources of the variety we obferve in fevers of this
denomination a variety which is doubtlefs much greater
than we are aware of. Thus we find that the matter
of Jhe fmallpox excites a fever of this kind 5 but this
fecondary fever, as it is called, differs from the lieclic
attendant on confumptions •, nor does the latter corre-
fpond with that which fometimes accompanies the fup-
puration of a cancerous ulcer. In the pulmonary con-
fumption, or at leaft in the third ftage of it, the fever
induced often appears to be of the putrid kind, and has
CINE. Praffice.
been denominated febris heclicaputrida by the judicious Phthifis
Morton, who confiders it as being combined with a p^ri-
pneumonic or inflammatory fever, which recurs as of¬
ten as frefh tubercles begin to inflame. For although we
have named one period of the difeafe the inflammatory,
and another the fuppurative period, yet we are not tofup-
pofe that the latter is exempt from inflammation. While
matter is poured into the bronchiae, or abforbed and
carried into the fyftem from one part of the lungs, other
parts are in a crude ftate of inflammation, or advancing
towards fuppuration ; fo that, on examining the lungs
of perfons who die confumptive, we find fome tubercles
that are fmall and juft formed, fome that are large and
full of matter, and others that are in a ftate of ulcera¬
tion. This eafily accounts for the occafional combi¬
nation of inflammatory fymptoms with thofe of the pu¬
trid hedtic. When the matter abforbed is a laudable
pus, as in the cafe of the pfoas abfeefs, we find the form
of the hedtic fever differing from either of thofe we have
mentioned.
Cure. In thefe different periods of the difeafe, the
curative indications are fufficiently obvious. To pre¬
vent the formation of frefn tubercles \ to obviate the
inflammation of thofe already formed ; to promote
their refolution *, to allay morbid irritability, the cough,
and other troublefome fymptoms ; and, above all, to
check the tendency to the hedlic ftate, are the views-
that every rational phyfician propofes to himfelf in the
treatment of the genuine confumption. We know of
no medicines that can exert their fpecific effedts upon
the lungs by diffolving tuberculous concretions j nor
is it probable, from what we know of the animal
economv, that any fuch will ever be difeovered. Yet
medicines that operate in a general manner upon the
fyftem, may, by promoting abforption, and diminilh-
ing the determination to the lungs, tend to difperfe
tubercles, or to prevent their formation. There are
not wanting inftanees of wonderful recoveries, in cafes
where the evil was fuppofed to be beyond the power of
phyfie ; and in fome, where nature was left to her-
felf •, fo that a phyfician who has obferved the various
and powerful refources nature has within herfelf, will
be very cautious how he afferts that a difeafe is in¬
curable.
The moft formidable effedls of ulcerated lungs are the
abforption and confequent hedlic. It feems evident,
that, in many cafes, death is brought on by this, rather
than by the lungs themfelves being rendered unfit for
the purpofes of refpiration. So that if we can obviate
the effedls of the abforption, diminifh the preternatu¬
ral determination to the lungs, and fulfil the other ge¬
neral indications juft now mentioned, vre may very often
enable nature to recover herfelf. It may be alleged in¬
deed, that the phyficians art has hitherto proved very
unfucccfsful in thefe cafes ; but may not this be owing
to the remedies that are employed being very often fuch
as are inimical to the cure ?
The cinchona is, perhaps, the moft commonly em¬
ployed of any, and often confided in as an ultimate
refource in thefe cafes. But befides this, the fulphuric
acid, the balfams, and frequent bleedings, have each had
their partizans. The ufe of blifters and iffues, opiates,
a milk and vegetable diet, exercife, and change of air,
are pretty generally recommended by all. Concerning
cinchona, Deffault long ago obferved, that it had been
, produflivo
practice. M E .0 I
Hsenior- productive of great mifchief in conflimptive cafes j ?.nd
rhagise. ]3r Fothergill, in a paper lately publilhed by him on
this fubjeft, very judicioufly remarks, that it is fo far
from curing the heClic fever arifing from diftempered
lungs, that according to the belt of his obfervations,
it not only takes up that time which might pro¬
bably have been better employed in the ufe of other
medicines, but for the molt part aggravates the dif-
cafe beyond remedy. Indeed it has been the opinion
of feveral attentive obfervers, that, whenever pus or
any kind of matter excites an heCtic fever, by being
abforbed and carried into the circulation, the cinchona
will never fail to exafperate the complaint, efpecial-
ly if it be accompanied with any degree of inflamma¬
tory diathelis, unlels the matter has a free outlet from
the fvitem *, as in the cafe of abfeefles, for inftance,
in which we often find it productive of excellent
efteCts. It is likewife well known to be ufed as a to¬
nic, to obviate the effeCts of fluor albus, or any other
immoderate evacuation in delicate perfons, which, by
enfeebling the fyitern, very often lays the foundation
of phthifis : but the moment we have reafon to fuf-
peCl that the lungs are ulcerated, efpecially if this
ulceration be attended with an inflammatory diipo-
fition ; or if the feparation of vitiated pus be the con-
fequence of a peculiar increafed morbid action of the
veffels at the part, it ought to be laid afide ; and in the
genuine tuberculous confumption, perhaps, it is rarely
admiflible.
Dr Fothergill, however, obferves, that there are two
caufes of confumption, which often produce fymptoms
fo fimilar to thofe of the genuine phthifis, as fome-
times to have led him to make ufe of cinchona, in ap¬
parent tendencies to a genuine pulmonary confumption,
with advantage.
One of the caufes is, the fuckling of children
longer than is confiftent with the mother’s ability.
This cafe frequently occurs among the middling and
lower clafles of females, of conftitutions naturally deli¬
cate and tender. In fuch a ftate of weaknefs, fome
flight cold brings on a cough, which increafes gradual¬
ly, till at length it produces the true pulmonary con¬
fumption. Here cinchona given early, in moderate
. dofes, and merely as a tonic remedy, is often of ex¬
cellent ufe.
Another caufe, is any weakening difcharge, either
from abfceffes, the greater operations of furgery, a co
pious and conftant Jluor albus, or fimilar enfeebling eva¬
cuations. That cinchona is, for the moft part, of ufe in
thefe cafes, when the lungs are not inflamed, is indubi¬
table and if they be fo affedted, but not beyond a cer¬
tain degree, it is alfo efficacious in preventing the pro-
grefs of the confumption.
In phthifical complaints fucceeding fuch fituations,
a prudent trial of cinchona feems neceflary. Small
dofes of the decodlion, either alone, or joined with
the faline mixture or fuch other additions as the phy-
fician thinks proper, may be given. But if the breath
becomes more tight and opprefled, the cough dry,
the pulfe more quick and hard, and efpecially if flight
tranfitory pains or flitches about the thorax are more
frequently complained of, a perfeverance in the ufe
of cinchona will increafe the difeafe. If fuch alfo
Ihould be the appearances in the progrefs of the dif-
eafe, or, from whatever caufe, if cinchona be accom-
C I N K
panied with fuch eftecls, the ufe of it ought to be
withheld.
If, on the other hand, no pain, tightnefs, or oppref-
fion, is perceived, and there appear a manifeft abatement
of the fymptoms, it will be advifeable to proceed. The
adminitlration of this medicine, however, requires a ju¬
dicious obferver 5 and it ought neither to be given in
the early inflammatory ftage of this difeafe, nor be con¬
tinued in any fubfequent period, if it produce the effedls
above mentioned.
By its tonic virtues it will often enable nature to
conquer many difficulties. In confirmation of this re¬
mark, Dr Fothergill farther obferves, that he has feen
it of ufe in promoting expe&oration, when this became
deficient from want of ftrength towards the end oi peri-
pneumonic fevers ; but that it flops this difcharge,
changes flight wandering p;.ins into fuch as are fixed,
and increates them with all their confequences, in a va¬
riety of cafes.
The elixir of vitriol, or the fulphuric acid pro¬
perly diluted, though in many inftances a highly ufe-
ful remedy, is often exhibited in confumptive cafes
with no lefs impropriety than cinchona. This me¬
dicine, from its afiringency, is obvioufly improper in
the inflammatory flate of the diieafe. But in the lat¬
ter ftage, when a general tendency to putrefaction
takes place, it is ferviceable in reiiiting the effe6I 5 it
reftrains the colliquative IHveats $ and if the lungs be
not injured paft reparation, it is allowed to be a very
ufeful auxiliary.
Various are the opinions concerning the efficacy of
Briftol water in this difeafe. The experienced author
laft mentioned informs us, that he has feen many per¬
fons recover from pulmonary difeafes after drinking
thefe waters, whofe cure feemed to be doubtful irom
any other procefs ; and he thinks this circumfiance,
added to the general reputation of Briftol waters in
phthificakcafes, affords fufficient inducement to recom¬
mend the trial of them in the early ftages'of fuch com¬
plaints. It is, however, before the approach oi a con¬
firmed phthifis that paiients ought to repair to Briftol j
otherwife a journey thither will not only be without be¬
nefit, but may even prove detrimental.
Some have imagined, that the journey, a better air,
change of fituation and of objects, have contributed to
the patient’s recovery 5 and thefe may doubtlefs be of
advantage. It feems, however, that the water drank
frefli at the pump, actually contains principles conducive
to the recovery of patients affe&ed with phthifical com¬
plaints. It feems to poffefs a flight calcareous ftypticity,
and perhaps the air it contains may alfo have an an-
tifepiic quality. On the whole, it appears to be an ef¬
ficacious medicine, and is often found of remarkable
benefit to confumptive patients.
Change of air, particularly from bad to good, is of
great confequence to all chronic difeafes of the lungs.
In confumptive cafes, the air of all large cities is found
to be particularly injurious.
A fea voyage has been much recommended in the
cure of this difeafe The benefit of exercile has alfo
been ftrongly urged by many writers •, but, how ever
falutary when properly ufed, it certainly ought to be
regulated v ith diferetion. Dr Dicklon declares him-
felf of opinion, that riding on horieback in conlumptive
cafes is moft commonly hurttul, without fuch regulations
Y y 2 as
M E D I
as in gesseral have been little regarded. For inftance,
he has known a perfon who, by a ride of an hour or two
in the morning, was very much recruited, and who, at
another time, in the afternoon and evening, without
undergoing more bodily motion, has returned faint and
languid, and apparently worfe. This obfervation on
the fame perfon has been fo frequently made, as to point
out clearly the times when this exercife fhall not do
hurt in confumptive cafes. In this difeafe, the pulfe,
however calm in the morning, becomes more frequent
in the afternoon and night, attended with heat and
other feverifh fymptoms. Hxercife therefore, at this
time, can only add to the mifehief of the fever. For
this reafon he prudently recommends to all heftic per¬
form, efpecially thole who (hall travel to diftant places
on account of a better air, or the benefit expefted
from any particular water, that their travelling fhould
be flow, confined to a very few hours, and only in the
morning.
Exercife on horfeback feems to be chiefly benefi¬
cial in thofe cafes where confiimption is a fecondary
difeafe. For example, in the nervous atrophy ; in
the hypochondriacal confumption ; or when it is the ef¬
fect of long continued intermittents, or of congeftions
in any of the abdominal vifeera } or, in a word, when¬
ever the confumption is not attended with an inflamed
or ulcerated ftate of the lungs, long journeys on horfe¬
back will he beneficial. Such a pradfiice may likewife
be highly ufeful in obviating an attack of phthifis, or
in carrying off a dry hufky cough in a perfon of a con¬
fumptive habit, when there is reafon to fuppofe that
no tubercles are as yet formed. On the other hand,
in the confirmed phthifis, when the lungs are inflamed
or ulcerated, much or violent exercife will be impro¬
per 5 and there have been inftances where the death of
the patient was evidently accelerated by it. The exer¬
cife therefore fhould be gentle, proportioned to the
ftrength of the patient, and employed only in the
morning. In fine weather, an eafy open carriage is
perhaps the moft eligible, not only on account of its
being open to the air, but becaufe it affords that kind
of agitation which is moft wanted in thefe cafes. For
if we confider the different modes of exercife, we fliall
find that walking, though the beft exercife in health,
as it employs the moft mufeles, is the vorft for the
fickly, who fhould have the benefit of exercife without
fatigue. Riding on horfeback agitates the vifeera more
than walking, and is therefore preferable to it in many
chronic difeafes ; but when a preternatural determina¬
tion to the lungs has taken place, it will be liable to
increafe the evil, and may likewife be hurtful by the
fatigue that attends it. For thefe reafons it will be
prudent to begin with a carriage 5 and if the patient
gain ftrength, and the difeafe abates, recourfe may af¬
terwards be had to horfe-exercife..
The gentle motion of a coach has been often found
of great utility in pulmonary complaints. Its efficacy
feems to depend chiefly on its increafing the determina,-
tion to the furfaee of the body. The naufea which
this motion excites in fotne perfons is an effeft of this
increafed determination. It has therefore been found
beneficial in hsemoptyfis j and Dr Simmons mentions
the cafe of a lady, who, after trying various remedies
to no purpofe, was cured of this complaint by travel¬
ling feveral hundred miles through different parts of
CINE. Practice,
England in her own coach. At firft, whenever fire re- Phthifis
mained three or four days in any place, the diforder be- >—«««<
gan to return again j but at length by perfevering in
her journeys, it gradually went off. Deffault, who
pra£tifed at Bourdeaux about 40 years ago, tells us, he
fent feveral confumptive patients to Bareges, and with
good fuecefs y but that in thefe cafes his reliance was
not fo much upon the Bareges waters, as upon the
motion of the carriage and the change of air in a jour¬
ney of more than 100 leagues.
It is now pretty generally acknowledged, that the
good effects of fea voyages in confumptive cafes de¬
pend more upon the conftant and uniform motion of
the ihip, than upon any particular impregnation of the
fea air ; although this from its coolnefs and purity may
likewife be of great ufe, efpecially in the hot months,
when fea voyages are generally undertaken by con¬
fumptive patients. The ancients were no ftrangers ta
this remedy } and amongft the Romans it was no unu-
fual thing for conlumptive perfons to fail to Egypt
Pliny obferves, that this was done not for the fake of
the climate, but merely on account of the length of the
voyage.
Many of our Englifli phyficians have recommended
a voyage to Lifbon in thefe cafes. "When this is done,
the proper feafon of the year fhould be carefully at¬
tended to. Dr Simmons knew a gentlemen who went
thither with fymptoms of incipient phthifis, and who
experienced feme relief during the courfe of the voyage £
but happening to arrive at Liibon at the beginning of
the rainy feafon, the difeafe was loon greatly increafed,
and terminated fatally.
Another fpecies of motion has of late been extolled
as highly uieful in confumptive cafes. Dr James Car¬
michael Smyth of London, has lately publifhed an
account of the effedls of Twinging, employed as a re¬
medy in the pulmonary confumption and hectic fever.
In this treatife Dr Smyth contends, that fea air, in
place of being of advantage, is constantly prejudicial
to hedflic and confumptive patients, and even to thofe
who have a tendency to fuch complaints. He thinks,
therefore, that the benefit derived from fea voyages
mufl: certainly be referred to feme other caufe. In
ftating his fentiments on this fubjeft, he attempts to
efiablith a difiinction between exercife and motion.
By exercife, he underftands mufcular adtion, or the
exertion of the locomotive powers of the body ei¬
ther alone or combined. This he reprefents as in¬
creafing the force and frequency of the heart’s con-
tradlion, the velocity and momentum of the blood,
the quicknels of breathing, the heat, the irritability,
and the tranfpiration of the whole body. By motion,
in contradiftindlion to exercife, be means fueb motion
as is not neceflarily accompanied with any agitation
or fuccuflion of the body, and which is totally inde¬
pendent of any mufcular exertion. The effedts of
this, both on the heart, the lungs, and indeed on the
fyftem in general, he confiders as of the fedative kind ;
thus it liifpends the action of coughing, and leffens
the frequency of the pulfe. He is, therefore, led to
refer the good eftedis of fea voyages entirely to this
caufe. And on thefe grounds he was led to conclude^
that the motion given by Twinging might be of equal
if not greater fervice. This eonclufion, we are told,
in the treatife above alluded to, experience in many
cafes
Practice.
Hsmor- cafes has fully confirmed •, and he recommends it as
rhagia;. a mode of cure which may be employed with advan-
tage in every ftage of phthifis. "Wbile, however, the
reafoning of Dr Smyth on this fubjedt feems to be
liable to many objections, we are forry to add, that
bis obfervations in praCtice have by no means been
confirmed by thofe of others, wTho have had recourfs
to this mode of cure.
» The bell adapted diet in confumptive cafes is milk j
the milk of affes, both as an article of diet and as a
medicine, has in particular been highly extolled. It
may however be remarked, that there are conftitutions
in which this falutary nutriment feems to difagree. A
propenfity to generate bile, or too ftrong a difpofition
to acefcency from a weaknefs of the digeftive organs,
both merit attention. Whey, either from cows or
goats milk, appears to be more fuitable in the former
cafe •, and for corroding acidity, lime water may be
added to the milk. The method of adding rum or
brandy to aflTes or cows milk, ftiould be ufed with great
caution: for when added beyond a certain quantity,
as is often the cafe, they not only coagulate the milk,
but heat the body ; by which means the milk dif-
agrees with the patient, and the fpirit augments the
difeafe.
In confumptive cafes, Dr Simmons obferves, that
the patient’s tafte fhould be confulted*, and fays that a
moderate ufe of animal food, where the faked and high-
feafoned kinds are avoided, is not to be denied. Shell-
fifh, particularly oyfters, are ufeful, as well as fnails
{ wallowed whole, or boiled in milk.
Repeated bleedings, in fmall quantities, are by fome
confidered in confumptive cafes as highly advantageous :
and in particular ch cum Ranees they undoubtedly are
fo •, for inflance, when the conRitution apparently a-
bounds with blood ; when the fluid drawn off is ex¬
tremely fizy ; when there is much pain in the breaR ;
and when venefedlion is followed by an abatement of
every fymptom. In thefe cafes, bleeding is certainly
proper, and ought to be repeated fo long as it feems
to be attended with advantage. In very delicate con-
Rilutions, however, even where the pulfe is quick, with
fome degree of fulnefs, and the blood lafl drawn con-
fiderably fizy, it may not prove ferviceable.
It deferves to be remarked, that the inflammatory
appearance of the blood is not alone a fufficient reafon
for bleeding ; but, in determining the propriety of this
evacuation, all other circumRances Riould be confider¬
ed ; fuch as the patient’s age, flrength, habit, and the
Rate of the difeafe.
A remark v'hich has been judicioufly made by Dr
Fothergill, ought not to be omitted in the account of
this difeafe. It is, that young delicate females, about
the age of 15 or 16, and upwards, are often fubject
to confumptions. When the difeafe has advanced con-
fiderably, the menfes, if they have made their appear¬
ance, moR generally ceafe. This alarms their female
friends, and they call upon the phyfician to ufe his
utmoR endeavours for reRoring the difeharge ; believ¬
ing the ceffation of it to be the immediate caufe of
the phthifical complaint. Induced by their folicita-
tions, medicines have fometimes been adminiRered,
which, without obtaining this end, have tended to ag¬
gravate the diflemper. This deficiency is often of no
real difadvantage in thofe cafes j and in many the eva-
357
cuation would prove injurious, by diminilhing the Phthifis.
ftrength, which is already too much impaired. Even " 1
fmall bleedings at the regular periods have often done
more harm than good. A hidden fuppreffion may re¬
quire bleeding 5 but when the evacuation fails through
want of flrength, and from poverty of blood, the re¬
newal of it increafes the difeafe.
Befides thefe remedies, Dr Simmons flrongly recom¬
mends a frequent repetition of vomits. Many phyfi-
cians have fuppofed, that where there is any increafed
determination to the lungs, vomits do mifehief: but
Dr Simmons is perfuaded, that inRead of augmenting,
they diminifli this determination 5 and that much good
may be ex petted from a prudent ufe of this remedy,
than which none has a more general or powerful effett
on the fyflem. If any remedy be capable of difperfing
a tubercle, he believes it to be emetics. The affettions
of the liver, that fometimes accompany pulmonary
complaints, give way to repeated emetics fooner than
to any other remedy. In feveral cafes where the cough
and the matter expettorated, the flufhing heats, lois
of appetite, and other fymptoms, threatened the moR
fatal event j the complaints were greatly relieved, and
in others -wholly removed, by the frequent ufe of eme¬
tics. Other fuitable remedies were indeed employed
at the fame time ; but the relief the patients generally
experienced after the emetic, was a fufficient proof
of its falutary operation. By this, however, he does
not mean that vomits will be ufeful in every period of
the difeafe, or in every patient. In general, it will be
found that the earlier in the difeafe emetics are had re-
courfe to, the more likely they ivill be to do good, and
the lefs likely to do harm. The cafes in which eme¬
tics may be reckoned improper, are commonly thufe in
which the difeafe is rapid in its progrefs •, or in that
Rage of it when there is great debility, with profufe
colliquative fweats.
In thefe cafes, when an emetic has been adminiAcr¬
ed twice a-week, and the cough is mitigated, the ex-
pettoration facilitated, and the other fymptoms reliev¬
ed, both the patient and the phyfician will be encou¬
raged to proceed, and to repeat the vomit every fecond
day, or even every day, for feveral days together, as
Dr Simmons has fometimes done when the good effefts
of it were obvious.
The choice of emetics to be employed in thefe cafes
is by no means a matter of indifference. Carduus tea,
chamomile tea, warm water, and others that stt by
their bulk, and by exciting naufea, relax the tone of
the flomach when they are frequently repeated, and of
courfe will be improper. More attive emetics are
therefore to be preferred ; and here fome of the prepa¬
rations of antimony might naturally be thought of.
But the operation of thefe is not confined to the fio-
mach. They produce evacuations by fiool, and a dif¬
pofition to fweat j and are therefore improper in the
pulmonary hettic. The mildntfs and excellence of
ipecacuanha as an emetic, are well known; but in
thefe cafes, Dr Simmons has often employed the ful-
phate of copper, concerning the effetts of which we
meet with fome groundlefs aficrlions in feveral medical
books. Its operation is confined to the flomach; it
atts almoR inRantaneoufly ; and its aflringency feems
to obviate the relaxation that commonly fuppofed
to attend the frequent ufe of emetics. In two cafes
he
MEDICINE.
35^
Hasmor-
rhagiae.
M EDI
he experienced its good effe&s, after vomits of ipeca¬
cuanha had been given ineffeftually. It (hould be
adminiftered in the morning, and in the following man¬
ner :
Let the patient firft fwallow about half a pint of wa¬
ter, and immediately afterwards fulphate of copper dif-
folved in a cupful of water. The dofe of it mull be
adapted to the age and other circumftances of the pa¬
tient, and may be varied from two grains to ten, fifteen,
or twenty. As feme perfons are much more eafily puk¬
ed than others, it will be prudent to begin with a fmall
dofe : not that any dangerous effefts will be produced
by a large one, for the whole of the medicine is inilant-
ly rejected ; but if the naufea be violent, and of long
continuance, the patient may perhaps be difcouraged
from repeating it. In general, tire moment the emetic
has reached the ftomach it is thrown up again. The
patient muft then fwallow another half pint of water,
which is likewife fpeedily rejected 5 and this is com¬
monly fufficient to remove the naufea.
Dr Marryat, in his New PraSiice of Physic, pre-
fcribes with great freedom what he calls the dry vomit,
from its being directed to be taken without drinking.
This medicine confifts of fulphate of copper and tartrite
of antimony. It has the benefit alfo of producing in-
flantaneous operation •, but it is more apt to excite nau¬
fea than the fulphate of copper alone, and is liable to
fome of the objections Hated to antimonial emetics.
Another remedy which Dr Simmons flrongly re¬
commends in confumptive cafes, both from his own
obfervation, and on the authority alfo of many other
eminent praflitioners, is gum-myrrh. This given by
itfelf to the extent of a fcruple or half a drachm for a
dofe, two or three times a-day, or, if there be much in¬
flammatory tendency, combined with a proportion of
nitre or of cream of tartar, has often been ferviceable
in cafes which were apparently inflances of incipient
phthifis even of the tuberculous kind. But when the
difeafe is far advanced, or even decidedly marked, as
far as our experience goes it has rarely been produdlive
of any benefit.
Befides the i/e of internal remedies in pulmonary
affedlions, phydeians have often preferibed the fmoke
of refinous and balfamic fubftances to be conveyed in¬
to the lungs. The vapour of fulphuric ether, dropt in¬
to warm water, has likewife been ufed in thefe cafes.
The inhaling of fixed air lias alfo been fpoken of as an
ufeful pradlice. Dr Simmons has feen all thefe me¬
thods tried at different times ; but without being able
to perceive any real advantages from them in the fup-
purative ftage of the difeafe, where they might be ex-
pedled to be of the greatefl ufe •, and in the beginning
he has often found the two firft to be too ftimulating.
He therefore preferred the fimple vapour of warm wha¬
ler, and has experienced its excellent effedts in feveral
inftances •, but when the complaint has made any con-
liderable progrefs, its utility is lefs obvious ; and when
the patients have been much weakened, he has feen it
bring on profufe fweats, efpecially when ufed in bed,
and therefore he generally recommended it to be ufed
in the day time. Formerly he made ufe of a fumigating
machine, deferibed in the Gentleman’s Magazine for
1748, in which the air, infpired by the patient, is
made to pafs through hot Avater by means of a tube
that communicates with the external air, and with the
3
CINE. Pradice.
bottom of the veffel: but we have how a more elegant, Phthifis,
and, on account of the valve and mouth-piece, a more
ufeful inllrument of this kind, the inhaler, invented by
the ingenious Dr Mudge.
Another remedy recommended by fome as a fpecific
in confumptions is the earth-bath. Van Swieten, in
his Commentaries on Bcerhaave, tells us, from the in¬
formation of a perfon of credit, that in fome parts of
Spain they have a method of curing the phthifis pul- 1
monalis by the ufe of this remedy ; and he quotes the
celebrated Solano de Luque in confirmation of this
practice. Solano fpeaks of the banos ile tierra, or
earth-baths, as a very old and common remedy in
Granada and fome parts of Andalufia, in cales of hec¬
tic fever and confumptions j and relates feveral in¬
ftances of their good elfedts in his own practice. The
method he adopted on thefe occafions was as follows :
He chofe a fpot of ground on which no plants had
been fown, and there he made a hole large and deep
enough to admit the patient up to the chin. The in¬
terlaces of the pit were then carefully filled up with
the frefh mould, fo that the earth might everywhere
come in contadl with the patient’s body. In this fitu-
ation the patient ivas fulfered to remain till he began
to fhiver or felt himfelf uneafy 5 and during the Avhole
procefs, Solano occafionally adminiftered food or fome
cordial medicine. The patient Avas then taken out,
and, after being AA'rapped in a linen cloth, Avas placed
upon a mattrefs, and tAvo hours aftenvards his Avhole
body was rubbed with an ointment, compofed of the
leaves of the folanum nigrum and hog’s lard. He ob-
ferves, that a new pit muft be made every time the
operation is repeated ; and advifes the ufe of thefe baths
only from the end of May to the end of Odiober. Dr
Fouquet, an ingenious French phyfician, has tried
this remedy in two cafes. In one, a confirmed phthi¬
fis, he Avas unfuccefsful 5 but the remedy had not a fair
trial. The patient, a man 30 years of age, had been
for feveral months afflidled Avith cough, hedtic fever,
and profufe colliquative fweats. He was firft put into
the earth in the month of June but foon complained
of an uneafy oppreffion at his ftomach, and Avas remov¬
ed at the end of feven minutes. The fecond time he
was able to remain in it half an hour, and Avhen taken
out Avas treated in the way preferibed by Solano. In
this* manner the baths Avere repeated five times, and
the patient Avas evidently relieved *, but having conceiv¬
ed a diflike to the procefs, he refufed to fubmit to any
further trials, and died fome months aftenvards. In
the fecond cafe he Avas more fortunate : the patient, a
girl 11 years of age, had been for three months trou¬
bled Avith a cough brought on by the meafles, Avhich
Avas at length attended with a purulent expedloration,
hedlic fever, and night fAveats. She began the ufe of
the earth-bath in Auguft, and repeated it eight times
in the fpace of 20 days. At the end of that time the
fever and difpofition to fvveat had entirely ceafed, and
by the ufe of the common remedies, the patient Avas
perfedlly reftored. A phyfician at WarlaAv has like-
Avife preferibed the earth-bath Avith good fuccefs in
cafes of heftic fever. The Spaniards confine it entirely
to fuch cafes ; but in fome other parts of the Avorld Ar e
find a fimilar method employed as a remedy for other
difeafes, and particularly for the fea-fcmJK7. Dr Prieft-
ley obferves, that the Indians, he has been told, have
a
practice. MED
HxmoT- a cuftom of burying their patients labouring under pu-
rhagis- trid difeafes up to the chin in frefh mould, which is
alfo known to take olf the fetor from flelh meat begin¬
ning to putrefy. The rancidity of a ham, for example,
may be correfted by burying it for a few hours in the
earth. The efficacy of this remedy in the fea fcurvy
has, it is faid, frequently been experienced by the crews
of our Eaft India (hips.
Solano, who is fond of philofophizing in his writings,
is of opinion, that the earth applied in this way ab-
forbs the morbid taint from the fyltem 5 but does it
not feem more probable, that the effluvia of the earth,
by being abforbed and carried into the circulation, cor¬
rect the morbid ftate of the fluids, and thus are equal¬
ly ufeful in the fea fcurvy and in the pulmonary hectic ?
That the earth when moiftened does emit a grateful
odour is a fa£t generally known 5 and Baglivi long ago
gave his teftimony in favour of the grateful effedts of the
effluvia of freffl earth. He afcribes thefe good effedts
to the nitre it contains.
The earth bath, both in confumptive cafes and like-
wife in a variety of other affedtions, has of late been
extenfively employed in Britain by a celebrated empi¬
ric. But, as far as we can learn, in molt cafes it pro¬
duced to the patient a very diftreffing fenfation of cold;
in fome, it feemed to be produdtive of bad effedts, pro¬
bably in confequence of this cold 3 and we have not
heard of any confumptive cafes in which good effedts
were decidedly obtained from it.
With regard to the drains, fuch as blifters, iffues,
and fetons, which are fo frequently recommended in
pulmonary complaints, there is lets danger of abufe
from them than from the pradtice of venefedtion. The
difcharge they excite is not calculated to weaken the
patient much 3 and the relief they have fo often been
found to afford, is a fufficient reafon for giving them
a trial. Blitters, as is well known, adt in a twofold
manner 3 by obviating fpafm, and producing revullion:
Iffues and fetons adt chiefly in the latter of thefe two
ways ; and in this refpedt their effedts, though lefs hid¬
den and lefs powerful at firlt, are more durable from the
continuance of the difcharge they occafion. It is per¬
haps hardly neceffary to remark, that, if much fervice
is to be expected from either of thefe remedies, they
Ihould be applied early in the difeale. Phe ingenious
Dr Mudge, who experienced the good effedts of a large
fcapulary iffue on his own perfon, very properly ob-
ferves, that the difcharge in thefe cafes ought to be
confiderable enough to be felt. But it is feldom poffi-
ble for us to prevail on the delicate perfons, who are
molt frequently the vidtims of this difeafe, to fubmit to
the application of a cauftic between the fhoulders. The
difcharge prpduced by a feton is by no.means inconfider-
able 3 and as in thefe cafes there is generally fome part
of the breafl: that is more painful or more affcdted by a
deep infpiration than the reft, a feton in the fide, as
near as can be to the feat of the pain, will be an ufeful
auxiliary. Dr^ Simmons has feen it evidently of great
ufe in feveral cafes.
:4o Genus XXXVIII. H^MOBRHOIS.
Hemorrhoids, or Piles.
Haemorrhois, Sauv. gen. 217. Lm. 192. Sag, gen.
: C I N E.
Hsemorrhoidalis fluxus, Hoffm. 219.
Haemorrhoides, Junck. 11. et 12.
Leucorrhois, Vog. 112.
Sp. I. External Piles.
Var. A. Bloody PILES.
Hsemorrhois moderata, Sauv. fp. 1.
Hsemorrhoides ordinatse, Junck. II.
Haemorrhoides nimue, Junck. 11.
Hsemorrhois immodica, Sauv. fp. 2.
Haemorrhoides excedentes, Albei'ti de haemorrhoid.
p. 179. _
Haemorrhois polypofa, Sauv. fp. 3.
Var. B. Mucous PILES.
Hsemorrhoides decoloratse, albse, et mucidae, Junck.
13. Alberti, p. 248.
Sp. II. The PILES from a Procidentia Ani.
Haemorrhois ab exania, Sauv. fp. 4.
Sp. III. The Running PILES.
Sp. IV. The Blind PILES.
Haemorrhoides coecae, Junck. 12. Alberti, p. 274.
Defcription. The difcharge of blood from fmall tu¬
mors on the verge of the anus conftitutes what is called
the lucmorrhoids or piles. They are diftinguiflred into
the external and internal, according to the fituation of
the tumors, either without or within the anus. Some¬
times, however, thefe tumors appear without difchar-
ging any blood 3 and in this cafe they are called the
hccmorrhoides ccecce, or blind piles. Sometimes the dif¬
eafe appears without the verge of the anus in diftinct fe-
parate tumors 3 but frequently only one tumid ring ap¬
pears, feeming as it were the anus puftied without the
body. Sometimes thefe tumors appear without any
previous diforder of the body : but more frequently, be¬
fore the blood begins to flow, and fometimes even before
the tumors are formed, various affedtions are perceived in
different parts of the body 3 as headach, vertigo, ftupor,
difficulty of breathing, ficknefs, colic pains, pain of the
back and loins, and frequently a confiderable degree
of pyrexia 5 while along with thefe fymptoms there is a
fenfe of fulnefs, heat, itching, and pain, in and about
the anus. Sometimes the difeafe is preceded by a fe-
rous difcharge from the anus 3 and fometimes this fe-
rous difcharge, accompanied with fwelling, feems to
come in place of the difcharge of blood, and to relieve
the above-mentioned diforders of the fyftem. This fe-
rous difcharge hath therefore been named the hcemor-
rhois alba.
In this difeafe the quantity of blood difeharged is dif¬
ferent upon different occafions. Sometimes it flows on¬
ly when the perfon goes to ftool, and commonly fol¬
lows the difcharge of faeces. In other cafes it flows
without any difcharge of feces 3 and then generally in
confequence of the diforders above mentioned, when it
is alfo commonly in larger quantity. This is often ve-.
ry confiderable 3 and, by the repetition, fo great, that
we could hardly fuppofe the body to bear it but with
the
359
Haemor¬
rhois.
t
241
242
243
244
36v
MEDICINE.
Hiemar- tLc Katard of Site, Indeed, though rarely, it has been
rhagite. f() gre^ as to prove fuddenly fatal. Thefe considerable
v difcharges occur efpecially to perfons who have been
frequently liable to the difeafe. They often induce
great debility, and frequently a leucophlegmatia or
dropfy which proves fatal. Sometimes the tumors and
difcharges of blood in this difeafe recur exactly at dat¬
ed periods. In the decline of life it frequently hap¬
pens that the haeroorrhoidal flux, formerly frequent,
ceafes to flow •, and in that cafe it generally happens
that the perfons are affedfed with apoplexy or palfy.
Sometimes hajmorrhoidal tumors are aft'edted with in¬
flammation, which ends in fuppuration, and gives
occaflon to the formation of fiftulous ulcers in thofe
parts.
The haemorrhoidal tumors have often been confi-
dered as varices or dilatations of the veins j and in feme
cafes varicous dilatations have appeared upon diffec-
tion. Thefe, however, do not appear in the greater
part of cafes ; and Dr Cullen is of opinion that they
are ufually formed by an effufion of blood into the
cellular texture of the inteftine near to its extremity.
When recently formed, they contain fluid blood ; but
after they remain for fome time they are ufually of
a firmer conflilence, in confequence of the blood being
coagulated.
Caufes, &c. It would feem probable, that the hae¬
morrhoidal tumors are produced by fome interruption
of the free return of the blood from the reflum, by
which a rupture of the extremities of the veins is occa-
lioned. But confidering that the haemorrhage occur¬
ring here is often preceded by pain, inflammation, and
a febrile ftate, and with many other fymptoms which
fhow a connection of the topical affeflion with theftate
of the whole fyftem, it is probable that the interruption
of the blood in the veins produces a confiderable refift-
ance to the motion of the blood through the arteries,
and confequently that the difcharge of blood is com¬
monly from the latter. Some have thought, that a
difference of the htemorrhois, and of its effects upon the
fyftem, might arife from the difference of the haemor¬
rhoidal veffels from whence the blood iflued. But Dr
Cullen is of opinion, that we can fcarce ever diftinguifh
the veffels from which the blood flows, and that the
frequent inofculations of both arteries and veins belong¬
ing to the lower extremity of the recftum, will render
the effects of the haemorrhage much the fame, from
whatever fource it proceeds.
With regard to the haemorrhoids, however, he is
of opinion, that they are, for the moft part, merely
a topical affection. They take place before the pe¬
riod of life at which a venous plethora happens. They
happen to females, in whom a venous plethora deter¬
mined to the hicmorrhoidal veffels cannot be fuppofed
to occur ', and they happen to both fexes, and to per¬
fons of all ages, from caufes which do no^ affeff the
fyftem, and are manifeftly fuited to produce a topical
affection only.
Thefe caufes are, in the firrt place, the frequent
voiding of hard and bulky fleets, which, by their long
ftaguation in the return, and efpecially when voided,
muft neeeffarily profs upon the veins of that part, and
interrupt the courfe of the blood in them. Fur this
reafln ;be dsf aft ft: xrequ-ntlv happens lo thofe who
are habitually coftive. From the fame caufes, the dif¬
eafe happens frequently to thofe who are fubjeef to a
prolapfus ani. In voiding the feces, it almoft always
happens that the internal coat of the redium is more or
lefs protruded j and, during this protrusion, it feme-
times happens that the fphindler ani is contradled ; in
confequence of this, a ftrong conftridtion is made, winch
preventing the protruded gut from being replaced, and
at the fame time preventing the return of blood from it,
occasions a considerable fwelling, and the formation of
a tumid ring round the anus.
Upon the fphindler’s being a little relaxed, as it is
immediately after its ftrong contradtion, the portion
of the gut which had fallen out is commonly taken
into the body again ; but by the frequent repetition
of the accident, the fize and fulnefs of the ring formed
by the prolapfed inteftine is much increafed. It is
therefore more flowly and difficultly replaced j and in
this confifts the chief uneafinefs of hsemorrhoidal per¬
fons. As the internal edge of this ring is neceffarily
divided by clefts, the whole often puts on the appear¬
ance of a number of diftindt fwellings j and it alio fre¬
quently happens, that fome portions of it are more
considerably fwelled, become more protuberant, and
form thofe fmall tumors more ilridtly called heemor-
rhoids or piles.
From confidering that the preffure of the feces, and
other caufes interrupting the return of venous blood
from the lower extremity of the redium, may operate a
good deal higher up than that extremity, we may un-
derftand how tumors may be formed within the anus;
and probably it alfo happens, that fome of the tumors
formed without the anus may continue when taken
within the body, and even be increafed by the caufes
juft mentioned. Thus may the production of internal
piles be explained, which, on account of their fituation
and bulk, are not protruded on the perfon’s going to
ftool, and are therefore more painful.
The produdtion of piles is particularly illuftrated
by this, that pregnant women are frequently affedled
with the difeafe.—This is to be accounted for, partly
from the preffure of the uterus upon the redtum, and
partly from the coftive habit to which pregnant wo¬
men are liable. Dr Cullen has known many inftances
of pil es happening for the firft time during the ftate of
pregnancy j and there are few women who have born
children, that are afterwards entirely free from piles.
—Purgatives alfo, efpecially thofe of the more acrid
kind, and particularly aloetics, are apt to produce
the piles when frequently nfed 5 and as they ftimu-
late particularly the larger inteftines, they may be
juftly reckoned among the exciting caufes of this dif¬
eafe.
Prognofis. Though the haemorrhoids are commonly,
as we have faid, to be efteemed a topical difeafe, they
may, by frequent repetition, become habitual and con-
nedled with the ftate of the whole fyftem j and this
will more readily happen in perfons who have been
once affedled with the difeafe, if they be freouently
expofed to a renewal of the caufes which occalioned it.
It happens alfo to perfons much expofed to a con-
geftion in the haemorrhoidal veffels, in conlequence of
their being often in an erect pofition of the body, and
in an exereife which nuftres the blood into the depend¬
ing veflels, while at the fame time the effedts of thefe
circumitances are much favoured by the abundance
MEDICINE.
Practice.
Hse.«»or- and laxity of the cellular texture about tlie anus. It
rhagiie- [5 to be particularly obferved, that when an hannor-
^ ^ rhoidal affection has either been originally or has be¬
come a difeafe ox the fyftem, it then acquires a parti¬
cular connexion with the ftomach ; fo that certain af¬
fections of the ftomach excite the haemorrhoidal difeafe,
and certain ftates of this difeafe excite the diforders of
the ftomach-
It has been an almoft univerfally received opinion,
that the haemorrhoidai flux is a falutary evacuation,
■which prevents many difeafes which would otherwife
have happened •, and that it even contributes to give
long life : and as this opinion has been ftrenuoufty
adopted by Dr Stahl, it has had a very confiderable in¬
fluence on the pra&iee of phyfrc in Germany. But Dr
Cullen maintains that we can never expect to reap
much benefit from this flux, which at firft is purely
topical y and, granting that it fliould become habitual,
it is never, he thinks, proper to be encouraged. It is
a difagreeable difeafe *, ready to go to excefs, and there¬
by to prove hurtful, and fometimes even fatal: at heft
it is liable to accidents, and thus to unhappy confe-
quences. lie is therefore of opinion, that even the firft
approaches of the difeafe are to be guarded againft ; and
that, though it fhould have proceeded for fame time, it
ought always to be moderated, and the. neceflity of it
fuperfeded.
Cure. The general intentions of cure in cafes of
hsemorrhois are much varied, according to the circum-
ftances of the affection at the time. When hcemor-
rhois exifts in the ftate of tumor, the principal ob-
jects are to counteract inflammation, and to promote
a difcharge of blood from the part. When it is in the
ftate of evacuation, the chief intentions of cure are, to
diminifh the impetus of blood at the part affected, and
to inercafe the reiifiance to the paffage of blood
through the ruptured veffels. And finally, when the
difeafe exifts in the ftate of fuppreffion, the aims of
the practitioner mull chiefly be, to obviate the parti¬
cular affections which are induced in confequence of
the fuppreflion; to reftore the difcharge, as a means
of mitigating thefe and preventing others ^ or, when
the difcharge cannot with propriety or advantage be
reftored, to compenfate the want of it by vicarious
evacuations.
With thefe various intentions in different cafcs, a
variety of different remedies may be employed with
advantage.
When any evident caufc for this difeafe is perceived,
we ought immediately to attempt a removal of that
caufe. One of the moft frequent remote caufes is an
habitual coftivencfs; which muft be obviated by a pro¬
per diet, foch as the perfon’s own experience will belt
direct; or if the management of diet be not effectual,
the belly muft be kept open by medicines, which may
prove gently laxative, without irritating the reftum.
In moft cafcs it will be of advantage to acquire a ha¬
bit with regard to the time of difcharge, and to ob-
ferve it exactly. Another caufe of the hsemorrhois to
be efpecially attended to is the prolapfus ani, which
is apt to happen on a perfon’s having a ftool. If this
fhall occur to any confiderable degree, and be not at
the fame time eafily and immediately replaced, it moft
■certainly produces piles, or increafcs them when other
wife produced. Perfons therefore who are liable to
Vol. XIII. Part I.
this prolapfus, fhould, after having been at ftool, take
great pains to have the inteftine immediately replaced,
by lying down in a horizontal pofture, and preffing
gently upon the anus, till the reduction fhall be com¬
pletely obtained. When this pj\lapfus is occafioned
only by the voiding of hard and bulky fames, it is to
be removed by obviating the coftivenefs which occa-
ftons it. But in fome perfons it is owing to a laxity of
the re£tu«n ; and in tbofe it is often moft confiderable
on occafion of a loofe ftool. In thefe cafes, it is to be
treated by aftrin,gents., and proper artifices are to be em¬
ployed to keep the gut in its place.
When the difeafe has frequently recurred from ne-
glc£t, and is thus in fome meafure eftabliihed, the me¬
thods above mentioned are no lefs proper ; but in this
cafe fome other meafures muft alfo be ufcd. It is efpe¬
cially proper to guard againft a plethoric ftate of the
body and therefore to avoid a fodentary life, full diet,
and intemperance in the ufe of throng liquor, which in
all cafes of hasmorrhage is of the molt pernicious confe¬
quence.
Exercife of all kinds is of great fervice in obviating
and removing a plethoric ftate of the body ; but upon
occafion of the haemorrhoidal flux, when this is imme¬
diately to come on, both walking and riding, as in-
creafing the determination of the blood into the
haemorrhoidal veffels, are to be avoided. At other
times, when no fuch determination is already formed,
thefe modes of exercife may be very properly em¬
ployed.
Another method of removing plethora is by cold
bathing; but this muft be employed with caution.
When the htemorrhoidal flux is approaching, it may be
dangerous to divert it; but during the intervals of the
difeafe, cold bathing may be employed with fafety and
advantage 5 and in thofe who are liable to a prolapfus
ani, the frequent waftiing of the anus with cold water
may be ufcfuk
Befides general antiphlogiftic regimen, in feme cafes
where the inflammation runs high, recourfe may be
had with great advantage both to general blood-letting
and to leeches applied at the anus. Relief is alfo often
obtained from the external application of emollients,
either alone or combined with different articles of the
fedative kind, as acetite of lead or opium, by which it
is Well known that pain in general, particularly when
depending on increaied fenfibility, or augmented ablion
of the veffels, is powerfully allayed.
When the flux has actually come on, we are to mo¬
derate it as much as poffible, by caufing the patient
lie in a horizontal pofture on a hard bed ; by avoiding
exercife in an ereft pofture, ufing a cool diet, and
avoiding external heat. But with refpeft to the fur¬
ther cure of this difeafe, we muft obferve, that there
are only two cafes in which it is common for haemor¬
rhoidal perfons to call for medical afliftance. The one-
is, when the aflVclion is accompanied with much pain ;
and the other, when the piles are accompanied with
exceftive bleeding. In the firft cafe, we muft confidcr
whether the piles be external or internal. The pain
of the external piles happens efpecially when a confi¬
derable protrufion of the reftum has taken place •, and
while it remains unreduced, it is ftrangled by the con-
ftriftion of the fphin&er ; and at the fame time no
bleeding happens to take off the fwelling of the pro-
Z z traded
361
Hsemor-
thojs.
362 M E D I
Hasmor- trnded portion of the inteftine j and fometimes an in-
. r a^uc' .flatnmation fupervenes, -which greatly aggravates the
pain. In this cafe, emollient fomentations and poul¬
tices are fometimes of fervice, but the application of
leeches is generally to be preferred.
In cafe of exceflive bleeding, we are on all occafions
to endeavour to moderate the flux, even where the dif-
eafe has occurred as a critical difcharge j for if the pri¬
mary difeafe (hall be entirely and radically cured, the
preventing any return of the hoemorrhois feems perfect¬
ly fafe and proper. It is only Avhen the difeafe arifes
from a plethoric habit, and from a ftagnation of blood
in the hypochondriac region, or when, though origi¬
nally topical, it has by frequent repetition become ha¬
bitual, and has thereby acquired a connexion with the
fyftem, that any doubt can arife about curing it entire¬
ly. In any of thefe cafes, however, Dr Cullen is of
opinion, that it will be proper to moderate the bleed¬
ing, left, by its continuance or repetition, the pletho¬
ric ftate of the body, and the particular determination
of the blood into the hfemorrhoidal velfels, be increafed,
and the return of the difeafe be too much favoured.
Dr Stahl is of opinion, that the haemorrhoidal flux is
never to be accounted exceflive, excepting when it oc¬
cafions great debility or leucophlegmatia : but Dr Cul¬
len thinks, that the fmalleft approach towards produ¬
cing either of thefe efleCts fhould be confidered as an
excefs Avhich ought to be prevented from going far¬
ther ; and even in the cafes of congeftion and plethora,
if the plethoric habit and tendency can be obviated and
removed, the haemorrhoidal flux may then Avith fafety
be entirely fupprefled. In all cafes therefore of excef-
five bleeding, or any approach to it, aftringents both
internal and external may be fafely and properly ap¬
plied ; not indeed to induce an immediate and total
fuppreflion ; but to moderate the haemorrhage, and by
degrees to fupprefs it altogether ; Avhile at the fame
time meafures are to be taken for the removing the ne-
eeflity of its recurrence.
Genus XXXIX. MENORRHAGIA.
245 Immoderate Flow of the MENSES.
Menorrhagia, Sauv. 244. Lin. 202. Vog. 96.
Menorrhagia, Sag. gen. 179.
Uteri htemorrhagia, Hoffm. II. 224.
Haemorrhagia uterina, Junck. 14.
Leucorrhoea, Sauv. gen. 267. Lin. 201. Vog. 119.
Sag. gen. 202.
Cachexia uterina, five fluor albus, Hoffm. III. 348.
Fluor albus, Junck. 133.
Abortus, Sauv. gen. 245. Lin. 204. Sag. gen. 180.
Junck. 92.
Abortio, Vog. 97.
Fluor uterini fanguinis, Boerh. 1303.
Con\’ulfio uteri, live abortus, Hojfm. III. 176.
246 Sp. I. The Immoderate Flow of the MENSES, properly
fo called.
• Menorrhagia rubra, Cul.
Menorrhagia immodica, Sauv. fp. 3.
Pvlenorrhagia ttillatitia, Sauv. fp. 2.
Defcrijjtion, The quantity of the menftrual flux is
CINE. Practice,
different in different women, and likeAvife in the fame Menor
woman at different times. An unufual quantity there- diagia."
fore is not always to be confidered as morbid : but '—“V—
Avhen a large Aoav of the menfes has been preceded
by headach, giddinefs, or dyfpnoea $ has been ufliered
in by a cold llage 5 and is attended Avith much pain of
the back and loins, with a frequent pulfe, heat, and
thirft, it may then be confidered as preternaturally
morbid. On the other hand, Avhen the face becomes
pale, the pulfe Aveak, an unufual debility is felt in exer-
cife, and the breathing is hurried by little labour ;
Avhen the back becomes pained from any continuance
in an eredt pofture, when the extremities become fre¬
quently cold, and when at night the feet appear affedt-
ed Avith oedematous fwelling : from all thefe fymptoms
we may conclude, that the floAv of the menfes has been
immoderate, and has already induced a dangerous ftate
of debility. The debility, induced in this cafe, often
appears alfo by affedtions of the ftomach, an anorexia,
and other fymptoms of dyfpepfia ; by a palpitation of
the heart, and frequent faintings ; by a weaknefs of
mind, liable to ftrong emotions from flight caufes, efpe-
cially thofe prefented by furprife. A large floAv of the
menfes attended with barrennefs in married Avomen, may
generally be confidered as preternatural and morbid.
Generally, alfo, that flow of the menfes may be confi¬
dered as immoderate, which is preceded and folloAved
by a leucorrhoea.
Caufes, &c. The proximate caufe of the menor¬
rhagia is either the effort of the uterine veffels preter¬
naturally increafed, or a preternatural laxity of the ex¬
tremities of the uterine arteries.—The remote caufes
may be, 1. Thofe which increafe the plethoric ftate of
the uterine veffels; as a full and nourilhing diet, much
ftrong liquor, and frequent intoxications. 2. Thofe
which determine the blood more copioufly and for¬
cibly into the uterine veffels ; as violent {trainings of
the whole body \ violent ftioeks from falls ; ftrokes or
contufions on the lower belly 5 violent exercife, parti¬
cularly in dancing 5 and violent paflions of the mind.
3. Thofe Avhich particularly irritate the veffels of the
uterus 5 as excefs in venery j the exercife of venery
in the time of menftruation j a coftive habit, giving
occafion to violent draining at ftool \ and cold applied
to the feet. 4. Thofe which have forcibly overftrained
the extremities of the uterine veffels 5 as frequent abor¬
tions, frequent childbearing Avithout nurfing, and diffi¬
cult or tedious labours. Or, laftly, Thofe which in¬
duce a general laxity j as living much in warm cham¬
bers, and drinking much of Avarm enervating liquors,
fuch as tea, coffee, &c.
Cure. The treatment and cure of the menorrhagia,
muft be different according to the different caufes of
the difeafe. The practices employed, however, are
chiefly ufed Avith one of two intentions 5 either Avith
the view of reftraining the difcharge Avhen prefent, or
of preventing the return of an exceflive difcharge at
the fucceeding period. The firft is chiefly to be ac-
complifhed by employing fuch pradtices as diminifh
the force occafioning the difcharge of blood, or as
augment the refiftance to its paffage through the
veffels by which it is to be difcharged. The laft is in
fome degree to be obtained by avoiding caufes Avhich
either increafe the general impetus of the blood, or
the impetus at the uterus in particular j but princi-
practice. ' M EDI
pally by giving additional vigour to the uterine vef-
1’eb.
In all cafes, the fir ft attention ought to be given to
avoiding the remote caufes, whenever that can be
done ; and by fueh attention the difeafe may be often
entirely cured. When the remote caufes cannot be
avoided, or when the avoiding them has been ne-
glefted, and a copious menftruation has come on, it
ftiould be moderated as much as poflible, by abftain-
ing from all exercife at the coming on or during the
continuance of the menftruation; by avoiding even an
ereft pofture as much as poflible ; by ftumning exter¬
nal heat, and of courfe warm chambers and foft beds j
by ufing a light and cool diet 5 by taking cold drink,
at leaft as far as former habits will allow j by avoid¬
ing venery *, by obviating coftivenefs, or removing it
by laxatives which give little ftimulus. The fex are
commonly negligent, either in avoiding the remote
caufes, or in moderating the firft beginnings of this
difeafe. It is by fuch negledt that it fo frequently
becomes violent and of difficult cure *, and the frequent
repetition of a copious menftruation may be confidered
as a caufe of great laxity in the extreme veflels of the
uterus.
When the coming on of the menftruation has been
preceded by fome diforder in other parts of the body,
and is accompanied with pains of the back, fomewhat
like parturient pains, with febrile fymptoms, and when
at the fame time the flow feems to be copious, a bleed¬
ing at the arm may be proper, but is not often necef-
fary j and it will in moft cafes be fufficient to employ,
with great attention and diligence, thofe means already
mentioned for moderating the difcharge.
When the immoderate flow of the menfes ftiall feem
to be owing to a laxity of the vefiels of the uterus, as
may be concluded from the general debility and laxity
of the perfon’s habit j from the remote caufes that
have occafiorted the difeafe j from the abfence of the
fymptoms which denote increafed aftion in the veflels
of the uterus ; from the frequent recurrence of the
difeafe; and particularly from this, that the female in
the intervals of menftruation is liable to a leucorrhoea :
in fuch a cafe, the difeafe is to be treated, not only by
employing all the means above mentioned for mode¬
rating the haemorrhage, but alfo by avoiding all irrita¬
tion, every irritation having a greater effeft in propor¬
tion as the veflels are more lax and yielding. If, in
fuch a cafe of laxity, it (hall appear that fome degree
of irritation occurs, opiates may be employed to mode¬
rate the difcharge 5 but in ufing thefe much caution is
requifite. If, notwithftanding thefe meafurcs having-
been taken, the difcharge fhall prove very large, aftrin-
gents both external and internal may be employed. In
fuch cafes, Dr Cullen afks, May fmall dofes of emetics
be of fervice ?
When the menorrhagia depends on the laxity of the
iiterine yeflels, it will be proper, in the intervals of
menftruation, to employ tonic remedies 5 as cold bathing
and chalybeates. The exercifes of geftation alfo may
be very ufeful, both for ftrengthening the whole fyftem,
and for taking off the determination of the blood to the
internal parts.
J'hefe remedies may be employed in all cafes of me¬
norrhagia, from whatever caufe it may have proceeded,
CINE. 363
if it fnall have already induced a confiderable degree of I-eucor-
debility in the body.
Sp. II. Abortion.
Menorrhagia abortus, Cu/.
Menorrhagia gravidarum, Sauv. fp. 6.
Abortus effluxio, Sauv. fp. 1.
a, Abortus fubtrimeftris.
b, Abortus fubfemeftris.
c, Abortus octimeftris.
Abortus ab uteri laxitate, Sauv. fp. 2.
Sp. III. Immoderate Flux of the LOCHIA.
Menorrhagia lochialis, Sauv. fp. 8. Cul.
For the defeription, treatment, and cure, of thefe
two laft difeafes, fee Midwifery.
Sp. IV. Immoderate Flow of the MENSES from fome . 249
local diforder.
Menorrhagia vitiorum, Cul.
Menorrhagia ex hyfteroptofi, Sauv. fp. 5.
Menorrhagia ulcerofa, Sauv. fp. 9.
Sp. V. The Leucorrhcea, Fluor Albus, or WHITES. 25*
Menorrhagia alba, Cul.
Leucorrhoea, Sauv. gen. 267.
Menorrhagia decolor, Sauv. fp. 7.
Leucorrhoea Americana, Sauv. fp. 5.
Leucorrhoea Indica, Sauv. fp. 6.
Leucorrhoea Nabothi, Sauv. fp. 9.
Leucorrhoea gravidarum, Sauv. fp. 8.
Defeription. The Jhtor albus, female weaknefs, er
whites, as it is commonly called, is a difeafe of the
womb and its contiguous parts 5 from which a pale-co¬
loured, greenifh, or yellow fluid, is difeharged, attend¬
ed with lofs of ftrength, pain in the loins, bad digef-
tion, and a wan fickly afpedt.
Caufes, &c. The quantity, colour, and confiftence
of the difcharge, chiefly depend upon the time of its
duration, the patient’s habit of body, and the nature
of the caufe by which it was produced. Taking cold,
ftrong liquor, immoderate heat and moifture, or vio¬
lent exercife, are all obferved to produce a bad effedf,
as to its quantity and quality.
Weakly women of lax folids, who have had many
children, and long laboured under ill health, are of
all the moft fubjeft to this difagreeable difeafe 5 from
which they unfortunately fuffer more fevere penance
than others, as the niceft fenfations are often connedled
with fuch a delicacy of bodily frame as fubjefts them
to it.
In Holland it is very frequent, and in a manner pe¬
culiar to the place, from the dampnefs of its fituation j
the furrounding air being fo overcharged with moifture
as to relax the body, flop perfpiration, and throw it
upon the bowels or womb; producing in the firft a
diarrhoea or flux, in the laft the fluor albus or female
weaknefs.
_ The difcharge often proceeds from the veflels fubfer-
vient to menftruation; becaufe, in delicate habits, where
thofe veflels are weak, and confequently remain too
Z z 2 long
364 M E D I
11 Km or- iong uncontfafted, the fin-jr dibits femelimes immediate-
^ follows the menfes, and goes off by degrees as they
gradually clofe. It alfo comes from the mucous glands
of the womb, as is particularly evident in very young
females of eight and ten years old j in whom, though
very rarely, it has been obferved, and where it mull
then neceffarily have efcaped from thofe parts, as the
uterine veffels are not fufficiently enlarged for its paffage
at fo early a period.
Sometimes, as in women with child, it proceeds
from the palfage to the womb, and not from the womb
itfelf; which, during pregnancy, is clofely fealed up,
fo that nothing can pafs from thence till the time of
labour. The application of thofe inftruments called
peffaries, from the pain and irritation they occalion,
is alfo apt to bring on this difeharge. Hence we
may conclude, that this diieafe may happen although
the blood be in a pure Hate. Here the fault feems to
be placed in the veffels at the part, by which the
fluids are vitiated and changed from their natural quali¬
ties.
The Jluor a/bus has been fuppofed to fupply the
■want of the menfes 5 becaufe where the firll prevails,
the laft is generally either irregular or totally wanting:
but it might more properly be faid, that the prefence
®f the Jluor albas, which is a preternatural evacuation,
occafions the abfence of that which is natural ; as is
evident from the return of the menfcs after the Jluor
albas has been cured. Indeed, when this difeharge
appears about the age of 13 or 14, and returns once a
month, with fymptoms like thofe of the menfes, then
it may be deemed flriftly natural, and therefore ought
not to be flopped.
ProgHoJis. The Jluor albus may be diftinguiflied in¬
to twro kinds. The firft arifes from a fimple weaknefs,,
or the relaxation of the folids j which may either be
general, where the whole bodily fyftem is enervated and
unflrung; or partial, where the womb only is thus af¬
fected, in confequence of hard labour, frequent mifear-
riages, a fappreffion or immoderate quantity of the
menfes, or a fprain of the back or loins.
In the firft cafe, the difcharge being generally mild,
may be fafely taken away. In the fecond, it may
proceed from a vitiated or impure blood, where the
body, from thence, is loaded with grofs humours,
which nature for her own fecurity and relief thus en¬
deavours to carry off. In fuch cafes, the difeharge is
often of a reddilh colour, like that from old ulce-
sous fores 5 being fbmetimes fo (harp as to excoriate
the contiguous parts, and occafion a fmarting and heat
of urine.
A deep-foated, darting pain, with a forcing down,
attending fuch a difeharge is a very dangerous and
alarming fign, and indicates an ulceration or cancerous
ftate of the womb. This malignant ftate of the difeafe,
if of long continuance, is extremely difficult to cure j
and difpofes the patient to barrennefs, a bearing down,
dropfy, or confumption.
Cure, &c. The caufes of thofe two kinds of this
difcafe being different, fo they will require a very dif¬
ferent method of cure. For this purpofe, in the firft:
cafe, nothing will be more proper than nourifhing
fimple food 5 fuch as veal broths, jellies, frefh eggs,
and milk diet. The acid fruits will alfo be proper;
and the patient may take a reftorative, ftrengthening
CINE. Praf!ice.
infufion, which will give firmnefs to the body, and affift Leucor-
the weakened fibres of the womb in returning to their rl!cea-
natural ftate.
The fame method may be ufed with fuccefs, where
the Jluor albus follows the menfes, as already obfer¬
ved.
The Tunbridge ®r Spa waters may be drank at the
fame time j and, if neceffary, an infufion of green tea,
or pure fmith’s forge water, may be ufed with a womb-
fyringe as an injection twice a-day. Should the dif¬
eafe prove uncommonly obftiaate, the patient may go
into the cold bath every fecond day •, and alfo drink
lime-water with milk, which will expedite the cure,
and prevent a relapfe. Volatile liniment, and after¬
wards 3 ftrengthening plafter, may be applied to the
fmall of the back.
By way of caution, the female fhould abftain from
the immoderate ufe of tea 5 and be removed into a dry
clear air or if the be obliged to remain in one Ids
propijr, the may apply the fidh-brufli, and wear a flan¬
nel fhift next her Ikin, impregnated with the fumes of
burning frankincenfe er any of the grateful aromatic
gums. Cold fpring water pumped on the loins, or a
bliftering plafter applied to the bottom of the fpine or
back, are both very powerful in their effeds, and have
fometimes fucceeded after other remedies had been
tried in vain..
In the fecond fpecies of the difeafe, where the dif¬
eharge is fharp and of long Handing, it would be ex¬
tremely dangerous to fupprefs it fuddenly, either by
aftringents internally taken, or applied as injedions,
until the fyftem be reftored to a more found and vigo¬
rous condition.
A purging potion may be taken twice a--week, and
in the intervals an alterative pill night and morning.
After this courfe has been continued a fortnight or
three weeks, fhe may begin with the ftrengthening
bitter infufion, or feme pother tonic, in the quantity
of a tea-cupful twice a-day, or to a greater extent if
the ftomach will allow.
The fame fort of food and regimen will here b©
proper as in the firft kind of the difeafe. The patient
fhould abftain from malt liquors, and drink rice-water,
in each pint of which half an ounce of gum-arabic has
been diffolved ; or if (lie be weak, and of a cold bloat,
ed habit of body, aTittfo French brandy may be added
occafionally.
When flie begins to take the bitter infufion, it will
be proper to ufe the Tunbridge or Pyrmont water for
common drink; but if thofe cannot conveniently be
had, the alkaline aerated water, impregnated with iron,
will make an excellent fubftitute. If it fhould render her
coftive, and oecafion headach, fhe may defift, and drink
a folution of cryftals of tartar, or a little fenna tea fweet-
ened with manna, till thofe complaints be removed.
In fhort, as this is a malady of the moft difagreeable
kind, which by long continuance or negleft beeomes-
difficult of cure, and often produces an ulceration of
the womb, bearing down, barrennefs, a dropfy, or con¬
fumption ; it were to be wiftied that women, on fuck
oecafions, would be more attentive to their own fafety,
by ufing all poflible means, in due time, to prevent
thofe diforders.
Dr Leake fays he has attended more patients labour,
ing under the Jluor albus in the autumn than at any other
feafbn
JPra&ice. M E, D 1
feafon of tlic year, efpecially when the weather wras
uncommonly moift and cold : moft of tliem were cured
by change of diet, an increafed perfpiration, and the
proper ufe of cinchona with aromatics. He obferved,
that feveral about this time who efcaped the diforder,
■were vifited with bad colds, a defluxion on the throat,
or a diarrhoea, which were removed by a flmilar treat¬
ment.
Among other remedies which have been recom¬
mended in leucorrhoea, recourfe has lately been had to
the internal ufe of cantharides. This remedy for leu¬
corrhoea has, in particular, been highly extolled in a
late publication on the powers of cantharides, when
ufed internally, written by Mr John Robeilon, forge on
in Edinburgh. The analogy between gleet and leu-
eorrhoea, Mr Roberton tells us, foggefted to him, that
the cantharides, which he had employed with foch good
effecls in gleet, might alfo be ufed in leucorrhoea.
The event, he affirms, fully anfwered his expectations,
and he has employed the remedy with very great fuc-
eefs. The cantharides were ufed under the form of
tincture : the t 'uiBura me/oes veficrUorvi of the Edin¬
burgh Pharmacopoeia. This medicine he employed in
much larger dofos than is commonly prefcribed. Thus
a mixture containing an ounce of the tincture of can¬
tharides, diffufed in flx ounces of water, was taken to
the extent of half an ounce, four times a-day \ nay, in
feme cafes, the tindlure was exhibited to the extent of half
an ounce in a day, without any inconvenience, and with
the befl: effefts. As examples of the power of this re¬
medy, Mr Roberton has given a detail of fix cafes, fe-
lefled from a number which have been under his care.
In three cafes, as being the moft inveterate, the effefts
ef the cantharides were moft evident. And we fhall
only obferve, that if this remedy be found by other
pradlitioners t» be equally foccefsful in the cure of leu¬
corrhoea, it wflll be a very valuable acquifltion in the
practice of medicine, efpecially if it ftiall be found by
others, as well as by Mr Roberton, that not only the
general fymptoms of leucorrhoea are removed, but that
the tone and functions of the uterine fyftem are com¬
pletely reftored by the ufe of cantharides.
As women are fometimes connected with thofe who
do not confcientioufty regard their fafety, it is a cir-
oumftance of the utmoft confequence to diflinguifh a
frefh venereal infeBion from the jluor alhus or whites :
for if the firft be miftaken for the laft, and be either ne¬
glected or improperly treated, the worft confequences
may arife.
The following figns will beft inform the patient whe¬
ther there be occafion for her doubts or not.
A frefti infeftion, called gonorrhoea, is malignant and
inflammatory ; the Jluor albus molt, commonly arifes
from relaxation and bodily weaknefs : and therefore the
uemedies proper in the firft diforder would render the
laft more violent, by locking up and confining the in¬
fectious matter.
In the gonorrhoea, the difeharge chiefly proceeds
from the parts contiguous to the urinary paflage, and
eontinues whilft the menfes flow } but in the Jluor albus
k is fupplied from the cavity of the womb and its paf-
fege, and then the menfes are feldom regular.
In the gonorrhoea, an itching, inflammation, and
heat of urine, are the forerunners ©f the difoharge 5 the
CINE. 365
orifice of the urinary paffage is prominent and painful, Catarrhus.
and the patient is affeCled with a frequent irritation to ,
make water. In the Jluor albus, pains in the loins, and
lofs of ftrength, attend the difeharge j and if any in¬
flammation or heat of urine follow, they happen in a
lefs degree, and only after a long continuance of the
difeharge, which, becoming fharp and acrimonious, ex¬
coriates the furrounding parts.
In the gonorrhoea, the difeharge foddenly appears
without any evident caufo ; but in the Jluor albus, it
comes on more flowly, and is often produced by irregu¬
larities of the menfes, frequent abortion, fprains, or
long-continued illncfs.
In the gonorrhoea, the difeharge is greenilh or yel¬
low, Ids in quantity, and not attended with the fame
fymptoms of weaknefs. In the fluor albus, although
fometimes of the fame colour, efpecially in bad habits
of body, and after long continuance, it is ufoally more
offenfive and redundant in quantity.
All the other kinds of haemorrhage enumerated by
medical writers, are by Dr Cullen reckoned to be fymp-
tomatic.
SfOMACACE, Sauv. gen. 241. Lin. 175. Vog. 85, .
Sag. gen. 177.
Species : Scorbutica, Purulenta, &c.
HJEMATEMESIS, Sauv. gen. 242. Lin. 184. Vog. 89.
Sag. gen. 177.
Species: Plethorica, Catamenialis, Scorbutica, &c.
HJEMATURIA, Sauv. gen. 233. Lin. 198. Vog. 92*
Sag. gen. 178.
Species : Purnlenta, Calculofa, Haemorrhoidalis, &c.
Order V. PROFLUVIA.
Genus XL. CATARRHUS.
The Catarrh.
Catarrhus, Sauv. gen. j86. Vog. 98. Sag, gen. 145.
Coryza, Lin. 174. Vog. 100. Sag. gen. 1^6.
Rheuma, Sauv. gen. 142.
Tuflis, Sauv. gen. 142. Lin. 155. Vog. 205. Sag.
r gen- 245, 255. Junck. 30.
Tuflis catarrhalis et rheumatica, Hojfm. III. 109.
Sp. I. Catarrh from COLD.
Catarrhus a frigore, Cul.
Catarrhus benign us, Sauv. fp. 1.
Catarrhus pe&oreus, Sauv. fp. 6.
Coryza catarrhalis, Sauv. fp. 1.
Coryza phlegmatorrhagia, Sauv. fp. 2. Salmuth.
Obf. cent. I, 37. Junck. 28. Morgagn. de fed.
xiv. 21.
Coryza febricofa, Sauv. fp. 6.
Tuflis catarrhalis, Sauv. fp. 1. N. Rofen. Difl*. apud
Haller, Difput. Praft. tom. ii.
Rheuma catarrhale, Sauv. fp. 1.
Amphimerina catarrhalis, Sauv. fp. 2.
Amphimerina tufliculofa, Sauv. fp. 13.
Cephalalgia catarrbalis, Sauv. fp. 10.
% Jh
a^r
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366 M E D I
Profluvia.
K-—v--—) Sp. II. Catarrh from CONTAGION.
«S3 _
Catarrhus & contagio. Cut.
Catarrhus epidemicus, Sauv. fp. 3.
Rheuma epidemicum, Sauv. fp. 2.
Synocha catarrhalis, Sauv. fp. 5.
There are feveral fymptomatic fpecies : as, Catarrhus
Rubeolofus ; Tuffis Variolofa, Verminofa, Calculofa,
Phthifica, Hyfterica, a dentitione, Gravidarum, Me-
tallicolarum, &c.
Defcription. The catarrh is an increafed excretion
of mucus from the mucous membrane of the nofe,
fauces and bronchiae, attended with pyrexia.
Pra6tical writers and nofologifts have diftinguilhed
the difeafe by different appellations, according as it
happens to affeft different parts of the mucous mem¬
brane, one part more or lefs than the other : but Dr
Cullen is of opinion that the difeafe in thofe different
parts is always of the fame nature, and proceeds from
the fame caufe in the one as in the other. Very com¬
monly indeed, thofe different parts are affe iled at the
fame time ; and therefore there is little room for the
diftinftion mentioned. The difeafe has been frequent¬
ly treated of under the title of tujjis or cough ; and a
cough, indeed, always attend the chief form of catarrh,
that is, the increafed excretion from the bronchiae ; but
as it is fo often alfo a fymptom of many other affections,
which are very different from one another, it is impro¬
perly ufed as a generic title.
The difeafe generally begins with fome difficulty of
breathing through the nofe, and with a fenfe of fome
fulnefs flopping up that paffage. This again is often
attended with fome dull pain and a fenfe of weight in
the forehead, as well as a ftiffnefs in the motion of the
eyes. Phefe feelings, fometimes at their very firft
beginning, and always foon after, are attended with
the diflillation of a thin fluid from the nofe, and
fometimes from the eyes ; and thefe fluids are often
found to be fomewhat acrid, both by their tafte and
by their fretting the parts over which they pafs.
Thefe fymptom.'' conftitute the coryza and gravedo of
authors, and are commonly attended with a fenfe of
laffitude over the whole body. Sometimes cold flii-
verings are felt •, at lead the body is more fenfible than
ufual to the coldnefs of the air 5 and with all this the
pulfe is more frequent than ordinary, efpecially in the
evenings.
Thefe fymptoms have feldom continued long before
they are accompanied with fome hoarfenefs, and a
fenfe of roughnefs and forenefs in the trachea, with
fome difficulty of breathing, exprefled by a fenfe of
ftraitnefs in the chefl, and with a cough which feems
to arife from fome irritation felt at the glottis. This
cough is generally at firft dry and painful, occafioning
pains about the cheft, and more efpecially in the
breaft ; fometimes, together with thefe fymptoms,
pains refembling thofe of the rheumatifm are felt in
ieveral parts of the body, particularly about the neck
and head. With all thefe fymptoms, the appetite is
impaired, fome thirft arifes, and a feverifh laffitude is
felt all over the body. Thefe fymptoms mark the
height and violence of the difeafe ; but commonly
it does not continue long. By degrees the cough
1
CINE.  : Praflice,
comes to be attended with a more copious excretion of Catarrhus
mucus •, which is at firft thin, but gradually becoming
thipker, is brought up with lefs frequent and lefs la¬
borious coughing. The hoarfenefs and forenefs of
the trachea are alfo relieved or removed 5 and the fe¬
brile fymptoms abating, the expectoration becomes
again lefs confiderable, and the cough lefs frequent, till
at length they ceafe altogether.
Such is generally the courfe of this difeafe, neither
tedious nor dangerous 5 but it is fometimes in both
refpedts otherwife. The body fubjeCted to catarrh
feems to be more than ufually liable to be affefted
by cold air ; and upon expofure of the body to frefh
cold, the difeafe, which feemed to be yielding, is
often brought back with greater violence than before,
and is rendered not only more tedious than otherwife
it would be, but alfo more dangerous by the fuperven-
ing of other difeafes. Some degree of the cynanche
tonfillaris often accompanies the catarrh ; and when
this is aggravated by a frefti application of cold, the
cynanche alfo becomes more violent and dangerous
from the cough which is prefent at the fame time.
When a catarrh has been occalioned by a violent caufe,
when it has been aggravated by improper manage¬
ment, and efpecially when it has been rendered more
violent by freffi and repeated applications of cold, it
often paffes into a pneumonic inflammation, attended
with the utmoft danger.
Unlefs, however, fuch accidents as thefe happen, a
catarrh, in found perfons not far advanced in life, is
always a flight and fafe difeafe : but, in perfons of a
phthifical difpofition, a catarrh may readily produce a
haemoptyfis, or perhaps form tubercles, in the lungs ;
and ftill more readily in perfons who have tubercles
already formed in the lungs, an accidental catarrh may
occafion the inflammation of thefe tub .rcles, and in
confequence produce a phthifis pulmonalis.
In elderly perfons, a catarrh fometimes proves a
dangerous difeafe. Many perfons, as they advance in
life, and efpecially after they have arrived at old age,
have the natural mucus of the lungs poured out in
greater quantity, and requiring a frequent expedlora-
tion. If, therefore, a catarrh happen to fuch per¬
fons, and increafe the afflux of fluids to the lungs,
with fome degree of inflammation, it may produce
the peripneumonia notha, or more properly chronic
catarrh, a difeafe continuing often for many years, or
at leaft returning regularly every winter j which in fuch
cafes is very often fatal.
Caufes, &c. The proximate caufe of catarrh feems
to be an increafed afflux of fluids to the mucous mem¬
brane of the nofe, fauces, and bronchiae, along with
fome degree of inflammation affecting the fame. The
latter circumftance is confirmed by this, that, in the
cafe of catarrh, the blood drawn from a vein com¬
monly exhibits the fame inflammatory cruft which ap¬
pears in the cafe of phlegmafiae. The remote cauf@
of catarrh is moft commonly cold applied to the body.
This application of cold producing catarrh is gene¬
rally evident 5 and Dr Cullen is of opinion that it wTould
always be fo, were men acquainted Avith and attentive
to the circumftanees which determine cold to aifl upon
the body.
The application of cold which occafions a catarrh
probably operates by flopping the difcharge ufually
made
pradice. M E D I
Profluvia. made by the {kin, and winch is therefore determined to
the mucous membrane of the parts above mentioned.
As a part of the weight which the body daily lofes by
infenfible evacuation, is owing to an exhalation from
the lungs, there is probably a connexion between this
exhalation and the cutaneous perfpiration, fo that the
one may be increafed according as the other is dimi-
niihed ; and therefore we may underhand how the di¬
minution of cutaneous perfpiration, by the application
of cold, may increafe the afflux of fluids to the lungs,
and thereby produce a catarrh.
Dr Cullen remarks that there are fome obfervations
of Dr James Keil which may render this matter
doubtful 5 but fays there is a fallacy in thofe obferva¬
tions. The evident effedls of cold in producing
coryza, leave the matter, in general, without doubt j
and there are feveral other obfervations which fliow a
connexion between the lungs and the furface of the
body.
Whether from the fuppreflion of perfpiration, a ca¬
tarrh be produced merely by an increafed afflux of
fluids, or whether in addition to this the matter of per¬
fpiration be at the fame time determined to the mu¬
cous glands, and there excites a particular irritation,
may be uncertain ; but Dr Cullen thinks the latter
fuppofition is moft probable.
Although in the cafe of a common catarrh, which
is in many inftances fporadic, it may be doubtful
whether any morbific matter be applied to the mu¬
cous glands j yet we are certain that the fymp-
toms of a catarrh do frequently depend upon fuch a
matter being applied to thefe glands, as appears from
the cafe of meafles, chincough, and efpecially from
the frequent occurrence of contagious and epidemical
catarrh.
The phenomena of contagious catarrhs have been
much the fame with thofe of the others ; and the dif-
eafe has always been particularly remarkable for this,
that it has been the moll; widely and generally fpread-
ing epidemic known. It has feldom appeared in any
one country of Europe, without appearing fucceffively
in almoll every different part of it 5 and, in fome in¬
ftances, it has been alfo transferred to America, and
has been fpread there in like manner, fo far as we have
had opportunities of being informed.
The catarrh from contagion appears with nearly
the fame fymptoms as thofe above mentioned. It feems
often to come on in confequence of the application of
cold. And indeed catarrh from cold and contagion
are in every refpedf fo fimilar, that when this epide¬
mic rages, it is impoflible to determine with a perfon
having fymptoms of catarrh after expofure to cold,
whether the difeafe proceeds from the one caufe or
the other. In moft inftances, however, catarrh from
contagion comes on with more cold ftnvering than the
catarrh arifing from cold alone *, and the former does
alfo not only fooner Ihow febrile fymptoms, but to
a more confiderable degree. Accordingly, it more
fpeedily runs its courfe, which is commonly finilhed
in a few days. It fometimes ends by a fpontaneous
fweat j and this, in fome perfons, produces a miliary
eruption. It is, however, the febrile ftate of this
difeafe efpecially that is finilhed in a few days j for
the cough and other catarrhal fymptoms do frequent¬
ly continue longer, and often when they appear to be
CINE. 367
going off they are renewed by any frefh application of Catarrhus.
cold. ' - *
Prognojis. Confidering the number of perfons Avho
are affected with catarrh, of either the one fpecies or
the other, and efcape from it quickly without any
hurt, it may be allowed to be a difeafe commonly free
from danger : but it is not always to be treated as fuch $
for in fome perfons it is accompanied with pneumonic
inflammation. In the phthifically difpofed, it often
accelerates the coming on of phthifis j and in elderly
perfons it often proves fatal in the manner we have ex¬
plained above, viz. by degenerating into its chronic
ftate. But though chronic catarrh be often the termi¬
nation of that fpecies which arifes from cold, we have
not, in any cafe, obferved it to arife as a confequence
of a catarrh from contagion. This fpecies of catarrh,
however, is not unfrequently followed by phthifis 5 or
rather, where a phthifical tendency before exifted, the
affection has been begun and its progrefs accelerated
from this caufe.
Cure. The cure of catarrh is nearly the fame,
whether it proceeds from cold or contagion $ only in
the latter cafe remedies are commonly more neceffary
than in the former. In the cafes of a moderate dif¬
eafe, it is commonly fufficient to avoid cold, or to ab-
ftain from animal food for fome days. In fome cafes,
where the febrile fymptoms are confiderable, it is pro¬
per for that length of time to lie in bed, and, by taking
frequently fome mild and diluted drink, a little warm¬
ed, to promote a very gentle fweat 3 and after this to
take care to return very gradually only to the ufe of
the free air. When the difeafe is more violent, not
only the antiphlogiftic regimen, exactly obferved, but
various remedies alfo, become neceflary. To take
off the phlogiftic diathefis which always attends this
difeafe, blood-letting, more or lefs, according as the
fymptoms (hall require, is the proper remedy. After
blood-letting, for reftoring the determination of the
fluids to the furface of the body,- and at the lame
time for expediting the fecretion of mucus in the lungs,
which may take off the inflammation of its membrane,
vomiting is the moft effedtual means. For the laft-
mentioned purpofe, it has been fuppofed that fquills,
gum-ammoniac, the volatile alkali, and fome other
medicines, might be ufeful 3 but their efficacy has
never been found confiderable : and if fquills have ever
been very ufeful, it feems to have been rather by their
emetic than by their expe&orant powers. When the
inflammatory affections of the lungs feem to be confi¬
derable, it is proper, befides blood-letting, to apply blif-
ters to the back or fides.
As a cough is often the moft troublefome circum-
ftance of this difeafe, fo demulcents may be employed
to alleviate it. But after the inflammatory fymptoms
are much abated, if the cough ftill remains, opiates af¬
ford the moft effectual means of relieving it 3 and, in
the circumftances juft now mentioned, they may be
very fafely employed. Very confiderable advantage
is often derived from employing opiates in fuch a
manner as to aft more immediately on the head of
the wind-pipe. For this purpofe, opium may often
be advantageoufly conjoined with demulcents, melting
flowly in the mouth. And perhaps no form is more
convenient, or anfwers the purpofe better, than the
trochifci glycyrrhixte cum opio of the Edinburgh Phar¬
macopoeia,
3*58
Proflu via, macopceia, v/here piirifieJ opium is combined with
v - ._' exira^ 0£ liqJ10rice> gum arabic, and other demul¬
cents, to the extent of about a grain in a dram of the
compoficion. After the inflammatory and febrile
Hates of this difeafe arc very much gone, the molt ef-
feffual means of difcuffing all remains of the catarrhal
affection is by fome exercife of geilation diligently em¬
ployed.
Befides the remedies above mentioned, Dr Mudge,
In a treatife on this difeafe, recommends the Hearn of
warm water as a mofl efficacious and fafe remedy for
a catarrh, and which indeed he feems to confider as
little lefs than infallible. The method of breathing in
thefe fleams is defcribed under the word Inhaler j
but he gives a caution to people in health, who may
accidentally fee his machine, not to make the experi¬
ment of breathing through cold water with it, or they
will be almofl certain of catching a fevere cold. His
direflions for thofc troubled with the catarrh are as
follow :
“ In the evening, a little before bedtime, the pa¬
tient, if of adult age, is to take three drams, or as
many tea-fpoonfuls, of elixir paregoricum, in a glafs
of water : if the fubjeft be younger, for inflance under
five years old, one tea-fpoonful j or between that and
ten years, two. About three quarters of an hour af¬
ter, the patient fhould go to bed, and, being covered
warm, the inhaler three parts filled with water nearly
boiling (which, from the coldnefs of the metal, and
the time it ordinarily takes before it is to be ufcd by
the patient, will be of a proper degree of warmth),
and being wrapped up in a napkin, but fo that tire
valve in the cover is not obflru&ed by it, is to be
placed at the arm-pit, and the bedclothes being drawn
up and over it dole to the throat, the tube is to be
applied to the mouth, and the patient fhould infpire
and expire through it for about twenty minutes or
half an hour.
“ It is very evident, as the whole a£t of refpiration
is performed through the machine, that in infpiration
the lungs will be filled with air which will be hot, and
loaded with vapour, by pafTmg through the body of
water ; and in exfpiration, all that was contained in
the lungs will, by mixing with the fleam on the fur-
face of the water, be forced through the valve in the
cover, and fettle on the furface of tire body under the
bedclothes.
“ The great ufe of this particular eonflruftion of
the inhaler is this: Firft, As there is no neeeflity, at
the end of every infpiration, to remove the tube from
the mouth, in order to expire from the lungs the va¬
pour which had been received into them, this machine
mav therefore be ufed with as much cafe by children
as older people-. And, fecondly, As a feverifh habit
frequently accompanies the dborder, the valve in that
refpeft alfo is of the utmoft importance : for a fweat,
or at lead a free perfpiration, not only relieves the
patient from the reftlefs anxiety of a hot, dry, and
fometimes parched fkin, but is alfo, of all evacuations,
the moft eligible for removing the fever; and it will
be generally found, that, after the inhaler fo con-
ftrufted has been ufed a few minutes, the warm
vapour under the clothes will, by fettling upon the
trunk, produce a fweat, which will gradually extend
itfelf to the legs and feet.
France,
“ In a catarrhous fever, or any feveriih habit attend- (.atnrhm
ing this cough, it Avould be proper to take a draught of
warm thin whey a few minutes before the inhaler be
tiled) and after the procefs is over, the fweat which it
has produced may be continued by occafional final!
draughts of weak warm whey or barley-water. The
{'wonting is by no means fo neceffary to the cure of the
catarrhous cough, as that the fuceefs of the inhaler
againft that complaint at all depends upon it.
“ After this refpiratory procefs is over, the patient
ufually palTes the night without the leaft interruption
from the cough, and feels no further moleftation from
it than once or twice in the morning to throw off the
trifling leakage which, unperceived, had dripped into
the bronchite and velicles during the night 5 the thin¬
ner parts of which being evaporated, what remains is
foon got rid of by a very gentle effort.
“ I cannot, however, take leave of this part of my
fubjefl, without pointedly obferving, that if the pa¬
tient means not to be difappointed by my affurances or
his own expeflations, it is effentially neceffary that the
following remarks, with regard to the time and man¬
ner of ufing this procefs, ftiould be ftrkdly attended
to.
“ Firft, That as tender valetudinary people are but
too well acquainted with the firft notices of the diforder,
the remedy muft, or ought to be, ufed the fame even¬
ing 5 which will, in an ordinary feizure, be attended
with an immediate cure : but if the forenefs of the re¬
fpiratory organs, or the petulance of the cough, fhow
the cold which has been contrafled to have been very
fevere, the inhaler, 'without the opiate, ftiould be again
-repeated for the fame time the next morning.
“ Secondly, If the ufe of the inhaler, &e. be delay¬
ed till the fecond night, it will be always right to re¬
peat it again the next morning witlrout the opiate, but
with it if the feizure has been violent.
“ And, laftly, If the cough be of fome days {land¬
ing, it w ill be always neceflary to employ both parts
of the procefs at night and the fuCceeding morning,
as the firft fitnple inflammatory mifebief is now moft
probably aggravated by an additional one of a chrome
tendency.
w But if, through the want of a timely application,
or a total neglect of this or any other remedy, the
cough ihould continue to harafs the patient, it is, par¬
ticularly m delicate and tender con ft i tut ions, of the ut¬
moft confequence to attempt the removal of it as foon
as poffible, before any floating acrimony in tire confti-
tution (from the perpetual irritation) receives an habi¬
tual determination to an organ fo efl'ential to life as the
lungs.
“ If tire patient expectorate with eafe and freedom
a thick and v/ell-digefted inoffenfive plftegm, there is
generally but little doubt of his fpitting oft' the diior-
der, with common care, in a few days j and till that he
accompliflied,. a proper dofe of elixir paregoricum for
a few fucceflive nights will be found very ufeiul in fup-
prefling the fatiguing irritation and ifieffeftual cough,
oecafioned by a matter which, dripping in the early
ftate of the diieafe into the bronchiai during the night,
is commonly at that time too thin to be difehargeu by
thefe convulfive efforts.
“ If, however, notwithftanding a free and copious
expeftoration, the cough ftiould ftill continue, and the
difeharge,
MEDICINE.
Pra&ice. M EDI
Profluvia. difcliarge, inftead of removing tlie complaint, fhould
v'”"; jtfelf, by becoming a difeafe, be a greater expence than
the conftitution can well fupport, it is poflible that a
tender paUent may fpit off his life through a weak re¬
laxed pair of lungs, without the leaf! appearance of pu-
rulence, or any fufpicion of fuppuration. In thofe cir-
cumffances, befides, as was mentioned before, increafing
tke general perfpiration by the falutary friclion of a
flannel waillcoat, change offltuation, and more efpecially
long journeys on horfeback, conduced as much as pof-
fible through a thin, fharp, dry air, will feldom fail of
removing the complaint.
“ But, on the contrary, if the cough fhould, at
the fame time that it is petulant and fatiguing to the
breaft, continue dry, hufky, and without expe&ora-
tion; provided there be reafon to hope that no tu¬
bercles are forming, or yet aftually formed, there is
not perhaps a more efficacious remedy for it than half
a dram of gum-ammoniacum, with 18 or 20 drops
of liquid laudanum, made into pills, and taken at bed¬
time, and occafionally repeated. This excellent re¬
medy Sir John Pringle did me the honour to commu¬
nicate to me ; and I have accordingly found it, in a
great many inftanees, amazingly fuccefsful, and gene¬
rally very expeditioufly fo, for it feldom fails to pro¬
duce an expectoration, and to abate the diftrefling fa¬
tigue of the cough. In thofe circumitances I have
like wife found the common remedy of 3fs or 9ij of
half fulph. anifui. taken twice a-day, in a little pow¬
dered fugar or any other vehicle, a very efficacious
one. I have alfo, many times, known a falutary re-
vulfion made from the lungs by the Ample application
of a large plafler, about five or fix inches diameter, of
Burgundy pitch, between the fhoulders •, for the perfpi-
rable matter, which is locked up under it, becomes fo
ftiarp and acrid, that in a few days it feldom fails to
produce a very confiderable itching, fome little ten¬
dency to inflammation, and very frequently a great
number of boils. This application fhould be continued
{the plafter being occafionally changed), for three
weeks or a month, or longer, if the complaint be not fo
foon removed.
“ And here I cannot help obferving, that, though
feemingly a trifling, it is however by no means an ufe-
lefs caution to the tender patient, not to expofe his
fhoulders in bed, and during the night, to the cold;
but when he lies down, to take care they be kept
warm, by drawing the bedclothes up clofe to his back
and neck.
“ If, however, notwithstanding tliefe and other
means, the cough, continuing dry or unattended with
a proper expeftoration, fhould perfevere in haraffing
the patient 5 if, at lafl, it fhould produce, together
with a forenefs, (hooting pains through the breaft and
between the fhoulders, attended alfo with fhortnefs of
the breath j and if, added to this, flufhes of the cheeks
after meals, fealding in the hands and feet, and other
lymptoms of a he£lic, fhould accompany the diforder ;
there is certainly no time to be loft, as there is the
greateft reafon to apprehend that fome acrimony in
the habit is determined to the tender fubftance of
the lungs, and that confequently tubercular fuppura-
tions will follow. In this critical and dangerous fi-
i nation, I think I can venture to fay from long ex¬
perience, that, accompanied with changes of air and oc»
Vol. XIII. Parti.
CINE. 369
cafional bleedings, the patient will find his greateft fe-Py^enteria-
curity in a drain from a large fcapular ilfue, aflifted by " v ’
a diet of alfes milk and vegetables.”
Genus XLI. DYSENTERIA. 454
The DrsENTER T.
Dyfenteria, Sauv. gen. 248. Lin. 19 r. Vog. 107.
Sag. 183. Hoffm. III. j51. Junck. 76.
Defeription. The dyfentery is a difeafe in which
the patient has frequent ftools, accompanied with
much griping, and followed by a tenefmus. The
ftools, though frequent, are generally in fmall quan¬
tity } and the matter voided is chiefly mucus, fome-
times mixed with blood. At the fame time, the na¬
tural faeces feldom appear-, and when they do, it is
generally in a compatl and hardened form, often un¬
der the form of fmall hard fubftances known by the
name of fcybala. This difeafe occurs efpecially in
fummer and autumn, at the fame time with autumnal
intermittent and remittent fevers j and with thefe it
is often complicated. It comes on fometimes with
cold fhiverings, and other fymptoms of pyrexia-, but
more commonly the fymptoms of the topical affedlion
appear firft. I he belly is eoftive, with an unufual fla¬
tulence in the bowels. Sometimes, though more rare¬
ly, fome degree of diarrhoea is the firft appearance.—
In moft cafes, the difeafe begins with griping, and a
fiequent inclination to go to ftool. In indulging this,
little is voided, but fome tenefmus attends it. By de¬
grees the ftools become more frequent, the griping
more fevere, and the tenefmus more confiderable.—
With thefe fymptoms there is a lofs of appetite, and
frequently ficknefs, naufea, and vomiting, alfo affeft-
ing the patient. At the fame time there is always
more or. lefs of . pyrexia prefent. It is fometimes of
the remittent kind, and obferves a tertian period.—
Sometimes the pyrexia is manifeftly inflammatory, and
very often of a putrid kind. Thefe febrile ftates con¬
tinue, to accompany the difeafe during its whole courfe,
efpecially when it terminates foon in a fatal manner.
In other cafes, the febrile ftate almoft entirely difap-
pears, while the proper dyfenteric fymptoms remain
for a long time after. In the courfe of the difeafe,
whether for a fhorter or a longer time, the matter
voided by ftool is very various. Sometimes it is mere¬
ly a mucous matter, without any blood, exhibitino-
that difeafe which is named by fome the morbus nwco-
fus, and by others the dyfenteriu alba. For the moft
part, however, the mucus difeharged is more or lefs
mixed with blood. I his fometimes appears only in
ftreaks among the mucus ; but at other times is more
copious, giving a tina to. the whole: and upon fome
occafions a pure and unmixed blood is voided in eon-
fiderable quantity. In other refpe&s, the matter void¬
ed is varioufly changed in colour and confiftence, and
is commonly of a ftrong and unufually fetid odour. It
is probable, that fometimes a genuine pus is voided,
and frequently a putrid fanies, proceeding from gan¬
grenous parts. J here are very often mixed with the
liquid matter fome films of a membranous appear¬
ance, and frequently fome fmall maffes of a feemingly
febaceous matter. While the ftools voiding thefe va¬
rious matters, are, in many inftances, exceedingly fre-
3 A quent,
.37° .
Profluvia. quent, it is feldom that natural faeces appear in them ;
v and when they do appear, it is, as we have laid, in the
form of fcybala, that is, in fomewhat hardened, fe-
parate balls. When thefe are voided, whether by the
efforts of nature or as folicited by art, they procure
a remiffion of all the fymptoms, and more efpecially of
the frequent tlools, griping, and tenefmus.
Accompanied W'ith thefe eircumflances, the difeafe
proceeds for a longer or fhorter time. When the
pyrexia attending it is of a violent inflammatory kind,
and more efpecially when it is of a very putrid nature,
the difeafe often terminates fatally in a very few days,
with all the marks of a fupervening gangrene. When
the febrile ftate is more moderate, or difappears alto¬
gether, the difeafe is often protracted for weeks, and
even for months} but, even then, after a various du¬
ration, it often terminates fatally, and generally in
confequence of a return and confiderable aggravation
of the inflammatory and putrid ftates. In fome cafes,
the difeafe ceafes fpontaneoully *, the frequency of
{tools, the griping, and tenefmus, gradually diminilh-
ing, while natural (tools return. In other cafes, the
difeafe, with moderate fymptoms, continues long, and
ends in a diarrhoea, fometimes accompanied with lien-
teric fymptoms.
Caufes, &c. The remote caufes of this difeafe
have been variouily reprefented. In general it arifes in
fummer or autumn, after confiderable heats have pre¬
vailed for fome time, and efpecially after very, warm
and at the fame time very dry ftates of the weather :
and the difeafe is much more frequent in warm than
in cooler climates. It happens, therefore, in the fame
circumftances and feafons which conftderably affedl
the ftate of the bile in the human body ; but the cho¬
lera is often without any dyfenteric fymptoms, and co¬
pious difeharges of bile have been found to relieve the
fymptoms of dyfentery; fo that it is difficult to de¬
termine what connexion the difeafe has with the ftate
of the bile.
It has been obferved, that the effluvia from very pu¬
trid animal fubftances readily affeCf the alimentary ca¬
nal, and, upon occafion, they certainly produce a diar¬
rhoea ; but whether they ever produce a genuine dy¬
fentery, is not certain.
The dyfentery does often manifeftly arife from the
application of cold, but the difeafe is always conta¬
gious 5 and, by the propagation of fuch contagion, in¬
dependent of cold, or other exciting caufes, it be¬
comes epidemic in camps and other places. It is,
therefore, to be doubted if the application of cold
ever produces the difeafe, unlefs where the fpeciflc con¬
tagion has been previoufly received into the body;
and, upon the whole, it is probable that a fpecific con-
tagion is to be confidered as being always the remote
caufe of this difeafe.
Whether this contagion, like many others, be of a
permanent nature, and only (hows its effedls in certain
circumftances which render it adfive, or if it be occa-
ftonally produced, we cannot determine. Neither, if.
the latter fuppofition be received, can we fav by what
means it mav be generated. As little do we know
any thing of its nature, confidered in itfelf*, or at
rnoft, only this, that in common with many other con¬
tagions, it is very often fomewhat of a putrid nature,
and capable of inducing a putrefeent tendency in the
Practice,
human body. This, however, does not at all explain Dyfenteri*!
the peculiar effedl of inducing thofe fymptoms which 
properly and eifentially conftitute dyfentery. Of thefe
fymptoms the proximate eaufe is ftill obfeure.—The
common opinion has been, that the difeafe depends up¬
on an acrid matter thrown upon or fomehow generated
in the inteftines, exciting their periftaltic motion, and
thereby producing the frequent (tools which occur in
this difeafe. But this fuppoiition cannot be adopted 5
for, in all the inftances known, of acrid fubftances ap¬
plied to the inteftines, and producing frequent (tools,
they at the fame time produce copious (tools* as might
be expected from acrid fubftances applied to any length
of the inteftines. l ifts, however, is not the caie in dy¬
fentery, in which the (tools, however frequent, are ge¬
nerally in very fmall quantity, and fuch as may be fup-
pofed to proceed from the lower parts of the re6tum
only. With refpedt to the fuperior portions of the in¬
teftines, and particularly thofe of the colon, it is pro¬
bable they are under a preternatural and confiderable
degree of con fir let ion : for, as we have faid above, the
natural faeces are feldom voided 5 and wfflen they are, it
is in a form which gives reafon to fuppofe they
have been long retained in the cells of the colon,
and confequently that the colon had been affeded
with a preternatural conftricfton. This is confirmed
by almoft all the di(fedions which have been made
of the bodies of dyfenteric patients; in which, when
gangrene had not entirely deftroyed the texture and
form of the parts, large portions of the great guts have
been found affected with a very confiderable conftric-
tion.
The proximate caufe of dyfentery, or at lead the
chief part of the proximate caufe, feems to confiit in a
preternatural conftridion of the colon, occafioning, at
the fame time, thofe fpafmodic efforts which are felt
in fevere gripings, and which efforts, propagated down¬
wards to the redum, oecafion there the frequent mu¬
cous (tools and tenefmus. But whether this expla¬
nation (hall be admitted or not, it will ftill remain cer¬
tain, that hardened feces, retained in the colon, are
the caufe of the griping, frequent (tools, and tenef¬
mus : for the evacuation of thefe feces, whether by
nature or by art, gives relief -from the fymptoms men¬
tioned ; and it will be more fully and ufefully confirm¬
ed by this, that the mod immediate and fucGefsful cure
of dyfentery is obtained by an early and conftant at¬
tention to the preventing the eonftridion, and the fre¬
quent ftagnation of feces in the colon.
Cure. In the early periods of this difeafe, the objeds
chiefly to be aimed at are the following: The dif-
charge of acrid matter depofited in the alimentary
canal; the counterading the influence of this matter
when it cannot be evacuated •, the obviating the effeds
refulting from fuch acrid matter as can neither be eva¬
cuated nor deflroyed 5 and, finally, the prevention of
any further feparation and depofition of fuch matter
in the alimentary canal. In the more advanced pe¬
riods of the difeafe, the principal objeds are, the giv¬
ing a proper defence to the inteftines againft irritat¬
ing caufes; the diminution of the morbid fenfibilitv of
the inteftinal canal: and the reft oration of due vigour
to the fyftem in general, but to the inteftines in par¬
ticular.
The mod eminent of cur late praditioners, and
of
MEDICINE.
pra&ice. M E D I
froflima. of greateft experience in this difeafe, feem to be of
— v —' opinion, that it is to be cured molt effe&ually by pur¬
ging, afliduoufly employed. 1 he means may be various ;
but the moil gentle laxatives are ufually fufficient; and,
as the medicine mult be frequently repeated, thefe are
the mod fafe, more efpecially as an inflammatory ftate
fo frequently accompanies the difeafe. Whatever laxa¬
tives produce an evacuation of natural faeces, and a
confcquent remiflkm of the fymptoms, will be fuilieient
to effeCluate the cure. But if the gentle laxatives fhall
not produce the evacuation now mentioned, fomewliat
more powerful mull be employed ; and Dr Cullen has
found nothing more proper or convenient than tartar
emetic, given in fmall doles, and at fucli intervals as
may determine its operation to be chiefly by ftool. To
the tartrite of antimony, however, employed as a pur¬
gative, the great ficknefs which it is apt to occafion,
and-the tendency which it has, notwithflanding every
precaution, to operate as an emetic, are certainly ob-
jeelions. Another antimonial, at one time conlidered
as an almoll infallible remedy for this difeafe, the vi-
trum antimonii ceratum, is no lei’s exceptionable, from
the uncertainty and violence of its operation ; and
perhaps ;he fated: and bed purgatives are the different
neutral ialts, particularly thofe containing foffil alkali,
fucli as the foda vitriolata tartarifata or pho!phorata.
lih ibarb, fa frequently employed, is, Dr Cullen thinks,
in fcveral refpefts, amonglt the mod unfit purgatives 5
and indeed from its adringent quality, it is exception¬
able at the commencement of the affection, unlefs it be
conjoined with famei bing to render its operation more
br; A, fuch as mild m- iriated mercury, or calomel as it
is commonly called.
Vomiting has been held a principal remedy in this
difeafe ; and may be ufefully employed in the be¬
ginning,. with a view hotli to the date of the
domach and of the fever: but it is not neceffary
to rem at it often ; and, unlefs the emet’es employed
operate alfo by ftool, they are of little fervice. Ipe¬
cacuanha is by no means a fpecifie •, and it prov'pes on¬
ly ufeful when fo managed as to operate chiefly by
ftool.
For relieving the confl rift ion of the colon, and eva¬
cuating the retained faeces, clvfters may fometimes
be ufi ful ; but they are feldom fo effeflual as laxatives
given by the mouth ; and acrid clyfters, if they be
not effectual in evacuating the colon, mav prove hurt-
iul bv ftimulating the reftum too much.
1 he frequent and fevere griping attending this dif¬
eafe. leads almoft n^ceffanlv to the ufe of opiates ; and
they are very effectual for the purnofe of relieving
from the gripes : but. bv occafioning an interruption
of the aftion of the fmall intedines, they favour the
condriftion of the colon, and therebv aggravate the
difeafe 5 and if, at the fame time, the ufe of them fu-
perfede in any meafire the employing purgatives, it
is doing much mifehief; and the negleft of purging
feems to be the only thing which renders the ufe of
opiates very nece^arv.
When the gripes are both frequent and fevere, they
mav fometimes be relieved bv the employment of the
femicupium, or bv fomentation of the abdomen con¬
tinued for fotne time. In the fame cafe, the pains
may be relieved, and the condriction of the colon
CINE. 37e
may be taken oft", by bliders applied to the lower Oyfemeria.
At the beginning of this difeafe, when the fever
is any way confiderable, bloodletting, in patients of
tolerable vigour, may be proper and necefiary $ and,
when the pulfe is full and hard, with other fymptoms
of an indammatory difpofition, bloodletting ought
to be repeated. But, as the fever attending dyfentery
is oiten of the typhoid kind, or does, in the courfe of
the difeafe, become foon of that nature, bloodletting
mud be cautioufly employed.
From our account of the nature of this difeafe, it
will be fufficicntly obvious, that the ufe of adringents
in the beginning of it mud be very pernicious. But
although adringents may be hurtful at early periods
of this affe&ion, yet it cannot be denied, that where
frequent loofe dools remain after the febrile fymp¬
toms have fubfided, they are often of great fervice
for diminifhing morbid fenfibility, and redoring due
vigour to the intedinal canal. Accordingly, on this
ground a variety of articles have been highly celebrat¬
ed in this affe£Hon; among others wre may mention
the quaffia, radix indica lopeziana, verbafeum, ex-
traeflum catechu, and gum kino, all of which have
certainly in particular cafes been employed with great
advantage. And perhaps alfo, on the fame principles
we are to account for the benefit which has be< n fome¬
times derived from the nux vomica, a remedy highly
extolled in cafes of dyfentery by fume of the Swedidi
phydeians ; but this article, it mud be allowed, often
proves very powerful as an evacuant. Its effects, how¬
ever, whatever its mode of operation may be, are too
precarious to allow its ever being introduced into
common pradfice *, and in this country, it has, we be¬
lieve, been but very rarely employed. Whether
an acrid matter be the original caufe of the dyfen-
tery, may be uncertain ; but, from the indigedion,
and the dagnation of fluids, which attend the dif¬
eafe, we may fuppofe that fome acrid matters are con-
dantly prefent in the domach and intedines; and
therefore that demulcents may be always ufefully em¬
ployed. At the fame lime, from the confideration
that mild oily matters thrown into the intedines in
confiderable quantity always prove laxative, Dr Cullen
is of opinion, that the oleaginous demulcents are the
mod ufeful. Where, however, thefe are not accept¬
able to the patient’s tade, thofe of the mucilaginous
and farinaceous kind, as the dneoftum hordei, polio
cretacea, &c. are often empf yrd with advantage.
As this difeafe is fo often of an inflammatory or
of a putrid nature, it is evident that the diet em¬
ployed in it (hould be vegetable and acs fei nt. Milk,
in its entire date, is of doubtful quality in many
cafes ; but even fome portion of the cream is often al¬
lowable, and whey is always proper.— In the firft
dages of the difeafe, the fweet and fnbacid fruits are
allowable, and even proper. It is in the more advan¬
ce:! dages only that anv morbid acidity feems to nre-
vail in the domach, and to require fome referve in the-
ufe of acefcents. At the beginning of the difeafe, ab-
forbents feem to be fuperftuous ; and, bv their adrin¬
gent and fi-ptic powers, they may be hurtful •, but in
after periods ihev are often of advantage.
When this difeafe is complicated with an intermit-
3 A 2 tent,
372
t Comata- tent, and is protradled from that circumftance chiefly,
v it is to be treated as an intermittent, by adminiftering
the cinchona, which in the earlier periods of the difeafe
is hardly to be admitted.
Class II. NEUROSES.
Order I. COMATA.
COMATA, Sauv. Clafs VI. Ord. II. Sag. Clafs IX.
Order V.
Soporofl, Lin. Clafs VI. Ord. II.
Adynamiae, Vog. Clafs VI.
Nervorum refolutiones, Hojfm. III. 194.
Affedlus foporofi, Hoffm. ill. 209.
Motuum vitalium defedlus, Lunch. 1x4.
*55 Genus XLII. APOPLEXIA.
The APOPLEXT.
Apoplexia, Sauv. gen. 182. Lin. 101. Vog. 229.
Boerh. 1007. Lunch. 117. Sag. gen. 288. IVep-
fer. Hill, apopledlicorum.
Cams, Sauv. gen. 181. Lin. 100. Vog. 231.
Boerh. 1045. Sag. gen. 287.
Cataphora, Sauv. gen. 180. Lin. 99. Vog. 232.
Boerh. 1045. Sag. gen. 286.
Coma, Vog. 232. Boerh. 1048.
Haemorrhagia cerebri, Hoffm. II. 240.
To this genus alfo Dr Cullen reckons the following
difeafes to belong :
Catalepfis, Sauv. gen. 176. Lin. 129. Vog. 230.
Sag. gen. 281. Boerh. 1036. Lunch. 44.
Affectus cerebri fpafmodico-ecflaticus, Hoffm. III.
44.
Ecilafis, Sauv. gen. 177. Vog.^^. Sag. gen. 283.
The following he reckons fymptomatic :
Typhomania, Sauv. gen. 178. Lin. 97. Vog. 23.
Sag. gen. 284.
Lethargus, Sauv. gen. 179. Lin. 98. Vog. 22.
Sag. gen. 285.
This difeafe appears under modifications fo vari¬
ous, as to require fome obfervations writh refpecl to
each.
Sp. I. The Sanguineous APOPLEXT.
Defcription. In this difeafe the patients fall fud-
denly down, and are deprived of all fenfe and voluntary
motion, but without convulfions. A giddinefsiof the
head, noife in the ears, corufcations before the eyes,
and rednefs of the face, ufually precede. The diilin-
guithing fymptom of the difeafe is a deep fleep, attend¬
ed with violent fnorting ; if any thing be put into the
mouth, it is returned through the nofe ; nor can any
thing be fwallowed without {hutting the noftrils ; and
even when this is done, the perfon is in the utmoft dan¬
ger of fuffocation. Sometimes apopleclic patients will
open their eyes after having taken a large dofe of an
emetic ; but if they (how no lign of fenfe, there is not
the leaft hope of their recovery. Sometimes the apo¬
plexy terminates in a hemiplegia) in which cafe it comes
Pra&ice,
on with a diftortion of the mouth towards the found fide, Apoplexia,
a drawing of the tongue the fame w ay, and Hammering""r'-J
of the fpeech, Diffedlions fometimes Ihow a rupture of
fome veffels of the meninges, or even velfels of the brain
itfelf; though fometimes, if we may believe Dr Willis
no defedt is to be obferved either in the cerebrum or ce¬
rebellum.
Caufes, &c. The general caufe of a fanguineous
apoplexy is a plethoric habit of body, with a determi¬
nation to the head. The difeafe therefore may be
brought on by whatever violently urges on the circula¬
tion of the blood; fuch as furfeits, intoxication, violent
paffions of the mind, immoderate exercife, &c. It
takes place, however, for the moll part, when the ve¬
nous plethora has fubfiiled for a confiderable time in
the fyftem. For that reafon it commonly does not
attack people till paft the age of 60 5 and that whe¬
ther the patients are corpulent and have a fhort neck,
or w hether they are of a lean habit of body. Till peo¬
ple be paft the age of childhood, apoplexy never hap¬
pens.
Prognojis. This difeafe very often kills at its firft
attack, and few furvive a repetition of the fit j fo
that thofe who make mention of people who have fur-
vived feveral attacks of the apoplexy, have probably
miftaken the epilepfy for this difeafe. In no difeafe
is the prognofis more fatal j fince thofe w ho feem to
be recovering from a fit, are frequently and fuddenly
carried off by its return, without either warning of its
approach or poflibility of preventing it. The good
figns are when the difeafe apparently wears off, and
the patient evidently begins to recover; the bad
ones are when all the fymptoms continue and in-
ereafe.
Cure. The great objeft to be aimed at, is to reftore
the connexion between the fentient and corporeal parts
of the fyftem j and7 when interruption to this con¬
nexion proceeds from compreflion in the brain by
blood, this is to be attempted, in the firft place, by
large and repeated bleedings 5 after which, the fame re¬
medies are to be ufed as in the ferous apoplexy, after-
mentioned. The body is to be kept in a fomewhat
eredl pofture, and the head fupported in that fitua-
tion.
Sp. II. The Serous APOPLEXT. 257
Apoplexia pituitofa, Sauv. fp. 7. Apoplexia ferofa,
Preysinger, fp. 4. Morg. de caufis, &c. IV. LX.
Carus a hydrocephalo, Sauv. fp. 16.
Cataphora hydrocephalica, Sauv. fp. 6.
Cataphora fomnolenta, Sauv. fp. 1.
Lethargus literatorum, Sauv. 7. Van Swietcn in
Aphor. 1010. 2 y and 3 «.
Defcription. In this fpeties the pulfe is weak, the
face pale, and there is a diminution of the natural heat.
On diffedlion, the ventricles of the brain are found
to contain a larger quantity of fluid than they
ought j the other fymptoms are the fame as in the
former.
Caufes, &c. This may arife from any thing which
induces a debilitated ftate of the body, fuch as de¬
prefling paflions of the mind, much ftudy, watching,
&c. It may alfo be brought on by a too plentiful
ufe of diluting, acidulated drinks. It doth not, how-
«ver^
MEDICINE.
Praftice. M E D I
Comata. ever, follow, that the extravafated ferum above men-
-v—tioned in the ventricles of the brain is always the caufe
of the difeafe, lince the animal fluids are very frequently
obferved to ooze out in plenty through the coats of the
containing veflels after death, though no extravafation
took place during life.
Prognq/is. This fpecies is equally fatal with the
other \ and what hath been faid of the prognofis of
the fanguineous, may alfo be faid of that of the ferous
apoplexy.
Cure. In this fpecies venefe&ion can fcarcely be
admitted : acrid purgatives, emetics, and flimulating
clyfters, are recommended to carry off the fuperabun-
dant ferum ; but in bodies already debilitated, they
may perhaps be liable to the fame exceptions with ve-
nefedlion itfelf. Volatile falts, cephalic elixirs, and cor¬
dials, are alfo prefcribed ; and in cafe of a hemiplegia
fupervening, the cure is to be attempted by aperient
ptifans, cathartics, and fudorifics 5 gentle exercife, as
riding in a carriage j with blifters and fuch llimulating
medicines as are in general had recourfe to in affec¬
tions originally of the paralytic kind.
Sp. III. Hydrocephalic APOPLEXT, or Dropfy of the
Brain.
Hydrocephalus interior, Sauv. fp. 1.
Hydrocephalus interims, WhytAs works, page 725.
London Med. Obf. vol. iv. art. 3, 6, and 2$.
Gaudelius de hydrocephalo, apud Sandifort The-
faur. vol. ii.
Hydrocephalus acutus, Quin. Dijf. de hydrocephalo,
1779.
Afthenia h hydrocephalo, Sauv. fp. 3.
Hiftory and defcription. This difeafe has been accu¬
rately treated within thefe few years by feveral emi¬
nent phyficiart§, particularly the late Dr Whytt, Dr
Fothergill, and Dr Watfon •, who concur in opinion,
with refpeft to the feat of the complaint, the moll of
its fymptoms, and its general fatality. Out of twenty
patients that had fallen under Dr Whytt’s obferva-
tion, he candidly owns that he had been fo unfortunate
as to cure only one who laboured under the charadter-
iftic fymptoms of the hydrocephalus; and he fufpefts
that tliofe who imagine they have been more fuccefs-
ful, had miftaken another diftemper for this. It is by
all fuppofed to confifl: in a dropfy of the ventricles of
the brain $ and this opinion is fully eftabliflied by dif-
feflions. It is obferved to happen more commonly to
healthy, aflive, lively children, than to thole of a dif¬
ferent difpofition.
Dr Whytt fuppofes that the commencement of this
difeafe is obfcure ; that it is generally fome months
in forming 5 and that, after fome obvious urgent fymp¬
toms rendering afliftance neceffary, it continues fome
■weeks before its fatal termination. This, in general,
differs from what has hitherto been obferved by Dr
Fothergill 5 the latter informing us, that he has feen
children, who, from all appearance, were healthy and
active, feized with this diftemper, and carried off in
about 14 days. He has feldom been able to trace the
commencement of it above three vreeks.
Though the hydrocephalus be moft incident to chil¬
dren, it has been fometimes obferved in adults 5 as ap-
C I N E. q
pears from a cafe related by Dr Huek, and from £>me Apopl
others. "'V
When the difeafe appears under its moft common
form, the fymptoms at different periods are fo various
as to lead Dr Whytt to divide the difeafe into three
ftages, which are chiefly marked by changes occurring
in the condition of the pulfe. At the beginning it is
quicker than natural; afterwards it becomes uncom¬
monly flow j and towards the conclufion of the difeafe
it becomes again quicker than natural, but at the fame
time often very irregular.
Thofe vrho are feized with this diftemper ufually
complain firft of a pain in fome part below the head j
moft commonly about the nape of the neck and
Ihoulders 5 often in the legs j and fometimes, but more
rarely, in the arms. The pain is not uniformly acute,
nor always fixed to one place j and foitietimes does
not affedl the limbs. In the latter cafe, the head and
ftomach have been found to be moft difordered ; fo
that wrhen the pain occupied the limbs, the ficknefs or
headach was lefs confiderable ; and when the head
became the feat of the complaint, the pain in the limbs
■was feldom or never mentioned. Some had very vio¬
lent fickneffes and violent headaehs alternately. From
being perfectly well and fportive, fome were in a few
hours feized with thofe pains in the limbs, or with
ficknefs, or headach, in a flight degree, commonly af¬
ter dinner; but fome were obferved to droop a few
days before they complained of any local indifpofition.
In this manner they continued three, four, or five
days, more or lefs, as the children were healthy and
vigorous. They then commonly complain of an acute
deep-feated pain in the head, extending acrofs the
forehead from temple to temple 5 of which, and a fick¬
nefs, they alternately complain in fhort and affedting
exclamations j dofing a little in the intervals, breath¬
ing irregularly, and fighing much while awake. Some-'
times their fighs, for the fpace of a few minutes, are
inceffant.
As the difeafe advances, the pulfe becomes flower
and irregular, the ftrokes being made both ■with une¬
qual force and in unequal times, till within a day or
two of the fatal termination of the diforder, when it
becomes exceeding quick ; the breathing being at the
fame time deep, irregular, and laborious. After the
firft attack, which is often attended with feverilh heats,
efpecially towards evening, the heat of the body is for
the moft part temperate, till at laft it keeps pace with
the increafing quicknefs of the pulfe. The head and
praecordia are always hot from the firft attaclc. The
fleeps are fhort and difturbed, fometimes interrupted by
watchfulnefs j befides which there-are ftartings.
In the firft ftage of the difeafe there feems to be a
peculiar fenfibility of the eyes, as appears from the in¬
tolerance of light. But in the progrefs of the dif¬
eafe a very oppofite ftate occurs: The pupil is re¬
markably dilated, and cannot be made to contrafl by
the acfion even of ftrong light; fuch, for example, as
by bringing a candle very near to it; In many cafes
there is reafon to believe that total blindnefs occurs :
Often alfo the pupil of one eye is more dilated than
that of another, and the power of moving the eyes is
alfo morbidly affected. Thofe children, who were ne¬
ver obferved to fquint before, often become affected
wit'll
with a very great degree of ftrabifmus. The patients
are unwilling to be dillurbed for an} purpofe, and can
boa. no pnkure but that ot lying hoiizontally. One
or both hands are moll ctamnuniy about their heads.
The urine and llools come an ay mferilibly. ict length
the eyelids become paralytic, great heat accompanied
with ivseat overfpreads the' wh- ie body, refpiration is
rendered totally fufpirious, the pulle increalcs in its
trembling undulations beyond the poflibilily ot count¬
ing, till the vital motions entirely eeafe j and lumetimes
convulfions conclude the feene.
Many of the fymptoms above enumerated are fo com¬
mon to worm cafes, teething, and other irritating caufcs,
that it is difficult to fix upon any which particularly
characterize this difeafe at its commencement. The
molt peculiar feem to be the pains in the limbs, with
ficknefs and inceffant headach ; which, though frequent
in other difeafes of children, are neither fo uniformly
nor fo conllantly attendant as in this. Another cir-
cumitance obferved to be familiar, if not peculiar to
this diftemper, is, that the patients are not only coltive,
but it is likewife with the greatefl difficulty that llools
can be procured. Theie are generally of a very dark
greenifh colour with an oilinefs or a glafl'y bile, rather
than the flime which accompanies worms; and they
are, for the moll part, extremely offenfive. No pofitive
conclufion can be drawn from the appearance of the
urine ; it being various, in different fubjects, both in its
colour and contents, according to the quantity of liquor
they drank, and the time between the difeharges of the
urine. From their unwillingnefs to be moved, they
often retain their water 12 or 15 hours, and fome-
times longer. In complaints arifing from worms, and
in dentition, convulfions are more frequent than in
this diforder. Children fubjedl to fits are fomttimes
feized with them a few days before they die. Some¬
times thefe continue 24 hours inceflantly, and till they
expire.
Caufes. The caufes of internal hydrocephalus are
very much unknown. Some fuppoie it to proceed from
a rupture of fome of the lymphatic veffels of the brain.
But this fuppofition is fo far from being confirmed by
any anatomical observation, that even the exiftence of
fueh veffels in the brain is not clearlv demon fir at ed.
That lymphatics, however, do exill in the brain, cannot
be doubted ; and one of the moil probable caufes giving
rife to an accumulation of water in the brain is a dimi-
niffied adlion of thefe. Here, however, as well as in
other places, accumulation may alfu be the confequence
of augmented effufion ; and in this way, an inflamma¬
tory difpofitjon, as fome have fuppofed, may give rife to
the aflft cHon, But from whatever caufc an accumula¬
tion of water in the ventricles of the brain be produ¬
ced, there can be no doubt that from this the principal
fymptoms of the difeaft arife, and that a cure is to be
accomplifhed only by the removal of it. It is, however,
probable, that the fymptoms are fomewhat varied by the
pofition of the water, and that the affection of vifion in
particular is often the confequejice of fome morbid ftate
about the thcilami nervorum opticorutn ; at leaf, in many
cafes, large eolledfions of water in the ventricles have
occurred,, without cither ftrabifmus, intolerance of light,
or dilatation of the pupil. And in cafes where thefe
fymptoms have taken place to a remarkable degree,
while upon dlife6tion after death but a very fmali col-
4
le&ion of water was found in the ventricles, it has been
obferved, that a peculiar^tumid appearance was dif-
covered about the optic nerves, w hich upon examina¬
tion was found to arife from water in the cellular tex¬
ture. I his may have given compreffion producing a
Hate of infenfibility ; but it may have been preceded
or it may even have originated from fome inflammatory
affecaon of thefe parts, producing the intolerance of
light.
Prognojts and Cure, Till very lately this diferder
was reckoned totally incurable ; but of late it has been
alleged, that mercury, if applied in time, will remove
every fymptom. "\ his remedy was firft fuggefted by
Dr Doblon of Liverpool, and afterwards employed ap¬
parently with fuceefs by Dr Percival, Dr Makie, and
others. But the practice lias by no means been found
to be generally fuecefsful. In a great majority of in-
ftauces, after mercury has had the faireli trial, the
diforder has proved fatal. And it is a very remarkable
cireumftance, that in this difeafe, after great quantities
of mercury have been ufed both ext ernally and inter¬
nally, it rarely affedfs the mouth. But even in cafes
where falivation has been induced, a fatal conclufion has
yet enfued.
Of late the digitalis purpurea has been thought, in
fome cafes of hydrocephalus, as well as in other obfti-
nate dropfies, to be employed with benefit. But this
alfo, in the hands of moll pradlitinners, has very gene¬
rally failed. Perhaps there is no remedy from which
benefit has more frequently been obferved than from
blifters. But we may conclude with obii rving, that
the cure of the apoplexia hydrocephalica ftill remains
to be difeovered.
Sp. IV. Apoplexy from Atrabilis.
Apoplexia atrabiliaris, Sauv, fp. 12. Preyfnger.
fp. 6.
This takes place in the laft fhge of the diffufion of
bile through the fyftem, i. e. of the black jaundice;
and in fome cafes the brain has been found quite
tinged brown. It cannot be thought to admit of any
cure.
Sp. V. Apoplexy from 'External Violence,
Apcplexia traumatica, Sauv. fp. 2.
Carus traumaiicus, Sauv. fp. 5.
The treatment of this difeafe, as it arifes from fome
external injury, properly falls under the article Sur¬
gery.
Sp. VI. Ap Alexy front Poifons,
Apoplexia temulenta, Sauv. Ip. 3.
Cams a narcoticis, Sauv. fp. 14.
Lethargus a narcotic is, 'auv. fp. 3.
Carus h plumbagine, Sauv. fp. jo.
Apoplexia mephitica, Sauv. fp. 14.
Afphyxia a mepbitide, Sauv. fp. 9.
Afphyxia a mufto, Sauv. fp. 3.
Catalej iis a umo, Sauv. fp. 3.
Afphyxia a .umis, Sauv. fp. 2.
Afphyxia h carbone, Sauv. fp. 16,
Afphyxia foricariorum, Sauv. fp, II.
Afphyxia fideratorum, Sauv. fp. jo.
Carus ab infolatione, Sauv. fp. X2>
Car us.
prance.
Comata.
Cams a frigore, Sartv. fn. i
Lethargus a frigore, ^auv. fp. 6.
Aiphyxia congciatorum, Sauv. fo. 5.
M E D 1 C I N E.
The poifons which bring on an apoplexy when taken
internally may be either of the ftimulanf or fedative
kind, as fpirituous liquors, opium, and the more virulent
kinds of vegetable poifons. I he vapours of mercury,
or of lead, in great quantity, will fometimes produce a
limilar effedt j though commonly they produce rather
a paralyfis, and operate flowly. The vapours of char¬
coal, or fixed air, in any form, breathed in great quan¬
tity, alfo produce an apoplexy, or-a Hate very fimilar to
it; and even cold itfelf produces a fatal lleep, though
without the apopleftic ftertor. To enumerate all the
different fymptoms which affecl the unhappy perfons
who have fwallowed oj)ium, or any of the ftronger ve-
getaiffe narcotics, is impoffiblc, as they are fcarcely to
be found the fame in any two patients. The ftate' in¬
duced by them feems to differ fomewhat from that of a
true apoplexy ; as it is commonly attended with convul-
fions, but has the particular diftinguifhing fign of apo-
plexy, namely, a very difficult breathing or fnorting,
more or lefs violent according to the quantity of poifon-
ous matter fwallowed.
Of the poifonous effedls of fixed air, Dr Percival
gives the following account. “ All thefe noxious va¬
pours, whether arifing from burning charcoal, the fer¬
menting grape, the Grotti di Cani, or the cavern of
Pyrmont, operate nearly in the fame manner. When
accumulated and confined, their effects are often in-
ftantaneous: they immediately deftroy the attion of the
brain and nerves, and in a moment arreff the vital mo¬
tions. When more diffufed, their effetffs are flower, but
ftill evidently mark out a diredf affbaion of the ner¬
vous fyftem.
“ Thole who are expofed to the vapours of the fer-
. menting grape, are as inftantly deftroyed as they
would be by the ftrongeft ekarical flioek, A ftate of
infmfibility is the immediate effea upon thofe animals
which are thruft into the Grotti di Cam, or the ca¬
vern of Pyrmont: the animal is deprived of motion,
lies as if dead; and if not quickly returned into the
freih air, is irrecoverable. And if we attend to the
hiftories of thofe who have fuffered from the vapours
of burning charcoal, we thall in like manner find, that
the brain and moving powers are the parts primarilv
affeaed.
“ A conk who had been accuftomed to make ufe of
lighted charcoal more than his bufinefs required, and
to ffand with his head over thefe fires, complained for
a vear. of very acute pain in the head j and after this
was feized with a paralytic affbaion of the lower limbs,
and a flow fi ver.
“ A perfon was left reading in bed with a pan of
charcoal in a corner of the room. On being vifited
early the next morning, he was found with his eyes
Ihut, his book open and laid on one fide, bis candle
extinguilhed, and to appearance like one in a deep
fleep. Stimulants and cupping-glafles gave no relief:
but he was foon recovered by the free accefs of freffi
air.
Pour pnfimers, in order to make their escape, at¬
tempted to defl iv the iron work of their windows, by
the means of burning charcoal. As foon as they com-
375
meneed their operations, the fumes of the charcoal be- Apoplexi*.
ing confined by the elofenels of the prifon, one of them »
was (truck dead ; another was found pale, fpeechlefs,
and without motion ; afterwards he fpoke incoherently,
was feized with a fever, and died. The other two
were with great difficulty recovered.
u Two boys went to tvarm themfelvesin a ftove heated
with charcoal. In the morning they were found deiti-
tute of fenfe and motion, with countenances as compofed
as in a placid lleep. There were fume remains of pulle,
but they died in a ffiort time.
A fiffierman depofited a large quantity of char¬
coal in a deep cellar. Some time afterwards his fon, a
healthy ftrong man, went down into the cellar with a
pan of burning charcoal and a light in his hand. He
had fcarcely defeended to the bottom, when his candle
went out. He returned, lighted Ins candle, and again
defeended. Soon after, he called aloud for affiftance.
His mother, brother, and a fervant, hafted to give him
relief; but none of them returned. Two others of the
village (hared the fame fate. It wras then determined
to throw large quantities of water into the cellar :
and after two or three days they had accefs to the
dead bodies.
“ Ccelius Aurelianus fays, that thofe who are inju¬
red by the fumes of charcoal become cataleptic. And
Hoffman enumerates a train of fymptoms, which in no
refpeft correfpond with his idea of fuffoeation. Thofe
who fuffer from the fumes of burning charcoal, favs he,
have fevere pains in the head, great debility, faintnefs,
ftupor, and lethargy.
“ It appears from the above hiftories and obferva-
tions, that thefe vapours exert their noxious effeds on
the brain and nerves. Sometimes they occafion hid¬
den death : at other times, the various fymptoms of a
debilitated nervous fyftem, according as the poifon is
more or lefs concentrated. The nlfadory nerves are
firft and principally affeded, and the brain and ner¬
vous fyftem by fympathy or con fen t of parts. It is
well known, that there is a ftrong and ready confent
between - the olfadory nerves and many other parts of
the nervous jvftem. ihe effluvia of flowers and per¬
fumes, in delicate or irritable habits, produce a train
of fymptoms, which, though tranfient, are analogous
to thofe which are produced by the vapours of char¬
coal ; viz. vertigo, fieknefs, faintnefs, and fometimes a
total infenfibility. The female malefador, whom Dr
Mead inoculated by putting into the noftrils doffils of
cotton impregnated with variolous matter, -ivas imme¬
diately on the introdudion, afflided with an excrucia¬
ting headach, and had a conllant fever till after the
eruption.
“ The vapours of burning charcoal, and other poi¬
fonous effluvia, frequently produce their prejudicial, and
even fatal effeds, without being either offenfive to (he
fmell or oppreffive to the lungs It is a matter of :m-
portance, therefore, that the common opinion fflould b@
more agreeable to truth ; for where fuff eabon is f:p-
pofed to be the effed, there will be little apprehe- fion
of danger, fo long as the bread keeps free from pain or
oppreffion.
“ It may be well to remember, that the poifon it¬
felf is diftind from that gmfi matter which is offenfive
to the fmell ; and that this is frequentU’ in its rnoft
adive ftate when undiitinguiihed by the fenfe. Were
the
37®
MEDICINE.
Comata.
the following cautions generally attended to, they
might in fome inltances be the happy means of prefer-
ving life. Never to be confined with burning charcoal
in a fmall room, or where there is not a free draught
of air by a chimney or fome other way. Never to
venture into any place in which air has been long pent
up, or which from other circumftances ought to be
fufpefted } unlefs fuch fufpected place be either pre-
vioufly well ventilated, or put to the teft of the light¬
ed candle : for it is a lingular and well-known fact,
that the life of flame is in fome circumftances fooner
affedted and more expeditioufly extinguilhed by noxi¬
ous vapours than animal-life } a proof of which I re¬
member to have received from a very intelligent cler¬
gyman, who was prefent at a mufical entertainment in
the theatre at Oxford. The theatre was crowded ■, and
during the entertainment the candles were obferved to
burn dim, and fome of them went out. The audience
complained only of faintnefs and languor ; but had the
animal effluvia been ftill further accumulated or longer
confined, they would have been extinguilhed as well as
the candles.
“ The moft obvious, effectual, and expeditious means
of relief to thofe who have unhappily fuffered from
this caufe, are fuch as will dillodge and walk away the
poifon, reftore the energy of the brain and nerves, and
renew the vital motions. Let the patient therefore be
immediately carried into the open air, and let the air
be fanned backwards and forwards to aflift its aftion j
let cold water be thrown on the face •, let the face,
mouth, and noftrils, be repeatedly walked ; and as foon
as practicable, get the patient to drink fome cold wa¬
ter. But if the cafe be too far gone to be thus relie¬
ved, let a healthy perfon breathe into the mouth of
the patient; and gently force air into the mouth, throat,
and noftrils. FriCtions, cupping, bleeding, and blifters,
are likewife indicated. And if, after the inftant danger
is removed, a fever be excited, the method of cure mull
be adapted to the nature and prevailing fymptoms of
the fever.”
With regard to the poifon of opium, Dr Mead re¬
commends the following method of cure. B elides eva¬
cuations by vomiting, bleeding, and bliftering, acid
medicines and lixivial falts are proper. Thefe contraft
the relaxed fibres, and by their diuretic force make a
depletion of the velfels. Dr Mead fays he has given
repeated dofes of a mixture of fait of wormwood and
iuice of lemons, with extraordinary fuccefs. But no¬
thing perhaps is of greater confequence, than to ufe
proper means for the prevention of fteep, by roufing
and ftirring the patient, and by forcing him to walk
about ; for if he be once permitted to fall into a found
lleep, it will be found altogether impoffible to awake
him.
Of a kind fomewhat akin to the poifon of opium
feems to be that of laurel-water, a limple water diftill-
ed from the leaves of the lauro-cerafus or common
laurel. The bad effeCts of this were particularly ob¬
ferved in Ireland, where it had been cuftomary to mix
it with brandy for the fake of the flavour *, and thus
two women were fuddenly killed by it. This gave oc-
calion to fome experiments upon dogs, in order to af-
eertain the malignant qualities of the water in queftion ;
and the event was as follows : All the dogs fell imme¬
diately into totterings and convulfions of the limbs,
Pra&ice,
which were foon followed by a total paralyfis, fo that Apoplexia
no motion could be excited even by pricking or cutting v-“"v—
them. No inflammation was found upon dhTeCtion, in
any of the internal membranes. The moft remarkable
thing was a great fulnefs and diftenfion of the veins, in
which the blood was fo fluid, that even the lymph in
its velfels was generally found tinged with red. The
fame effeCts were produced by the water injected into
the inteftines by way of clyfter.
To make the experiment more fully, Dr Nieholls
prepared fome of this water fo ftrong, that about a
dram of heavy eflential oil remained at the bottom
of three pints of it, which by frequent {baking was
again quite incorporated with it. So virulent was this
water, that two ounces of it killed a middle-fized dog
in lefs than half a minute, even while it was pafiing
down his throat. The poifon appeared to refide entire¬
ly in the above-mentioned eflential oil, which comes
over by diftillation, not only from the leaves of laurel,
but from fome other vegetables •, for ten drops of a red
oil diftilled from bitter almonds, wrhen mixed with half
an ounce of water, and given to a dog, killed him in
lefs than half an hour.
Volatile alkalies are found to be an antidote to this
poifon } of which Dr Mead gives the following in-
ftance. About an ounce of ftrong laurel-water was
given to a fmall dog. He fell immediately into the
moft violent convulfions, which were foon followed by
a total lofs of his limbs. When he feemed to be
expiring, a phial of good fpirit of fal ammoniac was
held to his nofe, and a fmall quantity of the fame
forced down his throat: he inftantly felt its virtue ; and
by continuing the ufe of it for fome time, he by degrees
recovered the motion of his legs ; and in two hours
walked about with tolerable ftrength, and was after¬
wards quite well.
With regard to the pernicious effedits of cold, there
is no other way of counteracting them but by the ap¬
plication of external heat. We are apt to imagine,
that the fwallowing confiderable quantities of ardent
fpirits may be a means of making us refift the cold,
and preventing the bad efifefts of it from arifing to
fuch a height as to deftroy life ; but thefe do not ap¬
pear to be in the It aft poflefled of any fuch virtue
in thofe countries liable to great excefles of cold. The
cinchona, by {Lengthening the folids, as well as increaf-
ing the motion of the fluids, is found to anfwer better
than any other thing as a prefervative : but when the
pernicious effects have already begun to difeover them-
felves, nothing but increafing by fome means or other
the heat of the body can poflibly be depended upon :
and even this muft be attempted with great care 5 for
as, in fuch cafes, there is generally a tendency to
mortification in fome of the extremities, the fudden ap¬
plication of heat will certainly increafe this tendency
to fuch a degree as to deftroy the parts. But for the
external treatment of fuch mortifications, fee the article
Surgery.
Sp. VII. Apoplexy from Pajicns of the Mind.
Cams h pathemate, Sauv. fp. Tl.
Afohyxia a pathemate, Sauv. fp. 7.
Ecftafis catoche, Sauv. fp. 1.
Ecftafis refoluta, Sauv. fp. 2.
Apoplexies
practice.
MEDICINE.
Comata.
26$
2^4
2<S
:0'6
Apoplexies from violent paflions may be either fan-
1 guineous or ferous, though more commonly of the for¬
mer than the latter fpecies. The treatment is the fame
in either cafe. Or they may partake of the nature of
catalepfy j in which cafe the method of treatment is the
fame with that of the genuine catalepfy.
Sp. VIII. The Cataleptic APOPLEXY.
[is. Sauv. gen. 176. Lin. 129. Vog. 230.
.281. Boerh. 1036. Junck. 44.
Catalepfis, Sauv. gen,
Sag. gen
Dr Cullen fays he has never feen the catalepfy ex¬
cept when counterfeited j and is of opinion that many
of thofe cafes related by other authors have alfo been
counterfeited. It is faid to come on fuddenly, being
only preceded by fome languor of body and mind ;
and to return by paroxyfms. The patients are faid to
be for fome minutes, fometimes (though rarely) for
fome hours, deprived of their fenfes, and all power of
voluntary motions 5 but conftantly retaining the pofi-
tion in which they were firft feized, whether lying or
fitting j and if the limbs be put into any other pof-
ture during the fit, they will keep the pofture in
which they are placed. When they recover from the
paroxyfm, they remember nothing of what paffed du¬
ring the time of it, but are like perfons awaked out
of deep.—Concerning the cure of this diforder we find
nothing that can be depended upon among medical
writers.
Sp. IX. Apoplexy from Suffocation.
Afphyxia fufpenforum, Sauv. fp. 4.
Afphyxia immerforum, Sauv. fp. 1.
This is the kind of apoplexy which takes place in
thofe who ate hanged or drowned. For the treatment
of thofe perfons, fee the articles Drowning and Hang¬
ing.
Befides the fpecies above mentioned, the apoplexy
is a fymptom in many other diftempers, fuch as fevers
both continued and intermitting, exanthemata, hyfteria,
epilcpfy, gout, worms, ifchuria, and fcurvy.
Genus XLIII. PARALYSIS.
The Palsy.
Paralyfis, Boerh. lo^y.
Hemiplegia, Sauv. gen. 170. Lin. 103. Vog. 220.
Paraplexia, Sauv. gen. 171.
Paraplegia, Lin. 102. Vog. 227.
Paralyfis, Sauv. gen. 169. Lin-. 104. Vog. 226.
Lunch. 115.
Atonia, Lin. 120.
Sp. I. The Partial PalsT.
Paralyfis, Sauv. gen. 169. Lin. 104. Vog. 226.
Lunch. 11?.
Paralyfis plethorica, Sauv. fp. 1.
Paralyfis ferofa, Sauv. fp. 12.
Paralyfis nervea, Sauv. fp. 11.
Mutitas a gloffolyfi, Sauv. fp. 1.
Aphonia paralytica, Sauv. fp. 8.
Vol. XIII.' Part I.
Sp. II. Hemiplegia, or Palst of one fide of the Body.
Hemiplegia, Sauv. gen. 170. Lin. 108. Vog. 228.
Sag. gen. 276.
Hemiplegia ex apoplexia, Sauv. fp. 7.
Hemiplegia fpafmodica, Sauv. fp. 2.
Hemiplegia ferofa, Sauv. Ip. 10.
Sp. III. Paraplegia, or Palsy of one half of the
Body tahen tranfverfely.
Paraplexia, Sauv. gen. J71. Sag. gen. 277.
Paraplegia, Lin. 102. Vog. 227.
Paraplexia fanguinea, Sauv. fp. 2.
Paraph xia a fpina bifida, Sauv. fp. 3.
Paraplexia rheumatica, Sauv. fp. 1.
Defcription. The palfy under all the different forms
here mentioned as particular fpecies, Ihows itfelf by a
hidden lofs of tone and vital power in a certain part of
the body. In the {lighter degrees of the difeafe, it only
affedts a particular mufcle, as the fphinfter of the anus
or bladder, thus occafioning an involuntary difcharge
of excrements or of urine j of the mufcles of the tongue,
which occafions Hammering, or lofs of fpeech; of the
mufcles of the larynx, by which the patient becomes
unable to fwallow folids, and fometimes even liquids
alfo.—In the higher degrees of the difeafe, the paraly¬
tic affedtion is diffufed over a whole limb, as the foot,
leg, hand, or arm ; and fometimes it affedts a whole
fide of the body, in which cafe it is called hemiplegia ;
and fometimes, which is the moll violent cafe, it affedts
all the parts below the waift, or even below the head,
though this laft be exceedingly rare. In thefe violent
cafes, the fpeech is either very much impeded, or to¬
tally loft. Convulfiens often take place in the found
fide, with the cynic fpafm or involuntary laughter, and
other diftortions of the face. Sometimes the whole
paralytic part of the body becomes livid, or even mor¬
tifies before the patient’s death 5 and fometimes the pa¬
ralytic parts gradually decay and ftirivel up, fo as to be¬
come much lefs than before. Whether the difeafe be
more or lefs extended, many different varieties may be
obferved in its form. Sometimes there occurs a total
lofs of fenfe while motion is entire ; in others a total
lofs of motion with very flight or even no affedtion of
fenfe j and in fome cafes, while a total lofs of motion
takes place in one fide, a total lofs of fenfe has been ob¬
ferved on the other. This depends entirely on the par¬
ticular nerves or branches of nerves in which the affec¬
tion is fituated ; lofs of fenfe depending on an affedtion
of the fubcutaneous nerves ; and lofs of motion on an
affedtion of thofe leading to the mufcles.
Caufes, &c. Palfies molt commonly fupervene upon
the different fpecies of coma, efpecially the apoplexy.
They are alfo occafioned by any debilitating power
applied to the body, efpecially by exceffes in venery.
Sometimes they are a kind of crifis to other diftempers,
as the colic of Poidlou, and the apoplexy. The hemi¬
plegia efpecially often follows the laft-mentioned difeafe.
Aged people, and thofe who are by any other means
debilitated, are fubjedt to pally ; which will fometimes
alfo affedt even infants, from the repulfion of exanthema¬
ta of various kinds. Palfies are alfo the infallible con-
-fequences of injuries to the large nerves.
3 B . Prognafs,
377
Paraljfis.
*67
t6*
37 8 M E D I
< Ccmata. Trognojls. Except in tlie fligliter cafes of palfy, we
have little room to hope for a cure 5 however, death
does not immediately follow even the moll fevere pa¬
ralytic affe£tions. In hemiplegia it is not uncommon
to fee the patients live feveral years j and even in
the paraplegia, if death do not enfue within two or
three weeks, it may not take place for a conliderable
time. It is a promifing fign when the patient feels a
flight degree of painful itchinefs in the affe£ied parts ;
and if a fever fliould arife, it bids fair to cure the pal¬
fy. When the fenfe of feeling remains, there is much
more room to hope for a cure than where it is gone, as
well as the power of motion. But when we obferve
the flelh to walle, and the Ikin to appear withered
and dry, we may look upon the difeafe to be incu¬
rable. Convullions fupervening on a palfy are a fatal
%n-
Cure. Many remedies have been recommended in
palfies : but it mull be confelfed, that, except in the
flighter cafes, medicines feldo.m prove effectual ; and
before any plan of cure can be laid down, every eir-
eumilance relative to the patient’s habit of body and
previous Hate of health Ihould be carefully weighed.
If hemiplegia or paraplegia Ihould come on after an
apoplexy, attended with thofe circumilances which
phyficians have fuppofed to denote a vifeid Hate of the
blood, a courfe of the attenuant gums, with fixed al¬
kaline falts, and chalybeate waters, may do fervice ;
to which it will be proper to add fri£lions with the vo¬
latile liniment down the fpine : but in habits where the
blood is rather inclined to the watery Hate, it will be
neceflary to give emetics from time to time 5. to apply
bliilers, and infert ilfues.
The natural hot baths are often found ufeful in pa¬
ralytic cafes; and where the patients cannot avail
themfelves of thefe, an artificial bath may be tried by
diffolving fait of Heel in water, and impregnating the
water with fixed air. Trillions of the parts, and
icourging them with nettles, have alfo been recom¬
mended, and may do fervice, as well as volatile and
ilimulating medicines taken inwardly. And it is pro¬
bably by operating in this manner, that the ufe of
camphor, or a mercurial courfe continued for fome
length of time to fuch a degree as gently to affedt the
mouth, have been found productive of a cure in obfti-
nate cafes of this affection. Of late years, an infufion
of the arnica montana or German leopard’s bane, has
been highly extolled in the cure of this difeafe, by fome
foreign writers : but the trials made with it in Britain,
particularly at Edinburgh, have been by no means
equally fuccefsful with thofe related by Dr Collins, who
-has ftrongly recommended this medicine to the atten¬
tion of the public. Another remedy has of late been
highly extolled in palfy, the rhus toxicodendron or
poifon oak. It has been employed with fome fuccefs
in France by Mr Frefnoi \ and Dr Alderfon of Hull,
in a late diflertation on this plant, has publilhed feveral
cafes, even of very obftinate palfy, in which its ufe was
attended with wonderful fuccefs. In fome cafes alfo
at Edinburgh, it has been ufed with apparent advan¬
tage, but in a much greater number without any be¬
nefit.
In certain cafes of palfy, unexpe&ed cures have been
accomplilhed both by eleftricity and by galvanifm.
in a gonfiderable majority of inilances, palfy from
C.INE- Praflice,
which the patient has not what may be called a natu- Syncope
ral recovery, will be found incurable by any remedies  y^Ij
wrhich have hitherto been recommended.
Sp. IV. The Palsy from Poifons.
Paralyfis metallariorum, Sauv. fp. 22.
Hemiplegia faturnina, Sauv. fp. 14.
This kind of palfy arifes molt frequently from lead
taken into the body, and is a confequence of the co-
lica pietonum, under which it is more particularly
treated.
TREMOR, or Trembling.
Tremor, Sauv. gen. 129. Lin. 139. Vog. 184.
Sag. 236.
This by Dr Cullen is reckoned to be always fympto-
matic either of palfy, afthenia, or convulliens j and
therefore need not be treated of by itfelf.
Order II. ADYNAMIA.
Adynamiae, Vog. Clafs VI.
Defedlivi, Lin. Clafs VI. Order I.
Leipopfychise, Sauv. Clafs VI. Order IV. Sag.
Clafs IX. Order IV.
Genus XLIV. SYNCOPE.
Fainting.
Syncope, Sauv. gen. 174. Sag. 94. Vog. 274.
Sag. 280. Junck. 119.
Leipothymia, gen. 173. Lin. 93. Vog. 273.
Sag. 279.
Afphyxiar Sauv. gen. 175. Lin. a:. Vog. 27c.
Sag. 281.
Virium lapfus et animi deliquia, Hojfm. III. 267.
Sp. I. The Cardiac STNCOPE.
Syncope plethorica, Sauv. fp. 5. Senac. Tr. de Coeur,
^ p. 540-
Syncope a cardiognjo, Sauv. fp. 7. Senac. de Coeur,
414. Morgagn. de Sed. XXV. 2. 3. 10.
Syncope a polypo, Sauv. fp. 8. Senac. p. 471.
Syncope ab hydrochardia, Sauv. fp. 12. Senac. 533.
Schreiber Almag. L. III. § 196.
Syncope Lan%om, Sauv. fp. 18. Lan%on. Op. II..
p. 462.
Afphyxia Valfalviana, Sauv. fp. 13.
Sp. II. Occajional STNCOPE.
Leipothymi| a pathemate, Sauv. fp. 1. Senac. p. 544.
Syncope pauietica, Sauv. fp. 21.
Afphyxia a pathemate, Sauv. fp. 7.
Syncope ab antipathia, Sauv. Ip. 9. Senac. p. 544,
Syncope a veneno, Sauv. fp. 10. Senac. p. 546.
Syncope ab apoilematis, Sauv. fp. 11. Senac. p. 554.
Syncope a fphacelo, Sauv. fp. 14. Senac. p. 553.
Syncope ab inanitione, Sauv. fp. 1. Senac. p. 536.
Syncope a pblebotomia, Sauv. fp. 4.
Syncope a dolore, Sauv. fp. 2. Senac. fp. 583.
Afphyxia,
t6i)
270
271
272
271
274-
Pradice.
^dynamise.
ME D t
Afpbyxia traumatica, Sauv. fp. 14.
Afphyxk neophytonim, Sauv. fp. 17.
Defcription. A fyncope begins with a remarkable
anxiety about the heart; after which follows a fudden
extinction, as it were, not only of the animal powers
and actions, but alfo of the vital powers, fo that the
patients are deprived of pulfe, fenfe, and motion, all
at once. In thofe cafes which phyficians have diftin-
guithed by the name of leiputhymm, the patient does
not entirely lofe his fenfes, but turns cold and pale*,
and the pulfe continues to beat, though weakly 5 the
heart alfo feems to tremble rather than beat; and the
refpiration is juft perceptible. But in the true fyn¬
cope or full afphyxia, not the fmalleft fign of life can
be perceived} the face has a death-like palenefs, the
extremities are cold, the eyes fhut, or at leaft troubled $
the mouth fometimes Unit, and fometimes gaping wide
open 5 the limbs flaccid, and the ftrength quite gone 5
as foon as they begin to recover, they' fetch deep and
heavy fighs.
Caufes, &c. Fainting is occafioned moft commonly
by profufe evacuations, efpecially of blood ; but it may
happen alfo from violent paffions of the mind, from
furfeits, exceflive pain, &c. People of delicate con-
ftitutions are very fubjeft to it from flight caufes ; and
fometimes it will arife from affedlions of the heart and
large veffcls not eafy to be underftood-. Fainting is al¬
fo a fymptom of many diforders, efpecially of that fatal
one called a polypus of the heart, of the plague, and
many putrid difeafes.
Prog-no/is. When fainting happens in the beginning
of any acute diftemper, it is by no means a good
omen ; but when it takes place in the increafe or at the
height of the difeafe, the danger is fomewhat lefs 5 but
in general, when fainting comes on without any evi¬
dent caufe. It is to be dreaded. In violent htemor-
rhagies it is favourable ; as the bleeding veflels thus
have time to contra# and recover themfelves, and by
this means the patient may efcape.
Cure. When perfons of a full habit faint through
excefs of paflion, they ought to be blooded without de¬
lay, and fliould drink vinegar or lemon juice diluted
with water j arid, after the bowels are emptied by a
clyfter, take a paregoric draught, and go to bed.
The paflion of anger, in a peculiar manner, affefts
the biliary fecretion, caufes an oppreflion at the fto-
mach, with naufea and retching to vomit, and a bitter
tafte in the mouth, with giddinefs : thefe fymptoms
feem to indicate an emetic *, which, however, in thefe
cafes muft be carefully avoided, as it might endanger
the patient, by bringing on an inflammation of the
ftomaeh.
The general effe#s of a fudden fright have been
mentioned on a former occafion. When thefe are fo
violent as to require medical aid, our firft endeavours
muft be to take off the fpafmodic conftri#ion, and re-
ftore freedom to the circulation ; by bleeding, if the
habit be at all inclined to fulnefs j and by giving a
mixture, with equal parts of the vinum antimoniale and
timflura opii camphorata, in fome agreeable vehicle,
which will bring on lleep and encourage perfpiration.
It was formerly mentioned, that convulfions, or even
an epilepfy, may be brought on by frights j which
CINE.
fliould make people cautious
this way.
When a furfeit, or any fpecies of faburra, occafions a
leipothymia, an emetic is the immediate remedy, as
foon as the patient, by the help of acrid ftimulants,
ftiall be fo far roufed as to be able to fwallow one : in
thele cafes, tickling the fauces with a feather dipt in
fpirit of hartfliorn, will be proper, not only to roufe
the patient, but alio to bring' on vomiting.
_ A fyncope is moft commohly brought on by profufe
difeharges or evacuations, either of the blood or of the
fecreted humours.
In order to revive the patients, they ought to be¬
laid along in a horizontal pofture, in an airy place ^
the legs, thighs, and arms, are to be rubbed with hot
flannels } very ftrong vinegar, aromatic vinegar, or fait
of hartfliorn, or volatile alkaline fpirit, are to be held
to the noftrils, and rubbed into them j or, being pro¬
perly diluted, poured down the throat; cold water is
to be fprinkled on the face and neck ; and when by
thefe means the patient fliall be fufficiently revived,
wine boiled up with fome grateful aromatic, is to be
given in the proper quantity.
In the fainting confequent upon profufe uterine haj-
morrhagies, it will be a fafer pradice to abftain from
all heating and ftimulant things ; as life, in thefe
cafes, is preferved by the coagulation of the blood in
the extremities of the open vellels j which might be '
prevented by the pouring in hot wine or volatile alka¬
line fpirits.
When a fyncope is the confequence of the too violent
operation of either an emetic or cathartic, the tin#ura
thebaica, mixed with fpiced wine, is the moft efficaci¬
ous remedy 5 but the opiate muft be given gradually,
and in very fmall dofes.
A fyncope, or even afphyxia, wherein the patient
fliall lie for feveral hours, is frequent in hyfteric confti-
tutions ; and during the fit requires fetid antifpafmo-
dics, together with acrid ftimulants : to prevent returns,
nothing anfwers better than the cinchona joined with
chalybeates.
o / 9
of playing foolith tricks in Byipepfis.
Genus XLV. DYSPEPSIA.
Depraved DIGESTION.
Dyfpepfia, Vog. 277.
Apepfia, Vog. 276.
Diaphora, Vog. 278.
Anorexia, Sauv. gen. 162. Lin. 116. Sag. gen. 286.
Cardialgia, Sauv. gen. 202. Lin. 48. Vog. 157.
Sag. gen. 160.
Gaftrodynia, Sauv. gen. 203. Sag. gen. 161.
Soda, Lin. 47. Vog. 161.
Naufea, Sauv. gen. 250. Lin. 182. Vog. 159. Sag.
gen. 185.
Vomitus, Sauv. gen. 251. Lin. 183. Vog. 214.
Sag. gen. 186.
Flatulentia, Sauv. gen. 272. Lin. 165. Vog. 127.
Sag. gen. 207.
The idiopathic fpecies are,
Anorexia pituitofa, Sauv. fp. 2.
Anorexia h faburra, Sauv. fp. 9.
Anorexia exhauftorum, Sauv. fp. 8.
3 B 2
27 s
Anorexia
3go
A dynamise. Anorexia paralytica, Sauv. fp. I.
'' Naufea ex cacochylia, Sauv. fp. n.
Vomitus pituitofus, Sauv. fp. 26.
« Vomitus ruminatio, Sauv. fp. 6.
Vomitus a faburra, Sauv. fp. 2.
Vomitus a crapula, Sauv. fp. 1.
Vomitus ladleus, Sauv. fp. 3.
Flatulentia infantilis, Sauv. fp. 5.
Flatulentia acida, Sauv. fp. 1.
Flatulentia nidrofa, Sauv. fp. 2.
Cardialgia bradypepta, Sauv. fp. 9.
Cardialgia a faburra, Sauv. fp. 2.
Cardialgia laftantium, Sauv. fp. 11.
Cardialgia flatulenta, Sauv. fp. 3.
Cardialgia paralytica, Saw. fp. 7.
Gaftrodynia faburralis, Sauv. fp. 1.
Gaftrodynia flatulenta, Sauv. fp. 2.
Gaftrodynia periodynia, Saw. fp. 7.
Gaftrodynia aftringens, Sauv. fp. 9.
Gaftrodynia atterens, Sauv. fp. 10.
Gaftrodynia a frigore, Sauv. fp. 18.
Befides thefe there are a great number of fymptoma-
iic fpecies.
Defcrlption. It is by no means eafy to define ex-
aftly the diftemper called dyfpepjia, when confidered
as an original difeafe, as there are very few maladies
which fome way or other do not Ihow themfelves by
an afife&ion of the ftomach j and much more difficult
flill muft it be to enumerate all its fymptoms. TJre
moft remarkable, however, and the moft common, are
the following : Want of appetite j diftention of the
ftomach when no food has been taken for fome time
before j flight deje£tion of fpirits ; a gradual decay of
the mufcular ftrength 5 languor, and averfion from mo¬
tion •, the food which is taken Avithout appetite is not
well digefted } the ftomach and inteftines are much di-
ftended with flatus, whence the patients are tormented
with fpafms, gripes, and ficknefs : frequently a lim¬
pid water, having an acid or putrid tafte, is brought
up •, fometimes the food itfelf is thrown up by mouth¬
fuls 5 and fometimes, though rarely, the fame is fwal-
lowed again, after the manner of ruminating animals.
While matters are in this fituation, the heart fome¬
times palpitates, and the breath is quick, and drawn
with difficulty ; the head aches and is giddy ; and fome¬
times both thefe fymptoms are continual, and very
violent, infomuch that the patient is not only torment¬
ed with pain, but flaggers as if he was drunk. From
the too great acefcency or putrefaftion of the aliment
a cardialgia or heartburn comes on } and in this fitua¬
tion a fpontaneous diarrhoea fometimes carries off the
difeafe ; but in other cafes there is an obftinate coftive-
nefs, attended with colic-pains. Frequently the pulfe
is quick, fometimes flow, but always weak : the cir¬
culation is fo languid, that the blood can fcarce reach
the extreme veffels, or at leaft ftagnates in them, fo
that the face becomes livid, fwelled and has an un-
ufual appearance : and at the fame time that the cir¬
culation and nervous power are in this languid ftate,
the perfpiration becomes lefs copious ; the fkin becomes
dry and corrugated •, the natural heat, efpecially of the
extremities, is much diminiffied ; the tongue is white;
and an univerfal laxity takes place, infomuch that the
uvula and velum pendulum palati are fometiines en-
Pradicc.
larged to fuch a degree as to become extremely trouble- Dyfpepfia.
fome. The patient is either deprived of reft, or wakes ”Y~—^
fuddenly out of his fleep, and is difturbed by frightful
dreams ; at the fame time that the mind feems to be
affefted as well as the body, and he becomes peeviffi
fretful, and incapable of paying attention to any thin it
as ufual. At laft he&ic fymptoms come on, and
the whole frame becomes fo irritable, that the flighteft
caufe excites an univerfal tremor, and fometimes violent
vomiting and diarrhoea. Sometimes the falivary glands
are fo relaxed, that a falivation comes on as if excited
by mercury 5 the ferum is poured out into the cavity
of the abdomen and cellular fubftance of the whole bo¬
dy, and the patient becomes affedled with anafarca or
afeites.
Caufes, &c. The caufes of dyfpepfia may be any
thing which debilitates the fyftem in general, but in a
particular manner affedts the ftomach. Such are, opium
taken in immoderate quantities, which hurts by its fe-
dative and relaxing powTers j fpirituous liquors drunk to
excefs $ tobacco, tea, coffee, or any warm relaxing li¬
quor, taken in too great quantity ; acid, unripe fruits ;
vomits or purges too frequently taken 5 an indolent fe-
dentary life, &c. &c. All thefe aft chiefly upon
people of a weak and delicate habit; for the robuft and
hardy feldom labour under a dyfpepfia, or at moft a
very flight one.
Prognqfis. When a dyfpepfia firft occurs, it is fre¬
quently removed without great difficulty ; when it is
fymptomatic, we muft endeavour to cure the primary
difeafe ; and without this we cannot expeft a com¬
plete removal of the affeftion j but when it frequently
returns, with fymptoms of great debility, heftie fever,
or dropfy, we have great reafon to dread the event.
Cure. A radical cure of dyfpepfia is only to be ex-
pefted by removing from the ftomach and fyftem that
debility on which the difeafe depends. On this ground,
the objefts chiefly to be aimed at in the cure are,
1 ft, The avoiding whatever will tend to diminiffi the
vigour of the ftomach \ 2d, The employing fuch re¬
medies as have influence in increafing that vigour;
and, in the third place, The obviating urgent fymp¬
toms, particularly thofe which tend to increafe and
fupport the affeftion. Of the avoiding caufes, which
tend to diminiffi the vigour of the ftomach, after what
has already been faid of the caufes inducing the dif¬
eafe, it is unneceffary to make any farther obferva-
tions; and indeed every dyfpeptic patient will be
taught by experience what is to be done with this in¬
tention. The medicines chiefly employed with the
view of increafing vigour are thofe of the tonic kind :
but, previous to their ufe, it will be neceffary to eva¬
cuate the contents of the alimentary canal by vomits or
purgatives. If there be a tendency to putrefcency, an-
tifeptics muft then be exhibited 5 but more frequently
there is a prevailing acidity, which creates an intolera¬
ble heart-burn. To palliate this fymptom, magnefia
alba may be given ; which is much preferable to the
common teftaceous powders, as being purgative while
diffolved in an acid, when the others are rather aftrin-
gent. In the third volume of the Medical Obfervations,
we have an account of two cafes of dyfpepfia attended
with a very uncommon degree of cardialgia, in which
magnefia was fo fuccefsful, that we can hardly doubt of
its efficacy in flighter degrees of the diforder.
MEDICINE.
Bui ■
France. M E D 1
Adynamic. But although acidity may often be fuccefsfully ob-
V““' via ted in this manner, yet the beft way of counter-
a£ting this fymptom, as well as of obviating coftivenefs,
flatulence, and a variety of others, is by reftoring the
tone of the ftomach in particular, and indeed of the
fyftem in genefal. With this intention, recourfe is had
to a variety of tonics both from the mineral and vege¬
table kingdom ; particularly chalybeates in different
forms, gentian, Colombo, and the like j but of all the
tonics which can be employed in this aifeftion, none
are attended with greater benefit than exercife and
cold bathing ; and the proper and prudent employment
of thefe is no lefs effectual in removing the difeafe,
than in preventing the return of it after it is once re¬
moved.
Genus XLVI. HYPOCHONDRIASIS.
Hypochondriac Affection.
Hypochondriafis, Sauv. gen. 220. Lin. 76. Vog.
218. Sag. 33 2. _
Morbus hypochondriacus, Boerh. 1098.
Malum hypochondriacum, Hqffm. III. 65. Lunch. 36.
Although fome of the nofological writers, particular¬
ly Sauvages, have confidered this genus as confifting of
different fpecies, Dr Cullen is of opinion, that there
is only one idiopathic fpecies, the hypochondriajis me¬
lancholic a. He confiders not only the hypochondriafis
hyfterica, phthifica, and afthmatica, but alfo the bili-
ofa, fanguinea, and pituitofa, as being only fympto-
matic *, but he views the true melancholic hypochon¬
driafis as being a proper idiopathic difeafe, perfedtly
diftinft from hyfteria, with which it has often been
eonfounded.
Defcription. The fymptoms of hypochondriafis are,
firetching, pftefling, griping, and tormenting pains un¬
der the ribs, and chiefly in the left fide ; which fome-
times are exafperated, and become pungent, burning,
or lancinating. Frequently there is an inflation of the
left hypochondrium, which fometimes becomes flation¬
ary, and by Hippocrates was taken for a fymptom of
an enlarged fpleen. When thefe fymptoms take place
in the right hypochondrium, they are commonly at¬
tended with colic pains, uncertain flying heats, efpeci-
ally in the head, with a tranfient rednefs of the face,
and very frequently an cedematous fwelling of the feet
fucceeds. To thefe are fuperadded almoft all the affec¬
tions of the ftomach occurring in dyfpepfia, befides a
variety of other fymptoms, fuch as palpitations, fleep-
lefs nights, and the like. But befides thefe, there oc¬
curs alfo a particular depreflion of fpirit and apprehen-
fion of danger, which may be confidered as one of the
great chara&eriftic fymptoms of the difeafe.
Caufes, &c. The general caufes of the hypochon¬
driac affection are faid to be a plethora, and preterna¬
tural thicknefs of the blood ; fuppreflions of cuftoma-
ry evacuations •, high and full diet, together with a
fparing quantity of drink ; an hereditary difpofition 5
indolence 5 atony of the inteftines 3 violent paflions of
the mind, &c.
Prognojis. The hypochondriac affedlion, when left
to itfelf, is more troublefome than dangerous ; but, if
improperly treated, it may bring on various difeafes of
a more fatal tendency, fuch as the melancholy, bloody
CINE.
urine and nephritis, jaundice, vertigo, palfy, apo¬
plexy, &c.
Cure. This is to be attempted by fuch medicines as
counteract occafional caufes, and obviate urgent fymp¬
toms, which may be all comprehended under bleeding,
gentle evacuants, chalybeates, the cinchona, and exer¬
cife, efpecially riding on horfeback, which in this dif¬
eafe is greatly preferable to any other. When the cir-
cumftances of the patient can afford it, a voyage to
Spain, Portugal, or fome of the warmer countries in
Europe, will be of great fervice.
Genus XLVII. CHLOROSIS.
Green Sickness.
Chlorofis, Sauv. gen. 309. Lin. 222. Vog. 305.
Sag. gen. 135. Boerh. 1285. Uoffm. iii. 311.
Lunch. 86.
Of this genus alfo Dr Cullen thinks there is but.
one idiopathic fpecies : viz. what fome diftinguilh by
the title of chlorojis virginea, others of chlorojis ama-
toria.
Defcription. This difeafe ufually attacks girls a
little after the time of puberty, and firft fhows itfelf
by fymptoms of dyfpepfia. But a diftinguilhing fymp¬
tom is, that the appetite is entirely vitiated, and the
patient will eat lime, chalk, alhes, fait, &c. very
greedily 3 while at the fame time there is not only a
total inappetence to proper food, but it will even ex¬
cite naufea and vomiting. In the beginning of the
difeafe, the urine is pale, and afterwards turbid 3 the
face becomes pale, and then affumes a greenifh colour 3
fometimes it becomes livid or yellow : the eyes are
funk, and have a livid circle round them 5 the lips
lofe their fine red colour 3 the pulfe is quick, weak,
and low, though the heat is little Ihort of a fever,
but the veins are fcarcely filled 3 the feet are frequent¬
ly cold, fwell at night, and the whole body feems
covered with a foft fwelling 3 the breathing is difficult:
nor is the mind free from affection more than the body 5
it becomes irritated by the flighteft caufes 3 and fome¬
times the patients love folitude, become fad and thought¬
ful. There is a retention of the menfes throughout
the whole courfe of the diforder 3 and at laft all the bad
fymptoms increafing, a leucophlegmalia, anafarca, atro¬
phy, arid death fucceed.
Caufes. The caufe of chlorofis is thought to be an
atony of the mufcular fibres of the alimentary canal,
efpecially of the ftomach, joined Avith a fimilar atony
of the perfpiratory veffels over the whole furface of
the body, and the whole depending on an atony of
thofe fmall arteries which pour out the menftrual
blood. This atony may be occafioned by the fame
caufes which bring on dyfpepfia and hypochondriafis,
but very frequently arifes from love and other paffions
of the mind.
Prognofs. The chlorofis in all cafes is tedious,
though it does not generally prove fatal 5 but we can
never promife a certain cure unlefs the menfes make
their appearance.
Cure. The remedies here in general are the fame
as in the dyfpepfia and hypochondriafis 3 only in the
chlorofis ftronger purgatives may be made ufe of:
thofe which ftimwlate the re£tum are ufeful by ftimu-
lating
382 M EDI
, Spafroj lating alfo tlie veflbls of.the uterus j and for this reafon
v indulgence in venery has fometimcs been faid to pro¬
duce a cure, particularly with love-fick maids. The
cold bath is alfo extremely proper.
27* Order III. SPASM!.
Spasmi, Sauv. Clafs IV. Vog. Clafs V. Sag.
Clafs VIII.
Motorii, Lin. Clafs VII.
Morbi fpafmodici et convulfivi, Hoffm. III. p.
Spafmi et convulliones, Junck. 45, 54.
Epilepfia, Boer/i. 1071, 1088.
37<) Genus XLVIII. TETANUS.
Tetanus, Sauv. gen. 122. Lin. 127. Vog. 180.
Sag. gen. 228.
Catochus, Sauv. gen. 123. Lin. 128. Vog. 183.
Sag. gen. 229.
Opifthotonos, Vog. 181.
Epifthotonos, Vog. 182
On this diftemper Dr Lionel Chalmers has pub-
lilhed a dilfertation in the firll volume of the Medical
Obfervations, which being fuperior to any thing that
has appeared in other medical writers on the fubjeft,
we fhall here lay before the reader.
“ Of all the difeafes to which man is fubjedt, none
deferves more to be confidered than the opifthotonos
and tetanus, either with regard to the variety of
paintul fymptoms which almofl: without intermiflion
diftradl the lick, or the danger of the difeafes them-
felves, from which few recover, in comparifon of the
number they attack. In both, the vital adlions are
very imperfe&ly performed, moft of thofe which are
called natural being as it were fufpended at once ;
and fo far is the patient from being able to execute
any voluntary motion, that the whole machine un¬
dergoes the moft excruciating diftortions, from the
violent and unnatural contradlions of the mufcles.
Happy it is for the inhabitants of the more temperate
climates, that fuch difeafes appear rarely among them 5
but in thofe countries which lie in the more fouthern
and warmer latitudes, they are endemic, efpecially to
negro Haves. In South Carolina, they fhow them-
felves at all feafons, but not fo often in winter, more
frequently in fpring and autumn ; and are moft com¬
mon in the fummer, when people work abroad and
are alternately expofed to the fcorehing heat of the fun
and heavy Ihowers, which often happen fuddenly, and
greatly alter the temperature of the air. Others are
feized with the opifthotonos after lleeping without
doors, that they may enjoy the deceitful refrelhment
of the cool night-air, when the weather is warm : one
youth chofe to cut off his hair and lhave his head on a
■warm day in March, and went to bed without a cap j
but the weather changed, and became cold in the
night, and he was found rigid with tetanus next
morning.
“ I hefe difeafes fo rarely appear as originals in Eu¬
rope, that a good hiftory of them cannot be expedled
from: the phyfitians who praftife in that part of the
world j nor has any thing like a full defeription been
given of them by any ancient or modern author
which I have feen. Hippocrates indeed takes notice
CINE. p
of them in many places, and feems to regard them
only as confequences of other difeafes, or of wounds
or ulcers of the nervous or tendinous parts j of which
fymptomatic kind of opifthotonos he gives three re¬
markable cafes in lib. v. § vii. de Morb. mlg. and
repeats them in another place : but the few fymiv
toms he recounts do not ftiow themfeives with us.
Galen, Coelius Aurelianus, Aretseus, &c. feem only
to have copied Hippocrates, with the addition of
fome fuppofititious fymptoms, which really do not
appear ; and the little that Bontius fays of it is very
faulty. 7
“ Among the numerous clafs of fpafmodic difeafes,
there are three which diftinguilh themfeives in a very
particular manner, on which the names of emprojlho-
tonos, opijlhotonos, and tetanus, have been juftly enough
beftowed, as being exprelfive of the pofture into which
they throw and confine the patient. When therefore
thofe mufcles which bend the head, neck, and body
forwards, fuffer fuch involuntary, violent, and conti¬
nued contradlions, as to fix the chin to the breaft, in-
curvate the fpine and body, and retain the fick in this
painful and prone pofture, the difeafe is called emprof-
tkotonos. When the pofterior mufcles are fimilarly af
fefted, fo that the head is drawn towards the fpine,
and the fpine itfelf is recurvated, it has then the name
of opijlhotonos i although in fad, in this, all thofe
mufcles which a& in deglutition, bend the head for¬
wards, or turn it to either fide, are equally contracted
with thofe which raife the head and fpine. The teta~
nus differs from, or rather is compounded of, both the
others j for in this the patient is found rigid and in¬
flexible^ being as it were braced between the oppofite
contractions of the anterior and pofterior mufcles; yet
even here the head is much retra&ed.
“ I never faw the eniprojlhotonos; and fhall only
fpeak of the opijlhotonos and tetanus, the firft being by
far the moft common, and in the laft ftage of which
the tetanus frequently fupervenes. Let it be obferved,
that the following defeription by no means refpeCts fuch
fymptomatic contractions as often happen immediately
before death, both in acute and chronic difeafes 5 nei¬
ther will it agree with that fpurious opijlhotonos or te~
tanus which appear fometimes in the firft and fecond
ftages of quotidian intermittents in this country, how¬
ever they may emulate the true difeafes in fome of their
fymptoms.
“ Stad. I. The opijlhotonos, contrary to what Bon¬
tius afferts, often comes on gradually and by flight
approaches, the patient complaining rather of an un-
eafy ftiffnefs in the back-part of the neck and about the
fhoulders, than of any acute pain, with fome degree,
of a general lafljtude. Thefe increafe, and become
fo troublefome when he attempts to turn his head, or
to bend it forward, as to oblige him to walk very
ereft 5 for he can by no means look downward, nor to
either fide, without turning his whole body. He cam-
not open his jaws without pain ; and has fome difficul¬
ty in fwallowing, which difeourages him from attempt¬
ing to eat. At times he feels a fudden and painful trac¬
tion under the cartilago enjiformis, which ftrikes through
to the back, and inftantly increafes the rigidity about
the neck and fhoulders, draws the head backward a
little, and fhuts the jaws clofer. The pain under the
Jlernum returns more frequently and with greater vio¬
lence 5
Practice. MEDICINE.
Spafmi. lencc; and the other contractions become fo ftron
' that the head from this time continues much retraCted*
and he now refufcs nourifhment, as fwallowing is at¬
tended with great pain, and occafions a return of the
fpafm } which extends along the fpine quite to the
lower extremities, fo that they will no- longer fupport
him, and he is under the neceffity of going to bed.
“ In this manner palfes over the firlt ftage of the
epijlhotonos, which fometimes takes up three or four
days j the patient, as well as thofe about him, mif-
taking the firft appearances of it for that rheumatic
Complaint,. which is commonly called a crick in the
neck ; but it fometimes forms itfelf much quicker, and
invades the unfortunate perfon with the whole train of
its mifchievous fymptoms in a few hours : in which
cafe, the danger may truly be eft i mated from the vio¬
lence of the firft attack j for fuch generally die in 24,
36, or 48 hours, and very rarely furvive the third
day. But when it is lefs acute, few are loft after the
ninth or eleventh 5 which number of days it would
not be pofiible for them to complete, unkfs the violence
of the difeafe was in a good meafure fubdued ; although
I had one who recovered, after having been fubjeft to
its tyrannical attacks daily for fix weeks. In this ftage
the pulfe is flow, and very hard, and the belly is bound ;
blood taken away feems not to be altered from the na¬
tural ftate, fo that no indication can be deduced there¬
from, and it only varies with regard to laxity or com-
paftion, according to the age of the perfon and feafon
of the year.
“ St ad. II. 1 he fpafm under the fternum (which
is the pathognomonic fymptom of this difeafe) becomes
more violent, returning every 10 or 15 minutes; and
never fails to be inftantly fucceeded by a ftronger re-
tra&ion of the head, with great rigidity and pain all
round the neck, and along the fpine to the lower ex¬
tremities, which are fuddenly put to the ftretch. The
countenance is very pie and contra&ed ; the jaws are
that moment fnapped together, and cannot afterwards
be opened fo wide as to receive the end of one’s little
finger ; an attempt to do which, by way of experiment,
almoft conftantly hurries on the fpafm. The maftoid,,
coraco-hyoid and fterno-hyoid mufeles, as well as all the
others concerned in deglutition, and the deltoid and
peftorals, are moft violently contracted, fo that the
fltoulders are ftrongly raifed forward, and the arms are
ftretched out or drawn acrofs the body ; but the wrifts-
and fingers feem not to be affefted.
“ Such is the condition of the patient in the time
ef the fpafm, which ceafes in a few feconds : after
which the flioulders and arms recline, and the inferior
extremities relax; yet not fo entirely, but that fuch a
degree of rigidity for the moft part remains as will not
permit them to bend when this is attempted by ano¬
ther perfon ; for as to the fick himfelf, he cannot at
all move them. The mufcles on the fide* and fore-
part of the neck continue ftill contra&ed, although not
fo ftrongly ; but their a6Hon is overcome by the num¬
ber and ftrcngth of the pofterior ones ; fo that the re~
traction of the head conftantly remains; The patient
breathes quick for fome minutes, as if he had been ex-
ce(lively exercifed; and the pulfe is fmall, fluttering,
and irregular, but both become more calm and flow.
The face is fometimes pale in the intervals, but oftener
Httlhed j and the whole countenance expreflcs ftrong
appearances of the moft melancholy diftrefs, as well
becaule of the dread he has of a return of the ipafm
which he is fare will foon happen, as from the pam
he luffers by the prefent contraftions, and the more
general and fevere ones which he has fo lately fuftain-
t:d. The tongue is ftiff and torpid ; but fo far as
it can be feen, is not foul. The belly is always bound
and cannot ealily be loofened. In drinking, the liquid
panes with great difficulty to the ftomach, even in the
fmalleft quantity ; and if the fpafm fhould ieize him
at that time, which an attempt to fwallow for the moft
part occahons,^ the liquor returns through the note with
lome force. The patients deiire to lie ftill as much
as poffible ; and avoid drinking, fpeaking, or beiny
moved, either of which are apt to occafion a return of
the Ipafm.
“ Stad. III. In this laft ftage, the patient is re¬
duced to the moft calamitous and diftrefsful circum-
ftances : for he is on a continual rack, according to
the moft literal meaning of that word ; the fpafm re¬
turning oftener than once in a minute, is much more
violent, and holds him longer, fo that he has fcarcely
any remiff ion. The anterior mufcles of the whole
body now fuffer equal contra&ions with the pofterior:
but the laft overcome the force of the others, fo that
the fpine is ftrongly recurvated, and forms a hollow
arch with the bed, and he refts on the back part of the
head and the heels. The belly is flat, and is drawn
inwaid; and the mufcles arc fo rigidly contracted, that
they will not give way to prefliire, and do not feem in
the leaft to yield to the defcent of the diaphragm in
mfpiration ; the feveral mufcles about the neck, fides,
and abdomen, being plainly diftinguiihable from each
other. Although the lower extremities are always ri¬
gid in this ftate, yet are they fo fuddenly and violently
diftended in the time of the Ipafms, that were it not
for the ftanders by, the patient would be proje&ed
feet toremoft off the bed; while others again are as it
were puftied upward with fuch a fpring, that the head
is ftruck with great force againft whatever happens
to be in the way, the thighs and legs being in this cafe
no lefs. rigid than the other parts. The tongue is
ipafmodically darted out, and is often miferably torn,
as the teeth are that moment fnapped together; fo that
it is neceffary to prevent this by keeping the handle of
a (poon, wrapped round with foft rags, between the
teeth, when this can be done. At the time that the
tongue is thus thruft out, the mufeular flefti, which
lies between the arch of the lower jaw and head of the
trachea, feems to be drawn upwards within the throat.
The countenance is very much contraaed, and he is
in a foam of fweat, the heat being very great; and the
pulfe between the fpafms is exceedingly quick, fmall,
and irregular, although the heart throbs fo ftrongly,
that its emotions may be plainly feen, and a palpita¬
ting fubfultory kind of undulation may not only be
felt, but perceived all over the epigaftric region. The
eyes are watery and languid, and a pale or bloody
froth bubbles out from between the lips. 'The jaws
are for the mort part locked faft, fo that it is impof-
hble to give drink or nourithment, nor could he (wal¬
low any thing that was put into his mouth. In this ftate
patients are commonly delirious : and as they cannot
fubfift many hours under fo great a fufpenfion of die vi¬
tal and natural functions, a mortal anxiety enfues and
releafesv
■zH
Spafmi. releafes them j oftener a continued and fevere fpafm
v ~ finifhes the tragedy, when it was before almoft at an
end : but moft frequently a general convuliion puts a
period to their fufferings j and whichever way this
happens, they for the moll part relax juft before death.
“In the tetanus, the general fymptoms are nearly
the fame as in the opifthotonos, except that from the
firft attack, the lateral, abdominal, and other anterior
mufcles, are equally contracted with the pofterior ones;
and the arms become rigid as well as the lower extre¬
mities. The abdomen is always flat and rigid as in
the laft ftage of the opifthotonos, and its contents feem
to be thruft up into the thorax, which at the fame
time appears to be much dilated. There are here alfo
fome intervals between the fpafms, in the time of which
the cheeks are drawn towards the ears, fo that all the
teeth may be feen as in the fpafmus cynicus. Degluti¬
tion is more free in this than in the other difeafe $ yet
fo far is the lick from being equally balanced between
the contractions of the oppofite mufcles, that the head
is retraCted and the fpine is recurvated, although not
quite fo much as in the opifthotonos. And the fpafm,
which commences under the fternum, is likewife com¬
mon to the tetanus, which terminates as the other, and
on the fame fatal days. But whoever recovers from
either, labours long under a general atonia •, and they
cannot for fome months raife themfelves from a fupine
or recumbent pofture without pain, nor without help
for fome time.”
Prognojis and Cure. There has never been any thing
like a crifis obferved in thefe frightful cafes, or fa¬
vourable termination from the mere efforts of nature ;
and therefore all the phyfician’s dependence muft be
upon art. As in cafes of tetanic affeClions, the dif¬
eafe often arifes from fome particular irritation, the
removal of this muft neceffarily be an important object
in the cure: But where it cannot be removed, benefit
may often be obtained by the prevention of its in¬
fluence being communicated to the brain. When,
however, that influence is communicated to the brain,
a cure is to be expeCted only by diminifhing and ob¬
viating it. This is principally brought about by the
ufe either of thofe means which have a general ten¬
dency to diminilh adlion, or of thofe which induce a
different ftate of a£lion. On thefe grounds the ope¬
ration of thofe remedies which are employed with
greateft fuccefs in this affe&ion, may, we apprehend,
be explained. Fortunately it has been found, that
opium is capable of giving fome relief, if adminiftered
in proper time, and if the difeafe happens not to be
in the moft violent degree : the warm bath muft alfo
be brought in aid 5 and the patients ftiould lie horizon¬
tally in the bath, and while in it have the whole body
extremely well rubbed : when taken out, they are not
to be dried, but immediately put to bed wrapt in the
fofteft blankets *, and while they remain there, the belly
ought either to be ftuped, or two or three bladders
filled with warm water kept conftantly lying on it.
The bowels at the fame time muft, if poflible, be kept
open, by folutions of manna and falpolychrejl, or feme
other purging fait, mixed with oleum ricini; or if that
fhould not be at hand, with oil of fweet almonds and
a little tin<5fure of fenna. The opiates are to be given
in large and frequently repeated dofes 5 fueh as a grain
of the cxtracium thebaicum, or 20 drops of the tinflure,
Pra&icc
every fecond or third hour ; and it will be fafeft not to Tetanus,
truft to the thebaic tinfture which is kept ready pre-
pared in the {hops, but to order the neceffary dofe of fo-
lid opium, and either give it in pills or diffolve it in
fome convenient liquid. If fwallowing ftiould be dif¬
ficult, or the jaws clofed up, the opium muft be given
in clyfters j for during the whole courfp of the difeafe
it will be of fervice to order emollient clyfters to be
injected from time to time, fince thefe will anfwer not
only as a relaxing fomentation, but alfo contribute to
keep the inteftinal canal perfectly free.
When the patients recover, they continue for a long
time very relaxed and weak : and no wonder, fince it
is the nature of all fpafmodic affections to leave be¬
hind them extreme weaknefs and relaxation of the muf-
cular fibres. In order to perfeCl the recovery, a courfe
of the cinchona and the Peruvian balfam is to be tried j
and the fpine may be rubbed with fpirituous liniments,
or with a mixture of rum and Barbadoes tar : but thefe
and all other ftimulating things, either internally or ex¬
ternally, during the violence of the fpafms, muft, in the
opinion of fome praClitioners, be omitted, fince all of
them as well as blifters have been alleged to exafperate
the difeafe.
This, in general, is the plan of treatment recommend¬
ed by Dr Chalmers.
The fame dreadful diforders frequently attack young
children in the warm climates. Dr Hillary tells us,
that they will there arife from the fame caufes which
ufually produce convulfions with children in Britain,
viz. from a retention of the meconium or firft excrement
after birth *, or from a glutinous matter which is too
often found in the inteftines of young children foon
after the other is difcharged 5 or from a cheefy mat¬
ter from the coagulation of the milk by an acid in the
ftomach ; or from hard excrements ; or from fomething
taken in by the mouth which is over acrid, or too hard
to digeft, which irritates their tender bowels, and fo
produces ftartings and convulfive fpafms, with all the
other fymptoms which precede and accompany convul¬
fions in young children in Britain. And this fhows
how much more readily and eafily the nerves are affedted
and irritated in that warm climate, and the tetanus
produced from a much lefs caufe there, than it is in
Britain, where it is but feldom feen. But thefe caufes
not being timely removed, their acrimony is increafed,
partly by the heat of the climate, and partly by the
fever which they produce, which ftill renders them
more acrid, and fo increafes the irritation of their
bowels, that it firft brings on ftartings, then convul¬
five fpafms, and regular ccnvulfion fits; which, if not
foon removed, ufually end in a perfect tetanus, and the
difeafe is but feldom cured in fuch young children when
it arrives at that ftate : for when the child lies in this
miferable, rigid, immoveable condition, upon moving
its hands or feet in the moft gentle manner, or foftly
touching any part of its body, or giving it the leaft:
motion, even feeling its pulfe in the moft tender manner,
or the leaft noife, or even touching its clothes, will
bring on the convulfive fpafms, and caufe it to be ftrong-
ly convulfed backwards, or drawn into a rigid ftraight
line, ftrongly extended and immoveable like a ftatue,
and will fo remain immoveable out of either of thofe
poftures for a confiderable time, a minute or two j and
when the difeafe is arrived at this degree, Dr Hillary
thinks
MEDICINE.
pra&ice. M E D T
Spafmi. thinks it is never cured. But if the phyfician be called
u-y % time, before the tetanus has come on (which is too
feldom the cafe there), though he finds ftrong convul-
five fpafms have feized the child, or that it has had a
convulfive fit or two, it may moft commonly be reliev¬
ed, the coming of the tetanus be prevented, and the
life of the babe faved, as Dr Hillary has more than
once feen, by removing and carrying off the irritating
caufe which llimulates their tender bowels, by fuch gen¬
tle evacuations as are fuitable to their age; and then
quieting and compofing the irritation of their nerves by
proper anodynes, and corre&ing the remaining acrimo¬
ny of the nutritious juices in the primec vice.
To anfwer thefe intentions, the following method,
with variations pro re nata et pro ratione cetatis, as the
caufe is different, has been found to anfwer the defired
effect the belt Seri laSiis Jij. Sapon. Venet. 9j.
Manner Calab. 3i j. vel iij. 01. amygd. dul. Jfs. 01. foc-
nicu/i dul. gut. ij. Ba/f. Peruv. gut. v. Mifc. Fi enema
quam primum injiciendum.
And if the fymptoms of the approaching tetanus will
permit, he gives fomething of the following nature to
affilt the operation of the clylter, and to carry off the
acrimony the fooner : Aq.fe/n.fceniculi'^'n]. Magnef.
alhee 5fs. Ocul. cancr. preep. 5j. Syr. e cichor. cum rheo,
Rofar. folut. ana 3iij- Mifcc. Or, Aq. fem.fceniculi
3iij. Sapon. amygdal. 3fs. Magnef. albee 5fs. Syr. e ci¬
chor. cum rheo. Manner opt. ana 5ij- 01. amygd. dul.
5iij. Mifce: Exlnbe cochl. parv.vel duo pro ratione evtatis,
omni femihora, vel omni hora, donee refpond. alvus.
Two or three (tools being obtained by thefe, the
following is exhibited in order to abate the convulfive
twitchings, and prevent the tetanus from coming on :
^3 Aq. fem.fanicuh ^iij. Magnef. albce 3fs. Ocul. cancr.
preep. 3j. M of chi orient, gr. i ij. Spir. C. C.gut.xv. Syr.
e mecon. 3fs. Mifce: Exhibe cochl. parv. (a child’s fpoon-
ful) ter quaterve de die, vel fee pins ^ urgent, convulf. vel
fpafn.
But if the fymptoms Ihow that the tetanus is more
immediately coming on, fo that we have no time to
wait till the operation of the clyfter and opening
laxative be over, fomething of the following nature
mull be immediately given j or the tetanus will come on,
and mod probably prove fatal to fuch tender babes.
Aq.fcenicul. 3iiij. Mofchi orient, gr. j. TinB. thebaic,
gut. iiij. Syr. e mecon. 5ij. Mifce pro duobus dof. de qui-
bus exhibe unam quam primum, et alteram fi convul. fpafm.
redeunt.
This, Dr Hillary obferves, may be thought a bold
attempt, to give tinB. t/iebaica to fuch a tender young
infant : but it is to be confidered that the little pa¬
tient will certainly die if the tetanus feize it, and that
it will come on if this do not prevent it: and he has
known a bold ignorant old midwife give four or five
drops of that tindlure to a very young infant with¬
out any prejudice more than its doling three or four
hours, though not in this cafe, but in one much lefs
violent.
The clyfter may be given at the fame time, and
the opening laxative not long after it j though it may
retard the operation of that for fome time, yet it
operates foon after, and gives relief; after which the
other medicines, and fomenting the body and anoint¬
ing it as before, may be ufed, if the phyfician finds it
neceffarv; alfo a little of the laxative mixture' may be
Vol/XIII. Part I.
CINE.
given once or twice a-day, if the above julep does not
anfwer the intention of keeping the child’s body open
for a few days afterwards, which in this cale is general¬
ly found neceffary to be obferved.
Thefe methods and medicines may be varied accord¬
ing to circumftances. For neither the fame method nor
the fame medicines will anfwer in all cafes.
j though the
difeafe be the fame j but they muft be changed as the
caufes differ, or the conftitution of the lick, or the time
of the difeafe, or as fome other circumftances may re¬
quire : which is a thing of great importance, not only-
in this, but in the cure of moft other difeafes.
When proper medicines are thus timely and judici-
oufly given in this cafe, they feldom fail to carry oft' the
irritating caufe, quiet and eafe the nerves, remove the
convulfions and fpafms : and confequently prevent the
tetanus from coming on, and the death of the patient.
But if calling in the phylician be deferred till the te¬
tanus has already ftrongly feized the child, as is too of¬
ten the cafe here, neither warm bathing, fomenting,
nor any other methods or medicines whatever, will re¬
move it or its caufes, nor fave the life of the little ten¬
der patient.
Dr Chalmers gives an account of his having cured
one child feized with a tetanus, by purging with an
infufion of rhubarb : to which a few grains of mulk,
and a little ol. tartar, per deliq. were added, together
with the warm vath, and the frequent injeftion of
clyfters made with an infufion of chamomile flowers,
to each of which was added a fmall portion of Caftile
foap. It is much to be regretted, however, that in
thofe cafes where the aftiftance of the medical art is
moft wanted, it moft generally fails. We have been
affured by a gentleman who praftifed for fome time in
the warm parts of America, that out of 30 cafes of
the tetanus he had feen, not one of the patients reco¬
vered, though he had given opium to the quantity of
20 grains thrice a-day 5 and others, he was affured, had
taken 30 grains thrice a-day. In the beginning of the
difeafe, the medicine produced a violent headach j but
towards the end, it had no manner of effect whatever.
In two patients, the difeafe came on from the llighteft;
caufes imaginable. The one accidentally fell in at¬
tempting to avoid a loaded cart, and put the heel of
his Ihoe upon one of his thumbs in riling j the other,
in avoiding the fame cart, fligbtly ruffled the Ikin of
his nofe. Both were feized with the tetanus j and
both died, notwithftanding all poflible afliftance ’ was
given. The former had his thumb amputated with¬
out effeift.
In ?he. Edinburgh Phyfical and Literary Effays,
vol. iii. Dr Donald Monro deferibes a new method
of cure, communicated to him by a gentleman who
was formerly a practitioner in Jamaica. While this
gentleman praCHfed in that illand, he had under his
care a great number of cafes of tetanus attended with
the locked jaw. At firft, he ufed to give very freely
of opium, mulk, and other medicines of this clafs ;
to bleed, and make other evacuations j while he ufed
baths, fomentations, embrocations, and other external
applications, but all without the leaf! fuceefs ; and, as,
he had loft a great many patients without being fo
lucky as to make one cure, he began to believe that
this diforder always proved fatal, and was not to bo
cured by medicine, notwithftanding what fome prac-
3 C titionerfv
336
M E D I
Spafmi.
titioners bad alleged. However, having received an
unexpected hint concerning the good elFe&s of the
mercurial ointment in fuch cafes, he refolved to try
it 5 and ordered the firft patient that offered to be put
into a warm room, and to be rubbed two or three
times a day with the ointment, till fuch time as a fali-
vation was raifed } when he with pleafure obferved,
that, as foon as the mercury began to affedt the mouth,
the convuldons of the mufeles of the jaws, as well as
all the other fpafms and convulfions, ceafed, and the
patient was freed of all his complaints. After this, he
treated every cafe of this kind which came under his
care in the fame manner, and cured twelve, which
were all who applied to him for advice fo early in the
difo'-der that there was time to bring the mercury to
the mouth before the fatal period was expected. A.
few died, in whom the difeafe was fo far advanced be¬
fore he faw them that there was no time to raife a fa-
livation. None of the cafes which were under this
gentleman’s care in the Weft Indies were the confe-
quences of wounds or capital operations •, nor has he
had any opportunity of trying it finee in cafes of the
locked jaw, which fometimes follows capital opera¬
tions, owing to his having given over pradtice : but he
thinks, that from the fimilarity of the complaint,
there is no doubt that the mercurial fridfions would
be equally efficacious in fuch cafes, as when the
diforder comes from catching cold or other fuch
caufes.
In the fecond volume of the Medical Tranfadlions,,
we have an account of a cure performed by Dr Wil¬
liam Carter of Canterbury, by means very different
from any of tbofe above related.—On the 17th of May
1767, the dodlor was called to a ftrong healthy man,
in the 21ft year of his age, and who had been con¬
fined to his bed for three weeks. What gave rife to
Iris prefent diforder was an wound on the inner ankle of
his right leg, which he had received fix weeks before
from a joiner’s chifel. At that time his mouth was
fo far clofed, as to admit only the moft liquid nou-
riftiment, which he conftantly fucked through his
teeth : but his legs and jaw, and the whole length
of the fpina dorfi, were quite immoveable, being as
ftiff and rigid as thofe of a perfon long dead j his
head was drawn backward, and he was frequently
ftrongly convulfed. The motion indeed of both his
arms was but little impaired. From the beginning
to the end, his fight, hearing, and memory, conti
nued perfect; his appetite was good ; and his fenfes,
in the daytime, entire, though fometimes wandering
in the night. As to his pulfe, it was regular ; if
it deviated at all from the pulfe of a perfon in health,
it was rather flow than quick, and fomewhat fuller
than natural. Such was the fituation of his patient j
a detail of which had been given before the doctor fet
out on his journey, which he undertook with a deter¬
mined refolution to make ufe of the method recom¬
mended by Dr Silvefter, in the firft volume of Medical
Obfervations and Inquiries, publiflied in the year 1757,
(and which has been related from Dr Chalmers and Dr
Hillary.) But, on his arrival at the houfe, he found
great quantities of the extraBum thebaicum diffolved
had been already given him ; and that, for the five
laft days, he had taken no lefs than 28 grains of that
medicine, with 50 grains of mulk, in the fpace of 24
C I N E. Practice.
hours, without any fenfible effeeft, except the bringing Tetanus.1
on a confuted deep, out of which he frequently awoke
in great hurries, attended with a violent pain in the
head, which almoll deprived him of his fenfes. The
doftor was afraid to extend the dofe $ and foon deter¬
mined to take fome other method, though, at a. lofs
what method to purfue, as, during a courte of almoft
30 years practice, nothing of the fame kind had ever
fallen under his cognizance before. Iltfle&ing, how¬
ever, that this diforder had always been deemed of the
fpafmodic kind, and that the good effects produced by
the extraBum thebaicum mull probably be owing to the
relaxing and refolving faculty of that medicine, he
directed a blifter to be applied between the Ihoulders,
the whole length of the fpine j the jaw to be anointed
with the oleum lateritium; and a purge corvfifting of
the tinBuva facra, tinBura ja lappa:, and the fyrupus de
rhamno cathartico, to be given him. This was repeat¬
ed three feveral times afterwards, at the diftance of
three or four days between each dofe. On the interr
mediate days, he was ordered the oleum fuccini, the
fetid gum, and the oleum amygdalinum. Of the firft..
he took 30 drops, of the gum 20 grains, and of the laft
four ounces, in 24 hours. By thefe means, and thefe
only,, the convulfions foon ceafed ; and he grew' daily
better and better, till at the end of a fortnight he wTas
able to walk about his room, and in lefs than three
weeks became in all refpefts well, fome fmall w'eaknefs
in the parts only excepted. The jaw wTas relieved firft,
after that the fpine, and laft of all the legs. A pain
and uneafinefs in the places affected, neither of which
he had felt before,, were the forerunners of his approach¬
ing amendment.
From all this it feems reafonable to conclude, either
that there is no certain remedy for tetanus in all cafes,
or that the medicines which prove effe&ual in one
conftitution will fail in another. Thus, it is poffible,
that in cafes w'here opium proves ineffectual, mercury
may be a remedy 5 and, on the contrary, where mercury
fails, opium may be effectual; and even where both
are ineffectual, the antifpafmodics recommended by Dr
Carter may be of ufe. It is therefore neceffary for
phyftcians to be extremely careful to obferve the effects
of the firft dofes of their remedies : for if the fymp-
toms thow not the leaft appearance of remiffion after a
large dofe of opium, it is improbable that it can be
cured by a repetition of the medicine $ and as no time
can be loft with fafety. it will then be proper to apply
mercurial ointment, or whatever elfe may be judged
proper.—In the Edinburgh Medical Commentaries we
have an account of the cold bath being ufed as a re¬
medy, by Dr Thomas Cochrane, at that time phyfi-
cian at Nevis. The patient was an Eaft Indian
boy, who had been gored by a cow, and afterwards
expofed to a rainy damp air for fome hours. Dr
Cochrane aferibes his cure to the cold bath, which
was applied by dafhing the water upon his body.
But as the patient at the fame time got laudanum, at
firft in the quantity of 200 drops a-day, and afterwards
in ftill larger dofes ; and had befides his throat and
fhoulders anointed with Avarm oil of turpentine, Avas
bled, and had lenient clyflers and laxatives •, it is by
no means eafy to fay Avhat ftiare the cold bath had in
his cure. Dr Cochrane, however, fays he has heard of
feme cafes being treated fuccefsfully by cold Avater and
cinchona
fVaftice. , M E D I
Spafmi. cinchona In St Euftatla and St Kitt’s, and in another
^ v*—"' letter mentions his having ufed the cold bath in other
cafes of tetanus with fuccefs. But fmce Dr Cochrane’s
publication, a more full and fatisfa&ory account of the
benefit of this practice has been communicated in a pa¬
per publilhed by Dr Wright, in the lixth volume of the
London Medical Obfervations. Dr Wright gives a
particular account of fix cafes, in which the belt effe&s
were obtained from dalhing cold water upon the patient j
and he obferves, that fince he firft ufed this method of
cure he never failed in one inftance to efie61 a recov¬
ery, and that in a fhorter time than by any other me¬
thod hitherto propofed. This practice has on fome oc-
cafions been adopted by praflitioners in Britain, although
here the difeafe is a much lefs frequent occurrence. It
has particularly been employed with fuccefs by Dr
Currie of Liverpool j and we hope that ftill more ex-
tenfive practice will confirm the benefit to be derived
from it, although not in every inftance, yet in many
cafes of this affedtion. We are, however, forry to fay
that we have of late heard of feveral cafes in which it
has been tried in Britain, and which, notwithftanding
the ufe of it, had a fatal termination.
Very lately a different mode of cure in this affec¬
tion has been recommended by Dr Rufh, profeffor of
medicine in Philadelphia, in a paper entitled Obferva¬
tions on the Caufe and Cure of Tetanus, publifhed in
the fecond volume of the Tranfadlions of the Ameri¬
can Philofephical Society. Dr Rufh, viewing tetanus
as being a difeafe occafioned by relaxation, thinks the
medicines indicated to cure it are fuch only as are cal¬
culated to remove this relaxation, and to reftore tone
to the fyftem. On this ground he recommends the li¬
beral ufe of wine and cinchona •, and tells us, that he has
employed them with fuccefs in adtual practice, When
the difeafe arifes from an wound of any particular place,
he recommends ftimulants to the part affedted 5 fuch as
dilatation of the wound, and filling it with oil of tur¬
pentine. How far this pradlice will be confirmed by
more extenfive experience, we cannot take upon us to
determine. We may only obferve, that a very con¬
trary practice has been recommended as highly fuccefs-
ful by fome praftitioners in Spain, where tetanic affec¬
tions are a very frequent occurrence in confequence of
flight accidents. There gentle emollients are ftrongly
recommended, particularly immerfing the wounded part
in tepid oil for the fpace of an hour or fo at a time,
and repeating this application at fhort intervals. By
this mode many cafes, after very alarming appearances
had taken place, are faid to have been completely and
fpeedily removed. While the practice is very fimple,
it appears at the fame time in many refpedts very ration¬
al, and may perhaps be confidered as well deferving a
trial in the firft inftance.
Among otherremedies employed in tetanus it has been
faid that the fpafms have fometimes been allayed by a
ftrong ele&ric Ihock. And in obftinate cafes electricity
or galvanifm certainly well deferve a trial.
Genus XLIX. TRISMUS,
as* The Locked Jaw.
Trifmus, Sauv. gen. 117. Lin. 124. Sag. gen. 223.
Capiftrum, Vog. 208.
CINE.
Sp. I. Trismus nascentium.
Locked Jaw in children under two months old.
Trifmus nafcentium, Sauv. fp. r. Heijler Comp.
Med. PraCt. cap. xv. § 10. C/eghorn on the Dif-
eafes of Minorca, Introd. p. 33. liofer. in Aft.
Helvet. tom. i. p. 65.
This diftemper is fo clofely connefted with the teta¬
nus, that it ought rather to be accounted a fymptom of
the tetanus than a primary difeafe. And nothing need
now be added to what has been faid refpefting tetanus.
Sp. II. The TRISMUS from IVounds or Cold.
Trifmus traumaticus, Sauv. fp. 2. Loud. Med. Ohf
vol. i. art. j, 7. Vol. ii. 34. Vol. iii. 31.
Vol. iv. 7.
Angina fpafmodica, Scare, fp. 18. Zwingeri, Aft.
Helvet. tom. iti. p. 319.
Convulfio h nervi punftura, Sauv. fp. 2.
Trifmus catarrhalis, Sauv. fp. 15. Hillary's Barba-
does, 221. Load. Med. Obf. vol. iv. 7.
The internal remedies proper in all cafes of the lock¬
ed jaw, from whatever caule it may proceed, have been
already mentioned under Tetanus: the external treat¬
ment of wounded parts which may give occafion to it
belongs to the article Surgery. But of this alfo we
have offered fome obfervations under the head of Teta¬
nus •, and, indeed, trifmus may be confidered as being
merely an incipient tetanus, or rather a flight degree of
that difeafe.
Genus L. CONVULSIO.
Convulsions.
Convulfio, Sauv. gen. 128. Lin. 142, Vog. 191.
Sag. gen. 235. _
Convulfio univerfalis, Sauv. fp. 1 r.
Hieranofos, Lin. 144. Vog. 190.
Convulfio babitualis, fp. 1 2.
Convulfio intermittens, Sauv. Ip. 16.
Convulfio hemitotonos, Sauv. fp. 15.
Convulfio abdominis, Sauv. fp. 10.
Convulfio ab inanitione, Sauv. fp. 1.
Convulfio ab onanifmo, Sauv. fp. 13.
Scelotyrbe feitinans, Sauv. fp. 2.
Defcription. When convulfions attack only particu¬
lar parts of the body, they are generally attended with
fome kind of paralyfis at the fame time, by which
means the affefted parts are alternately convulfed and
relaxed ; a permanent convulfion, or unnatural contrac¬
tion of particular mufcles, is called a fpaftn or cramp.
Thefe partial convulfions may attack almoft -any part of
the body ; and are not unfrequently fymptomatic, in
fevers, the cholera morbus, &c. The involuntary
ftartings of the tendons, the picking of the bedclothes,
&c. in acute difeafes are all of them convulfive difor.
ders. Convulfions, even when moft generally extend¬
ed, differ from epik pfy in not being attended with any
mental affeftion or abolition of ferife, and not followed
by the fame torpid ftate.
Caufes. Convulfions, not only of particular parts,
but alio over the whole body, often take place from
caufes not very evident. Sometimes they feem to de-
3 C a pend
387
Convnlfio.
tfti
338 M E D I
, pend on a certain delicacy or irritability of the nervous
^ ’ fyftem, which is framed with luch exquifite fenfibility
as to be ftrongly affedfed by the flighted: caufes. Deli¬
cate women are often fubjetd to hyilerical convulfions,
and alfo hyponchondriac people. Convulfions, how¬
ever, often take their rife from wounds, irritations of
the flomach and inteitines by worms, poifons, violent
cathartics and emetics, &c. j and very often they are
fymptomatic, as in dentition, the fmallpox, and many
kinds of fevers.
Prognojis. Except in fome few cafes, convulfive dif-
orders are always to be dreaded 5 but lefs in young
people than in fuch as are advanced i:i life. Thofe
which attack girls under the age of puberty, will gene¬
rally ceafe on the appearance of the menfes ; and boys
have like wife a chance of being relieved as they ad¬
vance in life : but in grown-up people, unlels the caufe
be very evident, a cure is hardly to be expefted, efpe-
eially after the difeafe has been oi long continuance.
Cure. I he treatment is very much the fame with
that of epilepfy, afterwards to be confidered : but a re¬
covery is moil frequently obtained by the removal of
the exifting caufe.
**4 Genus LI. CHOREA.
St Vitus's Dance.
Scelotyrbe, Sauv. gen. 136. Sag. 243.
Chorea, Lin. 139.
Scelotyrbe chorea Viti, Sauv. fp. 1.
Chorea St Viti, Sijdenh. Sched. Monit.
Defcription. This difeafe fhows itfelf firft by a kind
of lamenefs or inftability of one of the legs, which the
patients draw after them in a ridiculous manner : nor
can they hold the arm of the fame fide ftill for a mo¬
ment ; for if they lay it on their breall, or any other
part of their body, it is immediately forced away by a
convultive motion. If they be defirous of drinking,
they ufe a number of odd gefticulations before they can
bring the cup to their mouths, becaufe their arms are
drawn this way and that by the convulfions which affeft
them.
Caufes, &c. The general caufe of St Vitus’s dance
is a debility of the fyftem; and hence we find it attacks
only weakly boys, and more efpecially girls, when un¬
der the age of puberty. But the particular caufes de¬
termining the mufcles to be affe&ed in fuch and fuch a
manner are entirely unknown.
Prognofs. As this diforder fcarce ever attacks any
perfons but fuch as are under the age of puberty, there
is almoft a certain profpecl of its being then cured,
though generally the diforder is eafily removed before
that time.
_ Chorea, however, in fome inftances, proves an ob-
ftinate affeftion ; but is hardly in any inftance attended
with danger.
Cure. It has hitherto been almoft univerfally the
common praftice to treat this difeafe with antifpafmo-
dics and tonics, particularly opium, hyofciamus, vale¬
rian, cinchona, preparations of iron, zinc, and copper,
and cold bathing; and under the ufe of thefe the dif¬
eafe has, in general, been removed. But Dr James
Hamilton, fenior phyfician to the Royal Infirmary of
Edinburgh, in a treatife which he has lately publithed
C 1 N E- Praflice,
on the ufe of purgative medicines, has recommended a Kapha,,ia
very different practice in this difeafe, the ule, viz. of brifk '
cathartics : thefe he advifes to be repeated daily for
fome time, ihe great object, however, which he has
m view, is not to evacuate from the fyftem, but to pro¬
duce a thorough and complete evacuation of the intefti-
nal canal. He finds, that by the firft dofes, large quan¬
tities of black-coloured matter are difcharged ; and he
recommends that the ufe of the purgatives fhould be
periifted in till the itools aiiume a natural appearance.
In confirmation of the utility of this praftice, he has
related feveral cafes in which it produced a fpeedy and
complete cure ; and equal fuccefs has attended this
praftice when direded by feveral others. There can
therefore be no hefitation in recommending it at leait in
every obftinate inftance of chorea.
Genus LIE RAPHANIA.
Raphania, Lin. 155. Vog. 143. Lin. Amoen. Acad,
vol. vi.
Convullio raphania, Sauv. fp.
Eclampfia typhodes, Sauv. fp. 1. Sennert. de febr.
1. iv. cap. 16. Gregor. Borjl. Oper. tom.ii. l.viii.
obf. 22. Brunner in Ephem. Germ. D. iii. A. ii.
obf. 224. Willifch. ibid. cent. vii. obf. 13. Wepfer.
de Affeft. Capitis, obf. 120. Brejlauer Samm-
lung 1717, Julio, Septembri, et Decembr. ibid.
1723, Januar. A. N. C. vol. vii. obf. 41. BrucV
mann. Comb. Norimb. 1743, p. 30.
Defcription. According to Sauvages, this diftemper
begins with a laflitude of the limbs, tranfient colds and
fhiverings, pain of the head, and anxieties of the pne-
cordia. Then come on fpafmodic ftartings of the fin¬
gers and feet; alfo of the tendons and mufcles, confpi-
cuous below the ikin. The difeafe is attended with
heat, fever, delirium, ftupor, conftridlion of the breaft,
Suffocating dyfpnoea, lofs of voice, horrid convulfions of
the limbs, preceded by a formication, or fenfation as of
ants or other fmall infe£ls creeping on the parts. In
this ftate of the difeafe, the convulfive paroxyfms are
attended with moft violent pains in the limbs, vomit¬
ing, or diarrhoea, with the palling of worms, thirft, and
in young people an unnatural hunger. It continues
from ten days to three months. About the eleventh or
twentieth day, fome are relieved by copious fweats, or
purple exanthemata : while others fall into a tabes, rvith
ftupor, or ftiffnefs of the joints.
Caufes, &c. R his difeafe is frequently epidemic in
Suabia and other parts of Germany ; where it is faid to
be produced by feeds of radilhes, which are often mixed
with rye in that country ; and from this fuppofed caufe
the difeale takes its name. It is alfo, however, a very
common opinion, that this difeafe depends on the rye
ufed in diet being of a bad quality, and particularly
containing a large proportion of what is called fpurred
rye.
Cure. In this affection, the cure, as far as it has
yet been difeovered, is very much the fame with that
of epilepfy, the difeafe next to be confidered. But
from what has been faid of the advantages deri¬
ved from the ule of purgatives in chorea, analogy
would lead us to make a trial of them alfo in cafes of
raphania.
Genus
practice.
M E 13 1
Gekus HII. EPILEPSIA.
Falling-sickness.
Epilepfia, Sauv. gen. 134. Lin. 143. Fog. 188.
Sag. gen. 24. Boerh. 1071. Hojfm. III. 9. Junck.
54‘ o
Eclampfia, gen. 133. 180. Sag. gen. 240.
287 Sp. I. The CERESHALIS, or Epilepfy depending on an
atFe£Hon of the Brain.
Epileplia plethorica, Sauv. fp. 1.
Eclampfia plethorica, Sauv. fp. 7.
Epilepfia cacheftica, Sauv. fp. 2.
8SS Sp. II. The STMPATHICA, or Sympathetic Epilepfy,
with a fenfation of fomething riling from a certain
part of the body towards the head.
Epilepfia fympathica, Sauv. fp. 8.
Epileplia pedifymptomatica, Sauv. fp. 6.
2$9 Sp. III. The OcCASIONALIS, or Epilepfy arifing from
various irritating caufes.
Epilepua traumatica, Sauv. fp. 13.
Eclamp'ia traumatica, Sauv. fp. 9.
Epilepfia & dolore, Sauv. fp. id.
Epilepfia rachialgica, Sauv. fp. 14.
Eclampfia h doloribus, Sauv. fp. 4.
a, Rachialgica.
b, Ab otalgia.
c, A dentitione.
Eelamplia parturientium, Sauv. fp. 3.
Eclampfia verminofa, Sauv. fp. 2.
Eelampiia ab atropa, Sauv. fp. 11.
Eclampfia abpenanthe, Sauv. fp. 12.
Eclamplia a cicuta, Sauv. fp. 13.
Eclampfia a coriaria, Sauv. fp. 14.
Epilepfia exanthematica, Sauv. fp. II.
Epilepfia cacheflica, Sauv. fp. 2.
Epilepfia ftomachica, Sauv. fp. 3.
Eclampfia h faburra, Sauv. fp. 5.
Epilepfia a pathemate, Sauv. fp. 7.
Eclampfia ab inanitione, Sauv. fp. 8.
Epilepfia neophytorum, Sauv. fp. 15.
Description. The epilepfy often attacks fuddenly,
and without giving any warning: but more frequently
is preceded by a pain in the head, la Titude, fome di-
fturbance of the fenfes, unquiet fleep, unufual dread,
dimnefs of fight, a noife in the ears, palpitation of the
heart, coldnefs of the joints; and in fome there is a
fenfation of formication, or a cold air, &c afeending
from the lower extremities towards the head. In the
fit, the perfons fall fuddenly to the ground (whence the
name of the Jalling-ficknefs), frequently with a violent
cry. The thumbs are ihut up clofe in the palms of
the hands, and are with difficultv taken out ; the eyes
are diftorted, fo that nothing but the whites are to be
feen; all fenfation is fufpended, infomuch, that by no
fmell, noife, or otherwife, nor even by pinching the
body, can they be brought to themfelves; they foam
at the mouth, with a hilling kind of noife ; the tongue
is frequently lacerated by the teeth, and there is a vio¬
lent convullive motion of the arms and legs. Some-
4
CINE. 389
times, however, the limbs, inflead of being agitated by Epilepfia.
convulfive motions, are all ft iff, and the patients are v—^
as immoveable as a ftatue. In children, the penis is
erected; and in young men there is an emiflion of the
femen, and the urine is often thrown out to a confi-
derable ditfance. At length there is a remifTjon of
the fymptoms, and the patients recover after a longer
or Ihorter interval; when they complain of a pain, tor¬
por, or heavinefs of the head, with a lafhtude of all
the joints.
Caufes, &c. The diffe&ion of epileptic fubjefts has
fhown a variety of morbid appearances, which may be-
fuppofed to have contributed to the difeafe; fuch as,
indurations in the brain or meninges; caries of the in¬
ternal furface of the cranium ; proje&ions of the bony
fubffance of the fame, prefTmg upon the brain ; collec*
turns of ferum or purulent matter, and earthy concre¬
tions within the fkull; befides many others which are
recorded by Bonetus, Morgagni, and Lieutaud. But
often the caufes are impoffible to be difeovered; for
even in thofe who have died of the difeafe, the brain
and all other parts of the nervous fyftem have been ap¬
parently found. The difeafe will attack ftrong as well
as w'eak pi pie ; and in thofe who are fubjeft to it,
"ny confiderable excefs in drinking, a furfeit, violent
paflion, or venery, &c. will certainly bring on a fit.
Some have epileptic paroxyfms returning periodically
after confiderable intervals; and the difeafe has been
thought to have fome dependence on the phafes of the
moon
Prognofs. If the epilepfy comes on before the time
of puberty, there are fome hopes of its going off at
that time. But it is a bad fign when it attacks about
the 2iff year, and ftill worfe if the fits grow more fre¬
quent ; for then the animal functions are often deftroy-
ed, as well as thofe of the mind, and the patient be¬
comes ftupid and foolilh. Sometimes it will terminate
in melancholy or madnefs, and fometimes in a mortal
apoplexy or palfy. It has fometimes, however, been
obferved, that epilepfies have been removed by the ap¬
pearance of cutaneous difeafes, as the itch, fmallpox,
meafies, &c. While the difeafe is recent, therefore,
wre are not to defpair of a cure ; but if it be of long
Handing, or hereditary, there is very little reafon to ex~
pefl that it can be removed.
Cure. From the fymptoms occurring in epilepfy, .
which confifts of involuntary convulfive motions, and
an affedion of the mental powers, there is reafon to
conclude that the fit immediately depends on the in-
dudion of fome peculiar adion of the brain ; but that
convulfions may enfue from this caufe, it would feem
neceffary that there fhould alfo occur a peculiar dif-
pofition to adion in the moving fibres. On this
ground, then, we may fuppofe the cure to be chiefly
expeded on one of two principles; either by our be¬
ing able to prevent the peculiar adion of the brain,
or to remove the difpofition to adion in the moving
fibres. The firft is chiefly to be accomplifhed by the
removal of irritating caufes, by preventing their influ¬
ence from being propagated to the brain, when they
are applied to remote parts; or by counterading their
influence, from inducing in the brain a flate of adion
different from that to which they give rife. The fe-
cond end is chiefly to be obtained by diminifhing
the mobility of the nervous energy, and by itrength-
eningv
39° M E D I
. -Spai~mi' Pn*n^ the tone of the moving fibres, ft muft, however^
’ be allowed, that in all convulfive diforders, excepting
thofe which are cured by nature about the time of
puberty, the cure by artificial means is very difficult.
Numherlefs fpecifics have been recommended, but all
of them have failed of anfvvering the expectation.
When the caufe can be difcovered, that mult be remo¬
ved. In other cafes, the cold bath, valerian root, caltor,
muik, opium, the fetid gums, cinchona, with the whole
tribe of nervous and antifpafmodic medicines, have
been recommended : but none of thefe, or indeed any
combination of them, have been found generally ufeful •,
though the (lighter, or fymptomatic cafes, may often be
removed by them.
Of late the calx or oxtde, improperly called the
. flowers, of zinc, have obtained fuch reputation in con-
vuliive diforders as to be received into the Edinburgh
Pharmacopoeia under the title of oxidum 'zinci. They
were propofed by Dr Gaubius as an antifpafmodic, in his
Adverfaria ; and their efficacy has fince been confirmed
by various obfervations. In an inaugural differtation
publifhed by Dr Hart at Leyden, the medical virtues
of the flowers of zinc are conlidered. He obferves,
that they have long been ufed externally, chiefly for in¬
flammations of the eyes from acrid lymph. Glauber
fir ft propofed the internal ufe of them *, and Gaubius
difcovered them to be the remedy of a celebrated
empiric Luddemannus, which he ftyled his luna Jixatct.
After this he exhibited them with fuccefs in convulfive
and fpafmodic difeafes. Dr Hart fuppofes, that they
aft either as abforbents, or as polleffing a fpeeific vir¬
tue : but is a ftrong advocate for their efficacy, on
-whatever principles they may operate; and, in favour
of his opinion, relates feven cafes in which they proved
fuccefsful. A girl of 17 years of age was feized wfith
a flight chorea from a fright; and when the difeafe had
Continued fix days, (he began to take the flowers of
zinc, by which her diforder was removed in lefs than
three weeks. Her cure required only 16 grains of the
zinc. In a few months the complaints returned, from
the fame caufe ; and were removed by four grains of
the medicine divided into 10 dofes. A boy of about
four years old, labouring under a real epilepfy, fufpeft-
ed to be hereditary, was cured by a grain of the flowers
of zinc taken every day for fome time.—-A man 50
years old, thrown into convulfions from a violent paf-
fion, was cured by a grain of the calx taken every two
hours. The difeafe had gone off upon venefe&ion and
the ufe of fome other remedies *, but returned again in
txvo weeks, when it was finally removed by the zinc.
The two laft cafes are related from Dr Gaubius, who
affirms that he has ufed the flowers of zinc in cafes of
the chincough, hyfteric hiccough, and fpafmns cynicus ;
that they frequently did more than other medicines, but
were by no means fuccefsful in every cafe. The other
cures mentioned by Dr Hart are fimilar to thofe above
mentioned. But it does not appear that he ever faw a
Confirmed epilepfy cured by this medicine.
In the firft volume of the Edinburgh Medical Com¬
mentaries, we have'an account by Mr Benjamin Bell,
of a man afilifted wfith a confirmed epilepfy, who was
confiderably relieved by the flcnvers of zinc.
In a young man labouring under the epilepfy, in
whom the fits were preceded by an aura epileptica, or
C 1 N E. Praflice.
fenfation like air arifing from the infide of the knee- EpilepCa.
joint, the difeafe was alfo relieved, but not cured. —y-—
Dr Percival relates fome cafes of epilepfy which feem
to have been cured by the flowers of zinc ; and in other
cafes, where the difeafe was not entirely removed by it,
the fpafms were neverthelefs much mitigated. He did
not obferve that it promoted any evacuation; excepting
that in fome, upon being firft taken, it occafioned a
little ficknefs, which went off with a ftool. He adds,
that thofe apothecaries who do not prepare this medi¬
cine themfelves, are in great danger of being impofed
upon, as it is fometimes a mere corrofion of the zinc by
an acid, and even imperfeblly waffled.
The good effedls of the oxide of zinc as an antifpaf¬
modic are alfo attefted by Dr Haygarth of Chefter and
Dr White of York. The former gives a teft of their
goodnefs which may be of ufe to thofe who do not
p.*:pare them, namely, that the true flowers of zinc,
when ftrongly heated, become yellow, but reaffumc
their white colour on being allowed to cool. The lat¬
ter gives a cafe of hieranolos, or ft range convulfions of
almofl: all the mufcles of the body, cured by zinc, af¬
ter a number of other remedies had failed. But, al¬
though from thefe and other refpectable authorities,
there can be no doubt that zinc has often been fuccefs¬
ful in epilepfy ; yet it is equally certain, that in many
others it has had a fair trial, without. producing any
benefit.
In Dr Home’s clinical experiments and hiftories, al¬
fo, oxide of zinc is mentioned as having been found fer-
viceable upon trial in the Royal Infirmary of Edin¬
burgh. Of the other principal remedies which have
been recommended for the epilepfy and other convul¬
five diforders allied to it, We have the following ac¬
count by the fame author.
1. ’I he cold-bath was tried in one who had a convul¬
five diforder of one fide, but the fymptoms were ren¬
dered much worfe by it.
2. VenefeBion, Not to be depended on in convul¬
fions.
3* Ele&ricity. In two convulfive cafes was of no
fervice.
4. Epifpajlics. Do not feem to be powerful antifpaf-
modics.
5. Valerian. In nine convulfive cafes, for which
this remedy has been reckoned almoft a fpecific, it not
only made no cure, but could fcarcely be reckoned to
do any good. Dr Home fuppofes that it a£Is as a bit¬
ter tonic, fomething like the ferpentaria Virgini-
ana. Though much ufed at prefent, he tells us it has
always appeared to him a weak, often a hurtful, me¬
dicine.
6. Mufk. Six convulfive patients treated with large
dofes of this remedy, were neither cured nor in the leaft
relieved.
7. Cajlor feems to be unworthy of the confidence
formerly put in it. It is indeed poffefled of a fedative
power, and therefore may be ufeful in fpafmodic fe¬
ver ifii cafes.
8. Afafcetida has confiderablc antifpafmodic powers,
but is not always fuccefsful. It heats and quickens the
pulfe ; and is therefore improper in cafes attended
with inflammation. It difagrees with fome from a pe¬
culiarity of conftitution j exciting pain in the ftomacb,
5
Pra&ice. M E D I
Spafm!. and vomiting: but this can be known only after the ex-
hibition of the. medicine.
9. Cinchona. Ot feven fpafmodic cafes, fix were ei¬
ther cured or mitigated. An epilepfy of eight years
(landing was very much relieved by taking the bark for
a month,, and one of two years (landing bv taking it
for ten days. But the medicine is of a heating nature,
and therefore is not to be employed in cafes attended
with inflammatory fymptoms.
10. Peony root was given to two epileptic patients
without the lead fucceis.
11. Vtfcus quercinus, or mifletoe, was given in the
quantity of two fcruples-five times a-day to an epileptic
patient, without fuccefs.
12. Extru&um hyofeiami was given to an epileptic
patient, to one afflidled with the hemitotonos, and to
one who laboured under the hyfteric affe&ion, without
the lead good effeft.
13. Folia aurantiorum were exhibited with the like
bad fuccefs. live drams of the powdered leaves were
taken at once without any fenfible cite cl.
14. Cardamine pratcnfis, in three epileptic cafes, was
not attended with any fuccefs.
15. Opium did no good.
16. Ammoniaretum cupri made no cure in four cafes
of epilepfy in which it was tried.
That in many cafes all thefe remedies have been em¬
ployed without fuccefs, is not to be denied : and in¬
deed it may with confidence be aflerted, that a great
majority of cafes of epilepfy are incurable by any re¬
medy that has yet been dilcovered. At the fame time,
as there is incontrovertible evidence that fome of them
have fucceeded at lead in certain cafes, the more power¬
ful may always be confidered as deferving a fair trial.
The ammoniaretum cupri, in particular, feems well en¬
titled to the attention of praflitioners 5 for though it be
a medicine of gffeat activity, yet under prudent admini-
(Iration it may be employed even with very young fub-
je£ts without any hazard j and in feveral inveterate
cafes, which had obftinately refilled other medicines, it
has brought about a complete recovery.
*90 Genus LIV. PALPITATIO.
Palpitation of the Heart.
Palpitatio, Sauv. gen. 130. Lin. 132. Vog. 213.
Sag. 237. Hojfm. III. 83. Junck. 33.
The palpitation of the heart is fometimes fo violent,
that it may be heard at a confiderable diftance. It may
proceed from a bad conformation of the heart itfelf, or
fome of the large veffels. It may alfo be occafioned by
wounds or abfeefles in the heart or it may proceed
from polypous concretions or ofiifications of that vifeus,
or from plethora, fear, or fpafmodic affections of the
nervous fyltem. When it proceeds from difeafes of the
heart or large veffels, it is abfolutely incurable. In
fpafmodic cafes, the remedies above related may be ufed.
If the patient be plethoric, bleeding will probably re¬
move the diforder, at lead for the prefent.
Genus LV. ASTHMA.
Afthma, Sauv. gen. 145. Lin. 161. Vog. 268.
Sag. gen. 282.
CINE. .391
Afthma convulfivum, et fpafmodico-flatulentirm, Afthma.
Hoffm. III. 94. ' 
Althina fpafticum, Junck. tab. 51.
Sp. I. Spontaneous ASTHMA.
Affhma humidum, Sauv. fp. 1. Flatulentum, Floyer
on the --kithma, chap. i.
Afthma convulfivum, Sauv. fp. 2. Willis Pharm.
rat. P. II. left. i. cap. .12.
Afthma hyfterieum, Sauv. fp. 3. Floyer on the
Afthma, chap. i.
Afthma itomachicum, Sauv. fp. 8. Floyer, Scheme
of the fpecies of Afthma. Periodic Afthma, 6.
Onhopnoea fpafmodica, Sauv. Ip. 3.
Orthopncea hyfterica, Sauv. fp. 4.
Sp. II. The Exanthcmatic ASTHMA.
Afthraa exanthematicum, Sauv. fp. 11.
Afthma cachefticum, Sauv. fp. 13.
Sp. III. The Plethoric ASTHMA.
Afthma plethoricum, Sauv. fp. 15.
The afthma is a chronic difeafe, which may continue
to give very great diitrefs, at intervals, for a confider¬
able number of years. Sir John Floyer, when he wrote
his celebrated treatife, had laboured under repeated pa-
roxyfms for thirty years.
The common diftinftion is into humid and dry ; the
former is accompanied with an expeftoration of mucus
or purulent matter, but the latter is not. In the ge¬
nuine humoral afthma, the patients are obliged to lean
fonvard ; the infpiration is (hurt and fpafmodic j and
the expiration very (low.
Afthmatic perfons have generally fome warning of
the attack, from a languor, lofs of appetite, oppref-
fion, and fvvelling of the ftomach from flatulence,
which precede the fit 5 but it is ufually in the middle
of the night that the violent difficulty of breathing
comes on.
The duration of the paroxyfm is uncertain, as it will
fometimes terminate in three or four hours, while at
other times it will continue for as many days j nay,
it has been known to latt three weeks without inter-
million. While it fubllfts, the patient is in very great
diftrefs, not being able to lie in bed, nor fcarcely to
fpeak or expeftorate, fo great is the difficulty of
breathing •, and yet, notwithftanding all this apparent
interruption to the free paffage of the blood through
the lungs, an inflammation here feldom or never fu-
pervenes a fit of the afthma. As the paroxyfm wears
off, and the breathing becomes free, there is more or
lefs of an expeftoration of mucus ; and the urine,
from being pale and limpid, becomes high coloured,
and lets fall a copious fediment.
In order to obtain relief in the fit, wre muft fome¬
times bleed, unlefs extreme wTeaknefs or old age ffiould
forbid, and repeat it according to the degrees of
ftrength and fulnefs,: a purging clyfter, with a (elu¬
tion of afafoetida, muft be immediately injefted ; and
if the violence of the fymptoms (liould not fpeedily a-
bate, it will be proper to apply a bliftering plafter to
the neck or bread.
In the height of the paroxyfm, an emetic might be
followed
393
t ^Pa^ml- followed by dangerous fyrnjjtoms, as It would increafe
 ¥ the accumulation of blood m the veffels of the head ;
but vomiting will often prevent a fit of the aithma, ef-
pecially if the itomach fliould chance to be loaded with
any fort of faburra. A very ftrong infufion of roafted
coffee has been found to give eafe in an afthmatic pa-
roxyfm.
Sir John Pringle fays it is the belt abater of the pa-
roxyfms of the periodic afthma that he has feen. The
coffee ought to be of the bell Mocco, newly burnt, and
made very ftrong immediately after grinding it. He
commonly ordered an ounce for one difli; which is to
be repeated frefh after the interval of a quarter or half
4n hour ; and which is to be taken without milk or fu-
gar. The medicine in general is mentioned by Muf-
grave in his treatife de Arthritide anomala ; but he firft
heard of it from a phyfician in Litchfield, who had
been informed by the old people of that place, that Sir
John Floyer, during the latter part of his life, kept free
from, or at leaft lived ealy under, his afthma, from the
ufe of very ftrong coffee. This difeovery, it feems, he
made after the publication of his book upon that dif-
eafe. Dr Percival fays he has frequently directed cof¬
fee in the afthma with great fuccefs.
In the intervals of the fit, perfons fubjefl to the afth¬
ma, efpecially the humid fpecies, ftiould take emetics
from time to time. An inlufion of tobacco is an eme¬
tic that has been faid to be very ferviceable in fome
afthmatic cafes ; but its operation is both fo diftreffmg
and fo dangerous, that it will never probably be intro¬
duced into common ufe as an emetic. Smoking or
chewing the fame has been known to prevent the fre¬
quency and feverity of the paroxyfms. Afthmatic pa¬
tients may alfo ufe the lac ammoniaci, with a due pro¬
portion of oxytnel fcilliticum and vinum antimoniale,
with a view to promote expeftoration ; or the gum am¬
moniac, and others of fimilar virtues, may be formed
into pills, and combined with foap, as mentioned for
the dyfpnoea pituitofa ; or a mafs may be compofed of
afafeetida and balfam of Tolu, with fyrup of garlic j
and thefe pills may be walked down by a medicated
wine, impregnated with fquills, horfe-radilh root, and
murtard feed *, or a ftrong bitter infufion, with a little
antimonial wine.
In fome cafes crude mercury will be found fervice¬
able •, in others flowers of fulphur, made into an elec¬
tuary with honey or fyrup of garlic •, and if, notwith-
ftanding the ufe of thefe things, a coftive habit ftiould
prevail, it will be neceffary, from time to time, to give
a few grains of pills of aloes and myrrh, foap and
aloes, or a mafs of equal parts of rhubarb, fcammony,
and foap.
The dry or fpafmodic ajlhma, during the extreme
violence of the fit, is beft relieved by opiates; and
fometimes very large dofes are required. But in order
to obtain permanent relief, nothing is found to anfwer
better than ipecacuanha in fmall dofes. Three, five,
eight, or ten grains, according to the ftrength and con-
ftitution of the patient, given every other day, have
been produ&ive of the happieft effeas ; ading fome¬
times as an evacuant, pumping up the vifeid phlegm $
at others, as an antifpafmodic or fedative. Iffues are
generally recommended in both fpecies, and will often
be found ufeful.
Changes of weather are ufually felt very fenfibly by
Practice,
afthmatic people, who in general cannot live with to- Ov-pnc^
lerable eafe in the atmolphere of large cities 5 though *>■'
we fhall fometimes meet with patients who agree bet¬
ter with this air, which is fo replete with grofs efflu¬
via of various kinds, than with the pureft that can be
found in country fituations. And fome are found who
breathe with the moft eafe in a croivded room, with a
fire and candles.
A light diet of meats that are eafy of digeftion, and
not flatulent, is requifite for afihmatic people ; and the
exereife of riding is often highly ferviceable.
When the afthma is found to depend on fome other
difeafe, whether it be the gout or an intermittent fever
or when it proceeds from the ftriking in of fome cuta¬
neous eruption, regard muft always be had to the primary
difeafe: thus, in the ajlhma arthriticum, finapifms to
the feet, or bliftering, will be abfolutely neceflary, in
order, if poflible, to bring on a fit of the gout. And
when the dregs of an ague give rife to an afthma, wLich
is termed febriculofum, and invades at regular intervals^,
we muft have recourfe to the Peruvian bark. The
ajlhma exanthematicum will require blifters or iffues,
to give vent to the acrid matters which were repelled
from the furface of the body ; and courfes of fulphureous
waters, goats whey, and fweetening diet drinks, or
perhaps mercurial alteratives, in order to corredf the
ftiarpnefs of the juices.
Genus LVI. DYSPNOEA. a5$
Habitual DIFFICULTY of BREATHING.
Dyfpncea, Sauv. gen. 144. Lin. 160. Vog. 267,
Sag. 251. Junck. 32.
Sp. I. The Catarrhal DYSPNOEA. ^
Afthma catarrhale, Sauv. fp. 16.
Afthma pneumonicum, Willis Pharm. rat. P. II.
feft. i. cap. 12.
Afthma pituitofum, Hoffm. III. fed. ii. cap. 2. § 3,
Afthma pneumodes, Sauv. fp. 17.
_ This is readily known by the fymptoms of pneumo¬
nia and catarrh attending it, and to the removal of
thefe fymptoms the care of the phyfician muft be prin¬
cipally direded.
Sp. II. The Dry DYSPNOEA.
Dyfpnoea a tuberculis, h hydatibus, &c. Sauv. fp. 2,
4> 5* 20.
Orthopnoea it lipomate, Sauv. fp. 18.
This is generally accompanied with a phthifis pul-
monalis ; but Sauvages mentions one fpecies of phthifis
to which the dry dyfpnoea feems more particularly to
belong. The patients fall away by degrees, and have
a great difficulty of breathing, continual thirft, and lit¬
tle or no fpitting. W hen opened after death, their
lungs are found not to be ulcerated, but fhrivelled and
contraded as if they had been fmoke-dried. Goldfmiths
and chemifts are faid to be fubjed to this difeafe by
reafon of the vapours they draw in with their breath.
Sauvages doth not mention any particular remedy.
Shortnefs of breath arifing from tubercles, as they are
termed, or a feirrhous enlargement of the lymphatic
glands which are difperfed through the lungs, is conn
monly
MEDICINE.
Practice. M E D I
Spafmi. monly found in fcropKiilous habits, and may be diftin-
guifned by the concomitancy of thofe external fvvellings
ahd appearances which particularly mark the fcrophuls.
This fpecies of dyfpncea generally ends in a phthifis.
Courfes of goats whey, and of fea water, have been
known to do fervice; but it muft be confeffed, that a
perfeft cure is feldom obtained. liTues are of ufe in
thefe cafes, as they appear to prevent the ill effeds of
over fulnefs, if it Ihould happen at any time to fuper-
v'ene.
255 Sp. III. DYSPNOEA from Changes in the Weather.
(Sauv. fp. I 2.).
This feems to be a difeafe entirely fpafmodic, and
the antifpafmodics already related are accordingly indi¬
cated.
C I N E.
393
which neither Ihowed itfelf externally, nor could be Pertuffis.
removed by any medicines. ——y——
Other fpecies of dyipncea have been confidered un¬
der Phthisis. It is frequently fymptomaiic ot diteafes
of the heart and large veifels, or fwellings of the abdo¬
men, &c.
Genus LVII. PERTUSSIS.
Chincough.
Pertuflis, Sydenham, Ed. Leid. p. 200, 311, 312.
Huxham de acre, ad ann. 1732.
Tullls convulliva, five ferina, Hojfm. III. m.
Tuflis ferina, Sauv fp. 10. Sag. fp. 10.
Tuffis convulliva, Sauv. fp. 11. Sag. fp. 11.
Amphimerina tufficulofa, Sauv. fp. 13.
296 Sp. IV. The DYSPNOEA from Earthy Subjlunces formed
in the Lungs.
Sauvages mentions this difeafe as much more com¬
mon in brutes than in the human race : but Dr Cullen
mentions his having feen feme inftances of it; and we
have feveral accounts by different authors of calculous
matters being ebughed Up by people labouring under a
dyfpnoea, and threatened with confumpton. In three
cafes of this kind which fell under Dr Cullen’s infpec-
tion, there was no appearance of earthy or ftony con¬
cretions in any other part of the body. The calcareous
matter was coughed up frequently with a little blood,
fometimes with mucus only, and fometimes with pus.
In one of thefe cafes, an exquilite phthifis came on, and
proved mortal : in the other two the fymptoms of phthi¬
fis were never fully formed; and after folne time, mere¬
ly by a milk diet and avoiding irritation, the patients
entirely recovered^
Sauvages alfo greatly recommends milk in thefe
cafes, and foap for diffolving the concretions. The
reafon why brutes are more fubjeft to thefe pulmonary
calculi than mankind, is, that they very feldom cough,
and thus the ftagnating mucus or lymph concretes into
a kind of gypfeous matter.
297 Sp. V. The Watery D YSPNOEA.
Dyfpnoea pituitofa, Sauv. fp. 1.
Orthopnoea ab hydropneumonia, Sauv. fp. 12.
This may arife from too great a defluxicn of mucus
en the lungs, or from an effufion of ferum, as is men¬
tioned under the pneumonia. The treatment of the
difeafe may be gathered from what has been already
faid under the heads of Pneumonia, Catarrh, Empye¬
ma, &c.
253 Sp. VI. The DYSPNOEA from Corpulency.
Orthopnoea h pinguedine, Sauv. fp. 6.
There have been many inffances of fuffocation and
death occafioned by too great corpulency. Thefe fa¬
tal effefta, however, may be almott always avoided, if
the perform have refolution to perfift in an a olive and
very temperate courfe of life ; avoiding animal food,
much fleep, and ufing a great deal of exercife. In the
third volume of the Medical Obfervations, however,
there is an extraordinary inftance of internal obefity
Vol. XIII. Part I.
Defcription. This difeafe comes on at firft like a
common cold ; but is from the beginning attended with
a greater degree of dyfpnoea than is common in ca¬
tarrh ; and there is a remarkable affe&ion of the eyes,
as if they were fwelled, and a little puihed out of their
fockets. By degrees the fits of coughing become
longer and more violent, till at laft they are plainly
convulfive, fo that for a confiderable time the patient
cannot refpire, and when at laft he recovers his breath,
infpiration is performed with a {brill kind of noife like
the crowing of a cock. This kind of infpiration
ferves only as an introduffion to another convnlfive fit
of coughing, which is in like manner followed by an¬
other infpiration of the fame kind ; and thus it conti¬
nues for fome time, very often till the patient vomit,
which puts an end to the paroxyfm at that time.
Thefe paroxyfms are attended with a violent determi¬
nation of the blood towards the head, fo that the vef-
fels become extremely turgid, and blood not unfre-
quently flows from the mouth and nofe. The difeafe
is tedious, and often continues for many months. It is
not commonly attended with fever, unlefs at the com-
inencement.
Caufes, &c. The chincough is an infeftious difor-
der, and very often epidemic : but the nature of the
contagion is not underftood ; at leaft it is no farther un-
derllood than that of fmallpox, meafles, or fimilar epi¬
demics. We well know that it is from a peculiar and
fpecific contagion alone that this difeafe, as well as the
others above mentioned, can arife. But with regard to
the nature of any of them, we are totally in the dark.
It generally attacks children, or adults of a lax habit,
making its attack frequently in the fpring or autumn ;
at the fame time, when this contagion is introduced in¬
to any town, village, or neighbourhood, it will rage epi¬
demically at any feafon. Thofe alone are affected with
this difeafe who had never before been fubjedted to it.
For in this affeftion, as well as in fmallpox, having had
the difeafe once, gives defence againft future contagion.
Every individual, however, does not feem to be equally
readily affedted with this contagion; like other con¬
tagious difeafes occurring only once in a lifetime, it
may naturally be expedled to be more frequent among
children than at any other period of life. But many,
though frequently expofed to contagion, are yet not
affedled with the difeafe : and thofe children who live
upon unwholefome watery food, or breathe unwhole-
fome air, are moft liable to its attacks, or at leaft fuffer
3 D moft
394 M E D I
Eparmi. moll: from them. In general It has been concluded,
v ' ' that whatever weakens the folids, or tends to bring on
a dilTolution of the fluids, prcdifpofes to this difeale, and
increafes its feverity.
Prognqfis. The chincough is not very often fatal.
During one epidemic, however, it is often obferved
to be much more dangerous and more fevere than du¬
ring another. This is alfo remarked with regard even
to particular periods of the fame epidemic; and it is
alfo obferved, that on certain families this difeafe is
much more fevere than on others. Its danger, how¬
ever, is ftill more connedled with the period of life
at which it. occurs. In children under two years of
age it is molt dangerous 5 and kills them by producing
eonvulfions, fuffocation, inflammation, and fuppura-
tion of the brain or in the lungs, ruptures, and incur¬
vation of the fpine. In pregnant women it will pro¬
duce abortion j and in adults inflammations of the
lungs, and all the confluences of pneumonia, more
frequently than in children. From a long continuance
of the difeafe patients will become afthmatic, ricketty,
and fcrofulous. It is generally reckoned a good
fign when a fit terminates by vomiting *, for in this
difeafe there feems to be a great increafe of the fe-
cretion of mucus, and the vomiting affords great re¬
lief.
Cure. Pertuflis is one of thofe difeafes which, after
the contagion has exerted its influence, can be ter¬
minated only by running a certain courfe : but it is much
lefs limited in its courfe than fmallpox and meafles, and
often it runs on to a very great length, or at leaft it is
very difficult to diftinguifh certain fequelse of this dif¬
eafe from the difeafe itfelf. And when it exifts in the
former of thefe ftates, it admits of an artificial termina¬
tion. In the treatment of this affeftion, therefore, the
objedls at which a practitioner chiefly aims, are, in the
firfl: place, the obviating urgent fymptoms, and for¬
warding the natural termination of the difeafe *, and fe-
condly, the inducing an artificial termination. With
thefe intentions various practices are employed on dif¬
ferent occafions. The moft: approved remedies are vo¬
mits, purges, bleeding, and the attenuating pedtorals;
for the other kinds generally do hurt: but large eva¬
cuations of any kind are pernicious. In the Medical
Obfervations, vol. iii. Dr Morris recommends caftor
and cinchona : but in cafes attended with any degree
of inflammation, the latter muft certainly do hurt, and
the former will generally be infignificant. Dr Butter,
in a differtation exprefsly on the fubjeft, relates 20 cafes
of it cured by the extract of hemlock. He direfts half
a grain daily for a child under fix months old ; one
grain for a child from fix months to two years ) after¬
wards allowing half a grain for every year of the
patient’s age till he be 20 : beyond that period, he
direfls ten grains to be given for the firfl: day’s eon-
fumption, gradually increafing the dofe according to
the effect. If the patient have not two ftools daily,
he advifes magnefia or the fulphas potajfie cum fulphure,
to be added to the hemlock mixture. By this method
he fays the peculiar fymptoms of the difeafe are re¬
moved in the fpace of a week; nothing but a flight
tough remaining. The ufe of hemlock, however,
has by no means become univerfal in confequence of
this publication, nor indeed has this remedy been
CINE.   Praaice.
found equally fuccefsful with others who have given it Colica.
a fair trial. v—-y-*^
The remedy moft to be depended upon in this difeafe
is change of air. The patient, as loon as the difeafe
is fully formed, ought to be removed to fome other part
of the country : but there is no occaflon for going to a
diftant place j a mile or two, or frequently a fmaller
diflance, will be fufficient; and in this neiv habitation,
the frequency of the cough is almoft inftantly diminilh-
ed to a molt furprifing degree. After remaining there
for fome time, however, the cough will often be ob¬
ferved to become again more frequent, and the other
fymptoms increafed. In this cafe, another change of
air, or even a return to the former habitation, becomes
neceflary. Manifeft benefit has even been derived by
changing a patient from one room of a houfe to ano¬
ther. But although change of air has thus been ad¬
vantageous, it muit alfo be remarked, that when it has
been had recourfe to at very early periods it has often
done mifchief, particularly by aggravating the febrile
and inflammatory fymptoms. If the difeafe be attend¬
ed with fever, bleeding and other antiphlogiftic reme¬
dies are proper. Dr Buchan recommends an ointment
made of equal parts of garlic and hog’s lard applied to
the foies of the feet j but if it have any effeft, it is pro¬
bably merely as an emplajlrum calidum. It ought to be
put on a rag and applied like a plafter. Opiates may
fometimes be ufeful, but in general are to be avoided.
They are chiefly ferviceable where the cough is very
frequent, with little expeftoration. In thefe cafes be¬
nefit has fometimes alfo been derived from fulphuric
ether, and fometimes from the tin&ure of cantharides.
An almoft inftantaneous termination has on feme occa¬
fions been put to this difeafe by exciting a high degree
of fear, or by inducing another febrile contagion: But
the effects of both are too uncertain and too dangerous
to be employed in pradlice.
Genus LVIII. PYROSIS.
The Heart-Burn.
300
Pyrofis, Sauv. gen. 200. Sag. 158.
Soda, Lin. 47. Vog. 154.
Scotis, the Water-Brash.
Pyrofis Suecica, Sauv. fp. 4.
Cardialgia fputatoria, Sauv. fp. 5.
This difeafe, whether confidered as primary or fymp-
tomatic, has already been fully treated under Dy¬
spepsia.
Genus LIX. COLICA.
The Colic.
Colica, Sauv. gen. 204. Lin. 50. Vog. 160. Sag. 162.
Lunch. 106.
Colica fpafmodica et fiatulenta, Hojfm. II. 284.
Rachialgia, Sauv. gen. 211. Sag. 168.
Ileus, Sauv. gen. 252. Vog. 162. Sag. gen. 187.
lliaea, Lin. 185.
Dolor et fpafmus iliacus, Hoffm. II. 263.
Paflio iliaca, Lunch. 107.
Sp. I. The Spafmodic COLIC.
Colica flatulenta, pituitofa, &c. Sauv. fp. 1. 2. 5. 6. 7. 3°®
Ileus
3
MEDICINE.
practice,
Spafmi. Ileus phyfodes, volvulus inflammatorius, &c. Ejufd.
 ' fp. i. 3. 5. 7. 8. 9.
Defcription. The colic is chiefly known by a vio¬
lent pain, in the abdomen, commonly about the umbi¬
lical region. The pain refembles various kinds of
fenfations, as of burning, twilling, boring, a ligature
drawn very tight, &c. The belly is generally coftive,
though fometimes there is a violent evacuation of bi¬
lious matters upwards and downwards. In thefe cafes
the difeafe is fometimes accompanied from the begin¬
ning with a weak and intermitting pulfe, cold fweats,
and fainting. In fome the dileafe comes on gradual¬
ly, beginning with an habitual coftivenefs •, and if
purgatives be taken, they do not operate. The pain
comes on generally after a meal, and foon occafions
naufea and vomiting. Sometimes the difeafe is attend¬
ed with pyrexia, violent thirft, and a full pulfe ; the
vomiting becomes more violent, and excrementitious
matters are thrown up with the molt exquifite pain and
tenfion of the abdomen ; and hiccough comes on, which
continues obftinately ; till at laft a oefTation of pain and
fetid breath indicate a mortification of the intellines
and approaching death. Sometimes the perillaltic mo¬
tion of the inteltines is fo totally inverted, that all their
contents are evacuated by the mouth, and even clyfters
will be vomited 5 which conftitutes that difeafe com¬
monly called the iliac pajjion.
Caufes, &c. Colics may arife from any fudden
check given to perfpiraiion, as by violent cold applied
to any part of the body, efpecially to the lower ex¬
tremities and abdomen. Very frequently they are oc-
cafioned by aulfere, acid, or indigellible aliments ta¬
ken into the llomach. Bv any of thefe, a violent co¬
lic, or indeed an iliac paffion, may be occafioned ; for
Dr Cullen juftly^obferves, that this laft, though com¬
monly accounted a different fpecies of difeafe, differs
from colic in no other way than in being in every
refpeft in a much higher degree. In thofe who have
died of this difeafe and been differed, the intefiines
have fometimes been found twilled ; but more com¬
monly there hath been an introfufception of the inteftine,
that is, one part of the gut feems to have enfered
within the other. In the'Edinburgh Medical Effays,
vol. iii. we have a differtation on the ufe of the warm
bath in the bilious colic, in which the author derives
the diforder from a fpafmodic conftri&ion of the intef¬
tine occafioned by the acrimony of the bile. By this,
he fays, the inteftine is not onlv contra&ed into an
unufual narrowntfs, but the fides of it have been found,
upon diffedlion, fo clofely joined, that no paffage could
be made downwards more than if they had been
ilrongly tied by a ligature. The formation of the in-
Irofufceptio he explains by quoting a paffage from
Peyerus, who made the following experiment on a
frog. Having irritated the inteftine of the animal in
feveral different places, he obferved it to contrail at
thofe places moll violently, and to protrude its contents
upwards and downwards wherever the relaxed ftate of
the part would permit ; by which means the contents
were heaped together in different parts. Hence force
parts of the inteftine being dilated much more than
enough, by reafon of the great quantity of matter
thrown, into them, formed a kind of fack which readi¬
ly received the conftritted part into it. If this hap¬
pen in the human body, there is the greateft danger
of a mortification 5 becaufe the part which is conftric-
ted, and at any rate difpofed to inflammation, has
that difpofition very much increafed by its confinement
within the other, and by the preffure of the contents
ol the alimentary canal from the ftomach downwards
upon it. An iliac paffion may alfo arife from the
ftrangulation of part of the inteliine in a hernia 5 and
even a very fmall portion of it thus firangulated may
ocoafion a fatal difeale. In the IVXedical Obfervations,
vol. iv. however, we have an account of an iliac paf¬
fion arifing from a very difterent caufe, which could
neither have been fufpedled nor cured by any other way
than the operation of gajlrotomy, or opening the abdo¬
men of the patient, in order to remove the eaufe of the
diforder. The patient, a woman of about 28 years of
age, died after fuffering extreme torture for fix days.
1 he body being opened, fome quantity of a dirty co¬
loured fluid was found in the cavity of the abdomen.
The jejunum and ileum were greatly diftended with air.
A portion of the omentum adhered to the mefentery*
near that part where the ileum terminates in the cae¬
cum. From this adhefion, which was clofe to the fpine,
there ran a ligamentous cord or procefs about two
inches and a half long, unequally thick, in fome places
not thicker than a packthread ; which by its other ex-
tremity adhered to the coats of the ileum, about two
inches above the caseum. This cord formed a circle
with the mefentery, large enough to admit a hen’s egg
to pafs through it. The cord had formed a noofe
(in a manner difficult to be explained), which included
a doubling of about two inches of the lower end of the
ileum, and was drawn fo tight, that it not only put a
itop to the paffage of every thing through the bowels,
and brought on a gangrene of the ftrangulated part,
but it had even cut through all the coats of the inte¬
ftine on the oppofite fide to the mefentery, and made
an aperture about an inch long. In the Memoirs of
the Academy of Surgery are mentioned feveral fimilar
cafes.
Prognofis. The colic is never to be reckoned void
of danger, as it may unexpcftedly terminate in an
inflammation and gangrene of the inteflines. Thofe
fpecies of it which are attended with purging muft be
confidered as much lefs dangerous than thofe in which
the vomiting is very violent. The iliac paffion, or
that attended with the vomiting of feces, is always
to be accounted highly dangerous j but if the paffage
through the inteflines be free, even though their pe¬
ri llaltic motion fhould be inverted, and clyfters evacu¬
ated by the mouth, there is much more hope of a cure,
than when the belly is obftinately coftive, and there is
feme fixed obftrudlion which feems to bid defiance to
all remedies.
Cure. In the cure of the fpafmodic colic, the reco¬
very muft ultimately depend on producing a refolution
of the fpafmodic affe<51ion. In order to accomplifh
this, it is in general neceffary to evacuate the contents
of the inteftines, and to remove morbid irritability
exifting in that part of the fyftem. But in order to
preferve the life of the patient from the moft immi¬
nent hazard, it is ftill more neceffary to prevent and
remove thofe inflammatory affc&ions which often oc¬
cur in this difeafe. As the chief danger in colics arifes
from an inflammation and confequent mortification of
3 D a thq
M E D I
the i'nteftines, it is effentially neceflary, in the firfl;
place, to diminiih the tendency to a pyrexia, if there
fliould happen to be any. S his is accomplilhed by
bleeding, emollient injedlions, warm bathing, and cool¬
ing medicines taken inwardly. Dr Porter ftrongly re¬
commends the warm bath in thofe colics attended with
violent evacuations of bile. He fuppofes it to do fer-
vice by relaxing the conltriftion of the inteftines, and
thus preventing or removing the introfufceptio. In the
mean time opiates may be given to eale the pain, while
every method is tried, by cathartics and glyilers of va¬
rious kinds to procure a ftool. In obilinate cafes,
where llimulating cathartics have proved ineffectual,
the milder kinds, luch as manna, fenna, oleum ricini,
&c. will fometimes fucceed 5 but when every thing of
this kind fails, recourfe muff be had to fome of the
more extraordinary methods. Some have recommend¬
ed the fwallowing of leaden bullets, on a fuppofition
that by their weight they would force through the ob-
ffrucffion 5 but thefe feem much more likely to create
than to remove an obffrmffion. It is impoffible they
can ail by their gravity, becaufe the intertines do not
lie in a ftraight iine from the pylorus to the anus 5 and
though this were actually the cafe, we cannot fuppofe
that the weight of a leaden bullet could prove very effi¬
cacious in removing either a fpafmodic eonftriilion or
an obftruclion from any other caufe. But when we
conlider not only that the inteftines confill of a great
multitude of folds, but that their periftaltic motion (by
which only the contents are forced through them) is
inverted, the futility of this remedy muff be evident.
It might rather be fuppofed to aggravate the clifeafej
as the lead, by its preffure, would tend to fix the in-
trofufception more firmly, or perhaps puffi it (fill far¬
ther on. The fame thing may be laid of quickfilver :
not to mention the pernicious confequences to be appre¬
hended from fwallowing large quantities of this mine¬
ral, even if it ffiould prove efficacious in relieving the
patient for the prefent. There are, howTever, fome late
cafes on record, particularly one by Mr William Perrw,
publifhed in the fixteenth volume of the Edinburgh
Medical Commentaries, in which the hydrargyrus,
fvvallowed in great quantities, was attended with the
happieft effedls, after every other remedy had been tried
in vain.
Another method has been propofed, in the Medical
Effays, for relieving the miferable patients in this difor-
der, which in many cafes has been known to do fer-
vice. The patient is to be taken out of bed, and made
to walk about, on the cold floor of a damp apartment.
At the fame time, bafons of cold water are to be daffied
on his feet, legs, and thighs y and this muff be conti¬
nued for an hour or longer, if a ftool be not procured
before that time, though this will generally be the cafe
much fooner. The exercife does not at all impair the
patient’s ftrength, but rather adds to it y and fome very
remarkable inftances are adduced in the 6th volume of
the Medical Effays, where this proved effedtual after
all other medicines had failed. In one perfon the
difeafe had come on with a habitual cofiivenefs, and he
had been for a week tormented with the molt violent
pain and vomiting, which could be flopped neither by
anodynes nor any other medicines, the ffiarpeft clyfters
being returned unaltered, and all kinds of purgatives
thrown up foon after they were fvvallowed y but by the
CINE.
Practice.
above-mentioned method, a flool was procured in 35 (’clica.
minutes, and the patient recovered. In fome others
the coftivenefs had continued for a much longer time.  
Other remedies are, the blowing air into the inteffines
by means of a bellows, and the injedling clyfters of the
fmoke of tobacco. But neither of thefe feem very ca¬
pable of removing the difeafe. They can affedt only
the parts below the obilrudtion y while, to cure the dif¬
eafe, it is neceffary that the obitrudled parts themfelves
ffiould be reached by the medicine, and therefore we
have not many well-attefted inftances of their fuccefs. In
fome obftinate cafes, however, benefit has certainly been
derived from tobacco-fmoke injections, and likewife
from injedlions of tepid water to the extent of feveral
pounds. For putting in pradlice thefe modes of cure,
a particular apparatus has been contrived y and in
cafes even apparently defperate, neither ffiould be ne-
gledled. 'i he cold water gives a general and very con-
fiderable ffiock to the fyllem, checks the perlpiration,
and thus drives the humours inward upon the intef¬
tines, by which they receive a much more effectual
ftimulus than can be fuppofed to arife from any kind
of clytter. But when all methods have failed, the
only chance the patient can have for life is by a ma¬
nual operation.
In thofe colics which are attended with faintings,
&c. from the beginning, and which generally attack
hyfteric women and other debilitated perfons, all kinds
of evacuations are pernicious *, and the cure is to be
attempted by anodynes and cordials, which will feldom
fail of fuccefs. Even there alfo, however, it is necef-
fary that the belly Should be moved y and for this pur-
pofe injeClions, containing a folution of afafoetida,
which operate powerfully as antifpafmodics, are pre¬
ferable to moft: other modes of cure.
Sp. II. CoLICA PlCTONUM. T/ie Colic of Poiclou, 303
Rachialgia PiCtonum, Sauv. fp. 1.
Rachialgia metallica, Sauv. fp. 3..
Colica PiCtonum Citefi.
Another caufe to which violent colics are frequent¬
ly to be aferibed, and which often gives occafion to
them where it is very little fufpeCled, is lead, or fome
folution or fume of it, received into the body. To
this caufe is evidently owing the colics to which plum¬
bers, lead-miners, and fmelters of lead are fubjeCt. To
the fame caufe, though not fo apparent at firft fight, ar*
we to aferibe the Devonffiire colic, where lead is receivj-
ed into the body diffolved in cyder, the common drink
of the inhabitants of that country. This has been
proved by experiment y for lead has been extraCled
from cyder in quantity Efficient to produce pernicious
effeCls on the human body. The colic of PoiClou, and
vrhat is called the dry bel/y-ach in the Weft Indies,
are of the fame nature : for which reafon we give the
following general defeription of the fymptoms of all
thefe difeafes.
The patient is generally firft feized with an acute
pain at the pit of the ftomach, which extends itfelf
down with griping pains to the bowels. Soon after
there is a diftenfion, as with wind y and frequent retch¬
ings to vomit, without bringing up any thing but fmall
quantities of bile and phlegm. An obftinate eoftive-
nefs followsj yet fometimes attended with a tenefmus,
and
Fra&ke. M E D I
Spafmi- and tlie bowels feem to the patient as if they were
w-V—drawn up towards the back j at other times they are
drawn into hard lumps, or hard rolls, which are plainly
perceptible to the hand on the belly. Sometimes the coats
of the inteftines feem to be drawn up from the anus and
down from the pylorus towards the navel. When a
llool is procured by artificial means, as clyfters, &c.
the feces appear in little hard knots like flieep’s dung,
called fcybala, and are in fmall quantity. There is,
however, ufually an obftinate coftivenefs; the urine
is difcharged in fmall quantity, frequently with pain
and much difficulty. The pulfe is generally low,
though fometimes a little quickened by the violence
of the pain ; but inflammatory fymptoms very feldom
occur. The extremities are often cold, and fometimes
the violence of the pain caufes cold clammy fweats
and fainting. The mind is generally much afFefted,
and the fpirits arc funk. The difeafe is often tedious,
efpeeially if improperly treated, infomuch that the pa¬
tients will continue in this miferable llate for twenty
or thirty days fucceflively ; nay, inftances have been
known of its continuing for fix months. In this cafe
the pains at laft become almoft intolerable: the pa¬
tient’s breath acquires a ilrong fetid fmell like excre¬
ments, from a retention of the feces, and an abforp-
tion of the putrid effluvia from them by the lacteals.
At lall, when the pain in the bowels begins to abate,
a pain comes on in the (boulder joints and adjoining
mufcles, with an unufual fenfation and tingling along
the fpinal marrow. This foon extends itfelf from
thence to the nerves of the arms and legs, which be¬
come weak •, and that weaknefs increafes till the ex¬
treme parts become paralytic, with a total lofs of
motion, though a benumbed fenfation often remains.
Sometimes, by a fudden metaftalis, the brain becomes
affefted, a llupor and delirium come on, and the
nervous fyftern is irritated to fuch a degree as to pro¬
duce general convulfions, which are frequently followed
by death. At other times, the periftaltic motion of
the inteftines is inverted, and a true iliac pafflon is
produced, which alfo proves fatal in a fhort time.
Sometimes the paralytic affeftion of the extremities
goes off, and the pain of the bowels returns with its
former violence j and on the ceffation of the pain in
the inteftines, the extremities again become paralytic ;
and thus the pain and palfy will alternate for a very
long time.
Cure. Various methods have been attempted for
removing this terrible difeafe. The obftinate coftive¬
nefs which attends it, made phyficians at firft exhibit
very ftrong purgatives and ftimulating clyfters. But
thefe medicines, by inereafing the cqnvulfive fpafms of
the inteftines, were found to be pernicious. Balfam
of Peru, by its warm aromatic power, was found to
fucceed much better ; and Dr Sydenham accordingly
prefcribed it in the quantity of 40 drops twice or
thrice a-day taken on fugar. This, with gentle pur¬
gatives, opiates, and fome drops of the hotter eflential
oils, continued to be the medicine commonly employ¬
ed in this difeafe, till a fpecific was publifhed by Dr
Lionel Chalmers of South Carolina. This receipt
was purchafed by Dr Chalmers from a family where
it had long been kept a fecret. The only unufual me¬
dicine in this receipt, and on which the efficacy of
it chiefly if not wholly depends, is fulphate of copper.
CINE.
This muft be diffolved in water, in the quantity of
one grain to an ounce, and the dofe of the folution
is a wine-glafsful given falling for nine fucceffive
mornings. For the firft four or five days this me¬
dicine difeharges much seruginous bile both ways j
but the excretions of this humour leffen by degrees *,
and before the courfe be ended, it has little other ef-
fedl than to caufe fome degree of fqueamilhnefs, or
promote a few bilious ftools, or perhaps may not move
the patient at all. At the time of ufing this medicine
the patients Ihould live upon broth made of lean meat,
gruel, or panada : but about the feventh or eighth day,
they may be allowed bread and boiled chicken. Here
the copper feems to do fervice by its tonic power ; and
for the fame reafon, alum, recommended by Dr Perci-
val, mod probably cures the difeafe. Re fays he has
found this very efficacious in obftinate affedlions ot the
bowels, and that it generally proves a cure in the
High ter cafes of the colica pictonum. It was given to
the quantity of fifteen grains every fourth, fifth, or
fixth hour •, and the third dofe feldom failed to mitigate
the pain, and fometimes entirely removed it. Among
purgative medicines the oleum ricini is found to be the
moft efficacious. Mercury alfo, particularly under the
form of calomel, has often been employed with fuecefs.
And much benefit has been derived from combining
the calomel w-ith opium. From this combination there
is often obtained, in the firft inftance, an alleviation of
the pain, and afterwards a free difeharge by the belly.
397
Colica.
Sp. III. The Colic from Cojlivene/s.
Colica ftercorea, Sauv. fp. 3.
Ileus h fsecibus induratis, Sauv. fp. 2.
For the treatment of this fpecies, fee above.
Sp. IV. The Accidental COLIC.
Colica Japonica,—accidentalis,—ladlentium,—h ve-
neno, Sauv. fp. 10. 14. 18. 20*.
Cholera ficca auriginofa, & fungis venenatis, ejufd.
fp. 2.
When colics arife from acrid poifonous matter taken
into the ftomach, the only cure is either to evacuate
the poifon itfelf by vomiting, or to fwallow fome other
fubflance which may decompound it, and thus render
it inactive. The moft common and dangerous fub-
ftances of this kind are corrofive mercury and arfenic.
The former is eafily decompounded by alkaline falls ;
and therefore a folution of lixivial fait, if fwallewed
before the poifon lias time to induce a mortification
of the bowels, will prove a certain cure. Much more
uncertain, however, is the cafe when arfenic is fwallow-
ed, hecaufe there is no certain and fpeedy folvent of
that fubftance yet known. Milk has been recommend¬
ed as efficacious •, and lately a folution of hepar fulplu-
ris. The latter may poffibly do fervice ; as arfenic
unites readily with fulphur, and has its pernicious qua¬
lities more obtunded by that than by any other known
fubftance : but indeed, even the folvent powers of this
medicine are fo weak, that its eftefts as well as thofe of
others muft be very uncertain.
Some kinds of fungi, when fwallowed, are apt to pro¬
duce colics attended with ftupor, delirium, and convul¬
fions ) and the fame fometimes happens from eating a
largo
398
Spafnii.
3°5
30*
3°7
M E D I
large quantity of the fheii-tiih known by the name of
‘ mufcles (the Mytilus). Some of the fungi, doubtlefs,
may have an inherent poifonous quality *, but generally
they as well as the mufcles a£t on a different principle.
Their pernicious effedls happen moft commonly when
they are taken on an empty ftomach ; and are then fup-
pofed to be occafioned by their adhering fo clofe to its
coats, that it cannot exert its powers, and the whole
fyflem is thrown into the utmoft diforder. The ma¬
lady may therefore be very eaftly prevented j but when
once it has taken place, it cannot be removed till ei¬
ther vomiting be excited, or the ftomach has recovered
itfelf in fuch a manner as to throw off the adhering
matter.
Sp. V. Colic of New-born Inf ants from a Retention of
the Meconium. (Sauv. fp. 19.).
This diforder would be prevented were children al¬
lowed immediately to fuck their mothers, whofe milk
at firft is purgative. But as this is not commonly done,
the child is frequently troubled with colics. Thefe,
however, may be removed by a few grains of ipecacu¬
anha, or a drop or two of antimonial wine. By thefe
means the ftomach is cleanfed by vomiting, and the
belly is generally loofened ; but if this laft effeft does
not happen, fome gentle purge will be neceffary.
Sp. VI. Colic from a Callojity of the Colon.
It is often impoflible to difcover this diftemper before
the patient’s death j and though it fliould, it does not
admit of a cure.
Sp. VII. The Colic from Intejlinal Calculi. {Sauv.
fp. 10. 15.).
When certain indigeftible bodies, fuch as cherry*
ftones, plum-ftones, fmall pieces of bones, &c. are
fwallowed, they frequently prove the bafts of calculi,
formed by an accretion of fome kind of earthy matter ;
and being detained in fome of the flexures of the intef-
tines, often occafion very violent colics. Thefe calculi
do not difcover themfelves by any peculiar fymptoms,
nor do they admit of any particular method of cure.
In the Medical Effays rve have an inftance of colics
for fix years, occafioned by calculi of this kind. The
concretions were at laft palled by ftool; and their paf-
fage was procured by caufing the patient drink a large
quantity of warm water, with a view to promote the
evacuation of bile, a redundancy of which was fuppofed
to be the caufe of her diforder.
3o8 Genus LX. CHOLERA, the Cholera Morbus.
Cholera, Sauv. 2^3* Lin. 186. Vog. no. Sag. 188.
Hoffm. II. 165.
Diarrhoea cholerica, Junck. 112.
Sp. I. The Spontaneous CHOLERA, coming on without
any manifeft caufe.
Cholera fpontanea, Sauv. fp. 1. Sydenh. feci. iv.
cap. 2.
Cholera Indica, Sauv. fp. 7,
C 1 N E, PraClicc,
Chol$ra.
Sp. II. The Accidental CHOLERA, from acrid matter
taken inwardlv.
Cholera crapulofa, Sauv. fp. 11.
Cholera & venenis, Sauv. fp. 4, 5.
The cholera (hows itfelf by exceflive vomiting and
purging of bilious matters, with violent pain, inflation
and diftenfion of the belly. Sometimes the patients
fall into univerfal convulfions; and fometimes they
are affedled with violent fpafms in particular parts of
the body. There is a great third, a fmall and unequal
pulfe, cold fweats, fainting, coldnefs of the extremities,
and hiccough ; and death frequently enfues in twenty-
four hours.
In this difcafe, as a great quantity of bile is depofited
in the alimentary canal, particularly in the ftomach, the
firft object is to counteradl its influence, and to promote
an eafy difcharge of it. It is next neceffary to reftrain
that increafed fecretion of bile, by which a frefn depo-
fition in the alimentary canal would other wife be foon
produced. And, in the laft place, mcafares muft often
be employed to reftore a found condition to the ali¬
mentary canal, which is frequently much weakened by
the violence of the difcafe.
On thefe grounds, the cure of this diftemper is ef¬
fected by giving the patient a large quantity of warm
water, or very weak broth, in order to cleanfe the fto¬
mach of the irritating matter which occafions the
difeafe, and inje&ing the fame by Avay of clyfter, till
the pains begin to abate a little. After this, a large
dofe of laudanum is to be given in fome convenient
vehicle, and repeated as there is occafion. But if the
vomiting and purging have continued for a long time
before the phyfician be called, immediate recourfe muft
be had to the laudanum, becaufe the patient will be
too much exhaufted to bear any further evacuations.
Sometimes the propenfity to vomit is fo ftrong, that
nothing will be retained, and the laudanum itfelf
thrown up as foon as fwallowed. To fettle the fto¬
mach in thefe cafes, Dr Douglas, in the Medical
Effays, recommends a decoflion of oat-bread toafted
as brown as coffee 5 and the deco&ion itfelf ought to
be of the colour of weak coffee. He fays he does not
remember that this decoftion was ever vomited by any
of his patients. An infufion of mint-leaves or good
Ample mint-water is alfo faid to be very efficacious in
the fame cafe.
The tinfture of opium is fometimes retained when
given in conjunction rvith a portion of the fulphuric
acid properly diluted. But when it cannot be retain¬
ed in a fluid form by the aid of any addition, it will
fometimes fit upon the ftomach when taken in a folid
ftate.
After the violence of the difeafe is overcome, the
alimentary canal, and the ftomach in particular, re¬
quires to be braced and ftrengthened. With this view
recourfe is often had with advantage to different ve¬
getable bitters, particularly to the ufe of the Colombo
root ; which, Avhile it (Lengthens the ftomach, is alfo
obferved to have a remarkable tendency in allaying
a difpofition to vomiting, which often remains for a
confiderable time after the cholera may be faid to be
overcome.
Genu?
Practice.
3”
M E B I
Genus LXI. DIARRHOEA.
Looseness.
Diarrhoea, Sauv. gen. 253. Lin. 187. Fog. xoj.
Sag. gen. 189. Junck. 112.
Hepatirrhoea, Sauv. gen. 246.
Cholerica, Lin. 190.
Cceliaca, Sauv. gen. 255. Lin. 189. Fog. 109. Sag.
gen. 199.
Lienteria, Sauv. gen. 256. Lin. 188. Sag. gen. 191.
Fog. 108.
Pituitaria, et leucorrhois, Fog. 111. 112.
Sp. I. The Feculent DIARRHOEA.
Diarrhoea ftercorofa et vulgaris, Sauv. fp. r. 2.
This is occalioned by too great a quantity of matter
thrown into the alimentary canal ; and what is dif-
charged has not the appearance of excrements, but is
much whiter, and of a thinner confiftence. Voracious
people who do not fufficiently chew their food, gor¬
mandizers, and even thofe who Rammer in their fpeech,
are faid to be liable to this difeafe. In (lighter cafes it
is removed without any medicine, or by a dofe of rhu¬
barb ; but where the matters have acquired a putrid
taint, the diforder may be much protrafted and become
dangerous. In this cafe lenient and antifeptic purga¬
tives are to be made ufe of, after which the cure is to
be completed by aftringents.
Sp. II. Bilious Diarrhoea.
(Sauv. fp. 8.).
This diftemper (hows itfelf by copious (tools of a very
yellow colour, attended with gripes and heat of the
bowels, thirft, bittefnefs, and drynefs of the mouth,
yellownefs of the tongue, and frequently follows an in¬
termitting or bilious fever. When the fever is gone,
the diarrhoea is to be removed by acidulated and cool¬
ing drinks, with fmall dofes of nitre.
CINE.
rhubarb, and (tomachic medicines, are to be exhibit¬
ed. Starch clyfters are very often efficacious.-—Some
kinds of loofenefs are contagious 5 and Sir John
Pringle mentions a foldier who laboured under an
obflinate diarrhoea, who infedted all thofe that ufed
the fame privy with himfelf. In the loofenefs which
frequently followed a dyfentery, the fame author tells
us that he began the cure with giving a vomit of ipe¬
cacuanha, after which he put the patients on a courfe
of aftringents. He ufed a mixture of three drachms of
extract of logwood, diflolved in an ounce and a half
of fpirit of cinnamon, to which was added feven ounces
of common -water, and two drachms of tinfture of ca¬
techu. Of this the patient took two fpoonfuls once in
four or five hours, and fometimes alfo an opiate at bed¬
time. He recommends the fame medicine in obftinate
diarrhoeas of all kinds. A deco&ion of limarauba bark
was alio found elledlual, when the dy(enteric (ymptoms
had gone off. Dr Pluck, who ufed this article in
North America, alfo recommends it in diarrhoeas. Two
or three ounces of the fimarauba are to be boiled in a
pound and a half of water to a pound, and the Avhole
quantity taken throughout the day. He began with
the weakeft deco&ion; and, avhen the ftomach of the.
patient could eafily bear it, he then ordered the (Prong¬
ed : but at the fame time he acknoAvledges, that, un-
lefs the fick found themfelves fenfibly better Avithin
three days from the time they began the medicine, they
feldom afterAvards received any benefit from it. But
Avhen all aftringents have failed, Sir John Pringle in¬
forms us, he hath knoAvn a cure effecled by a milk and
farinaceous diet; and he thinks in all cafes the dif-
399
Diarrhoea,
order Avould be much more eafily removed, if the pa¬
tients could be prevailed on to abftain entirely from
fpirituous liquors and animal food. If the milk by it-
felf (hould turn four on the ftomach, a third part of
lime-Avater may be added. In one cafe he found a pa¬
tient receive more benefit from good butter-milk than
from fweet-milk. The chief drinks are deco&ions ox
barley, rice, calcined hartlhorn, toad and water, or milk
and Avater.
oM Sp. III. The Mucous DIARRHOEA.
Diarrhoea la&entium, Sauv. fp. 19.
Dyfenteria Parifiaca, Sauv. fp. 3.
Diarrhoea ab hypercatharfi, Sauv. fp. 16.
Dyfenteria a catharticis, Sauv. fp. 12.
Pituitaria, Fog. m.
Leucorrhois, Fog. 112.
Diarrhoea pituitofa, Sauv. fp. 4.
Coeliaca mucofa, Sauv. fp. 3.
Diarrhoea ferofa, Sauv. fp. 10.
a. Diarrhoea urinofa.
This kind of diarrhoea, befides the matters ufually
excreted, is attended AA-ith a copious deje&ion of the
mucus of the inteftines Avith great pain ; Avliile the
patient daily pines away, but Avithout any fever.—
Perfons of all ages are liable to it, and it comes on
ufually in the Avinter-time ; but is fo obftinate, that it
will fometimes continue for years. In obftinate loofe-
neffes of this kind, vomits frequently repeated are of
the greateft fervice. It is alfo very beneficial to keep
the body Avarm, and rub the belly Avith Itimulating
ointments; at the fame time that aftringent clyfters,
Sp. IV. The COELIAC PASSION.
Coelica chylofa, Sauv. fp. 1.
Coelica la&ea, Sauv. fp. 4.
There are very great differences among phyficians
concerning the nature of this difeafe. Sauvages fays,
from Aretseus, it is a chronic flux, in Avhich the ali¬
ment is difeharged half digefted. It is attended with
great pains of the ftomach, refembling the prickling
of pins; rumbling and flatus in the inteftines ; Avhite
ftools, becaufe deprived of bile, Avhile the patient be¬
comes Aveak and lean. The difeafe is tedious, periodi¬
cal, and difficult to be cured. Sauvages adds, that
none of the moderns feem to have obferv'ed the difeafe
properly; that the excrements indeed are Avhite, on
account of a deficiency of the bile, but the belly is
bound as in the jaundice. Dr Cullen fays there is a
deje&ion of a milky liquid of the nature of chyle ;
but this is treated by Vogel as a vulgar error. He
accufes the moderns of copying from Aretaeus, who
mentions white faeces as a fymptom of the diftemper y
from Avhenee authors have readily fallen into the no¬
tion that they never appeared of any other colour in
4co M E D I
, Spafmi. perfons labouring under the c celiac pa Hi on. This error
"" v quickly produced another, which has been very gener¬
ally received ; namely, that the chyle v^as thrown cut
of the lafleals by reafon of fome obftruftion there, and
thus palled along with the excrements ; of which he
fays there is not the leal! proof, and agrees with Are-
taeus that the whitetiefs is only occafioned by the want
of bile. He endeavours to prove at length, that the
eoeliac paffion can neither be occafioned by an obftruc-
tion of the la£teals, nor of the mefenteric glands j
though he owrns that fuch as have died of this difeafe
and were diflefted, had obftruftions in the mefenteric
glands but he denies that all thofe in whom fuch ob-
llrudlions occur, are fubjefl to the cceliac paflion. He
confiders the diftemper as arifing from a cachexy of the
ilomachic and inteftinal juices j and directs the cure to
be attempted by emetics, purgatives, antifeptics, and
tonics, as in other fpecies of diarrheea.
315 Sp. V. The Lientery.
Lienteria fpontanea, Sa//v. fp. 2.
Ihe lientery, according to Sauvages, differs from the
cceliac paffion only in being a {lighter fpecies of the
difeafe. The aliment paffes very quickly through
the intefiines, with fcarce any alteration. The patients
do not complain of pain, but are fometimes affe&ed
with an intolerable hunger. The cure is to be attempt¬
ed by ftomachics and tonics, efpecially the Peruvian
bark. I his difeafe is moft common at the earlier pe¬
riods of life j and then rhubarb in fmall quantities, par¬
ticularly when combined With magnefia, is often pro-
duftive of the bell effects.
3'r7 Sp. VI. The Hepatic FLUX.
Hepatirrhoea inteftinalis, Sauv. fp. 2.
The hepatic diarrhoea is by Sauvages deferibed as
a flux of bloody ferous matter like the wTaffiings of
flelh, which percolates through the coats of the in-
teftines by means of the anaftomofing veffels. It is
the coeliac paffion of Trallianus 5 and which, according
to Sauvages, rafely, if ever, occurs as a primary dif¬
eafe. It has, however, been obferved to follow an in¬
flammation of the liver, and then altnoft always proves
fatal.
Genus LXII. DIABETES.
A profafe Difcharge of URINE.
Diabetes, Sauv. gen. 263. Lin. 197. Vog. 115.
Sag. gen. 199. Junck. 99. Dobfon, Med. Ob-
fervat. vol. v. p. 298. Home's Clinical Experi¬
ments, fe£l. xvi.
Diurefis, Vog. 114.
Sp. I. The Diabetes with fweet Urine.
Diabetes Anglicus, Sauv. fp. 2. Mead on Poiffins,
Effay I. Ejufdem Monita Med. cap. ix. feft. 2.
Dobfon in Bond. Med. Obferv. vol. v. art. 27.
Myers Diff. inaug. de Diahete, Edinb. 1779.
Diabetes febricofus, Sauv. fp. 7. Sydenh. Ep. refp.
ad R. Brady.
P5>
c
I
N E.
Sp. II. Diabetes with injipid Urine.
Eraclice.
Diabetes.
AI. Lifter Exerc. Medicin. II. de Diabete.
Diabetes legitimus, Sauv. fn. 1. Aretceus de Morb.
diuturn. lib. ii. cap. 2.
Diabetes ex vino, Sauv. fp. 5. Ephem. Germ. D. I.
A. II. Obferv. 122.
Defcription. The diabetes firff fhows itfelf by a
drynefs of the mouth and thirft, white frothy fpittle,
and the urine ‘in fomewhat larger quantity than ufoal,
A heat begins to be perceived in the bowels, which at
firff is a little pungent, and gradually increafes. The
thirft continues to augment by degrees, and the pa¬
tient gradually lofes the power of retaining his urin#
for any length of time. It is remarkable, that though
the patients drink much, the quantity of urine alw'ays
exceeds what is drank. In Dr Home’s Clinical Expe¬
riments we have an account of two patients labouring
under this difeafe : one of them drank between 10 and
12 Englifh pints a-day without being fatisfied. The
quantity was greater in the forenoon than in the after¬
noon. In the other the cafe was reverfed. He drank
about four pints a-day, and more in the afternoon than
the forenoon. The former difeharged from 12 to 13
pints of urine in the day : the latter, 11 or 12 5 fo that
his urine always exceeded his drink by eight or at leaft
feven pints. When the urine is retained a little while,
there is a fwelling of the loins, feet, and ferotum 5 in
this difeafe the ftrength gradually decays ; the Ikin is
dry and Ihrivelled ; cedematous fwellings arife in vari¬
ous parts of the body, but afterwards fubfide without
relieving the difeafe in the leaft 5 and the patient is
frequently carried off by convulliofts.
The moft lingular phenomenon in this difeafe is,
that the urine feems to be entirely or very much di¬
verted of an animal nature, and to be largely impreg¬
nated with a faccharine matter fcarce diftinguilhable
from that obtained from the fugar-cane. This difeo-
very was firft made by Dr Dobfon of Liverpool, who
made fome experiments on the urine of a perfon la¬
bouring under a diabetes, who difeharged 28 pints of
urine every day, taking during the fame time from 12
to 14 pounds of folid and liquid food. Some of this
urine being fet afide, fell into a fpohtaneous effervef-
cence, changed firft into a vinous liquor, and afterwards
into an acetous one, before it became putrid and offen-
five. Eight ounces of blood taken from the fame pa¬
tient, feparated into craffamentum and ferum ; the lat¬
ter being fweet to the tafte, but lefs fo than the urine.
Two quarts of the urine, evaporated to drynefs, left a
white cake weighing four ounces two drams and two
fcruples. This cake w*as granulated, and broke eafily
between the fingers : it fmelled fweet like brown fu-
gar ; neither could it by the tafte be diftinguifhed from
fugar, except that it left a flight fenfe of coolnefs on
the tongue. The experiment was repeated after the
patient was recovered to fuch a degree as to pafs only
14 pints of urine a-day. There was now a ftrong
urinous fmell during the evaporation ; and the refiduum
could not be procured in a folid form, but was black-
ifh, and much refembled very thick treacle. In Dr
Home’s patients, the ferum of the blood had no pre¬
ternatural fweetnefs j in one of them the craffamentum
was
Pra&ice. M E D I
Spa!mi. vvas covered with a tUck hiflamiaatory cruit. In one
'-^v 1 of thefe patien,ts the urine yielded an ounce and a half,
and in the other an ounce, of faccharine matter from
each pound. It had, however, an urinous fmell, and a
faline tafte mixed with the fweet one ; and the urine
of one fermented with yeaft, we are told, into “ toler¬
able fmall-beer.” Both tltefe patients had a voracious
•appetite, and perpetual gnawing fenfe of hunger j as
had alfo Dr Dobfon’s patient. The infipid urine of
thofe affe&ed with diabetes has not been 'examined by
phyficians with fuflicient accuracy to enable us to fpeak
with confidence of its contents.
Caufcs, Thefe are exceedingly obfeure and uncer¬
tain •, fpafms of the nervous fyftem, debility, and every
tiling inducing it, but efpecially llrong diuretics and
immoderate venery, have been accufed of bringing on
the diabetes. It has, however, occurred in perfons
where none of thefe c.aufes could be fufpected ; nor
have the bed phyficia.ns been able to determine it.—
Diifedtions have only fliown that the kidneys were in
an enlarged and lax Hate. In one of Dr Home’s
patients who died, they fmelled four ; which fhowed
that the urine peculiar to diabetes came from the kid¬
neys, and was not fent direcTly from the inteftines by
a retrograde motion of the lymphatics, as fome ima¬
gine.
Pragnojis. The diabetes is rarely cured, unlefs when
taken at the very beginning, which is feldom done j
and in a confirmed diabetes the prognofis mull therefore
be unfavourable.
Cure. As there is reafon to believe that in this af¬
fection the morbid fecretion of urine, which is both
preternatural in point of quantity and of quality, arifes
from a morbid diminution of tone in the kidney, the
great objeCt in the cure mull be the reftoration of due
tone to the fecreting yeflels of the kidney. But as even
this diminifhed tone would not give rife to the peculiar
vitiated fecretion without a morbid fenfibility of that
organ, it is neceffarily a fecond object to remove this
morbid fenfibility. But befides this, the morbid fe¬
cretion of urine may alfo be counteracted both by a di¬
minution of the determination of fluids to the kidney,
and by preventing the occurrence of fuperfluous water
in the general mafs of blood.
On thefe grounds the principal hopes of a cure in
this diftemper are from aftringent and ftrengthening
medicines. Dr Dobfon’s patient was relieved by the
following remedies j which, however, were frequently
varied, as none of them produced their good effeCts
for any length of time : Cinchona in fubftance, with
hnall dofes of rhubarb j decoCtion of the bark, with
the acid elixir of vitriol j the cold infufion of the bark,
of which he drank from a quart to two quarts daily $
Dover’s powder ; alum-whey ; lime-water ; antimonials
combined with tinciura thebaica. The warm bath was
ufed occafionally when the fkin was remarkably hot and
dry, and the patient complained of reftlelfnefs and anxi¬
ety. The tinClure of cantharides was likewife tried j
but he could never take more than 25 drops for a dole,
without exciting great uneafinefs in his bowels. The
body was kept conftantly open, either with rhubarb
or the infufion of fenna joined with rhubarb. His
common drinks were rice-water, barley-water, lime-wa¬
ter, and milk j lime-water alone; fage, balm, or mint
tea ; fmall beer, fimple water, and water acidulated with
Vol. XIII. Part II.
CINE.
the fulphuric acid. In feven months, thefe remedies,
in whatever manner varied, made no further progrefs in
removing the difeafe. In Dr Home’s patients, all thefe
medicines, and many others, were tried without the
leaft good cffeCf ; inlomuch that he ufes this remarkable
exprellion : “ Thus, thefe two patients have exhauited
all that experience had ever recommended, and almoft
all that theory could fugged 5 yet in both cafes, the dif¬
eafe has refilled all the means of cure ufed.” It is re¬
markable, that though feptics were given to both, in
fuch quantity as evidently to produce a putrefbency in
the primes vice, the urine remained unaltered both in
quantity and quality.
But although this difeafe be frequently in its nature
fo abftinate as to refill every mode of cure, yet there can
be no doubt that particular remedies have fucceeded in
different cafes. Dr Brifbane relates feveral cafes cured
by the ufe of tindlure of cantharides: and Dr M‘Cor-
mick has related fome in the 9th volume of the Edin¬
burgh Medical Commentaries, which yielded to Do¬
ver’s powder after a variety of other remedies had been
tried in vain.
But of all the modes of cure lately propofed, that
which has been moft celebrated,, is the treatment re¬
commended by Dr Rollo of the Royal Artillery. In
a valuable work lately publilhed, entitled Cafes of the
Diabetes Mel litas, he has recorded two remarkable ex¬
amples of the good effects of a peculiar regimen in this
difeafe. He confiders diabetes as being a difeafe not
of the kidney but of the alimentary canal, and as
arifing from the formation of an uncommon quantity of
fugar. He therefore Itridtly forbids the ufe of every
article of diet which can furnifh fugar, even of bread ;
and by a diet conlifting entirely of animal and alkalcf-
cent food Ills patients were much benefited. The ex¬
perience of fome other practitioners has to a certain de¬
gree confirmed the obfervations of Dr Rollo. But we
are ferry to add, that we have met with many other
inftances of diabetes mellitus, in which a diet confiding
folely of animal food, had a fair trial, without producing
any material benefit. And we may conclude with ob-
ferving, that the cure of diabetes hill remains to be dif-
covered. As allaying the exceffive third:, and pro¬
ducing a temporary redoration of urinous fmell, or the
urea which it ought naturally to contain, we have found
nothing equal in efficacy to a large proportion of fat
meat, fuch as pork deqks or butter.
Genus LXIII. HYSTERIA.
Hysterics.
Plyderia, Sauv. gen. 135. Lin. 126. Vog. 219. Sag.
gen. 242.
Malum hyderieum, Hojfm. III. 50. Lunch. 36.
AffeCUo hyderica, Willis de Morb. Convulfiv. cap. 5.
10. 11. Sydenham Diff. Epid. ad G. Cole, Whytt
on Nervous Diforders.
Defcription. The hyfieria is a convulfive difeafe,
which comes on at uncertain intervals, fi-metimes longer
and fometimes diorter, but at no dated time. The
paroxyfms commonly begin with a languor and debi¬
lity of the whole body ; yawning, dretching, and red-
leffnefs. A fenfe of coldnefs alfo in the extremities,
almod always precedes, and for the mod part remains
during the whole time of, the paroxyfm. To this fome-.
3 E times
401
Diabetes.
32t
402
Spafmi.
M E D I
times fucceeds a fenfe of heat j and the two fenfations
'alternate with each other in different parts of the body.
The face is fometimes flufhed and fometimes pale: and
fometimes the palenefs and flulhing come alternately.
There is a violent pain in the head ; the eyes become
dim, and pour out tears j there is a rumblmg and infla¬
tion of the inteftines j a fenfation is felt like that of a
globe afcending from the lower part of the abdomen
or hypogaftrium, which fometimes feems to roll along
the whole alimentary canal. It afcends to the ftomach,
fometimes fuddenly, fometimes flowly j and there pro¬
duces a fenfe of inflation and weight, together with
anxiety, naufea, and vomiting. At laft it comes up to
the throat, where it produces a fenfe of fuffocation,
and difficulty of breathing or fwallowing. During
this time there are the mofl: violent pains both in the
external and internal parts of the abdomen ; the muf-
cles are convulfed ; the umbilicus is drawn inwards}
and there are frequently fuch fpafms of the inteftines,
that neither clyfters can be injefted, nor even flatus
pafs downwards. Sometimes the paroxyfm remits af¬
ter thefe fymptoms have continued for a c^tain time,
but more frequently the patients fall into fainting fits j
fometimes they lie without motion, as if they were in
a deep fleep ; fometimes they beat their breafts violent¬
ly and continually with their hands, and fometimes
they are feized with general convulfions, and the dif-
eafe puts on the appearance of an epilepfy. In fome
patients the extremities become cold and ftiff, and the
body has the appearance of one in a catalepfy. Some¬
times a moft violent beating pain takes place in fome
part of the head, as if a nail was driven into it, and
all vifible obje&s feem to turn round ; grievous pains
attack the loins, back, and bladder, and the patients
difcharge a furprifing quantity of urine as limpid as
water } which laft is one of the fureft figns of the dif-
eafe. The mind is very much affefted as well as the
body. Sometimes the patients are tormented with vain
fears : fometimes they will laugh, at other times cry im¬
moderately ; and fometimes their temper becomes fo
peeviffi and fretful, that they cannot enjoy a moment’s
quiet. The appearances which take place in this af¬
fection are indeed fo much varied, that they can hard¬
ly be enumerated: they may, however, with propriety,
be divided into hyfteric fits, which very much referable
thofe of epilepfy, excepting that they are not attended
with an abolition of the internal fenfes; and hyfteric
fymptoms, fuch as the globus hyjiericus, davits hjjleri-
cus, and the like, which are chiefly known to conftitute
a part of this difeafe from being obferved to alternate
with fits.
Caufes, &c. The general caufe of hyfteria is thought
by the beft phyficians to confift in a too great mobi¬
lity and irritability of the nervous fyftem, and of con-
fequence the difeafe may be brought on by whatever
debilitates and renders the body irritable. Hence it
moft frequently attacks females of a w7eak and lax ha¬
bit of body, though there are fome inftances of men al-
fo attacked by it. It generally comes on between the
time of puberty and the age of 35, and makes its at¬
tacks during the time of menftruation more frequently
than at any other. It alfo more frequently feizes bar¬
ren women and young widows, than fuch as are bear¬
ing children.
Prognojis. Though the appearance of this difeafe be
CINE.. ^ Pradice.
fo very terrible, it feldom proves mortal unlefs by wrong Hyfteria.
treatment: but notwithftanding this, it is extremely dif-v~—J
ficult of cure, and rarely admits of any thing elfe than
being palliated } for though it ftiould feem to be con¬
quered by medicine for a time, it very quickly returns,
and that from the flighteft caufes.
Cure. The ends principally to be aimed at in the
cure of this difeafe are, in the firft place, the removal
of particular convulfive or fpafmodic affections imme¬
diately producing various appearances in the difeafe,
whether under the form of proper hyfteric fits, or
n - rely of wffiat may be called hyfteric fymptoms 5 and
in the fecond place, the prevention of the return of
fymptoms after they have been removed, by the employ¬
ment of proper remedies during thofe intervals from
complaints which patients often have when labouring
under this affeftion.
The moft powerful remedy hitherto difcovered in
hyfteric cafes is opium, or th- tinfture of it. By this
commonly the moft violent paroxyfms are flopped,
though it be infufficient to accomplifh a radical cure.
In Dr Home’s Clinical Experiments we find an in-
ftance of a cure performed by venefeftion, though this
remedy has been generally condemned in hyfterical
cafes. Afafoetida feems to ftand next in virtue to
opium} though with fome it difagrees, and occafions
pains in the ftomach and vomiting. Sulphuric aether
Avill alfo frequently remove an hyfteric fit: but its ef-
fefts are of fhort duration *, and if it do not effeft a
cure foon after its exhibition, no fervice is to be ex-
pefted either by perfeverance in the ufe of it or by
increafing the dofe •, and with fome conftitutions it dif¬
agrees to fuch a degree as to occafion convulfions. If
the patient be feized with a violent fit, fo that flie can
fwallow nothing, which is frequently the cafe, it will
be proper to apply fome ftrong volatile alkali to her
nofeq or if that be not at hand, the vapour of burning
feathers is fometimes very efficacious. In fome in¬
ftances benefit is derived from the hidden application of
cold water to the face or hands 5 but ftill more fre¬
quently the application of water in a tepid ftate,
particularly the warm pediluvium, is found to be of
very great fervice in bringing about a favourable ter¬
mination of different violent hyfteric fymptoms. A
plafter of galbanum and afafoetida will alfo prove fer-
viceable : but it muft be remembered, that none of thefe
things will prevent the return of the difeafe ; and there¬
fore a radical cure is to be attempted by exercife, cin¬
chona, chalybeates, mineral waters, and other tonics 5
but particularly, wffiere the ftate of the patient is fuch
as to be able to bear it, by the ufe of the cold bath,
which, where it does not difagree with the conftitution,
is often of the greateft fervice in preventing returns of
this affedtion.
In hyfteria as w7ell as in chorea Dr Hamilton has
found, that in fome inftances very great benefit has been
obtained from copious evacuations of the alimentary ca¬
nal, by cathartics frequently repeated.
Genus LXIV. HYDROPHOBIA.
The Dread of WATER.
Hydrophobia, Sauv. gen. 231. Lin. 86. Vog. 30.
Sag-, gen. 343. Boerh. 1138. Lunch. 124. Mead
on Poifons. Default fur la rage.' Sauv. diff. fur
la
3:*-
M E D I
la rage. on canine madnefs. Da/by, Vir¬
tues of cinnabar and mulk againft the bite of a
mad dog. Nugent on the hydrophobia. Choifel,
Nouvelle methode pour le traitement de la rage.
Journal de Medicine, paffim. Medical Obf. and In¬
quiries, vol. iii. art. 34. vol. v. art. 20. 26. and
App. Med. Tranfabl. vol. ii. art. 5. 12. and 15.
Mey[ham, Diff. inaug. de rab. canin. Edinb.
Parry, Diff. inaug. de rab. contagiof. five canin.
Edinb. 1778. Andry, Recherches fur la rage,
1778. Vaughan, Cafes of hydrophobia, fecond
edit. 1778. Arnold, Cafe of hydrophobia, 1795.
323 Sp. I. HTDROPHOEIA Rabiofa, or Hydrophoby con-
fequent on the Bite of a Mad Animal.
Hydrophobia vulgaris, Sam), fp. 1.
It is the opinion of fome, that Dr Cullen has done
wrong in employing the term hydrophobia as a generic
name, under which canine madnefs is included : and
it mull be allowed, that the dread of water, while it is
not univerfal, is alfo a fymptom occurring only late in
the difeafe, at lead in the greater part of cafes. Per¬
haps his arrangement would have been lefs exception¬
able, if, following Linnaeus, he had adopted rabies as
a generic term, and had diftinguilhed this particular
fpecies by the epithet of canina, contagiofa, or the like.
Difputes, however, about names, are in general not
very important •, and it is fufficient to obferve, that
the affedlion now to be treated of is canine madnefs,
or that difeafe which arifes from the bite of a mad
animal.
Defcription. This difeafe commonly does not make
its attack till a confiderable time after the bite. In
fome few inftances it has commenced in feven or eight
days from the accident; but generally the patient con¬
tinues in health for 20, 30, or 40 days, or even much
longer. The bite, if not prevented, will in general be
healed long before that time, frequently with the great-
eft eafe ; though fometimes it refills all kinds of heal-
ing applications, and forms a running ulcer which dif-
charges a quantity of matter for many days. It has
been faid, that the nearer the wounded place is to the
falivary glands, the fooner the fymptoms of hydro¬
phobia appear. The approach of the difeafe is known
by the cicatrix of the wound becoming high, hard,
and elevated, and by a peculiar fenfe of prickling at
the part *, pains ftioot from it towards the throat:
fometimes it is furrounded with livid or red ftreaks,
and feems to be in a Hate of inflammation ; though
frequently there is nothing remarkable to be obferved
about it. The patient becomes melancholy, loves fo-
litude, and has ficknefs at ftomach. Sometimes the
peculiar fymptom of the difeafe, the dread of water,
' comes on all at once. We have an in fiance of one
* who, having taken a vomit of ipecacuanha for the fick¬
nefs he felt at his ftomach, was feized with the hy¬
drophobia in the time he was drinking the warm water.
Sometimes the difeafe begins like a common fore throat ■,
and the forenefs daily increafing, the hydrophobic fymp¬
toms Ihow themfelves like a convulfive fpafm of the
mufcles of the fauces. In others, the mind feems to be
primarily affedled, and they are fubjeft to defponden-
i-y and melancholy for fome time prior to any dread
pra&cc.
CINE. 403
of water. And when that dread commences, it is with Hydropho-
an evident mental affection. Dr James, in his Treatife b'a'
on Canine Madnefs, mentions a boy lent out to fill two
bottles with wTater, who was fo terrified by the noife
of the liquid running into them, that he fled into the
houfe crying out that he was bewitched. He men¬
tions alfo the cafe of a farmer, who, going to draw
fome ale from a calk, was terrified to fuch a degree at
its running into the veffel, that he ran out in a great
hafte with the fpigot in his hand. But in whatever
manner this fymptom comes on, it is certain that the
moft painful fenfations accompany every attempt to
fwallow liquids. Nay, the bare fight of water, of a
looking-glafs, of any thing clear or pellucid, will give
the utmoft uneafinefs, or even llnows the patient into
convulfions.
With regard to the affedtion of the mind itfelf in
this difeafe, it does not appear that the patients are
deprived of reafon. Some have, merely by the dint
of refolution, conquered the dread of water, though
they never could conquer the convulfive motions which
the contact of liquids occafioned : while this refolu¬
tion has been of no avail j for the convulfions and other
fymptoms increafing, have almoft always deftroyed the
unhappy patients.
In this difeafe there feems to be an extreme fenfibi-
lity and irritability of the nervous fyftem. The eyes
cannot bear the light, or the fight of any thing white;
the leaft touch or motion offends them, and they want
to be kept as quiet and in as dark a place as poffible.
Some complain of the coldnefs of the air, frequently
when it is really warm. Others complain of violent
heat j and have a great defire for cold air, which yet
never fails to increafe the fymptoms. In all there is a
great flow of vifeid faliva into the mouth •, which is
exceedingly troublefome to the patients, as it has the
fame effefil upon their fauces that other liquids have.
This therefore they perpetually blow off with violence,
which in a patient of Dr Fothergill’s occafioned a noife
not unlike the hollow barking of a dog, and which he
conjeffures might have given rile to the common no¬
tion that hydrophobous patients bark like dogs. I hey
have an infatiable thirft ; but are unable to get down
any drink, except with the utmoft difficulty ; though
fometimes they can fwallow bread foaked in liquids,
flices of oranges, or other fruits. There is a pain un¬
der the fcrobiculus cordis, as in the tetanus ; and the
patients mournfully point to that place as the feat of
the difeafe. Dr Vaughan is of opinion that it is this
pain, rather than any difficulty in fwallowing, which
diftreffes the patient on every attempt to drink. The
voice is commonly plaintive and mournful; but Dr
Vaughan tells us there is a mixture of fiercenefs and
timidity in the countenance which he cannot deferibe,
but by which he could know a hydrophobous perfon
without alking any queftions.
In this diftemper, indeed, the fymptoms are fo va¬
rious, that they cannot be enumerated ; for we will
feldom read two cafes of hydrophobia which do not
differ very remarkably in this refpeift. Some feem to
have at times a furious delirium, and an inclination to
fpit at or bite the byftanders •, while others ffiow no
fuch inclination, but will even fuffer people to wdpe
the infide of their mouths with the corner of a hand¬
kerchief in order to clear away the vifeid faliva which
3 E 2 i4
404
Spafm!. is ready to fuffocate them. In fume male patients there
v is an involuntary ereftion of the penis, and emiiTion of
the femen 5 and the urine is forced away by the fre¬
quent return of the fpahns. In a letter from Dr Wolf
of Warfaw to Henry Baker, F. R. S. dated Warfaw
Sept. 26th, 1767, we have the following melancholy
account of the cafes of five perfons who died of the
hydrophobia : “ None of them quite loft their right
fenfes; but they were all talking without intermifiion,
praying, lamenting, defpairing, curling, fighing, (pit¬
ting a frothy faliva, fcreeching, fometimes belching,
retching, but rarely vomiting. Every member is con-
vulfed by fits, but moft violently from the navel up to
the breaft and oefophagus. The fit comes on every
quarter of an hour •, the fauces are not red, nor the
tongue dry. The pulfe is not at all feverifli j and when
the fit is over nearly like a found pulfe. The face
grows pale, then brown, and during the fit almoft
black 5 the lips livid 5 the head is drowfy, and the
ears tingling ; the urine limpid. At laft they grow
weary *, the fits are lefs violent, and ceafe towards the
end y the pulfe becomes weak, intermittent, and not
very quick j they fweat, and at laft the whole body
becomes cold. They compofe themfelves quietly as
if to get deep, and fo they expire. The blood drarvn
a few hours before death appears good in every re-
fpeeft. A general obfervation was, that the lint and
dreffings of the wounds, even when dry, were always
black, and that when the pus was very good in co¬
lour and appearance.” In one of Dr Wolf’s patients
who recovered, the blood flunk intolerably as it was
drawn from a vein 5 and one of Mr Vaughan’s patients
complained of an intolerable fetid fmell proceeding
from the wounded part, though nobody but himfelf
could perceive it. In general, the violent convulfions
ceafe a fhort time before death 5 and even the hydro¬
phobia goes off, fo that the patients can drink freely.
But this does not always happen ; for Mr Vaughan
mentions the cafe of a patient, in w hom, “ when he
had in appearance ceafed to breathe, the fpafmus cyni-
cus was obfervable, wuth an odd convulfive motion in
the mufcles of the face j and the ftrange contrariety
which took place in the adlion of thefe produced the
moft horrid affemblage of features that can well be
conceived. Of this patient alfo it wras remarkable,
that in the laft hours of his life he ceafed to call for
drink, which had been his conftant requeft 5 but was
perpetually afking for fomething to eat.’v
The hydrophobia feems to be a fymptom peculiar
to the human race; for the mad animals which com¬
municate the infeflion, do not feem to have any dread
of water. Dr Wolf, in the letter above quoted, fays
in general, that cattle bit at the fame time and by
the fame animal (a mad wolf) which bit the perfons
whofes cafes he related, died nearly with the fame
frightful raging as the men ; but fays nothing of their
having any hydrophobia : nay, Dr James and feme
others affert, that the hydrophobia is not always an
attendant on rabies canina in the human race ; and
indeed it is certain that the difeafe has proved mortal
after this terrible fymptom has been removed. With
regard to the fymptoms of madnefs in dogs, they are
very equivocal; and thofe particularly enumerated by
fome authors, are only fuch as might be expedled in
dogs much heated or agitated by being violently pur-
Praclice.
fued and itruck. One fymptom indeed, if it could be Hydropho-
depended upon, would determine the matter ; namely, bh.
that all other dogs avoid and run away from one that
is mad ; and even large dogs will not attack one of
the fmalleft fize who is infedfed with this difeafe.
Upon this fuppofition they point out a method of dif-
covering whether a dog who has been killed wws really
mad or not; namely, by rubbing a piece of meat along
the infide of his mouth, and then offering it to a found
dog. If the latter eats it, it is a fign the dog was not
mad ; but if the other rejedls it with a kind of howling
noife, it is certain that he was. Dr James tells us, that
among dogs the difeafe is infedliuus by flaying in the
fame place ; and that after a kennel has been once in-
fedled, the dogs put into it wdll be for a confiderable
time afterwards in danger of going mad alfo. A re¬
medy for this, he fays, is, to keep geefe for fome time
in the kennel. He rejedls as falfe the opinion that
dogs when going mad will not bark ; though he owns
that there is a very confiderable change in their bark,
which becomes hoarle and hollow.
Of all the accounts that have been publiftied on the
charafteriftics of rabies in dop, the beft is to be
found in Dr Arnold’s late treatife : the chara&eriftics
there mentioned are given on the authority of Mr
Meynell, a gentleman who has paid particular atten¬
tion to this fubjeft. From Mr Meynell’s obfervations
it appears, that moft of the charadleritiics which have
been commonly mentioned, are mere vulgar errors ;
and, according to him, the beft marks are from their
peculiar dull look, and the peculiar found which they
utter. “ Mad dogs (fays Mr Meynell) never bark,
but occafionally utter a moft difmal and plaintive howl,
expreftive of extreme diftrefs, and which, they who
have once heard it, can never forget; fo that dogs
may be known to be going mad without being feen,
when only this difmal howl is heard.
Caufes, &c. In no difeafe whatever are we more
at a lofs to difeover the caufes than in the hydro¬
phobia. In dogs, foxes, and wolves, it feems to come
on fpontaneoufly; though this is contefted by loirte
authors. It is faid, that the caufes commonly aflign-
ed, viz. heat, feeding upon putrid flefh, want of U’a-
ter, &c. are not fufficient for producing the diftem-
per. It does not appear that madnefs is more frequent
among dogs in the warm than in the cold climates ;
nay, in the ifland of Antigua, where the climate is
very hot, and the water very fcarce, this diftemper
has never, it is faid, been obferved. As to putrid ali¬
ment, it feems natural for dogs to prefer this to any
other, and they have been known to fubfift upon it
for a long time without any detriment. For thefe
reafons, they think the difeafe ariies from a fpecific
contagion, like the fmallpox and meafles among the
human race, which, being once produced by caufes
unknown, continues to be propagated by the inter- t
courfe which dogs have with each other, as the dif-
eafes juft mentioned continue to be propagated among
the human race.
With regard to the immediate caufe among man¬
kind, there is not the leaft doubt that the hydropho¬
bia is occafioned by the faliva of the mad animal be¬
ing mixed with the blood. It does not appear that
this can operate through the cuticula ; but, when that
is rubbed off, the fmalleft quantity is fufficient to com¬
municate
MEDICINE.
practice, M E D I
Spaftni. municate the dileafe, and a flight fcratch Avith the
teeth of a mad animal has been found as pernicious
as a large wound. It is certain alfo, that the infection
has been communicated by the bites of dogs, cats,
wolves, foxes, weafels, ftvine, and even cocks and hens,
when in a (late of madfrefs. But it does not appear
that the diftemper is communicable from one hydro-
phobous perfon to another, by means of the bite, or
any other way. Dr Vaughan inoculated a dog with
the faliva of a hydrophobous child, but the animal con¬
tinued free from difeafe for two months : and though
the do&ot promifed to inform the public if it Ihould
happen to occur afterwards, nothing has hitherto ap¬
peared on that fubject. A nurfe alfo frequently -killed
the child during tins time of Iris diforder, but no bad
confeqaence enfued.
When we attempt to inveftigate the nature of the
Caufe of the hydrophobia by diflections, our inquiries
are commonly difappointed. In two bodies opened by
Dr Vaughan, there was not the leaft morbid appear¬
ance •, in the very fauces, where we might have ex-
period that the difeafe Would have fttoWn itfelf moil;
evidently, there was not the lea it appearance even of
inflammation. The ftomach, xrtteftines, diaphragm,
oefophagus, &c. were all in a natural itate : neither
do w'e find in authors of credit any certain accounts of
morbid appearances in the bodies of hydrophobous
perforrs after death. Dr Vaughan therefore concludes,
that the .poifon aris upon the nervous fyifem ; and
is fo wholly confined to it, that it ma) be doubted
wliefher the qualities of the blood are altered by it or
not 5 and that it aris upon the nerves by impairing and
diflurbing their funriions to fuch a degree as fpeedily
to end in 'a total extinriion of the vital principle. As
to the difficulty in fwalldwing generally believed to ac¬
company ;the dread of water, he treats it as a mifre-
prefentation, as Well as that the eefophagus with the
■mufcles lubfervient to deglutition are efpecially con¬
cerned in this difeafe. The principal foundation of
the evil, he thinks, refts on a morbid fenfibility both
of the external and internal fauces. For the fight of a
liquid, or the application of any fubftance to the in¬
ternal fauces, but more efpecially of a fluid, inftaatly
excites the moll: painful feelings. Nay, the fame
fymptoms are produced by touching the external fau¬
ces with a fluid, or by the contadt of cold air with
thefe parts •, and nearly in as great a degree. But a
folid or fluid fubftance being conveyed into the oefo¬
phagus, the tranftt into the ftomach is accompliftied
with little or no impediment; fo that in fari the diffi¬
culty is fur mounted before the patient is engaged in the
ariion of fwallowing. Nor is the excruciating pain,
which never fails to be the companion of every attempt
to drink, felt in thtt fnitCes and throat: it is, he fays,
at the fcrobiculus cordis ; to which the fufferer applies
his hand. From this laft eircum/lance, therefore, from
the prefende of the. rifus fardomeus, from the mufcles of
the abdomen being forciblv contraric cl, and from the
fertfe of fuffocation which feems to threaten the patient
with immediate death, Dr Vaughan has been led to
think that in the hydrophobia a new fymp&thy wawefta-
bliihed between the fauces, the diaphragm, and .he ab¬
dominal mufcles.
Pragnojis. When a perfon is bit. the prognofis with
regard to the enfuing hydrophobia is very uncertain.
5 >
CINE. 405
All thofe who are bit do not fall into the difeafe ; Hydropho-
nay, Dr Vaughan relates, that out of 30 bit by a mad Dia~ ,
dog, only one was teized with the hydrophobia. Du-
ring the interval betwixt the bite ana the time the dif-
eaie comes on, there are no fymptoms by which we can
judge whether it will appear or not. When once it has
made its appearance, the prognolis is exceedingly fatal,
though there are certainly iome well authenticated cafes
of complete recovery, particulariy one recorded by Dr
Arnold.
Prevention and Cure. It has been generally allowed
by practitioners, that though the hydrophobia may be
prevented, yet it can leldom it ever be cured alter it
has made ns appearance. The moil efiential part of
the treatment therefore depends on the proper ufe of
means <>t prevention. T he great ob eris to be aimed
at in prevention, are, in the hrit place, the complete
removal of the contagious matter as loon as poliible j
or, fccondly, means of deftroying it at the part, where
there is even the liighteit reaion to believe that it has
not been completely removed. Oi all the means of
removal, the complete cutting out the part to which
the tooth has been applied, is unqueriionably the moil
to-be depended upon. This practice, therefore, Ihould
be had reeourfe to as foon as pollibie. The iboner it
can be accomplilhed, the better. But it has been ob-
ferved, that as a peculiar fenfalion at the part affected
always precedes the acceffion of the difeafe, even when
it takes place at a late period after the bite, there is
good ground for believing that the removal of the part
may be of advantage even after a conliderable inter¬
val. But betides removal of the contagious matter,
by cutting away the part to which it is attached, this
Iliould alfo be attempted by careful and long-continued
walking. This may be done, in molt inliances, be¬
fore a proper opportunity can be had of having re-
courfe to the knife. Cold water Ihould particularly
be poured upon the wound from a conliderable height,
that the matter may be wallied away with fome force.
Even after removal by the knife, careful waftring is
ftill a nt'ct-ffary and proper precaution. And after
both thefe, to prevent as far as can be the pollibility
of any contagious matter lurking about the wounded
part, it Ihould not be allowed to heal, but a dilcharge
of matter fhould be fupported for the fpaee ot levelal
weeks, by eintiment w ith cantharides, or fmriiar ap¬
plications. By fchefe means there is at leaft the boll
chance of removing the matter at a fufficientiy eaily
period. And this mode of prevention leems to he of
more confequence than ail others put together winch
have hitherto been difeovered. But betides removal,
prevention may 'alfo be obtained by the deftruriion of
the contagious matter at the- -part $ and where l- ere is
the kaft reafon to think that a complete removal has
not been obtained, this Ihould always be had reeourfe
to. With this intention the ariual cautery and burn¬
ing with gun-powder have been employed. And the
ariion of fire is probably one of the moll powerful
agents that can be ufed for this purpofe. But reeourfe
has alfo been had to walhing both with acids and
with alkalies. Of the tornier kind, vinegar has been
chiefly ufed, but more may probably be expected from
the latter *, and particularly from the eauftic alkali, fo
far diluted that it can bt applied with fafety : for
from its influence as a folvent of animal mucus, it gives
the
M E D I
tlie befl diance of a coiiiplete removal of the matter,
Independent of any influence in changing its nature.
It has been thought alfo, that oil applied to the part
may be of fervice. But if recourfe be had to it, more
a£live meafures thould at lead be previoully employed j
and even then, fome are of opinion chat it is oi advan¬
tage to increafe the aflivity of the undluous matter by
combining it with mercury.
On thefe grounds, and by thefe means, we are in¬
clined to think that the aftion of this contagion on
the fyftem, after it has been applied by the bite of a
rabid animal, may be moft effe&ually prevented. But
after this aftion has once taken place, no remedy has
yet been difeovered on which much dependence can
be put. A very great variety of articles indeed
have at different periods been held forth as infallible,
both in the prevention and cure of this affedlion *, but
their reputation has, perhaps, univerfally been found¬
ed on their being given to people, who, though really
bit by a mad dog, were yet not infedted with the con¬
tagion. And this happily, either from the tooth be¬
ing cleaned in making the bite, or not being covered
with contagious matter, is by no means an unfrequent
occurrence. Mankind, however, even from the ear-
lieft ages, have never been without fome boafted fpeci-
fic, which has been held forth as an infallible remedy
for this affedlion till fatal experience demonftrated the
contrary. Dr Boerhaave has given a pretty full cata¬
logue of thofe fpecifics from the days of Galen to his
own time •, and concludes, that no dependence is to be
put in any of them. It is now, therefore, altogether
unneceffary to take notice of burnt crabs, the hyaena’s
fkin, mithridate with tin, liver of the rabid animal,
or a variety of other pretended remedies for this difeafe,
proved by experience to be totally inefficacious. But
although no greater confidence is perhaps to be put in
fpecifics of modern date, it will be proper that thefe
fliould be mentioned.
Bathing in cold water, efpecially in the fea, and
drinking fea-water for a certain time, have been pre-
feribed, and by fome accounted a certain preventive.
When this was known to fail, a long courfe of anti-
phlogiftic regimen, violent fubmerfion in water, even
to danger of drowning, and keeping the wounded place
open with cauteries, were recommended.—To this ex¬
treme feverity Dr Mead objected 5 and in his treatife
on this fubje£l endeavours to fliow, that in all ages the
greateft fuccefs has been reaped from diuretics, for
which reafon he propofes the following powder :
il Take alh-coloured ground-liverwort, half an ounce 5
black-pepper, two drams : reduce them feparately to
powder, then mix them together.” This powder was
firft publilhed in the Philofophical Tranfa£Hons, by
Mr Dampier, in whofe family it had been kept as a
fecret for many years. But this medicine which was in-
ferted in former editions of the London and Edinburgh
pharmacopoeias, under the name of Pulvis AntilyJJus.
has long loft; its credit.
There is a famous Eaft India medicine, compofed
of 24 grains of native and as much fadffitious cinnabar,
made into a powder with 16 grains of mulk. This is
^called the Tonquin medicine, and muft be taken in
a tea cupful of arrac or brandy *, and it is faid to fe-
cure the patient for 30 days, at the expiration of
CINE. Pra<
which it is to be repeated but if he has any fymp- Hyd
toms of the difeafe, it muft be repeated in three hours, b
which is faid to be fufficient for a cure. The firft dofe
is to be taken as foon after the bite as poflible.
Another celebrated remedy is Palmarius’s powder,
compofed of the leaves of rue, vervain, fage, polypody^
wormwood, mint, mugwort, balm, betonv, St John’s-
wort, and leffer centaury. Thefe herbs muft be. ga¬
thered in their prime, dried feparately in the ihade,
and then powdered. The dofe is a dram, or a dram
and a half, taken every day.
A remedy which might promife to be more effica¬
cious than any of thoie hitherto mentioned is mercury.
This has been recommended in frictions, and to be
taken inwardly in the form of calomel and turbith mi¬
neral, in order if poflible to raife a flight falivation,
on which the efficacy was thought to depend. Befides
this, venefeftion, opium, cinchona, and camphor, have
been tried in very large quantities ; the warm bath ;
and, in ffiort, every thing which human invention
could fuggeft •, but with how little fuccefs, can be
judged from many well authenticated cafes.
Dr Wolf, after detailing a number of interefting cafes,
makes the following obfervations.—“ Thus we fee,
that the mercury, the acids, the mufk, the feeding on
the moft famous herbs, the fweating, the cura antip/ilo-
gi/Hca, &c. are no fpecifics.”
The following cafe by Dr Raymond of Marfeilles
ffiows the inefficacy of mercury even as a preventive.
—On the 19th of July 1765, Mr Boyer, aged 25, of
a bloated cacheftic habit, wras bit by a mad dog in the
inferior part of the leg : the wound extended half way
round, bled freely, and was like a great fcratch. The
patient’s legs had been fwelled for a confiderable time
before the accident 5 and there were alfo two ulcers in
the other leg. Some hours after the accident, the ac¬
tual cautery was applied to the wound. The doftor was
not prefent at this operation ; but the part around the
bite was rubbed with mercurial ointment immediately
after, and the efehar was dreffed with the fame oint¬
ment. The efehar was feparated on the firft day, but
the dreffing was continued till the wound was cicatri-
fed. The fecond day a bolus of four grains of turbith
and eight grains of camphor was exhibited. This
procured a confiderable evacuation both by vomit and
ftool, and a fpitting alfo came on. The third day
the bitten leg was rubbed with mercurial ointment: in
the fpace of a month the friflions were repeated five
times on both legs, three drams of mercurial oint¬
ment being ufed in each friftion. During the fame
time the bolus was five times repeated \ and this treat¬
ment kept up a flight falivation to the 40th day. The
evening of the third day he took the Tonquin medicine,
called alfo Sir George Cobh's powder, in a bolus ; which
vomited him brifkly. This powder was repeated feven
or eight times in the month, generally with the fame
effefl. During the firft feven or eight days he got four
times, in the morning, a dram of the anagallis jlore
puniceo, frefli gathered and powdered. The 41ft day,
the turbith bolus wras preferibed for the feventh time :
he was bathed in the fea, and continued the bathing
for two days more. On the 74th he was feized with
the diftemper *, and died on the 76th, feemingly fuffo-
cated or ftrangled, his mouth covered with flaver, and
Practice. M* E D 1
Spafrai. his face bloated. He loft his fenfes not above half a
u—-y—' quarter of an hour before his death. The pulfe was
quiet the whole time.
Another inftance is mentioned by the fame author,
of a pregnant woman bit by the fame dog and on the
fame day with Mr Boyer, v'ho was never feized with
the diftemper. She was treated in much the fame
manner with him, and falivated a little more. But
(lie was bit through a ftiamoy leather fhoe, which
muft neceffarily have cleaned the animal’s teeth of the
poifonous faliva before they reached her fkin, and to
this ure are naturally led to afcribe her fafety. One of
Dr Wolf’s patients alfo was a pregnant woman, and
was not feized with the diftemper. Perhaps women
in a ftate of pregnancy may be lefs liable to this di¬
ftemper than others ; but it is more probable that the
contagion was not communicated.
The fame author tells us, “ there are many examples
of the inefficacy of mercurial friflions. A furgeon of
Marfeilles treated a girl about 12 years of age bit by
a mad dog, with mercurial frictions ; applying them
as in the /ues venerea : yet ffie died of the hydro¬
phobia on the 55th day. Her wound wras not cau¬
terized.”
In the following cafe all the moft powerful remedies
Were tried.—In the afternoon of the 29th of Aug. 1777,
Dr Vaughan W'as called to a boy of eight years of age
labouring under a hydrophobia. He had been bit on
the wrift by a cat about a month before ; of which the
marks remained, but without any ulcer, or even the
fmalleft appearance of inflammation. About the middle
of the day before Dr Vaughan faw him, he began to
complain of a pain in the part bitten, which afcended up
the arm, and affedled the temple on that ftde 5 foon af¬
ter which he fwallowed liquids with relu&ance and dif¬
ficulty. He was put into the warm bath for three
quarters of an hour, during which time he was eafier :
he had a clyfter of five ounces of frefh broth, and 30
drops of laudanum, inje&ted immediately after his co¬
ming out of it : a liniment confifting of three drams
of ftrong mercurial ointment with the fame quantity of
oil of amber, was rubbed upon the ffioulders and back ;
two pills of a grain of flowers of zinc, and half a grain
of cuprum ammoniacum, were taken every three or four
hours •, and a medicated atmofphere was prepared for
him, by burning gum ammoniac in his room. As thefe
remedies were not attended with any good effe£l, each
dofe of pills was ordered to contain two grains of cu¬
prum ammoniacum, the fame quantity of opium, three
grains of flowers of zinc, and ten grains of afafoetida;
whilft a folution of that fetid gum, with a dram of
laudanum, was adminiftered as a clyfter. Thefe pills,
though repeated every four hours, afforded not the
fmalleft relief, nor did they ffiow the leaft action on the
frame. At laft the doftor refolved to put in practice
the defperate remedy mentioned by Van Helmont, of
throwing the patient into cold water, and keeping him
there till he is almoft drowned. With this view a large
tub of cold water, well faturated with common fait, was
prepared, into which the poor boy was plunged over
head and ears, and there held until he ceafed to ftruggle.
He was then taken out again, and the fame operation
repeated until he became fo quiet that the doftor was
under apprehenfions that a total extinftion of life
would take place. He was then wrapped up in a
£
CINE. 407
blanket and put to bed, and he remained more quiet Hydropho-
than he had formerly been •, but all his former reftlefs- bia‘
nefs foon returned, his pulie funk, and he died about ¥
two o’clock in the morning.
Another celebrated antidote againft the poifon of a
mad dog has been known for fome years by the name
of the Ormfkirk medicine. The true compofition of
this is kept a fecret by the proprietors : however, it
has been analyfed, and the following compofition pub-
lifhed by Dr Heyftiam as perfedlly fimilar to it in all
refpefls.
“ Take half an ounce of chalk, three drams of
Armenian bole, 10 grains of alum, one dram of ele¬
campane in powder 5 mix them all together, and add fix
drops of oil of anife.”
They muft certainly be very credulous who can put
confidence in fuch an infignificant medicine as a prefer-
vative againft the hydrophobia : however, there is a
poffibility that there may be fome unknown ingredient
in the genuine powder : for it is difficult to analyfe
powders after the ingredients are thoroughly mixed
together. The efficacy of the medicine therefore muft
depend on the virtues of that unknown ingredient, if
any fuch there be. The following cafes, however, too
well determine that it is not infallible, as was at firfl:
pretended. In all probability, as well as many others,
its reputation alfo is folely relied on its being exhibi¬
ted in many cafes where no contagion was communi¬
cated to the perfon bit, and while of courfe no difeafe
could take place.
On the 14th of February 1774, Mr Bellamy of
Holborn, aged 40, was bit by a cat affe6ted with rabies,
which was killed the fame morning. The following
day he took the celebrated Ormlkirk medicine, fold
by Hill and Berry in Hill-Street, Berkeley-Square,
and conformed in every refpedl to the diredlions given
by the vender. A fervant maid, who was bitten in the
leg before her mailer was bitten, likewife took the fame
remedy. About the middle of April Mr Bellamy
complained of a pain in his right knee, which he fup-
pofed to be rheumatic, and which continued and
increafed till the 7th of June, when he got fome pills
of calomel, ipecacuanha, and pil. fapon. from an apothe¬
cary, with Huxham’s tindlure of the bark in fmall dofes.
In fix days more he had a titillation in the urethra, a
contra£Hon of the fcrotum and penis to a degree of pain,
and an emiffion of femen after making water, to which
he had frequent calls. The medicines were dilcontinu-
ed } and on the 16th of that month the hydrophobia
came on, and Dr Fothergill was called. Six ounces of
blood were taken from his arm, and a bolus of a fcruple
of native cinnabar and half a fcruple of mulk was given
every four hours. The diftemper manifellly increafed
through the day. In the evening a clyfter was injefted,
and feveral times repeated during the night \ he had
been put into the warm bath, and two drams of ftrong
mercurial ointment rubbed into his legs and thighs by
himfelf. He was greatly relieved by the warm bath
while he continued in it, but the fymptoms returned
with increafed violence in the night. The next day
being greatly worfe, he was blooded to as great a
quantity as he could bear, had the warm bath and
clyfters repeated, and half an ounce of mercurial oint¬
ment rubbed into his thighs and legs. Pills of opium
were prefcribed, but he did jjot take them. He died
M E D 1 C I N E,
fame night, at half an hoar after 12. This patient
was a man of great refuiutiun, and could in part con¬
quer his avertiou at water. He feemed to have total¬
ly forgot the accident of the bite : and cafually faid,
that he thought this diforder refetnbled the hydropho¬
bia, without fuppohng that, he was a fib. clod with that
dblemper at the time.—The bite on the girl's leg re-
foied to heal, baffled the art of a young lurgeon who
attempted to cure it, and continued a running ulcer
for a long time. She did not fall into the hydropho¬
bia. Hence Dr Fothergill thinks it probable, that
keeping the wounds made by the teeth of mad animals
open for a long time, would probably be of fervive as
a preventive 5 but in fome of Dr Wolf’s patients
t-hefe artificial drains appear not to have been attended
With luccels.
On the 16th of November 177^, Thomas Neurfe,
a flrong healthy boy of 14, was admitted into the Lei-
eefler infirmary ; having been that day month bitten
by a mad fox hound. The wound was a large lacerated
one on the cheek, and bled very freely on being intliefed.
The day after he was bit he went to the fea, where he
"Was dipped with all the feverity ufually praftifed un¬
der fo difagreeable an operation. The Ormfkirk me¬
dicine was alfo adminiftered with all due care. It was
bought of the perfon in Leicefter who is deputed by
the proprietor to fell it for him. A common adhefive
plaffer was applied to the part after' fea*bathing •, and
in the courfe of a month, without any further trouble,
the wound was healed ; excepting a fmall portion,
fomewhat more than an inch in length, and in breadth
about one-tenth. This yielded no difeharge, and was
quite in a cicatrizing Hate. Five days before his ad-
miffion into the infirmary, he began to complain of a
tightnefs over his temples, and a pain in his head : in
two days the hydrophobia began to appear ; and at its
commencement he complained of a boiling heat in his
ftomach, which was continually afeending to the fauces.
The difeafe was pretty ftrong when he came to the in¬
firmary. He got a bolus of a fcruple of mufk with
two grains of opium •, then a compofition of 15 grains
of mufk, one of turbith mineral, and five grains of
opium, was dire£!ed to be taken every third hour;
an ounce of the ftronger mercurial ointment was to be
rubbed on the cervical vertebrae and flioulders, and an
embrocation of two ounces of laudanum, and half an
ounce of acetum faturninum, was direfted to be applied
to the throat. But by this laft he was thrown into
convulfions, and the fame effeft followed though his
eyes were firft covered with a napkin. The embroca¬
tion was therefore changed for a plafler of three
drams of powdered camphor, half an ounce of opium,
and fix drams confe&io Damocritis. Bv thefe medi¬
cines the difeafe feemed to be fomewhat fufpended, but
the fymptoms returned with violence in the evening.
His medicine was repeated at feven ; and at eight
five grains of opium were exhibited without mufk or
turbith. At nine, another ounce of mercurial oint¬
ment was rubbed upon the fhoulders, and half an
ounce of laudanum Avith fix ounces of mutton-
broth was injedded into the inteftines, but to no pur-
pofe. A larger dofe of opium was then given, but
with as little efifedd as the former, and he died the
fame night.
In the month of September 1774, a farmer, aged
- Pra&lce
25, was bit by a mad dog, whole teeth made a flight Hydropho.
wound in the fore finger of the left hand. He was dip- hb.
ped, as ufual, in the fea ; and drank the fea-water for Y*1^
fome time on the fpot, which operated brifkly as a
purge. He continued well till the 6th of June follow¬
ing, when he firft felt a pain in that hand and arm ; far
which he bathed in a river that evening, fuppofing that
it had been a rheumatic complaint. ri he next day he
was fick ; and in the evening was feized with a violent
vomiting, which continued all that night and till the
middle of the next day, when it was fucceeded by the
hydrophobia. He was treated with the warm bath ;
had a purgative clyfter injected ; and as foon as it had
operated, a fecond was given, confiding of four ounces
of oil, and half an ounce of laudanum ; half an ounce
of ftrong mercurial ointment was rubbed on the fauces,
and the part was afterwards covered with the catapJaf-
ma e cymino, to which was added an ounce of opium.
An embrocation was applied to the region of the fto¬
mach with continued friftion, confilting -of half an
ounce of fpirit of fal ammoniac, ten drams of olive oil,
fix drams of oil of amber, and ten drams of lauda¬
num. Two ounces of itrong mercurial ointment were
rubbed upon the flioulders and back ; and as a further
means of inducing a ptyalifm fpeedily, he received the
fmoke of cinnabar into the mouth by throwing a
dram of that fubftance now and then upon a hot
iron : he was alfo directed to take every four hours
a bolus of 15 grains of mufk, three grains of turbith
mineral, and four grains of opium. He was eafier
while in the warm bath, and during the application of
the ointment ; but died the fame night about two
o’clock.
Many other inftances might be adduced of the in-
efficacy of this pretended fpecific : which will, it is
hoped, create a due degree of caution in thofe to whom
they who are fo unfortunate as to be bit by a mad ani¬
mal may commit themfelves. Another remedy may
alfo be mentioned as having had the reputation of being
fometimes fiiccefsful in this difeafe ; which is chiefly
employed in different parts of India, particularly in the
territory of Tanjore. The medicine to which we now
allude contains indeed feveral articles which are altoge¬
ther unknown in our materia medica: but it contains $t
leaf! one very powerful fubftance well known to us,
viz. arfenic. This medicine, known by the name of
the Snake Pills, as being principally employed againfl:
the bite of the molt venomous fnakes, is directed to
be prepared in the following manner :
Take white arfenic, of the roots of nelli navi, of
nevi viflram, of the kernels of the ner valum, of pep¬
per, of quickfilver, each an equal quantity. Ihe
quickfilver is to be rubbed with the juice of the wild
cotton till the globules are perfedtly extinguifhed.
The arfenic being 'firft levigated, the other ingre¬
dients, reduced to a powder, are then to be added, and
the whole beat together with the juice of the wild
cotton to a confiftenee fit to be divided into pills.
Though thefe pills are principally ufed againft the
bite of the cobra de capello, yet they are faid alfo
to be fuccefsful in the cure of other venomous bites;
and, for the prevention of rabies canina, one is taken
every morning for fome length of time. Of this re¬
medy European pra£Htinners have, we believe, as yet
no experience ; and if, in the accounts tranfmitted
by
praAice. M E D I
Spal'm. by Eaft India praftitioners, it cannot be faid that we
have authentic evidence of its want of fuccefs, it can
as little be pretended that there is indubitable evidence
of its efficacy in any inflance *, and it is by no means
improbable, that it will be found equally inefficacious
with others at one time conlidered as infallible.
Of the great variety of remedies which have had
their day of reputation, there is not one which has
not poffeffed the credit, feme time or other, of pre¬
venting the noxious effects ariling from the bite of a
mad dog. A more adequate experience has with all
of them difeovered the deception. It was above obferv-
.ed, that rabies is by no means the infallible confequence
of being bit by a mad animal •, and that of between
20 and 30 perfons who were bit by the dog which gave
the fatal wound to one of Dr Vaughan’s patients, not
one felt the lead ill effisd! but himfelf. “ In the above
number (fays the doctor) were fome who took the
Ormlkirk medicine ; others went to the fait water 5
and a part of them ufed no remedy, who yet fared
equally well with the moil attentive to their injury.
The fame thing has often happened before ; and much
merit, I doubt not, has been attributed to the medicine
-taken, from that celebrated one of Sir George Cobb
down to the infallible one which my good Lady Boun-
jifuCs receipt-book furniffies.”
From all that has been laid, the reader will judge
how far the hydrophobia is capable of being fubdued
by any of the medicinal powers which have yet been
•tried. Some eminent phyfieians affert that it is totally
incurable ^ and allege that the inilances recorded by
different authors of its cure have not been the genuine
kind, but that which comes on fpontaneoully, and
which is by no means fo dangerous. Indeed two of
Dr Wolf’s patient-s recovered, where the difeafe feems
to have been perfectly genuine : but in thefe the poi-
fon feemed to vent itfelf partly on fome other place
befides the nervous fyftem. In one the blood was
evidently infedled, as it had an abominable fetor;
and the other had a violent pain and fwelling in the
belly. In all the others, it feemed to have attacked
xmly the nervous fyftem ; which perhaps has not the
Tame ability to throw off any offending matter as the
vafeular fyftem.
There is, however, a poftibility that the prodigious
affeftions of the nerves may arife only from a vitiated
ftate of the gaftric juices \ for it is well known, that
the moft terrible convulftons, nay the hydrophobia
itfelf, will arife from an affection of the ftomach, with¬
out any bite of a mad animal. This feems to be
fomewhat confirmed from one of Dr Wolf’s patients,
who, though he vomited more than 50 times, yet ftill
threw up a frothy matter, which was therefore evi¬
dently fecreted into the ftomach, juft as a continual
vomiting of a bilious matter ftiows a continual and ex¬
traordinary fecretion of bile. Dr Wolf himfelf adopts
this hypothefis fo far as to fay, that perhaps the ferum
may become frothy j but in blood drawn from a vein
not the leaft fault appears either in the ferum or craffa-
mentum. He affirms, however, that the duodenum
appears to be one of the parts firft and principally af-
■fedfted ; and as it is not inflamed, it would feem that
•the affe&ion it fuftains muft arife from the vitiated ftate
of its juices.
Be this as it will, however, in the hydrophobia, the
Vo?.. XIII, Part II.
CINE. 409
ftomach feems totally, or in a great meafure, to lofe Hydropho-
the power which at other times it poffeffes. Two, ^>a' ,
grains of cuprum ammonia cum werq repeatedly given
to a child of eight years of age without effect j but
this dofe would oocalion violent vomiting in a ftrong
healthy man. Something or other therefore muft
have prevented this fubftance from a£ting on the ner¬
vous coat of the ftomach j and this we can only fup-
pofe to have been the exceedingly difordered ftate of
the gaftric juice, which occafioned iuch violent irrita¬
tion through the whole body, that the weaker ftimulus
of the medicine was entirely loft. It would feem
proper therefore to confider the ftomach in hydro-
phobic cafes as really containing a poifonous matter,
which could not be expelled by vomiting, becaufe it
is renewed as fait as evacuated. The indication
therefore muft be, to change its nature by fuch medi¬
cines as are certainly more powerful than the poifon j
and this indication will naturally lead us to think of
large dofes of alkaline falls. Thefe, it is certain, will
deftroy any animal fubftance with which they come in
contact, and render even the poifon of ierpents in-
aclive. By exhibiting a few dofes of them, larger
no doubt than what could be fafely done on other oc-
cafions, we would be certain to change the ftate of
the ftomachic juices ; and thus might free the patient
from thofe intolerable fpafms which always oecalion
death in fuch a ffiort time. Dr Wolf feems in¬
clined to think that volatile alkalies were of fer-
vice 5 but the above hypothefis would incline us to
ufe rather the fixed kind. At any rate, it feems
vain for phyficians to truft much to the power of
opium, mercury, mulk, or cinnabar, either fingly or
combined in any poffible way. Cinchona has alfo
failed, and the moft celebrated fpecifics have been
found ineffeftal. Alkalies are the next moft powerful
remedies which the materia mcdica affords, and they
cannot be more unfuccefsful than the others have gene¬
rally been.
Another remedy which feems adapted to change the
nature of the gaftrie juices is ardent fpirits. In one of
Dr Wolf’s patients two bottles of brandy feem to have
effedled a cure. The oil mixed with it was of no effi¬
cacy in other cafes, and the opium and turbith feem
not to have been exhibited till the ivorfl was paft. In
this cafe the difeafe feems to have attacked the vafcular
as well as the nervous fyftem.
In all the patients the warm bath feems to have been
a palliative, and a very powerful one, and as fuch it
ought never to be omitted, though we can by no
means truft to it as a radical cure and the above hi-
ftories abundantly ftiow, that though the warm bath
and opium may palliate for a ffiort time, the caufe on
which the fpafms depend is ftill going on and increa-
fing, till at laft the fymptoms become too ftrong to be
palliated even for a moment by any medicine however
powerful. At any rate, the above-mentioned hypo¬
thefis fuggefts a new indication, which, if attended to,
may perhaps lead to ufeful difcoverics. In cafes where
putrefoent bile is abundantly fecreted, columbo root
and vegetable acids are recommended to change the
nature of the poifon which the body is perpetually pro* •
ducing in itfelf. Where corroiive mercury has been
fwallowed, alkaline fait is recommended to deftroy the
poifon which nature cannot expel by vomiting •, and
oH
M E D I
why fliould not fomething be attempted to deftroy the
poii’on which the llomach feems to iecrete in the hydro¬
phobia, and which nature attempts to expel, though in
vain, by violent efforts to vomit ?
But whatever plan may be purfued in the hopes of
curing this dreadful malady after any of the fymptoms
have made their appearance, we ought, in every in-
ftance, to dire£t our immediate care to prevention, as
being perhaps the only real ground of hope : And the
moft certain and efficacious way of preventing the ill
confequences, is inftantly (if it can be done) to cut
out the piece that happens to be bitten. Dr James,
indeed, fays, that he would have little opinion of cut¬
ting or cauterizing, if ten minutes were fuffered to
elapfe from the receiving of the bite before the opera¬
tion was performed. But in an inaugural differtation
lately publilhed at Edinburgh by Dr Parry, the author
is of opinion that excilion will be of ufe a confiderable
time after the bite is received. He adopts this opi¬
nion from what happens in the fmallpox, where the
blood does not feem to receive the infection till fome
days after inoculation has been performed. A fecond
inflammation, he tells us, then takes place, and the in-
feftion is conveyed into the blood. In like man¬
ner, when the hydrophobous infeftion is about to be
conveyed into the blood, according to him, the wound,
or its cicatrix, begins again to be inflamed $ and it is
this fecond inflammation -which does all the mifchief.
Excilion, or the cautery, will therefore be effe<ffual
any time between the bite and the fecond inflammation
of the wound. Without implicitly trufting to this doc¬
trine, however, or confidering it as in any degree ascer¬
tained in what manner the poifon diffufes itfelf, by what
marks its progrefs may be known, or how foon the fyf-
tem may be irremediably tainted with its malignity, it
is undoubtedly fafeft not to lofe unneceffarily a mo¬
ment’s time in applying the knife. This, or a dilation
of the wound if it be fmall, Dr Vaughan confiders as
the only prophylaxies that can be depended upon. In
the latter cafe, he direXs to fill the wound with gun¬
powder, and fet fire to it ; which would produce a la¬
ceration of the part, and poffibly the aXion of ignited
powder upon the poifon may have its ufe. In all cafes,
likewife, after thefe praXices have been employed, the
wound Ihould be prevented from healing for fome length
of time.
Sp. II. The Spontaneous Hydrophobia.
Hydrophobia fpontanea, Sauv. fp. 2.
This difeafe very much refembles the former, fo that
it ha1' undoubtedly been often miftaken for it. It has
been known to come on from an inflammation of the
ftomach, where it wras cured by repeated and large
bloodletting ; in hyfteria, where it was cured by opium,
mufk, or other antifpafmodic^; and in putrid fevers,
W'here it -was cured by evacuating the inteftinal canal of
the putrid matters by repeated clyfters. A very good
method of diftinguilhing the two is, that in the fponta-
heous hydrophobia the patient is much more delirious
than in the genuine fpecies. In the inftance mentioned
in the Medical Effays of thi'-fymptom attending the in¬
flammation of the ftomach, the patient raved in the tnojl
extraordinary manner. Dr Raymond favs he remem¬
bers a fpontaneous hydrophobia attended with madnefs ;
CINE. ' praalcs
and in almoft all the cafes of hydrophobia which are Hydrophei
faid to have been cured, the patient -was very delirious. l)ia-
Dr Nugent’s patient was very frequently delirious, and
dreaded dogs as well as water. In the Medical Tranf-
aXions a cafe is communicated by W. Wrightfon fur-
geon in Sedgefield, Durham, of canine madnefs fuccefs-
fully treated. This madnefs indeed came on after the
bite of a dog faid to be mad : but it appeared only four
days after the accident happened, and was attended
with fymptoms very unlike any of thofe above mention¬
ed ; for he fuddenly ftarted up in a fit of delirium, and
ran out of the houfe, and after being brought in, caught
hold of the hot bars of the grate which held the fire :
Whereas, in the true hydrophobia, the patients dread
the fire, light, or any thing which makes a ftrong im-
preflion on the fenfes. It is probable, therefore, that this
was only a fpontaneous hydrophobia, efpecially as it readi¬
ly yielded to venefeXion, 30 drops of laudanum, and pills
of a grain and a half of opium given every three hours,
fome bolufes of mulk and cinnabar, &c. while in fome
of the former cafes as much opium was given to a boy
as would have deprived of life the ftrongeft healthy
man had he fwallowed it; and yet this amazing quanti¬
ty produced fcarcely any effeX. This patient allb dread¬
ed the fight of a dog.
Order IV. VESANI^E.
Paranoiae, Vog. Clafs IX.
Deliria, Sauv. Clafs VIII. Ord. III. Sag. Clafs XI.
Old. III.
Ideales, Lin. Clafs V. Ord. I.
Genus LXV. AMENTIA.
Folly, or Idiotifm.
Amentia, Sauv. gen. 233. Vog. 337. Sag. 346.
Morofis, Lin. 106.
Stupiditas, Morofis, Fatuitas, Vog. 336.
Amnefia, Sauv. gen. 237. Sag. 347.
Oblivio, Lin. 107. Vog. 338.
Memoriae debilitas, Jutick. 120.
Genus LXVI. MELANCHOLIA.
Melancholy Madnefs.
Melancholia, Sauv. gen. 234. Lin. 71. Vog. 332.
Sag. 347. Boerh. 1089. Junck. 121.
Daemonomania, Sauv. gen. 236. Sag. 348.
Daemonia, Lin. 69.
Vefania, Lin. 70.
Paraphobia, Lin. 75.
Athymia, Vog. 329.
Delirium melaneholicum, Hojfm. III. 251.
Erotomania, Lin. 82.
Noftalgia, Sauv. gen. 226. Lin. 83. 8tff. 338.
Junck. 125.
Melancholia nervea, Cl. Lorry de melancholia, P. I.
Genus LXVII. MANIA.
Raving or Furious Madnefs.
Mania, Sauv. gen. 235. Lin. 6-8. Vog. 331. Sag.
349. Boerh. 1118. Junck. 122. Battie on Mad¬
nefs.
Paraphrofyne, Lin. (56.
32S
32*
3«$
Amentia,
Practice. M EDI
Vef*niae. Amentia, Lift. Gj.
■<>' v Delirium maniacum, tlojfm. III. 251.
Although thefe diftempers may be confidered as di-
ftinft genera, yet they are fo nearly allied, and fo rea¬
dily change into each other, that it fufficiently juftifies
the treating all of them together.
The diftinguifhing charadteriltic of madnefs, accord-
, ing to Dr Battie, is a fulfe perception ; and under this
general chara&er may be comprehended all kinds of
what is called madnefs, from the moil lilly Cupidity and
idiotifm to the muft furious lunacy. Frequently the
different kinds of madnefs are changed into each other
by the cafual excitement of fome paffion : thus, an idiot
may become furioully mad, by being put in a violent
paffion 5 though this does not fo often happen as the
change of melancholy into the raving madnefs, and vice
Verfa.
It is a very furprifing circumflance, that mad people
are not only lefs liable to be feized with infectious dif-
orders than thofe who are in perfedl health 5 but even
when labouring under other difeafes, if the patients
chance to be feized with madnefs, they are fometimes
freed from their former complaints. Of this kind Dr
Mead relates two very remarkable inftances.
On the other hand, it has been known, that an in¬
termittent fever, fupervening upon madnefs of long
ftanding, has proved a cure for the madnefs •, the fcnfes
having returned when the fever terminated. Dr Monro
faw two inftances of this himfclf $ and mentions it as an
obfervation made alfo by his predcceffor in the care of
Bethlehem hofpital.
Another remarkable circumftancc is, that immode¬
rate joy, long continued, as effectually diforders the
mind as anxiety and grief. For it was obfervable in
the famous South Sea year, when fo many immenfe
fortunes were fuddenly gained, and as fuddenly loft,
that more people had their heads turned, from the pro¬
digious flow of unexpefted riches, than from the entire
lofs of their whole fubftance.
Mad people, efpecially of the melancholic kind,
fbmetimes obftinately perfevere in doing things which
muft excite great pain } whence it ftiould feem as if
their minds were troubled with fome diftra6Hng no¬
tions, which make them patiently bear the prefent di-
ftrefs, left more fevere tortures fliould be inflicted 5 or
poffibly they may think, that, by thus tormenting the
body, they render themfelves more acceptable to the
divine Being, and expiate the heinous fins of which
they may imagine themfelves to have been guilty.
It is, however, alfo highly probable that their feel¬
ings differ exceedingly from what they are in a natural
ftate ; at leaft they are every day obferved to endure,
apparently without the fmalleft uneafinefs, watching,
hunger, and cold, to an extent which in a ftate of
health would not only be highly diftrefling, but to the
greater part of individuals would even prove fatal.
And this refiftance of hunger, cold, and fleep, affords
perhaps the beft teft for diftinguifhing cafes of real
~ infinite, from cafes where the difeafe is only feigned,
jjnd appearances of it put on, to anfwer particular pur¬
poses •, at leaft where this power of refiftance is prefent,
yve have good reafon to conclude that the affedlion is
not feigned.
Cure. Although we be well acquainted with many
CINE. 41 r
of the remote caufes of this difeafe, fome of the princi- Mania,
pal of which have already betn mentioned, yet we _u"'v 1 J'
are ftill fo ignorant of the influence of thefe upon the
fyftem, as giving a derangement of the mental facul¬
ties, that no general principles on which the cure
may be conducted, can wTith any confidence be pointed
out.
It may, however, be obferved, that while fume reme¬
dies feem to operate by producing an artificial termi¬
nation of this complaint, many others have effect only
as aiding a natural termination. And where a re¬
covery from this difeate does take place, it molt fre¬
quently happens in eonfequence of a natural conva-
lefcence. All the fpecies and degrees of madnefs
which are hereditary, or that grow up with people from
their early youth, are out of the power of phyfic j
and fo, for the moft part, are all maniacal cafes of
more than one year’s ftanding, from whatever feurce
they mav arife. Very often mere debility, the dregs of
fome particular difeafe, fueh as an ague, the fmall-pox,
or a nervous fever, fhall occafion dift'erent degrees of
foolifhnefs or madnefs. In thefe cafes, the cure muff
not be attempted by evacuatic.ns \ but, on the contrary,
by nourifning diet, clear air, moderate exercife, and
the ufe of wine . whereas, in aimoit all the other ma¬
niacal cafes, which arife from different fources, and
which come on m confequence of intemperate liv ing,
violent paflions, or intenfe thinking, it is generally
held, that evacuations of every kind are neeeffaiy, un-
lefs the conftitution of the patient be fuch as ablolutely
forbids them.
Blood is moft conveniently drawn either from the
arm or jugulars •, and if the weaknefs be fuch as ren¬
ders it improper to take away much blood, we may ap¬
ply cupping-glaffes to the occiput.
Vomiting, in weakly people, muft be excited by the
vinum ipecacuanhae *, but in the more robuft by emetic
tartar or antimonial wine : the moft efficacious cathar¬
tics are the infufion or tinffure of black hellebore, or
infufion of fenna quickened with tinfture ot jalap; but
if there be iuppreffion of the menfes, or of an habitual
haemorrhoidal difeharge, then aloetic purges will be more
proper ; and in fome inftances cooling faline purgatives,
fuch as lixiviated tartar, are of great fervice. In ge¬
neral, mad people require very large dofes, both of the
emetics and cathartics, before any confiderable operation
enfues.
Dr Monro affures us, that the evacuation by vomit*
ing is infinitely preferable to any other : the prodigi¬
ous quantity of phlegm with which the patients in
this difeafe abound, he fayc, is not to be overcome but
by repeated emetics; and he obferves, that the purges
have not their right effeft, or do not operate to fo good
purpofe, until the phlegm be broken and attenuated
by frequent emetics. He mentions the cafe of a gentle¬
man who had laboured under a melancholy for three
years, from which he was relieved entirely by the ufe
of vomits and a proper regimen. Increafing the dif¬
eharge by urine, is alfo of the greateft moment, efpe¬
cially when any degree of fever is prefent. The cuta¬
neous difeharges are alfo to be promoted ; for which
purpofe the hot bath is of the higheft fervice in mania¬
cal cafes. Hoffman afferts, that he has feen numerous
inftances, both of inveterate melancholy and raging
madnefs, happily cured by means of warm bathing j
3 F 2 bleeding
*
412 M E D I
v efanise. ^ bleeding and nitrous medicines having been premifed.
^" ' Camphor has alfo been highly commended ; but, if we
can believe Dr Locker of Vienna, not very defcrvedly.
Having found very good effedts from a folulion of this
medicine in vinegar, he took it for granted that all the
fuccefs was owing to the camphor \ therefore, in order
to give it a fair trial, he felefted feven patients, and
gave it in large dofes of half a dram twice a-day.
This was continued for two months, and the doftor
was furprifed to find that only one of his patients re¬
ceived any benefit. He then returned the other fix
back to the camphorated julep made with vinegar, and
in a few weeks four of them recovered the ufe of their
reafon. This inclined him to think that the virtue de¬
pended folely on the vinegar, and accordingly he began
to make the trial. Common vinegar was firfl given :
but after a little while he fixed on that which had been
diflilled, and gave about an ounce and a half of it every
day ; the patients having been previoufiy prepared by
bleeding and purging, which was repeated according
as it was found neceffary. He gives a lilt of eight pa¬
tients who were cured by this method ; fome in fix
weeks, others in two months, and none of them took
up more than three months in perfedting the cure. He
does not indeed give the ages of the patients, nor men¬
tion the circumfiances of the cafes 5 he only mentions
the day on which the ufe of the vinegar was begun
and the day on which they rvere difeharged ; and he
adds, that they ail continued well at the time of his
writing.
Dr Locker informs us, that this medicine a£ts chiefly
as a fudorific 5 and he obferved, that the more the pa¬
tients fweated, the fooner they were cured : it was alfo
found to promote the menfirual difeharge in fuch as
had been obftrufted, or had too little of this falutary
evacuation.
Both rcafon and experience (how the neceflity of
confining fuch as are deprived of their fenfes ; and no
fmall (hare of the management confifts in preventing them
from hurling either themfelves or others. It has fome-
times been ufual to chain and to beat them : but this is
both cruel and abfurd ; fince the contrivance called the
JIrail wai/icoat anfwers every purpofe of reftraining the
patients without hurting them.'
Thefe waiftcoats are made of ticken, or fome fuch
ftrong fluff 5 are open at the back, and laced on like
a pair of (lays ; the fleeves are made tight, and long
enough to cover the ends of the fingers, where they
are. drawn clofe with a firing like a purfe mouth,
by which contrivance the patient has no power of his
fingers ; and when laid on his back in bed, and the
arms brought acrofs the cheft, and faflened in that pofi-
iion by tying the fleeve firings round the waift, he has
no ufe of his hands. A broad flrap of gi’-th-web is then
carried acrofs the breaft, and fattened to the bedftead,
by which means the patient is confined on las back 5
and if he fhould be fo outrageous as to require further
reftraint, the legs are fecu.ed by ligatures to the foot
of the bed ; or they may be fecured by being both
put into one bag not very wide, which may be more
e.afily fixed than the feet themfelves, at lead without
giving pain.
It is of great uie in practice to bear in mind, that
all mad people are cowrardly, and can be awed even by
the menacing look of a very expreflive countenance j
3
CINE. Prt,a:ce
and when thofe who have charge of them once imprefs Mania,
them with the notion of fear, they eafily fubmit to any -v—
thing that is required. The phyfician, however,
fliould never deceive them in any thing, but more efpe-
eially with regard to their diftemper: for as they are
generally confcious of it themlelves, they acquire a
kind of reverence for thofe who know it j and by
letting them fee that he is thoroughly acquainted with
their complaint, he may very often gain fueh an afeen-
dant over them that they will readily follow his direc¬
tions.
It is a more difficult matter to manage thofe whofe
madnefs is accompanied either with exceflive joy or
with great dejection and defpondency, than thofe
who are agitated with rage : and all that can be done
is to endeavour to excite contrary ideas, by reprefiiim
the immoderate fits of laughter in the one kind by chi¬
ding or threatening (taking care, however, not abfo-
lutely to terrify them, which can never be done without
danger, and has often added to the mifery of the un-
happy fufferer) ; and difpelling the gloomy thoughts in
the other, by introducing pleafing concerts of mufic,
or any other fpecies of entertainment which the pa¬
tients have been known to delight in while they had the
ufe of their reafon. Upon the whole, in the cme of
infanity, more is perhaps to be effedted by moral than
by medical treatment. And this moral treatment fhould
be as gentle as is confident with fafety. Chains, bolts,
and feverity of every kind are to be avoided as much
as pofiible. But while great benefit is often derived
from company and amufement, fo alfo, on the other
hand, folitary confinement is in not a few cafes produc¬
tive of the belt effedts.
Though bliftering the head has generally been
diredted, Dr Mead fays he has oftener found it to do
harm than fervice : but he recommends ifiues in the
back •, and advifes to keep the head always clofe
ftiaved, and to wadi it from time to time with warm
vinegar. Opium has by many been forbidden in ma¬
niacal cafes, from a fuppofition that it always increafes
the difturbance •, but there are inftances where large
dofes of this medicine have been found to prove a cure,
and perhaps if it were tried oftener we flhould find
powerful effedts from it : there certainly cannot much
harm enfue from a few dofes, which may be immedi¬
ately difufed if they thould be found to exafperate the
difeafe.
The diet of maniacal patients ought to be perfeftly
light and thin : their meals fiiould be moderate ; but
they fiiould never be fufifered to live too low, efpeeially
while they are under a courfe of pbyfic : they lliould
be obliged to obferve great regularity in their hours:
even their amufements fiiould be fuch as are belt fuited
to their difpofition. After the difeafe appears to be
fubdued, chalybeate waters and the cold bath will be
highly proper to firengthen their whole frame and fe-
cure them againft a relapfe.
Genus LXVIII. ONEIRODYNIA.
Uneasiness in Sleep.
Somnium, Vog. 339.
Somnambulifmus, Sauv. gen. 221. Lin. 77.
333-
Hypnobatafis, Vog. 340.
*%•
Nodlambulatio,
Practice.
]Vlarcores.
M E B I
No6^atnbulatio, Juried. 1 24.
Ephialtes, Suuv. gen. 138. Lin. 163. Sag. 245.
Incubus, Vog. 221. Junch. 50.
The greateR uneafinefs which people feel in deep is
that commonly called the incubus or night-mare. Thofe
feized with it feem to have a weight on their breaks
and about their preecordia. Sometimes they imagine
they fee fpeftres of various kinds which opprefs or
threaten them with fufibcation. Neither does this
uneafinefs continue only while they are afleep for it
is fome time after they awake before they can turn
themfelves in their beds or fpeak ; nay, fometimes,
though rarely, the dikemper has proved mortal.-—The
incubus rarely feizes people except when the komach
is opprefled with aliments of hard digekion, and the
patient lies on his back. It is to be cured by eating
light fuppers, and raikng the head high 5 or, if it be¬
come very troublefome, antifpafmodic medicines are to
be adminikered, and the body krengthened by chaly-
beates. The fame method is to be followed by thole
who are fubject to walking in their keep ; a practice
which muk necefTarilv be attended with the greatek
danger : and fomnambulifm may jukly be conkdered
as merely a different modification of this difeafe. Ac¬
cordingly Dr Cullen has ditiinguiihed the one by the
title of oneirodynia afliva, and the other by that of
oneirodynia gravans.
Class TIL CACHEXLE.
Cachexioe, Sauv. Clafs X. and Clafs VIII. Sag.
Clafs III.
Deformes, Lin. Clafs X.
Order I. MARCORES.
Macies, Sauv. Clafs X. Order I. Sag. Clafs III.
Order I.
Emaciantes, Lin. Clafs X. Order I.
Genus LXIX. TABES.
Wasting of the Body.
CINE. 413
whole body grows languid, and wakes by degrees.— Atrophia-
Dr Cullen, however, akerts, that fome degree of fe- v——v—
ver, or at leak of increafed quicknefs of the pulfe, al¬
ways attends this difeafe.
Caufes. Sometimes this dikemper will come on
without any evident caufe. Sometimes it will arife
from pakions of the mind 5 from an abufe of fpirituous
liquors \ from excekive evacuations, efpeeially of the
femen, in vrhich cafe the dikemper has got the name
of tubes dorfa/is. It may arife from mere old age, or
from famine.
Prognojis. This dikemper, from whatever caufe it
may arife, is very difficult to cure, and often terminates
in a fatal droply.
Cure. The general principles on which the treat¬
ment of this difeafe is to be regulated, very much de¬
pend on the caufe by which it is induced $ and it is
unneceffary to add, that this muk be removed as far jis
poffible. Next to this, the oifeafe is mok effeftually
combated by the iutrodutkion of nutritious aliment into
the fykem, and by obtaining the proper affimilation
and digekion of this. With the firlt of thefe intentions,
recourfe muk be had to the diet which is mok nutri¬
tious, and at the fame time of eakek digekion. But
from the condition of the komach commonly attending
this difeafe, it is neceffary that fmall quantities only
ffiould be taken at a time, and that it ffiould be fre¬
quently repeated. With the fecund intention, komachic
and nervous medicines are the articles chielly at leak to
be depended upon in this cafe. The Peruvian bark,
fulphuric acid, and chalybeates, are excellent ; and thefe
ffiould be conjoined with gentle exercife, as far as the
krength and other circumkances of the patient will ad¬
mit. In that fpecies of the dikemper occafioned by ve¬
nereal exceffes, it is fo eflentially necelfary to abkain
from them, that without it the belt remedies Avill prove
altogether ufelefs.
Order II. INTUMESCENTIiE.
.334
Intnmefcentiae, Sauv. Clafs X. Ord. II. Sag. Clafs
III. Ord. II.
Tumidofi, Lin. Clafs X. Ord. II.
Tabes, Sauv. gen. 275. Lin. 209. Vog. 306. Sag.
100.
This diforder is occafioned by the abforption of pus
from fome ulcer, external or internal, which produces
an heitic fever. The primary indication therefore muk
be to heal the ulcer, and thus take away the caufe of
the difeafe. If the ulcer cannot be healed, the patient
will certainly die in an emaciated kate. But the pro¬
per treatment of the tabes proceeding from this caufe,
falls to be conkdered under the head of U/cer in Sur¬
gery, and likewife under the genera Siphyeis, Scro¬
fula, Scorbutus, &c. difiafes in which ulcers are
at leak a very common fymptom.
Genus LXX. ATROPHIA.
Nervous Consumption.
Defcription. This affeflion confiks principally in a
waking of the body, wi'hout any remarkable fever,
cough, or difficulty of breathing ; but attended with
want of appetite and a bad digekion, whence the
Genus LXXI. POLYSARCIA.
Corpulency.
Polyfarcia, Sauv. gen. 279. Lin. 213. Vog. 540.
Sag. 160. Steatites, Vog. 390.
In a natural and healthy kate, the fat, or animal oil,
is not allowed to diffufe itfelf throughout the cellular
interllices at large, but is confined to the places where
fuch an oily kuid is necekary, by a particular apparatus
of dikindf veficles. But in fome conkitutions the oily
part of the blood appears to exceed the requifite pro¬
portion, and eakly feparates from the other conkituent
parts 5 or there is an uncommon tendency to the fepa-
ration of oily matter. In thefe cafes it is apt to accu¬
mulate in fuch quantities, that we may fuppofe it to
burk thofe vekcles which were originally dekined to
hinder it from fpreading too far ; or almok every cell
of the memb-rana adipofa, many of which are in ordi¬
nary cafes altogether empty, may be completely filled
and dikended with fat.
The increafe of the omentum particularly, and the
accumulation
4*4
MEDICINE.
Intumcf^ accumulation of fet about tlie kidneys and mefentery,
fwell the abdomen, and obftruct the motions of the
diaphragm ; whence one reafon of the difficulty of
breathing which is peculiar to corpulent people ; while
the heart, and the large veffels connefted with it, are
in like manner fo encumbered, that neither the fyftal-
tie nor fubfultory motion can be performed with fuf-
ficient freedom, whence weaknefs and llownefs of the
pulfe : but when the whole habit is in a manner
Overwhelmed with an oily fluid, the enlargement of the
cellular interftices will neceffarily interrupt the general
diflribution and circulation throughout the nervous and
'{’■afcular fy Items ; impeding the action of the mufcular
fibres, and producing inlenfibility, fomnolency, and
death.
Thefe cafes are the more deplorable, as there is but
little profpe£t of a cure. For the animal oil is of too
grofs a nature to be ealily taken up by abforption ;
and wre know, that when fluids are accumulated in the
cellular fyitem, there are only two wrays in which they
Can be carried off or efcape $ namely, by the abfor-
bents, which take their rife from the cellular inter¬
ftices, and through the pores of the fkin by tranfuda-
tion.
Another misfortune is, that the difeafe fteals on fo
imperceptibly, that it becomes inveterate before people
begin to think of purfuing the proper means of relief.
In this difeafe the cure muff turn upon two points *.
Firft, on preventing the farther depofition of fat, by
avoiding the introduction of fuperfluous aliment, par¬
ticularly of fatty matters, into the fyftem ; and, fe-
eondly, on promoting and forwarding the abforption of
fat. On thefe grounds, befldes what may be done by
proper regimen, a variety of articles have been recom¬
mended in the way of medicine.
Soap has been propofed as a remedy to melt down
and facilitate the abforption of the fat in corpulent
people \ and Dr Fleming fome years ago publiffied a
little treatife, wherein he recommends this medicine,
and relates the cafe of a gentleman who is faid to have
received confiderable benefit from it. But perhaps the
foap leys rvould be more powerful, and might be more
ealily taken fheathed, in the manner directed when ufed
as a diffolvent of the ftone.
Lieutaud advifes to take ace 'urn fcilliticum in fmall
doles, with frequent purging and brilk exercife. But
it will feldom happen that the patients will be found
iufficiently Heady to perfift in any of thefe courfes, it
being the nature of the diforder to render them irrefo-
^ lute and inattentive to their condition. Therefore the
principal ufe of rules mull be with a view to preven¬
tion ; and perfons who are difpoled to corpulency ffiould
take care in time to prevent it from becoming an ab-
folute difeafe, by ufing a great deal of exercife, not
indulging in fleep, and abridging their meals, efpecially
that of fupper. Salted meats are lefs fattening than
fuch as are freffi ; and drinking frCely of coffee is re¬
commended to corpulent people.
But Dr Fothergill obferves, that a ftrieft adherence
to vegetable diet reduces exuberent fat more certainly
than any other means that he knows ; and gives twro
cafes in which this regimen fucceeded remarkably well.
The famous Dr Cheyne brought himfelf down in this
way, from a moft unwieldy bulk to a reafonable de¬
gree of weight $ as he himfelf informs us. It deferres,
Eradice,
however, to be remarked, that every pra&ice for the Pneuma.
removal or prevention of fatnefs mult be ufed with great tofe.
caution and prudence : for not a few, anxious to pre- l”T—<
vent this affe&ion, have had recourfe to a regimen and
to medicine which have proved fatal. This has parti¬
cularly arifen from the exceffive ufe of acids, probably
operating by entirely deffroying the aftion of the chy-
lopoietic vifeera.
Genus LXXII. PNEUMATOSIS.
Emphysema, or Windy Swelling.
Pneumatofis, Sauv. gen. 280. Vog. 391. Sag. 107.
Ehiphyfema, Sauv. gen. 13. Lin. 288. Vog. 392.
Leucophlegmatia, Lin. 214.
The emphyfema fometimes conies on fpontaneoufiy j
but more frequently is occafioned by wounds of the
lungs, which, giving vent to the air, that fluid infinu-
ates itfelf into the cellular texture, and often blows it
up to a furprifing degree. It muff be obferved, however,
that it is only in cafes of laceration of the lungs where
this difeafe can take place ; for in a Ample wound, the
effufion of blood always prevents the air from getting
out. The cure is to be accompliflied by fcarifications
and compreffes ; but in fome cafes only by the para-
centefis of the thorax. When air introduced from the
lungs is collected in a confiderable quantity in the
cavity of the thorax, the operation of the pavacentefis
is perhaps the only means of cure. Upon an opening
being thus made, the air fometimes rulhes out with in¬
credible violence ; and the patient receives at leall im¬
mediate relief from circumftances the moft diltreffing
imaginable. In fome inftances it is followed even by
a complete cure.
Genus LXXIII. TYMPANITES.
Tympany.
Tympanites, Sauv. gen. 291. Lin. 219. Vog. 316,
Sag. I j 8. Boerh. 226. Junck. 87.
Affe&io tympanitiea, Hcffm. III. 339.
Meteorifmus, Suuv. gen 292.
This is an inflation of the abdomen, and is of two
kinds : 1. That in which the flatus is contained in the
inteftines, in which the patient has frequent explo-
fions of wind, with a fwelling of the belly commonly
unequal. 2. When the flatus is contained in the cavity
of the abdomen ; in which cafe the fwelling is more
equal, and the belly founds when ftruck, without any
confiderable ennffion of flatus. Of thefe two, however,
the former difeafe is by much the moft common j in-
fomuch, that many, even extenfively engaged in prac¬
tice, have never met with an inftance of true abdomi¬
nal tympanites. In both cafes the reft of the body-
falls away.
Caufes, &c. The tympany fometimes takes place in
thofe who have been long troubled with flatulencies in
the ftomach and inteftines. It happens frequently to
women after abortion j to both fixes after the iuppref-
fion of the haemorrhoids ; and fometimes from tedious
febrile diforders injudicioufly treated.
Prognojis. This difeafe is generally very oMlinate,
and for the moft part proves fatal by degenerating in¬
to
33<F
*37
pra&ice.
Intumef- to an afcites. Sometimes, if the patient be healthy
centiae. and ftrong, the difeale may terminate favourably, and
that the more readily if it has followed from fome dif-
order. A heflic confumption, dry cough, and ema¬
ciated countenance in a tympany, with a fwelling of
the feet, denote approaching death in a very fhort time.
Cure. With a view to the prevention of this af¬
fection, it is neceffary, in the firft place, to avoid, as
far as it can be done, caufes giving rife to an uncom¬
mon extrication of air, by preferving the proper tone
of the alimentary canal. After the affeftion has taken
place, the indications are, firft, to expel the air al¬
ready extricated and confined in different cavities ;
and, fecondiy, to prevent further accumulation. On
thefe grounds different remedies are employed. The
cure, however, is principally attempted by carmina¬
tive, refolvent, and ftomachic medicines, gentle laxa¬
tives, and at laft tonics, efpecially chalybeates. In
the Edinburgh Medical Effays, vol. i. we have a very
remarkable hiftory of a tympany by Dr Monro fenior.
The patient was a young woman of 22 years of age,
who fell into the diftemper after a tertian ague, in
which (lie was badly treated. She became a patient
in the Edinburgh Infirmary the 24th of March 1730 ;
took feveral purgatives, and fome dofes of calomel }
ufed the warm bath *, and had an antihyfteric plafter
applied over the rvhole belly, but with very little effeCf.
She was monftroufly diftended, infomuch that the fkin
feemed to be in danger of burfting: her breathing was
much ftraitened: but the fwelling fometimes gradually
decreafed without any evacuation. The returns and
degree of this fwelling were very uncertain ; and when
the belly was moft detumefied, feveral unequal and pro¬
tuberant balls could be felt over the whole abdomen,
but efpecially at its fides. Her ftomach was good, ftie
had no thirft, and her urine was in proportion to the
quantity (he drank. She was very coftive, had her
menfes at irregolar periods, but no oedematous fwell-
ings appeared in the feet or any where elfe. In this
fituation (he continued from the time of her admiflion
till the 21 ft of June, during which interval (he had
only menfiruated twice. Throughout this fpace of time,
the following circumftances were obferved, 1. Several
times, upon the falling of the fwelling, (he complained
of a headach *, once of pains throughout all her body,
once of a giddinefs, twice of a naufea and vomiting,
and the laft time threw up green bile 5 and once her
ftomach fwelled greatly, whilft the reft of the abdomen
fubfided. 2. During the flowing of the menfes (he did
not fwell, but became very big upon their flopping.
3. Blood-letting and emetics, which were made ufe of
for fome accidental urgent fymptoms, had no very fen-
fible effeft in making the tympany either better or
worfe. 4. She never had paffage of wind either way,
except a little belching fome days before the monthly
evacuation.
Some time before the laft eruption of the menfes,
the purgatives were given more fparingly j and anti-
hyfterics of the ftrongeft kinds, fuch as afafoetida,
oleum corn. cerv. &c. mixed with foap, were given in
large dofes, acoompanied with the hotter antifcorbutics
as they are called, as horferadlfh and ginger-root in-
fufed in ftrong-ale with fteel. The patient was order¬
ed to ufe frequent and ftrong friffions to all the trunk
•f her body and extremities, and to ufe moderate exer-
41 s
cife. Immediately before the menfes began to flow, Phyfome*
clyfters of the fame kind of medicines were injected. tra~ ^
The menfes were in fufficient quantity but as loon as 1
they ceafed, her belly increafed in its circumference
four inches and a half, but foon fubfided. She then
complained of pains, which a gentle fweat carried off.
Borborygmi were for the firft time obferved on the fame
day, June 25th •, and having taken fome tinciura facra
at night, (he paffed a fmall quantity of blood next day
by (tool. This was the firft appearance of the return
of the haemorrhoids, to which (he had been formerly
fubieft.
The two following days her faponaceous, antihy¬
fteric, and antifcorbutic medicines being ftill conti¬
nued, (he had fuch explofions of wind upwards and
downwards, that none of the other patients would re¬
main in the fame room, nay fcarce on the fame floor
with her. Her belly became lefs and fofter than it
had been from the firft attack of the difeafe ; her me¬
dicines, with a dofe of fyrup of buckthorn at proper
intervals, ftill w'ere continued, only the proportion of
fteel was increafed ; her flatulent difeharge went on
fuccefsfully, and (Ire gradually recovered her former
health.
Genus LXXIV. PHYSOMETRA. . ,33%
Windy Swelling of the Uterus.
Phyfometra, Sauv. gen. 290. Sag. 11 9.
Hyfterophyfe, Vog. 317.
The treatment of this is not different from that of
the tympany. It is however, upon the whole, a very
rare difeafe ; and when it takes place, very feldom if
ever admits of a cure.
Genus LXXV. ANASARCA.
Watery Swelling over the Whole Body.
Anafarca, Sauv. gen. 281. Lin. 215. Vog. 313.
Sag. 108. Boerh. 1225. Hoffm. III. 322. Junck.
87. Monro on the Drofpy. Mi liman Animad-
verfiones de hydrope 1779.
Phlegmatia, Sauv. gen. 282.
Angina aquofa, Boerh. 791.
In this difeafe the feet firft begin to fwell, efpe¬
cially in the evening, after exercife, and when the pa¬
tient has flood or fat long •, this fwelling rifes fre¬
quently to the thighs. By lying in bed, the fwelling
becomes lefs, or even almofl difappears. In the pro-
grefs of the difeafe, the fwelling often rifes to tire hips,
loins, and belly, and at laft covers the whole body.
This difeafe, befides the other fymptoms afterwards
mentioned under Ascites, is attended with a remark¬
able difficulty of breathing. In the cure of this, a?
well as other fpecies of dropfy, the general intentions
are, firft, the evacuation of the water already effufed
either by natural or artificial outlets : and, fecondiy,
the prevention of freflr accumulation, which is chiefly
to be expefted from fupporting a due a£Hon of the ab«
forbents, and from keeping up a proper difeharge by
the ferous excretories.
The remedies employed with thefe intentions are
much the fame with what are employed againft the
more
M E D I C 1 N E.
4><S M E D I
Intumef- more important genus of afeites. Only it may be here
■ ( U1JKt" , noticed, that in anafarca it has by many been recom¬
mended to fcarify the feet and legs. By this means the
water is often difeharged : but the operator muft be
cautious not to make the incihons too deep \ they ought
barely to penetrate through the ikin ; and fpecial care
mull be taken, by fpirituous fomentations and proper
digellives, to prevent a gangrene* Dr Fothergill ob-
ferves, that the fafell and moft efficacious way of mak¬
ing thefe drains is by the inftrument ufed for cupping,
called a fcnrijicator ; and he always orders it to be fo
applied as to make the little wounds tranfverfely •, as
they not only difeharge better, but are alfo longer in
healing, than when made longitudinally.
Notwithftanding every precaution, however, gan¬
grene will often enfue j and it is upon the whole a
much fafer pra£lice to evacuate the water by the na¬
tural outlets, the valvular lymphatic abforbents •, and
with this intention emetics and cathartics, but particu¬
larly diuretics, are often employed with fuccefs.
343 Genus LXXVI. HYDROCEPHALUS.
Water in the Head.
External or Chronic HYDROCEPHALUS.
Hydrocephalus, Sauv. gen. 285. Lin. 216. Boerh.
1217.
Hydrocephalum, Vog. 384.
CINE. Praffice,
into the acute and chronic hydrocephalus, than as is Hydrora.
commonly done into the internal and external. Al- tlntis.
though tiie latter be much llower in its progrefs, fome-' »—
times fubiiitmg even tor years, yet it is equally difficult
of cure with the former, and very often it proves fatal
in a few days if the water be drawn off by an artificial
opening, which may be very eafily performed by a mere
puncture with a common lancet, without either pain or
any immediate hazard from the operation itfelf, although
the water be lodged in the ventricles ; for thefe are dif-
tended to an enormous lize, and the fubflance of the
brain almoff totally deflroyed, fo that hardly any thing
is to be punctured but membrane.
Genus LXXVII. HYDRORACHITIS.
Spina Bifida.
Hydrorachitis, Sauv. gen. 287. Morgagn. de fed.
XII. 9. et feq.
Spinola, Lin. 289.
Spina bifida, Vog. 386.
This difeafe, which confifts in a foft tumor on the
lumbar vertebrm, attended with a feparation of the ver¬
tebrae themfelves, though generally confidered as ap¬
proaching to the nature of rachitis, is commonly referred
to the article Surgery, which may be conlulted with
regard to this affcblion.
34*
This differs from the hydrocephalus formerly treat¬
ed of at fome length under the title of Apoplexia Hy-
drocephalica, chiefly in the water being collefled in
the external parts of the head, whereas the former is
entirely within the fkull. In the fifth volume of the
Medical Obfervations we have an account of a very ex¬
traordinary cafe of this kind. The patient was a child
only of a few days old, and had a tumor on his head
about the lize of a common tea-cup, which had the
appearance of a bladder diftended with water *, near
the apex was a fmall opening, through which a bloody
ferum was difeharged. In other refpefts the child was
healthy. No application was ufed but a piece of linen
dipt in brandy. The tumor continued to increafe
for many months *, at the end of which time the mem¬
brane containing the water appeared equally thick with
the other part of the fcalp, except at one place about
the fize of a ffiilling, which continued thin, and at
times appeared as if it would burft. He remained
in this fituation for about 17 months, when the cir¬
cumference of the head was 20 inches, the bafe i6y,
the middle i84-, and from the bafe to the apex near 8-J.
The water was then drawn off, and the child died in
two days. Almoft all other cafes of this diftemper
have proved fatal j the futures of the Ikull generally
give way, and the whole external part of the head is
equally enlarged : but in the inftance juft now given
there was a deficiency of part of the bones. Although,
however, in fome inftances, wfliere the head is thus en¬
larged to an enormous fize, the water is exterior to
the brain, and therefore entitled to the appellation of
hydrocephalus exterior, yet much more frequently in
thofe inftances where there is a manifeft feparation of
the bones of the cranium at the futures, the water is
ft ill contained within the ventricles ; and accordingly
ike difeafe may be much more properly diftinguiffied
Genus LXXVIII. HYDROTHORAX.
Dropsy of the Breast.
Hydrothorax, Sauv. gen. 15c. Vog. 311. Boerh.
1219-
This affedlion, particularly with rcfpedl to its caufes,
is in many eircumftances fimilar to other kinds of
dropfy, particularly to afeites. But from the fituation
of the Avater, which is here depofited in the cavity
of the thorax, it may naturally be fuppofed that fome
peculiar fymptoms will occur. Bolides the common
fymptoms of dropfy, palenefs of the countenance,
fcarcity of urine, and the like, this difeafe is, in fome
inftances, attended with a fludffuation of water within
the breaft ; which, when it dots occur, may be confi¬
dered as a certain diftinguiftiing mark of tins affedKon.
But befides this, it is alfo diftinguiihed by the remark¬
able affections of circulation and refpiration with which
it is attended.
The breathing is peculiarly difficult, efpecially in a
recumbent pofture ; and in many inftances patients
cannot breathe with tolerable eafe, unlefs when fitting
eredt, or even ftooping fomewhat forwards. The pulle
is very irregular, and has often remarkable intermiffions.
But the difeafe has been thought to be principally cha¬
racterized by a fudden ftarting from lleep, in confe-
quence of an almoft inexpreffible uneafy fenfation re¬
ferred to the breaft, and attended with ftrong palpita¬
tion, which may probably arife from an affeCtion either
of circulation or of refpiration.
That thefe fymptoms are common attendants of this
difeafe, is undeniable; and they are certainly the bell
charaCteriftics of this affection with which we are ycl
acquainted : but it muft be allowed that they are pre-
fent in fome cafes where there is no water in the breaft 5
and
practice. ^ M E D I
Intumef- and* that in other mftances rvhere the difeafe exifts,
centise. they are either altogether wanting, or occur only to a
'   ' very flight degree. Certain diagnoses, therefore, of
this difeafe ftill remain to be difeovered.
When hydrothorax is prefent, from the affe&ion of
the vital funftions with which it is attended, it may
readily be concluded that it is a dangerous difeafe,
and in many inftances it proves fatal. The cure, as far
as it can be accompliflied, is obtained very much on
the fame principles as in other dropfies. Here, how¬
ever, probably from the uncertainty of the diagnoltics,
the artificial abftraftion of water, by paracentefis of
the thorax, is lefs frequently had recourfe to than in
afeites ; though in fome inftances, after other means
have failed, it has been faid not only to give relief of
fymptoms highly urgent, particularly dyfpnoea, but
even to produce a complete cure. Benefit is often ob¬
tained from an artificial difeharge of water by the ap¬
plication of blifters to the breaft : but in this, as well
as other dropfies, a difeharge is chiefly effefted by the
natural outlets, particularly from the ufe of cathartics
and diuretics. In this fpecies of dropfy, more perhaps
than in any other, recourfe has been had to the ufe of
the digitalis purpurea, or foxglove, fo ftrongly recom¬
mended as a diuretic by Dr Withering in his treatife
refpe&ing the ufe of it. There can be no doubt that
this article, though fometimes productive of inconveni¬
ence from the diftrefling ficknefs and fevere vomiting
which it not unfrequently excites, though ufed^even but
in fmall dofes, often operates as a powerful diuretic,
and produces a complete evacuation of water, after
other articles have failed. From the effects mentioned
above, however, as well as from its influence on the
pulfe, which it renders much flower, it is neceflary that
it fhould be employed Avith great caution, and in fmall
dofes. A dram of the dried leaves of the digitalis,
macerated for four hours in half a pint of warm
water, forms an infufion which may be given in dofes
of an ounce, and the dried powder of the leaves in
dofes of one or two grains: thefe dofes may be gra¬
dually increafed, and repeated twice or oftener in the
day) but this requires to be done with great caution,
left fevere vomiting, or other diftrefling fymptoms,
fhould take place.
343 Genus LXXIX. ASCITES.
DROP ST of the Abdomen.
Afeites, Sauv. gen. 288. Lin. 217. Vog. 314.
Sag. gen. 115. Boerh. 1226. Hoff’m. III. 322.
Junck. 87. Dr Monro on the Dropfy, 1765.
Milman, Animadverfiones de Hydrope, 1779.
Defcription. This difeafe affumes three different
forms: 1. When the water immediately waflies the in-
teftines. 2. When it is interpofed between the abdo¬
minal mufcles and peritonaeum. Or, 3. When it is con¬
tained in facs and hollow vefieles : in which cafe it is
called the eneyfled dropfy. Some phyfieians of great
reputation have afferted, that the water was often
placed within the duplicature of the peritonaeum : but
this is alleged by Dr Milman to be a miftake, as that
membrane is looked upon by the beft anatomifts to be
Angle ; and he thinks that the above-mentioned phyfi-
■eians have been led into this error from obferving the
VOL. XIII. Part II.
CINE. 4I
water colledled in the cellular fubftance of the perlto- Afcites.
naeutn. w—y*-™
In the beginning of an afeites the patient becomes
languid, breathlefs, and has an averiion to motion:
his belly fwells 5 and, when ftruck, the found of fluc¬
tuating water is perceptible 5 there is a difficulty of
breathing when the belly is preffed. There is an al-
moft continual thirft, which in the progrefs of the dif¬
eafe becomes very urgent; the urine is thick, in fmall
quantity, and high coloured. The pulfe is fmall and
frequent •, and as the belly fwells, the other parts wafte
away. A fever at laft arifes, which, conftantly increaf-
ing, in the end carries off the patient. Thefe fymp¬
toms are moft urgent where the waters are in immediate
contact with the inteftines 5 in the other kinds the reft:
of the body is lefs wafted; nor is there fo great thirft
or difficulty of breathing.
Ccafes, &c. The immediate caufe of dropfy is a
greater effufion of ferum by the exhalant arteries than
the abforbents take up. This may be occafioned either
by too great a quantity of liquid thrown out by the
former, or by an inability of the latter to perform their
office. This commonly happens in people wdiofe bodies
are of a weak and lax texture, and hence women are
more fubjeft to this malady than men ; chlorotic girls
efpecially are very apt to become dropfical.
Sometimes, however, this difeafe is occafioned by a
debility of the vital powers, by great evacuations of
blood, or by acute difeafes accidentally protracted
beyond their ufual period; and although this caufe
feems very different from a laxity of fibres, yet the
dropfy feems to be produced in a fimilar manner by
both. For the vital powrers being debilitated by ei¬
ther of thefe caufes, naturally bring on a certain de¬
bility and laxity of the folids ; and, on the other hand,
a debility of the folids always brings on a debility of
the vital powers 5 and from this debility of the vital
poAvers in both cafes it happens, that thofe humours
which ought to be expelled from the body are not dif-
charged, but accumulate by degrees in its cavities.
There, is, Turnover, this difference between the tAvo
kinds of dropfy arifing from thefe twro different caufes :
That in the one which arifes from laxity the folid parts
are more injured that in that Avhich arifes from a debi¬
lity of the vital poAvers. In the former, therefore, the
Avater feems to floAv out from every quarter, and the
body fwells all over. But Avhen the difeafe is occafion¬
ed by a debility of the vital powers, though the folids
be lefs difeafed, yet the poAver of the heart being much
diminifhed, and the humours fcarce propelled through
the extreme veffels, the thin liquids, by Avhich in a
healthy ftate the body is daily recruited, are carried
by their oAvn Aveight either into the cavities or into
the cellular texture. Hence thofe aqueous effufions
Avhich follow great evacuations of blood, or violent
loofeneffes, begin in the more depending parts of the
body, gradually afeending, till they arrive at the cavity
of the abdomen, or even the thorax.
But another and much more fufficient caufe for the
production of dropfy is an obftruftion of the circula¬
tion ; and this may take place from polypi in the heart
or large veffels, and hard fwellings in the abdomen.
Inftances have been obferved of a dropfy arifing from
fteatomatous tumors in the omentum, and many more
from a feirrhous liver or fpleen, and from an infarc-
3 G tion
M E D I
tion and obftru&ion of the mefenteric glands, by which
means the lymph coming from the extremities is pre¬
vented from arriving at the heart. Scirrhofity of the
liver, the molt common caufe of afcites, probably
operates by augmenting effufion, in eonfequence of its
p^venting the return of the venous blood, the greater
part of the veins from the abdomen going to the forma¬
tion of the vena portarum.
Lattly, Whatever, either within or without the vef-
fels, contradts or thuts up their cavities, produces a
more copious and eafy tranfmiflion of the thin humours
through the exhalant arteries, at the fame time that it
prevents their return by the abforbent veins. This
has been etlablitlied by experiment: For Lower hav¬
ing perforated the right tide of the thorax in a dog,
tied the vena cava, and fewed up the wound. The ani¬
mal languifhed for a few hours, and then died. On
diffedfion, a great quantity of ferum was found in the
abdomen, as if he had long laboured under an afcites.
In like manner, having tied the jugular veins of another
dog, a furpriting fwelling took place in thofe parts
above the ligatures, and in two days the animal died.
On difleftion, all the mufcles and glands were vaftly
diftended, and quite pellucid, with limpid ferum. From
thefe experiments, and fome cafes of the difeafe men¬
tioned by different authors, it appears, that when the
veins are obftrucled fo that they cannot receive the ar¬
terial blood, the ferum is feparated as by a filtre into
the more open cavities and laxer parts of the body,
while the thicker part tfagnates and is eolledfcd in the
proper blood-veffels.
The too great tenuity of the humours is very fre¬
quently accufed as the caufe of dropfy, and many au¬
thors have aflerted that dropfy might arife merely from
a fuperabundance of water in the blood. For this,
fome experiments are quoted, from which they would
infer, that w7hen a great quantity of aqueous tluid is in¬
troduced into the blood, the fuperfluous fluid ought by
no means to pafs through the extremities of the fangui-
ferous arteries into the veins in the common courfe of
circulation, but by being effufed into the cavities thould
produce a dropfy. But this can only happen when the
vital powers are very much diminithed 5 for, in a natu¬
ral date, the fuperfluous quantity is immediately thrown
out by the Ikin or the kidneys : and agreeable to this
we have an experiment of Schultzius, avho induced a
dropfy in a dog by cauling him drink a great quantity
of water ; but he had firtl bled him almofl: ad deliquium,
fo that the vital powers were in a manner oppretfed by
the deluge of water. In this manner do thofe become
hydropic who are leized with the difeafe on drinking
large quantities of water either when wearied with la¬
bour, or weakened by fome kinds of difeafes. Dr Fo-
thergill relates an inflance of a perfon who, being ad-
vifed to drink plentifully of barley-water, in order to
remove a fever, rathly drunk 12 pounds of that liquor
every day for a month, and thus fell into an almotl in-
curable dropfy. But if this quantity had been taken
only during the prevalence of the fever, he would, in
all probability, have fuffered no inconvenience, as may
be inferred from what has been related concerning the
dicta aquea ufl'd by the Italians.
It is moreover evident from experiments, that, in a
healthy Hate, not only water is not depolited in the ca¬
vities, but that if it is injedled into them it will be ab-
2
CINE. Pradiec
forbed, unlefs fome laxity of the folids has already Afcites.
taken place. Dr Mufgrave injefted into the right fide l—v—
of the thorax of a dog four ounces of warm water j
whence a difficulty of breathing and weaknefs immedi¬
ately followed. But thefe fymptoms continually leflen-
ed, and in the fpace of a week the animal feemed to be
in as good health as before. Afterwards he injefted
16 ounces of warm water into the left cavity of the tho¬
rax in the fame dog •, the fame effefts followed, toge¬
ther with great heat, and ftrong pulfation of the heart ;
but he again recovered in the fpace of a week. Laftly,
He injeded 18 ounces of water into one fide of the tho¬
rax, and only fix into the other : the fame fymptoms
followed, but vanithed in a much ihorter time 5 for
within five days the dog was reltored to perfeft health.
During this time, however, he obferved that the dog
made a greater quantity of urine than ufual.
The remote caufes of dropfy are many and various.
Whatever relaxes the folids in fuch a manner as to give
an occafion of accumulation to the ferous fluids, difpo-
fes to the dropfy. A lazy indolent life, rainy wet wea¬
ther, a fwampy or low foil, and every thing which con¬
duces to vitiate the vifcera, or infenfibly to produce ob-
ftrudions in them, paves the way for a dropfy. Hence
thofe are ready to fall into the difeafe who ule hard and
vifcid aliments, fuch as poor people in fome countries
who ufe coarfe brown bread, and children who are fed
with unwholefome aliments ; and the fame thing hap¬
pens to thofe who drink immoderately of fpirituous li¬
quors.
Prognojls. When the dropfy arifes from a fcirrhus
of the liver or fpleen, or any of the other vifcera, the
prognofis mufl. always be unfavourable, and alfo when
it arifes from diforders of the lungs. Neither is the
cafe more favourable to thofe in whom the fmall veffels
are ruptured, and pour out their liquids into the cavity
of the abdomen. Thofe certainly die who have polypi
in the veflels, or tumors compreffing the veins and vef¬
fels of the abdomen. A dropfy arifing from obftruc-
tions in the mefenteric glands is likewife difficult to
cure, whether fuch obftruclions arife from a bad habit
of body, or from any other caufe ; if we can, however,
by any means remove the difeafe of the glands, the
dropfy foon ceafes. But in thofe who fall into dropfy
without any difeafe preceding, it is not quite fo dan¬
gerous ; and even though a difeafe has preceded, if the
patient’s ftrength be not greatly weakened, if the refpi-
ration be free, and the perfon be not affefled with any
particular pain, we may entertain great hopes of a cure.
But where a great lofs of blood is followed by a fever,
and that by a dropfy, the patients almoft always die,
and that in a fliort time : thofe, however, are very fre¬
quently cured who fall into this difeafe without any
preceding haemorrhage.
Cure. In the cure of this difeafe authors chiefly
mention two indications : 1. To expel the effufed wa¬
ter j and, 2. To prevent its being again collefted.
But before we proceed to fpeak of the remedies, it is
neceffary to take notice, that by the laws of the ani¬
mal economy, if a great evacution of a fluid takes
place in any part of the body, all the other fluids in
the body are direfted towmrds that part, and thofe
which lie, as it were, lurking in different parts will be
immediated abforbed, and thrown out by the fame
paffage. Hence the humours which in hydropic per-
fons
Pra&ice.
Intumef- forts are eXtravafated into tlie different cavities of the
centise. body will be thrown into the inteflines,, and evacuated
— * ' ‘ by purgatives j or by diuretics will be thrown upon the
kidneys, and evacuated by urine. It is, however, not
only neceffary to excite thefe evacuations in order to re-
niove this m lady, but they muid be afliduoufly promo¬
ted and kept up till the abundant humour is totally ex¬
pelled. For this reafon Sydenham has advifed purga¬
tives to be adminiftered every day, unlefs, either
through the too great weaknefs of the body, or the vio¬
lent operation of the purgative, it fhall be neceffary to
interpofe a day or two now and then j becaufe it any
confiderable intervals be allowed to take place between
the exhibition of the purgatives, an opportunity is given
to the waters of collefting again. In this method, how¬
ever, there is the following inconvenience, that, when
the waters are totally evacuated, the ftrength is at the
fame time fo much exhaufted, that the diftemper com¬
monly returns in a very Ihort time. Hence our chief
hopes of curing a dropfy confift in gently evacuating
the waters by means of diuretics. But the efficacy of
thefe is generally very doubtful. Dr Freind has long
ago obferved, that this part of medicine is of all others
the mold lame and imperfedd j but a French phylician,
Mr Bacher, lately difcovered, as he alleges, a method
of making the diuretics much more fuccefsful. His re¬
putation became at laid fo great, that the French king
thought proper to purchafe his fecret for a great fum of
money. The balls of his medicine was the black hel¬
lebore root, the malignant qualities of which he pre¬
tended to correct in the following manner : A quantity
of the dried roots of black hellebore were pounded, and
then put into a glazed earthen veffel, and afterwards
fprinkled with fpirit of wine. They were fuffered to
Hand for twelve hours, ftirring them about twice or
thrice during that fpace of time. They were then
fprinkled again, and at laid good Rheniffi wine was
poured on till it flood fix fingers above the roots. The
mixture was frequently agitated with a wooden fpatula-,
and as the wine was imbibed by the roots, more was
poured on, fo as to keep it always at the fame height
for 48 hours. The whole was then put on the fire and
boiled for half an hour, after which the decoflion -was
violently preffed out; the fame quantity of wine was
added as at firft, and the mixture boiled as before. Af¬
ter the fecond expreffion the woody refiduum was thrown
away as ufelefs. Both the ftrained liquors were then
mixed together with twro parts of boiling water to one
of the decoftion. The whole is afterwards evaporated
in a filver veffel to the confidence of a fyrup. One
part of the extract is again mixed with two parts of
boiling water, and the whole infpiffated as before.—By
this means, fays he, the volatile naufeous acrid particles
are feparated by evaporation, and the fixed ones remain
corrected and prepared for medicinal ufes ; adding, to¬
wards the end, a ninth part of old brandy, and evapo¬
rating to the confiftence of turpentine. Mr Bacher rea-
fons a good deal on the way in which this procefs cor-
refls the medicine } but tells us, that notwithftanding
the improvement, his pills will not have the defired ef¬
fect unltffs properly made up. For forming them, they
ought to be mixed with matters both of an invifeating
and indurating nature ; yet fo prepared that it will
be readily foluble in the ftomach, even of a perfon
much -debilitated. For anfwering thefe purpofes, he
4
chofe myrrh and cardans benediefus, and he gives the A.utc
following receipt for the formation of his pills;— ^
“ Take of the extract of hellebore prepared as a-
bove direfted, and of folution cf myrrh, each one.
ounce ; of powdered carduus benedictus, three drams
and a icruple. Mix them together, and form into a
mafs, dividing it into pills of a grain and a half each.”
To thefe pills Mr Bacher gives the name of the pilulce
tonicce, from an idea, that, while they evacuate the
water, they at the fame time aft as tonics ; and thus,
from augmenting the aftion of the lymphatics, prevent
the return of the difeafe. And if both thefe intentions
could be effectually anfwered by the ufe of the fame
remedy, it would unqueftionably be of great import¬
ance in praftice.
The effects of thefe pills were, we are told, very
furprifing. Dr Daignan relates that he gave them to
eighteen hydropic patients at once *, and thefe he divi¬
ded into three clafies, according to the degree of the
difeafe with which they w7ere affefted. The firft clafs
contained thofe who laboured under an anafarca follow¬
ing intermittent fevers. The fecond clafs contained
thofe who had an anafarca, together with fume degree
of afcit.es, arifing from tedious febrile eiiforders. All
thefe were cured; but thefe two claffes confifted of
fuch cafes as are molt eafily removed. But the third
contained fix who were feized with a moft violent ana¬
farca and afeites, after being much weakened by tedious
diforders, and of confequence in whom the difeafe was
very difficult to be cured. Even of thefe, however,
four were cured, and the other two died. The body
of one of thefe being differed, both fides of the cavity
of the thorax were found to be full of a blackifli-red
water. The lungs were unfound •, there was a poly¬
pous concretion in the right ventricle of the heart: the
liver and fpleen were hard, and of a preternatural bulk j
and the glands of the mefentery were obftru&ed and
infar&ed. In the other, the liver and pancreas were
feirrhous, and the fpleen very hard.
The fame medicines were given to De Horne t»
eight perfons, fix of whom had both an anafarca and af¬
eites, but the other two only an afeites. Four of thefe
recovered ; three died without being freed from the
dropfy •, one in whom the dropfy was cured died in a
fhort time after, having for fome time before his deatk
become fpeechlefs.
By thefe patients ten of the pills were taken at once j
and the fame dofe repeated to the third time, with an
interval of an hour betwixt each dofe. At firft they
proved purgative, and then diuretic : by which laft
evacuation they finally cured the difeafe. But though
Mr Bacher was firmly of opinion that his pills cured
the dropfy by reafon of the above-related correction,
yet it is certain that, in the hands of other practition¬
ers, thefe very pills have failed, unlefs they alfo made
ufe of the fame regimen recommended by that phy-
fician ; while, on the other hand, it is alfo certain, that
different medicines will prove equally efficacious in drop-
fical cafes, provided this regimen is made ufe of.
For a great number of ages it has been recommend¬
ed to dropfical patients to abftain as much as poffi-
ble from drink, and thus to the torments of their dif¬
eafe was added that of an intolerable third j and how-
great this torment was, we may underftand from an
example of a friend of King Antigonus, who, having
3 G 2 been
MEDICI N E.
420 M E D I
^centiaf'" clofely watched both by order of the phylicians
i—- t atl^ a^° 0i' the king, was fo unable to bear the raging
third; occafioned by his difeafe, that he fwallowed his
own excrements and urine, and thus fpeedily put an
end to his life. Dr Milman fhows at great length the
pernicious tendency of this practice. He maintains
that it is quite contrary to the fentiments of Hippo¬
crates and the belt ancient phylicians. He afferts, that
unlefs plenty of diluting drink be given, the bell diu¬
retics can have no effe£t. He condemns alfo in the
ilrongefl terms the practice of giving droplical patients
only dry, hard, and indigeftible aliments. Thefe would
opprefs the ftomach even of the moft healthy; and how
much more mult they do fo to thofe who are already
debilitated by labouring under a tedious diforder ! By
what means alfo are thefe aliments to be diffolved in
the ftomach when drink is withheld ? In this difeafe
the faliva is vifeid, and in fmall quantity j from whence
it may be reafonably conjeaured, that the reft of the
fluids are of the fame nature, and the gaftric juices
likewife depraved. Hius the aliments lie long in the
ftomach j and if the vifeera Avere formerly free of ob-
ftruaions, they are now generated ; the ftrength fails ;
perforation and other excretions are obftruaed 5 the
v vifeid and pituiteus humours produced by thefe kinds
of food float about the praecordia, and inercafe the dif¬
eafe, while the furface of the body becomes quite dry.
Nay, fo much does this kind of diet confpire with the
difeale, that 100 pounds of fluid will fometimes be
imbibed in a feiv days by hydropic perfons Avho take
no drink. Even in health, if the body from any caufe
becomes dry, or deprived of a conflderable part of its
juices, as by hunger, labour, &c. it will imbibe a con¬
flderable quantity of moifture from the air ; fo that we
muft impute the above-mentioned extraordinary inhala¬
tion, in part at leaft, to the denial of drink, and to the
nature of the aliment given to the fick. The following
is the account given by Sir Francis Milman of his prac¬
tice in the Middlefex hofpitai.
If the patient be not very much debilitated, he is
fometimes treated with the purging waters, and a dofe
of jalap and calomel alternately. On the intermediate
days he gets a faline mixture, Avith 40 or 60 drops of
ace turn fcilliticum every fixth hour 5 drinking with the
purgatives oat-gruel and fome thin broths. That he
might the better alcertain Avhat fhare the liquids given
along with the medicines had in producing a copious
floAV of urine, he fometimes gave the medicines in the
beginning of the diftemper without allowing the drink :
but though the fivellings Avere ufually diminiftied a
little by the purgatives, the urine ftill continued fcanty,
and the patients Avere greatly Aveakened. Fearing,
therefore, left, by following this courfe, the ftrength
of the fick might be too much reduced, he then began
his courfe of diuretic medicines, giving large quantities
of barley Avater with a little fal diureticus ; by which
means, fometimes in the ftiort fpace of 48 hours after
the courfe Avas begun, the urine fl©A\7ed out in very
large quantity : but as faline drinks are very difagree-
able to the tafte, a drink 'was compofed purpofely for
hydropic perfons, of half an ounce of fupertartrite of
potafti, diflolved in two pounds of barley-Avater, made
agreeaoly fweet Avith fyrup, adding one or tAVo ounces
©f French brandy.
To this compofition Sir Francis Milman was induced
CINE. Practice.
by the great praifes given to fupertartrite of potafti by Afcites.
fome phyficians in hydropic cafes. In the ABa Bono-
nietifia, 15 cafes of hydropic patients are related Avho
were cured only by taking half an ounce of cream of
tartar daily. But it is remarkable, that by thefe very
patients the cream of tartar Aims taken for 20, 30, nay
40 days, often without any perceptible effedt ; yet
when diflblved in a large quantity of Ai'ater, it ftioived
its falutary effedls frequently Avithin as many hours, by
producing a plentiful Aoav of urine. This liquor is now
the common drink of hydropic patients in the hofpitai
above mentioned, of which they drink at pleafure along
Avith their medicines.
Among purgative medicines Sir Francis Milman re¬
commends the radix fenekee ; but fays the decoction of
it, according to the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia is too
ftrong, as he ahvays found it excite vomiting Avhen pre¬
pared as there directed, and thus greatly to diftrefs the
patients : but Avhen only half an ounce or fix drams
of the root are ufed to a pound of decodtion, inftead
of a Avhole ounce as diredted by the Edinburgh col¬
lege, he finds it an excellent remedy j and though it
may fometimes induce a little vomiting, and frequently
a naufea, yet it feldom failed to procure nine or ten
ftools a-day, and fometimes alfo proved diuretic. But
we muft take care not to be too free in the ufe of fe-
neka, or any other purgative, if the patients be very
Aveak ; and therefore, after having ufed purgatives for
fome time, it Avill be proper to depend upon diuretics
entirely for perfedting the cure 5 and of the fuccefs of
this method our author gives fome very remarkable in-
ftances. But he obferves, that after the dropfy is re¬
moved, the patients Avill fometimes die Avithout any evi¬
dent caufe ; and of this it is proper that the phyficians
fhould be aAvare. It is remarkable with Avhat eafe a
flux of urine is induced in thofe who have a feirrhous
liver ; Avhile, on the other hand, in one who had the
mefenteric glands obftrudled, along with a feirrhofity
of the liver and vitiated ftate of the lungs, the moft
poAverful diuretics proved ineffedtual. In fome cafes
Sir Francis Milman thinks the kidneys may be fo pref-
fed Avith the Aveight of the Avater, as to be unable to
perform their office. With regard, hoAvever, to diu¬
retics in general, it may be remarked, that the opera¬
tion of none of them can be certainly depended upon.
In particular conftitutions, and at particular times, one
Avill be obferved to fucceed, after another, though com¬
monly much more powerful, has been tried in vain.
Accordingly various articles of this kind are often
ufed in fucceffion. Recourfe is particularly often had
to the root of taraxacum, of colchicum, and of fquills ;
the latter, efpecially Avhen combined Avith calomel, is
often found to be a very poAverful diuretic. And in¬
deed mercury in different forms, probably from adling
as a deobftruent, is often of very great ufe in dropfical
complaints. Among other diuretics, the laftuca virofa
has of late been highly extolled by Dr Collins of Vien¬
na, and the nicotiana tabaccum by Dr FoAA'ler of York :
but neither lias been extenfively introduced into prac¬
tice, although Ave have known fome inftances in which
the latter, in particular, has been ufed Avith great ad¬
vantage.
The Avater having been draAvn off, we are to put the
patient on a courfe of ftrengtheners ; fuch as cinchona,
with fome of the warm aromatics, and a due proportion.
of
pra&ice. M E D I
Intumef- of rhubarb infufed in wine and ehalybeates. Gentle
centise. cxercife, and fridlions on the belly, with fuclx a courfe
of diet as lhall be light and nourifhing, are alfo to be
enjoined : and it may be obferved, that the ufe of tonic
medicines is by no means to be delayed till a complete
evacuation of the water can be obtained. On the con¬
trary, by alternating, and even combining the ufe of
evacuants and tonics, the influence of both is often very
much promoted.
When the patient can by no other means be reliev¬
ed, the operation of paracentefis muft be had recourfe
to, which is deferibed under the article Surgery.
CINE.
421
344
34S
346
347
Genus LXXX. HYDROMETRA.
DROP ST of the Uterus.
Hydrometra, Sauv. gen. 289. Sag. 116. Boerh.
1224.
Genus LXXXI. HYDROCELE.
DROP ST of the Scrotum.
Ofcheocele, Sauv. gen. 41. Vog. 388.
Ofcheophyma, Sag. 44.
Hydrops feroti, Vog. 389.
Hydrops teftium, Boerh. 1227.
For the treatment of thefe two difeafes, we may re¬
fer the reader to what has already been faid of other
fpecies of dropfy, particularly Afcites. But both are
chiefly to be combated by chirurgical operation, efpe-
cially the latter, in which it feldom fails to produce a
complete cure.
Genus LXXXII. PHYSCONIA.
Swelling of the Be/ly.
Phyfconia, Sauv. gen. 283, Vog. 325* ^ag. gen.
110.
Hypofarca, Lin. 2x8.
This difeafe may arife from a variety of caufes, as
from a fwelling of the liver, fpleen, kidneys, uterus,
omentum, ovarium, mefentery, inteftines, &c. and fome-
times it arifes merely from fat. In the former cafes, as
the vifeera are generally feirrhous and indurated, the
diftemper is for the moft part incurable j neither is the
profpefl much better where the difeafe is occafioned by
a great quantity of fat.
Genus LXXXIII. RACHITIS.
The Rickets.
Rachitis, Sauv. gen. 294. Lin. 212. Vog. 312.
Satf. gen. 120. Boerh. 1480. Hojfm. III. 487.
Zeviani della Rachitide. G/iJfon de Rachitide.
Defcription. This is one of the difeafes peculiar to
infancy. It feldom attacks children till they are nine
months, nor after they are two years old ; but it fre¬
quently happens in the intermediate fpace between
thefe two periods. The difeafe fhows itfelf by a flac¬
cid tumor of the head and face, a loofe flabby ikin,
a fwelling of the abdomen, and falling away of the
other parts, efpecially of the jjiufcles. There are
protuberances of the epiphyfes of the joints $ the jugu- Rachitis,
lar veins fwell, while the reft decreafe j and the legs "
grow crooked. If the child has begun to walk before
he be feized with this difeafe, there is a flownefs, de¬
bility, and tottering in his motion, which foon brings
on a conftant delire of fitting, and afterwards of lying
down ; infomuch that nothing at laft is moveable but
the neck and head. As they grow older, the head is
greatly enlarged, with ample futures j the thorax is
comprefled on the fides, and the fternum rifes up
(harp, Avhile the extremities of the ribs are knotty.
The abdomen is protuberant, and the teeth black and
carious. In fuch patients as have died of this difeafe,
all the folids appear foft and flaccid, and the fluids dif-
folved and mucous.
Caufes. The rickets may proceed from ferophulous
or venereal taints in the parents, and may be increafed
by thofe of the nurfe. It is likewife promoted by feed¬
ing the child with aqueous and mucous fubftances, crude
fummer fruits, filh, unleavened farinaceous aliment, and
too great a quantity of fweet things.—Sometimes it
follows intermittent fevers and chronic diforders j and
in Ihort, is caufed by any thing which tends to debili¬
tate the body, and induce a vifeid and unhealthy ftate
of the juices.
Prognojis. The rickets do not ufually prove fatal by
themfelves, but if not cured in time, they make the per-
fon throughout life deformed in various ways ; and often
produce very pernicious diforders, fuch as carious bones
in different parts of the body.
Cure. This is to be effected by mild cathartics, al¬
teratives, and tonics, fuch as are ufed in other difeafes
attended with a debility of the fyftem and a vitiated
ftate of the blood and juices. In the Weftern iflands
of Scotland, the medicine ufed for the cure of the
rickets is an oil extracted from the liver of the fkate-
fiflr. The method of application is as follows : Firft,
the wrifts and ankles are rubbed with the oil in the
evening : this immediately raifes a fever of feveral
hours duration. When the fever from the firft rub¬
bing fubfides, the fame parts are rubbed again the
night following ; and repeatedly as long as the rub¬
bing of thefe parts continues to excite the fever.—
When no fever can be excited by rubbing the wrifts
and ankles alone, they are rubbed again along with
the knees and elbows. This increafed undlion brings
on the fever again ; and is praftifed as before, till it no
longer has that effeft. Then the vertebrae and fides
are rubbed, along with the former parts; and this unc¬
tion, which again brings on the fever, is repeated as the
former. When no fever can be any longer excited by
this unftion, a flannel fhirt dipped in the oil is put up¬
on the body of the patient: this brings on a more vio¬
lent and fenfible fever than any of the former unftions ;
and is continued till the cure be completed, which it
commonly is in a Ihort time.
A German phyfician, Dr Strack, has lately pub-
lilhed a paper, in which he recommends the filings
of iron as a certain remedy in the rickets. This dif¬
eafe, he obferves, in general begins with children
when they are about 16 months old. It is feldom ob¬
ferved with children before they be one year old, and
feldom attacks them after they pafs two •, and it is
very generally worfe where it begins early than where
it begins late.
For
343
349
M E D I
For effeftin^ a cure, it is, he affirms, a matter of
the utinolt confequence to be able to diitinguiih, very
early, whether a child will be affii&ed with rickets or
not. And this, he allures us, may be determined by
the following fymptoms : Palenefs and fwelling of the
countenance ; and in that part of the cheeks which
Ihould naturally be red, a yellow colour approaching
to that of fulphur. When that is the cafe, he directs
that a medicine ffiould be immediately had recourfe to
which will retard the further progrefs of the difeafe,
and remove what has already taken place. For this
purpofe, he advifes that five grains of the filings of iron,
and as much rhubarb, fliould be rubbed up with ten
grains of fugar, and given for a dofe every morning
fading, and every evening an hour before flipper. But
if confiderable loofenefs Ihould be produced, it* will be
neceffary, at firft, to perlift in the ufe of one dofe only
every day.
After a month’s continuance in this courfe, accord¬
ing to Dr Strack, there in general enfues a keen appe¬
tite for food, quick digeftion, and a copious flow of
urine •, by means of which the fulnefs of the face and
yellownefs of the complexion are by degrees removed,
while the natural colour of the countenance and firmnefs
of the body in general are gradually reftored. This
pradlice, he affures us, has never failed of fuccefs in any
one inftance *, not even in thofe children born of parents
greatly afili&ed with the rickets.
In addition to the ufe of chalybeates, great benefit is
often alfo obtained in this difeafe from the ufe of the
cold bath ; which under prudent adminiftration, is per¬
haps one of the moll: effedlual remedies for this complaint
with which we are yet acquainted.
Mr Bonhome of Paris, in a late treatife on the fub-
je£f of rachitis, has endeavoured to prove, that the dif¬
eafe arifes from a peculiar acid, and in the cure he par¬
ticularly recommends phofphate of foda, phofphate and
muriate of lime ; but above all other articles alkaline
lotions. The efficacy of thefe remedies, however, is
not yet confirmed by experience. And we may con¬
clude with obferving, that both in the prevention and
cure nothing has been found fo fuccefsful as cold ba¬
thing.
When the bones of rickety children begin to bend,
they may fometimes be reftored to their natural lhape
by compreffes, bolfters, and proper fupports. See the
article Surgery.
Order III. IMPETIGINES.
Impetigines, Sauv. Clafs X. Ord. V. Sag. Clafs
III. Ord. V.
Genus LXXXIV. SCROPHULA.
King's E vil.
Scrophula, Sauv. gen. 285. Fog. 397. Sag. 121.
Struma, Lin. 284.
Defcriplion. This difeafe ffiows itfelf by hard, fcir-
rhous, and otter, indolent tumors, which arife by decrees
in the glands of the neck, under the chin, armpits, arid
different parts of the body, but moft commonly in the
neck, and behind the ears. In procefi of time, the
cellular fubilance, ligaments of the joints, and even the
CINE. priaice.
bones themfelves, are affe&ed. In fcrophula the fwel- Scrophul*.
lings are much more moveable than thofe of the feir-w—
rhuus kind j they are generally fofter, and feldom at¬
tended with much pain; they are tedious in coming to
fuppuration \ are very apt to difappear fuddenly, and
again to rife in fome other part of the body. We may,
likewife mention as charadferiitic cireumftances of this
difeafe, a remarkable foftnefs of the fkin, a kind of ful¬
nefs of the face, generally with large eyes, and a very
delicate complexion.
Caufes. A variety of caufes have been mentioned
as tending to produce fcrophula, viz. a crude indigeft-
ible food ; bad water $ living in damp, low fituations ;
its being an hereditary difeafe, and in fome countries
endemic, &c. But whatever may in different circum-
ftances be the exciting or predifpofing caufes of the
fcrophula, the difeafe itfelf either depends upon, or is
at leaft much connefted with, a debility of the confti-
tution in general, and probably of the lymphatic fyf-
tem in particular, the complaint always fliowing itfelf
by fome affedlions of the latter. And that debility
has at leaft a confiderable influence in its production is
probable, not only from the manifeft nature of fome
of the caufes faid to be productive of fcrophula, but
likewife from fuch remedies as are found moft fervice-
able in the cure, which are all of a tonic invigorating
nature.
Prognojis. The fcrophula is a diftemper which often
eludes the moft powerful medicines, and therefore phy-
ficians cannot with any certainty promife a cure. It is
feldom, however, that it proves mortal in a Ihort time,
unlefs it attacks the internal parts, fuch as the lungs,
■where it frequently produces tubercles that bring on a
fatal confumption. When it attacks the joints, it fre¬
quently produces ulcers, which continue for a long time,
and gradually wafte the patient j while in the mean
time the bones become foul and corroded, and death
enfues after a long feene of mifery. The prognofis in
this refpeCl muft be regulated entirely by the nature of
the fymptoms.
Cure. It was long fuppofed that fcrophula depended
upon an acid acrimony of the fluids ; and this, it is
probable, gave rife to the ufe of burnt fponge, differ¬
ent kinds of foap, and other alkaline fubftances, as
the beft remedies for acidity. But although a four-
nefs of the ftomaeh and primer vice does no doubt fre¬
quently occur in thefe complaints, yet this fymptom
feems to be entirely the confequence of that general re¬
laxation which in fcrophula fo univerlally prevails, and
which does not render it in the leaft neceflary to fuppofe
a general acefcency of the fluids to take place j as the
one very frequently, it is well known, even in other
complaints, occurs without the leaft fufpicion of any
acid acrimony exifting in the other. This is alfo ren¬
dered very probable from the indolent nature of fero-
phulous tumors, which have been known to fubfift for
years without giving any uneafinefs ; which could not
have been the cafe, if an acid, or any other acrimony,
had prevailed in them.
In the treatment of fcrophula, different morbid con¬
ditions, exifting in different parts, require, according to
circumftances, various means of cure : but, upon the
whole, the remedies direbh d may be confidered as ufed
with a view either to the temours, to the ulcerations, or
to the general ftate of the iyftem.
Gentle
Impeti-
gines.
pra&ice. M E D I
Genlle mercurials are fometimes of ufe as refolvents
in fcrophulous fwellings ; but nothing has fuch confi-
derable influence as a frequent and copious ufe of cin¬
chona. Cold bathing too, efpecially in the fea, toge¬
ther with frequent moderate exercife, is often of lingular
fervice here 5 as is likewife change of air, efpecially to
a warm climate.
In the fcrophulous inflammation of the eyes, or oph¬
thalmia Itrumofa, the cinchona has alfo been given with
extraordinary advantage-: and we meet wflth an inflance
of its having cured the gutta rofacea in the face •, a
complaint which it is often difficult to remove, and
which is extremely difagreeable to the fair fex.
From the various cafes related of tumefied glands
it appears, that when the habit is relaxed and the cir¬
culation weak, either from conftitution or accident, cin-
chona is a moll efficacious medicine, and that it a£Is as
a refolvent and difcutient. It will not, however, fuc-
ceed in all cafes *, but there are few in which a trial
can be attended with much detriment. Dr Fothergill
obferves, that he has never known it avail much where
the bones were aflfe&ed, nor where the fcrophulous tu¬
mor was fo fltuated as to be accompanied with much
pain, as in the joints, or under the membranous cover¬
ings of the mufcles ; for when the difeafe attacks thofe
parts, the perioftasum feldom efcapes without fome in¬
jury, by which the bone will of courfe be likewife af-
feiled. Here cinchona is of no effedfl : inftead of lef-
feninq, it rather increafes the fever that accompanies
thofe circumftances: and, if it do not really aggravate
the complaint, it feems at leaf! to accelerate the pro-
grefs of the difeafe.
Various are the modes in which cinchona is admini-
flered : Dr Fothergill makes ufe of a deco&ion, with
the addition of fome aromatic ingredients and a fmall
quantity of liquorice root, as a form in which a fufficient
quantity may be given without exciting difguft. But
where it is eafily retained in the ifomach in fubflance,
perhaps the bell form of exhibiting it is that of powder-,
and in this ftate it is often advantageoufly conjoined
with powder of cicuta, an article polfeffing very great
deobftruent powers.
The powder, however, foon becomes difagreeable to
very voung patients j and the extradl leems not fo
much "to be depended upon as may have been imagined.
In making the extra#, it is expofed to to much heat,
as mutt have fome effe# upon its virtues, perhaps to
their detriment. In adminiflering it, likewife, if great
care be not taken to mix it intimately with a proper
vehicle, or fome very foluble fubilance, in weak bowels
It very often purges, and thereby not only difappoints
the phyfician, but injures the patient. A fmall quan¬
tity of the cortex Winteranus added gives the medicine
a grateful warmth } and a little liquorice, a few rai-
fins, gum arable or the like, added to the decodlion
before it be taken from the fire, by making the liquor
vifeid enables it to fufpend more of the fine particles
of the bark -, by which process the medicine is not only
improved in efficacy, but at the fame time rendered lefs
difagreeable. .
In indolent fwellings of the glands from vifeid hu¬
mours, fea water has been ftrongly recommended by Dr
RufTel.
Dr Fothergill alfo acquaints us, that the cicuta even
by itfelf is not without a conliderable fliare of efficacy
CINE. 423
in removing fcrophulous diforders. He mentions the Scrophula.
cafe of a gentlewoman, about 28 years of age, affii#- '''" ^ 1
ed from her infancy with fcrophulous complaints, fe-
vere o-hthalmies, glandular fwellings, &c. cured by the
extratium cicutce taken conllantly for the fpace of a
year. He obferves, however, that when given to chil¬
dren, even in very fmall dofes, it is apt to produce fpaf-
modic affections; for which reafon he rarely exhibits
it to them when very young, or even to adults of very
irritable habits.
Dr Fothergill gives feveral other inftances of the
fuccefs of cicuta in fcrophulous cafes, and even in one
which feemed to be not iar removed from a confirmed
phthifis ; but owns that it feldom had fuch good effects
afterwards : yet he is of opinion, that where there are
fymptoms of tubercles forming, a itrumous habit, and
a tendency to phthifis, the cicuta will often be fer-
viceable. It is anodyne, corrects acrimony, and pro¬
motes the formation of good matter. With regard to
the quality of the medicine, he obferves, that the ex¬
tra# prepared from hemlock before the plant arrives
at maturity, is much inferior to that which is made
when the hemlock has acquired its full vigour, and is
rather on the verge of decline : juit when the flowers
fade, the rudiments of the feeds become obiervable,
and the habit of the plant inclines to yellow *, this,
he thinks, is the proper time to colleft the hemlock.
It has then had the full benefit of the fummer heat \
and the plants that grow in expofed places will gene¬
rally be found more a#ive than thofe ihat grow in
the fnade. The lefs heat it undergoes during the pre¬
paration, the better. Therefore, if a eonliderable quan¬
tity of the dry powder of the plant gathered at a
proper feafon be added, lefs boiling will be neceflary,
and the medicine will be the more efficacious. But
let the extra# be prepared in what manner foever it
may, provided it be made from the genuine plant,
at a proper feafon, and be not dettroyed by boiling,
the chief difference obfervable in ufing it is, that a
larger quantity of one kind is required to produce a
certain effe# than of another. Twenty grains of
one fort of extra# have been found equal in point
of efficacy to thirty, nay near forty, of another j yet
both of them made from the genuine plant, and moft
probably prepared with equal fidelity. To prevent
the inconveniences arifing from this uncertainty, it
feems always expedient to begin with fmall dofes, and
proceed ftep by ftep till the extra# produces certain
effe#s, which feldom fail ^:o arife from a full dofe.
Thefe effe#s are different in different conftitutiuns.
But, for the moft part, a giddinefs affe#ing the head,
and motions of tile eyes, as if fomething puffied them
outwards, are firft felt -, a flight ficknefs, and trembling
agitation of the body ; a laxative ftool or two. One or
all of thefe fymptoms are the marks of a full dofe, let
the quantity in weight be what it will. Here we muff:
flop till none of thefe effe#s be felt ; and in three or
four days advance a few grains more. For it has been
fuppofed by moft of thofe who have ufed this medicine
to any good purpofe, that the cicuta feldom procures
any benefit, though given for a long time, unlefs in as
large a dofe as the patient can bear without fuffering
any of the inconveniences above mentioned. 'J here
is however reafon to believe, that its effe#s, as a difcu¬
tient, are in no degree dependent on its narcotic powers:
and
424
. Impeti- and We are inclined to tliink, tliat recourfe is often had
, glnc,~ , to larger dofes than are neceflary j or at leaft that the
fame benefit might be derived from fmaller ones con¬
tinued for an equal length of time.
Patients commonly bear a greater quantity of the ex-
trad! at night than at noon, and at noon than in the
morning. Two drams may be divided into thirty pills.
Adults begin with two in the morning, two at noon, and
three or four at night, with directions to inereafe
each dofe, by the addition of a pill to each, as they
can bear it.
But, after all, the bell form under which the cicuta
can, we think, be exhibited, is that of powder from
the leaves. This, either under the form of powder or
made into pills, may be given at firft to the extent of
four or five grains, and the dofe gradually rifing till it
amount to 15 °r 20 grains twice or thrice a-day. Given
to this extent, particularly when conjoined with cin¬
chona, it has often been found of great fervice in fcro-
phulous cafes. At the fame time it muft be allowed,
that fuch patients, after refilling every mode of cure,
will have in fome inltances a fpontaneous recovery in
the progrefs of life, probably from the fyltem acquir¬
ing additional vigour.
Different mineral waters, particularly the fulphure-
ous ones, as thofe of Harrowgate, Moffat, and Gills-
land, have been much recommended in fcrophula, and
fometimes productive of benefit. Recourfe has fome-
times alfo been had with advantage to zinc, iron, and
barytes, particularly muriate of barytes. But as well
as in rachitis, no remedy has been found more effica¬
cious in fcrophula than cold bathing, efpecially fea-
bathing.
350 Genus LXXXV. SIPHYLIS.
Lues Venerea, or French Pox.
Siphylis, Sauv. gen. 3086. Lin. 6. Fog. 319.
Sag. 126.
Lues venerea, Boerh. 1440. Hojffin. III. 413. Junck.
96. AJlruc de Lue Venerea.
Dr Altruc, who Writes a very accurate hiltory of
the lues venerea, is fully convinced that it is a new
difeafe, which never appeared in Europe till fome time
between the years 1494 and 1496, having been im¬
ported from America by the companions of Chrifto-
pher Columbus 5 though this opinion is not without
its opponents. Dr Sanches in particular has contend¬
ed with much learning and ability, that it appeared in
Europe at an earlier period : But it is at lealt certain
that it was altogether unknown to the medical prac¬
titioners of Greece and Rome, and that it was a very
common difeafe in America when the Europeans firft
vifited that country. But at whatever period it may
have been introduced into Europe, or from whatever
fource it may have been obtained, there can be no doubt
that, as well as fmallpox or mealies, fiphylis depends
on a peculiar fpecific contagion ; on a matter /hf generis,
which is alone capable of inducing this difeafe.
The venereal infedlion, however, cannot, like the
contagious miafmata of the fmallpox and fome other
difeafes, be carried through the air, and thus fpread
from place to place : for unlefs it is tranfmitted from
the parents to the children, there is no other way of
hVactice,
contracting the difeafe but from aCtual contact with Siphylis.
the infectious matter. Thus, when a mirfe happens■“■v—<
to. labour under the difeafe, the infant that ffie fuckles
will receive the infeCtion ; as, on the other hand, when
the child is infedted, the nurfe is liable to receive it:
and there have even been inltances known of lying-in
women being infeCted very violently, from having em¬
ployed a perfon to draw their brealts who happened to
have venereal ulcers in the throat. It may be caught
by touching venereal fores, if the cuticle be abraded
or torn : and in this wray accoucheurs and midwives
have fometimes been infeCted feverely. Dr Macbride
fays, the molt inveterate pox he ever faw was caught
by a midwife, wffio happened to have a whitlow on
one of her fingers when ffie delivered a woman ill of
the lues venerea.
But by far the molt ready way of contracting this
difeafe is by coition, the genital parts being much more
bibulous than the reft of the body. When the diforder
is communicated, the places where the morbific matter
enters are generally thofe wffiere it firft makes its ap¬
pearance 5 and as coition is the molt ufual way of con¬
tracting it, fo the firft fymptoms commonly appear on or
near the pudenda.
The patient’s own account will, for the molt part,
help us to diftinguiffi the difeafe : but there are fome¬
times cafes wherein we cannot avail ourfelves of this
information, and where, inftead of confeffing, the par¬
ties ffiall conceal all circumftances ; while, on the
other hand, there are now and then people to be met
with, who perfuade themfelves that fymptoms are ve¬
nereal, which in reality are owing to fome other caufe;:
and therefore it is of the utmoft importance to inform
ourfelves thoroughly of the nature of thofe fymptoms
and appearances which may be confidered as pathog¬
nomic ligns of lues venerea.
In the firft place, when we find that the local
fymptoms, fuch as chancres, buboes, phymofis, and
the like, do not give way to the ufual methods ; or
when thefe complaints, after having been cured, break
out again without a frelli infeCtion ; we may juftly
fufpeCt that the virus has entered the wholb mafs of
fluids : but if at the fame time ulcers break out in the
throat, and the face is deformed by callous tubercles,
covered with a brown or yellow fcab, we may be af-
fured that the cafe is now become a confirmed lues,
which will require a mercurial courfe.
When eruptions of the furfuraceous and fuperficial
kind are venereal, they are not attended with itching 5
and the fcale being picked off, the Ikin appears of a
reddifh brown, or rather copper colour, underneath j
whereas leprous eruptions are itchy, throw off a greater
quantity of feales, and rife in greater blotches, efpe¬
cially about the joints of the knees and elbows. Vene¬
real tubercles or puftules are eafily diftinguilhed from
carbuncles of the face, by not occupying the cheeks or
the nofe, nor as having a purulent apex, but are cover¬
ed at top, either with a dry branny fcurf like the fuper¬
ficial eruptions juft now mentioned, or elfe with a hard
dry fcab of a tawney yellow hue ; they particularly
break out among the hair or near to it, on the forehead
or on the temples.
Venereal ulcers affecting the mouth are diftinguiffi-
able from thofe which are fcorbutic, in the following
manner : 1. Venereal ulcers firft affect the tonfils, fau¬
ces
MEDICINE.
Praflice. MEDICINE.
425
Imperi- ces and uvula ; then the gums, but thefe very rarely :
gines. on t}ie contrary, feorbutic ulcers affeft the gums firft
" T of all; then the fauces, tonhls, and uvula. 2. Vene¬
real ulcers frequently fpread to the nofe •, fcorbutic
ones almoft never. 3. Venereal ulcers arc callous in
the edges j fcorbutic ones are not fo. 4. Venereal
ulcers are circumfcribed, and, for the molt part, are
circular, at lead; they are confined to certain places ;
fcorbutic ones are of a more irregular form, fpread
wider, and frequently affedt the whole mouth. 5. Ve¬
nereal ulcers are for the molt part hollow, and general¬
ly covered at bottom with a white or yellow Hough $
but fcorbutic ones are more apt to grow up into loofe
fungi. 6. Venereal ulcers are red in their circumfe¬
rence, but fcorbutic ones are always livid. 7. Vene¬
real ulcers frequently rot the fubjacent bones, the fcor¬
butic ones feldom or never. 8. And laftly, Venereal
- ulcers are generally combined with other fymptoms
which are known to be venereal; fcorbutic ones with
the diftinguifhing figns of the fcurvy, fueh as difficult
breathing, liitlefihefs, fwelling of the legs, rotten gums,
&c.
Another ftrong fign of the confirmed lues is often af¬
forded from certain deep-feated noflurnal pains, parti¬
cularly of the fhins, arms, and head. As' for any fu-
perficial wandering pains that have no fixed feat, and
which affect the membranes of the mufcles, and liga¬
ments of the joints, they, for the moft part, will be
found to belong to the gout or rheumatifm, and can
never be confidered as venereal, unlefs accompanied
with fome other evident figns ; but with regard to the
pains that are deeply-feated, and always fixed to the
fame place, and which affeff the middle and more folid
part of the ulna, tibia, and bones of the cranium,
and rage chiefly and with greateft violence in the fore¬
part of the night, fo that the patient can get no reft
till morning approaches, thefe may ferve to convince
us that the difeafe has fpread itfelf throughout the
whole habit, whether they be accompanied with other
fymptoms of the lues or not. Gumrnata in the flefhy
parts, nodes in the periofteum, ganglia upon the ten¬
dons, tophi upon the ligaments, exojlofes upon the
bones, and fici at the verge of the anus, are all of them
figns of the confirmed lues : thefe are hard indolent
fwellings but as they fometimes arife independently
of any venereal infeclion, and perhaps may proceed
from a ferophulous taint, unlefs they be accompanied
or have been preceded by fome of the more certain
and evident fymptoms of the lues, we muft be cautious
about pronouncing them venereal. When thefe fwtil¬
ings are not owing to the fiphylitic virus, they are
very feldom painful, or tend to inflame and fuppurate,
whereas thofe that are venereal ufually do, and if they
lie unon a bone generally bring on a caries.
Thefe carious ulcers are moft commonly met with
upon the ulna, tibia, and bones of the cranium •, and
when accompanied with nocturnal pains, we can never
hefitate about declaring their genuine nature. Frequent
abortions, or the exclufion of feabby, ulcerated, half-
rotten, and dead foetufes, happening without any mani-
feft caufe to difturb the fetus before its time, or to de-
ftroy it in the womb, may be reckoned as a fign that
at leaft one of the parents is infedted.
Thefe then are the principal and moft evident figns
of the confirmed lues. There are others which are more
Vol. XIII. Part II.
equivocal, and which, unlefs we can fairly trace them Siphylis.
back to fome that are more certain, cannot be held as
figns of the venereal difeafe : Such are, 1. Obftinate
inflammations of the eyes, frequently returning, with
great heat, itching, and ulceration of the eyelids.
2. A finging and hifling noife in the ears, with ulcers
or caries in the bones of the meatus auditorius. 3. Ob¬
ftinate headachs. 4. Obftinate cutaneous eruptions,
of the itchy or leprous appearance, not yielding to the
milder methods of treatment. 5. Swrellings of the
bones j and, 6. Wandering and obftinate pains. None
of thefe fymptoms, however, can be known to be vene¬
real, except they happen to coincide with fome one or
other of the more certain figns.
It may, perhaps, be confidered as a Angularity in
this difeafe, that the diagnofis is often more difficult
in the advanced tfian in the early periods of the affec¬
tion. That is, with thofe who have been certainly
fubjecled to fiphylis, it is often very difficult to fay
whether certain fymptoms, remaining alter the ordi¬
nary modes of cure have been employed, be fiphylitic
or not. Very frequently, as appears from the fequel,
nofturnal pains, ulcerations, and the like, remaining
after a long courfe of mercury has been employed, are
in no degree of a venereal nature, but are in real in to
be conlidered as confequences rather of the remedy
than of the difeafe ; and are accordingly belt removed
by nourifhing diet, gentle exercife, and tonics. But as
long as any fymptoms of any kind remain, it is often
impoffible to convince fome patients that they are cured ;
and it is often impoffible for a phyfician with certainty
to affirm that the difeafe is altogether overcome.
Upon the whole, we are firft to diftinguifh and con-
fider the feveral fymptoms apart 5 and then, by com¬
paring them with each other, a clear judgment may be
formed upon the general review.
Prognojis. Being thoroughly convinced that the cafe
is venereal, we are to confider, firft of all, whether it
be of a longer or fhorter date j for the more recent it
is, it wilft carter is paribus, be lefs difficult to remove.
But there are other circumftances which will affiit us
in forming a prognoftic as to the event. As,
1. The age of the patient. This diforder is more
dangerous to infants, and old people, than to fuch as
are in the flower and vigour of life, in whom fome
part of the virus may be expelled by exercife, or may
be fubdued in fome degree by the ftrengih of the con-
ftitution.
2. The fex. Though women are for the moft part
weaker than men, and therefore ftiould feern lefs able
to refill the force of any difeafe, yet experience Ihows
that this is eafier borne by them than by men 5 per¬
haps owing to the menftrual and other uterine dif-
charges, by which a good portion of the virus may be
carried off immediately from the parts •where it was
firft applied 5 for it is obfervable, that whenever thefe
difeharges are obftrufled, or ceafe by the ordinary
courfe of nature, all the fymptoms of this difeafe grow
worfe.
3. The habit of body. Perfons who have acrid
juices will be liable to fuffer more from the venereal
poifon than fuch as have their blood in a milder ft ate *,
hence, when people of a fcorbutic or fcrophulous ha¬
bit contract venereal diforders, the fymptoms are ^al-
W'ays remarkably violent, and difficult to cure. And
3 H for
426 M E D I
^"ines'" ^3e reaGinSj the confirmed lues is much more
> ^ dreaded in a perfon already inclined to an a ft h in a,
phthifis, dropiy, gout, or any other chronic diftem-
per, than in one of a found and healthy conftitution.
dor as the original difeafe is increafed by the accef-
fiorr of the venereal poiion, fo the lues is aggravated
by being joined to an old diforder. The more nume¬
rous the iymptoms, and the more they a fleet the bones,
the more difficult the cure. Of all combinations the
union of fiphyiis with ferophula is perhaps the moft
difficult to overcome : but if the acrimony ihould feize
on the nobler internal parts, fuch as the brain, the lungs
or the liver, then the dileafe becomes incurable, and the
patient will either go off luddenly in an apoplectic fit,
or fink under a confumption.
Lure. Vjewing this difeafe as depending on a pe¬
culiar contagious matter introduced into the fyftem,
and multiplied there, it is poflible to conceive that a
cure may be obtained on one of three principles ; ei¬
ther by the evacuation of the matter from the fyftem,
by the deftruftion of its adtivity, or by counterafting
its influence in the fyftem. It is not impoflible that
articles exift in nature capable of removing this com¬
plaint on each of thefe grounds : but we may ven¬
ture at leaft to affert, that few fuch are yet difeover-
«d. Notwithftanding numbers of pretended infalli¬
ble remedies for fiphyiis, mercury is perhaps the only
article on which dependence is placed among European
practitioners •, and with regard to its mode of opera¬
tion, ail the three different, opinions pointed out have
been adopted and fupported by different theorifts.—
But although many ingenious arguments have been
employed in fupport of each, we are, upon the whole,
inclined to think it more probable that mercury operates
by deftroying the aftivity of the venereal virus, than
that it has effedl either by evacuating it, or by ex¬
citing a ftate of, aftion by which its influence is coun-
teradted. Some pradlitioners have affirmed, that the
difeafe may be totally extirpated without the ufe of
mercury ; but, excepting in flight cafes, it appears from
the moft accurate obfervations, that this grand fpeci-
fic is indifpenfable j whether it be introduced through
the pores of the fkin, in the form of ointments, plaf-
ters, wafhes, &e. j or given by „the mouth, difguifed
in the different fliapes of pills, troches, powders, or fe’
lutions.
Formerly it was held as a rule, that a falivation
ought to be railed, and a great difeharge excited. But
this is now found to be unneceflary : for as mercury
probably acls by fome fpecifie power in fubduing and
correfting the venereal virus, all that is required is ta
throw in a fufficient quantity of the medicine for this
purpofe 5 and if it can be diverted from the falivary
glands fo much the better, fince the inconveniences
attending a fpitting are fuch as we fhauld always wifh
to avoid.
Mercury, when combined with any faline fubftance,
has. its activity prodigionfly increafed ; hence the great
variety of chemical preparations which have been con¬
trived to unite it ivith different acids..
Corrofive fublimate, or the murias hydrargyri corro-
fivus,. is one of the moft aftive of all the mercurial pre¬
parations, infomuch as to become a poifon even in very
fmall doles. It therefore cannot fafely be given in fub¬
ftance } but mull be diffolved in order to render it ca-
CINE. _ Practice.
pable of. a more minute divifion. We may fee, by Siphylis.
looking into Wifeman, that this is an old "medicine,v-w
though feldom given by regular praditioners.. How k
came to be introduced into fo remote a part of the world
as Siberia, is not eaftly found out *, but Dr Clerc, au¬
thor of the Mijlsire Natut eile de l'Homme Malade, affures
us, that the fublimate fblution has been in ufe there time
out of mind.
It appears to have been totally forgotten in other
places, until of late years, when Baron Van Swieten
brought it into vogue; fo that at one period, if we may
credit Dr Locker, they uled no other mercurial prepa¬
ration at Vienna. The number of patients cured by
this remedy alone in the hofpital of St Mark, which is
under the care of this gentleman, from 1734 to 1761
inelufive, being 4880.
The method of preparing the folution is, to diffolve
as much fublimate in any kind of ardent fpirit (at Vien¬
na they ufe only corn brandy) as will give half a grain
to an ounce of folution. The dofe to a grown per¬
fon is one fpoonful mixed with a pint of any light pti-
fan or barley water, and this is to be taken morning
and evening : the patients Ihould keep principally in a
■warm chamber, and lie in bed to fweat after taking the
medicine 5 their diet fliould be light j and they uughi
to drink plentifully throughout the day, of whey, pti-
fan, or barley water. If the folution does not keep
the belly open, a mild purge muft be given from time
to time; for Locker obferves, that thofe whom it
purges two or three times a-day-, get well fooner than
thofe whom it does not purge : Ire alfo fays, that it
very feldom affecls the mouth, but that it promotes
the urinary and cutaneous difeharges. This courfe is
not only to b© continued till all the fymptoms dif-
appear, but for fome weeks longer. The ftiorteft time
in which Locker ufed to let the patients out was fije
weeks; and they were continued on a courfe of decoc¬
tion of the woods for fome weeks after they left off the
folution.
This method has been introduced both in Britain
and Ireland, though by no means to the exclufion of!
others ; but it appears, that the folution does not turn
out fo infallible a remedy, either in thefe kingdoms, or
in France, as they fay it has done in Germany. It was
feldom if ever found to perform a radical cure, and the
frequent ufe of it proved in many cafes highly prejudi¬
cial. It has therefore been fucceeded in praHiee, even
at Vienna, by mercury exhibited in other forms ; andj
among thefer by a remedy firft recommended by Dr -
Plenck, and fmee improved by Dr Saunders j con-
fifting of mercury united with mucilage of gum arabic,
which is faid to render its exhibition perfedlly mild
and fafe. For particulars, we refer to Dr Saunders’s
treatife.
But a late French writer, foppofed tube Dr Petit,,
in a fmall book, entitled, A parallel of the different
methods of treating the venereal difeafe, infifts, that there
is neither certainty nor fafety in any other method than,
the repeated fridlions with mercurial ointment.
If, therefore, it is determined to have recourfe to
the mercurial fri&ions, the patient may with advan¬
tage be prepared by going into the warm bath feme
days fucceffively ; having been previoufly blooded if o£
a plethoric habit, and taking a dofe or two of fome
proper cathartic*
Th«
pradice. MED!
The patient being fitted with the neceffary apparatus
of Hannels, is then to enter on the courfe.
If he be of a robuft habit and in the prime of life,
we may begin with two drams of the unguentum hy-
■flrargyri fortius, (Ph. Lond.) which is to be rubbed
in about the ankles by an afiiftant whofe hands are
Covered with bladders : then having intermitted a day,
we may expend two drams more of the ointment, and
reft for two days j after which, if no forenefs of the
mouth comes on, ufe only one dtam ; and at every
fubfequent fridtion afc'end till the ointment iliall reach
the trunk of the body •, after which the rubbings are
to be begun at the tvrffts, and from thence gradually
■extended to the fhoulders. In order to prevent the
'mercury from laying too much hold of the mouth, it
tnuft be diverted to the (kin, by keeping the patient
in a conftant perfpiratioh from the warmth of the room,
•and by drinking plentifully of barley-water, whey, or
ptifan ; but if, neverthelefs, the mercury ftiould tend
-to raife a fpitting, then, from time to time, we are
either to give fume genlle cathartic, or order the pa¬
tient into a vapour or warm bath ; and thus we are
to go on, rubbing in a dram of the ointment every fe-
•cond, third, & fourth night, according as it may be
•found to ope fate ) and on the intermediate days either
purging dr bathing, unlefs we ftiould choofe to let the
Salivation come on ; which, however, it is much bet¬
ter to avoid, as we fliall thus be able to throw in a
larger quantity of mercury.
It is impoffible to afeertain the quantity of mercury
that may be neceffary to be rubbed in, as this will va¬
ry according to circumftanees : but we are always to
continue the fridtions, for a fortnight at leaft, after all
fymptoms of the difeafe fliall have totally difappeared j
and when we have done with the mercury, warm bath¬
ing, and fudoriiie decoftions of the -woods, are to be
continued for fome time longer.
This is a general fketch of the methods of treatment
for the confirmed lues j but for a complete hiftory of
the difeafe, and for ample diredfions in every fituation,
we refer to Aftruc, and his abridger Dr Chapman.—
We have to add, however, that a method of curing
this difeafe by mercurial fumigation has been lately re-
eommended in France, but it. feems not to meet with
great encouragement. One of the moft recent propofals
for the cure of the venereal difeafe is that of Mr Clare,
and conflfts in rubbing a fmall quantity of mercury
under the form of the fubmurias hydrargyri, or calomel
as it is commonly called, on the infide of the cheek ;
hy which means it has been fuppofed that we will not
onlv avoid the ineonveniences of undfion, but alfo the
purgative effedts that are often produced by this medi¬
cine when taken into the ftomaeh. -But after all, the
introdudfion of mercury under the form of undfion, as
recommended by the lateft. and befi. writers in Britain
on the venereal difeafe, Dr Swediaur, Mr John Hunter,
and others, is ftill very generally preferred to any mode
that has yet been propofed.
Where, after a long trial of mercury, diftreflxng
fymptoms ftill remain, particularly obftinate ulcera¬
tions and fevere pains, benefit has often been derived
from the ufe of opium : but there is little reafon to
believe, as has been held by fome, that, of rtfelf it af¬
fords an infallible cure of-this difeafe ; at leaft we are
CINE.
inclined to think, that all the facts hitherto brought in
fupport of the cure of fiphylis by opium arc at the ut-
moft very doubtful.
The fume obfervation may perhaps be made with re¬
gal'd to another remedy which has of late been highly
extolled in fiphylis, viz. the nitric acid. This article
Teems to have been firft introduced both againft aftec-
tions of the liver and venereal complaints by Dr Scott
of Bombay. It has fince been highly extolled by Dr
Beddoes and other writers in Britain. And there are
many well authenticated cafes on record in which it has
produced a cure. But it is very rarely preferable to
mercury 5 and it is chiefly ufeful when, from fome pecu¬
liarity of conftitution, mercury cannot be exhibited.
In obftinate ulcerations, remaining probably after tire
venereal virus has been overcome, and refilling the ufe
of mercury, a complete cure has in many inftances been
obtained from the ufe of tire root of the mezereon, the
daphne mezereum of Linnaeus. This article has been
chiefly employed under the form of decoction 5 and it
now appears that it is the bafis of an article at one time
highly celebrated in venereal complaints, under the
title of Lijbon diet drink. But, upon the whole, thefe
fequeke of this difeafe are perhaps more readily over¬
come by country air, gentle exercife, and nourifiling
diet, particularly a milk diet, than by the ufe of anjr
medicinc whatever. It muft indeed be allowed, that
for combating different fequelae, various practices ac¬
commodated to the nature of thefe will on particular
occafions be requifite. But into the confideration of
thefe we cannot here propofe to enter.
427
Scorbutus.
Genus LXXXVI. SCORBUTUS. >35-*
SCURVT.
Scorbutus, Sauv. gen. 391. Lin. 223. Vog. 318.
Sag. 127. Boerh. 1148. Hojfftn. III. 369. Lunch.
91. Lind on the Scurvy. Hulme de Scorbuto..
Rouppe de Morbis Navigantium*
Defcription. The firfl indication of the fcorbutic dia-
thefis is generally a change of colour in the face, from
the natural and healthy look to a pale and bloated com¬
plexion, with a liftleflhefs, and averfion from every fort
of exercife 5 the gums foon after become itchy, fwell,
and are apt to bleed on the flighteft touch ; the breath
grows oftenfive j and the gums, fu elling daily more-
and more, turn livid, and at length become extremely
fungous and putrid, as being continually in contact with
the external air ; which in every cafe favours the putre-
faftion of fubftaiices difpofed to run into that ftate, and
is indeed in fome refpefts abfolutely requifite for the
production of actual putridity.
The fymptoms of the feurvy, like tlrofe of every
other difeafe, are fomewhat different in different fub-
jeCts, according to the various circumftances of confli-
tution ; and they do not always proceed in the fame
regular courfe in every patient. But w hat is verv re¬
markable in this difeafe, notwithftanding the various
and itnmenfe load of diftrefs under which the patients
labour, there is no ficknefs at the ftomaeh, the appe¬
tite keeps up, and the fenfes remain entire almofl to
the verv laft : when lying at reft, fcorbutie patients
make no complaints, and feel little diftrefs or pain j but
3 H 2 tire
42B M E D I
t1lC 11101116111 tlie3r attempt to rife or ftlr themfelves, then
tlle breathing becomes difficult, with a kind of ftraitnefs
m catching, and great oppreffion, and fometimes they
iiave been known to fall into a lyncope. This catch-
ing of the breath upon motion, with thelofs of ftrength,
dejection of fpirit, and rotten gums, are held as the ef-
iential or diltinguiffiing fymptoms of the difeafe 'J'he
Ikin is generally dry, except in the very laft ftage,
when the patients become exceedingly fubjedt to faint-
ings, and then it grows clammy and moift : in fome
it has an anferine appearance : but much oftener it is
fmooth and ffiining 5 and, when examined, is found
to be fpread over with fpots, not riling above the fur-
face, of a reddiffi, bluiili, livid or purple colour, with
a fort of yellow rim round them. At firft thefe fpots
are for the molt part fmall, but in time they increafe
to large blotches. I he legs and thighs are the places
woere they are principally feen : more rarely on the
head^ and face. Many have a fwelling of the legs,
which is harder, and retains the impreffion of the fin¬
ger longer than the common droplical or truly oede-
matous {'veilings. 1 he flighted: wounds and bruifes,
in feorbutic habits, degenerate into foul and unto¬
ward ulcers ; and the appearance of thefe ulcers is
fo Angular and uniform, that they are ealily diitin-
guilhed from all others. Scorbutic ulcers afford no
good digeftion, but give out a thin and fetid ichor
mixed with blood, which at length has the appear¬
ance of coagulated gore lying caked on the furface
of the fore, not to be feparated or wiped off without
fome difficulty. I he fleih underneath thefe doughs
feel1- to the probe foft and fpongy, and is very putrid.
Neither detergents nor efcharotics are here of any
fervice j for though fuch doughs be with great pains
taken away, they are found again at the next dreffing,
where the fame fanguineous putrid appearance always
presents itfelf. I heir edges are generally of a livid co
lour, and puffed up with excrefcences of proud ttefli ari-
fing from below the fkin. As the violence of the dif-
eale increafes, the ulcers diout out a foft bloody fungus,
which often nfes in a night’s time to a monftrous flze 5
and although deflroyed by cauteries, aflual or potential,
or cut away with the knife, is found at next drefling as
large as ever. It is a connderable time, however, be¬
fore thefe ulcers, bad as they are, come to affeA the
bones with rottennefs. 1 hefe appearances will always
ferve to affure us that an ulcer is feorbutic •, and fliould
put us on our guard with refpedl to the giving mer¬
curials, which are very generally pernicious in thefe
cafes.
Scorbutic people, as the difeafe advances, are feldom
free from pains • though they have not the fame feat
in all, and often in the fame perfon fliift their place.
Some complain of univerfal pain in all their bones •, but
mod violent in the limbs, and efpecially the ioints: the
mod frequent feat of their pain, however, is fome part
of the bread. 1 he pains of this difeafe feem to arife
from the diliraftion of the fendble Abres bv the extrava-
fated nlood being forced into the interftices of the peri-
odeum and of the tendinous and ligamentous parts j
whofe texture being fo Arm, the Abres are liable to higher
degrees of tenAon, and confequently of pain.
1 he dates of the bowels are various : in fome there
is an obdir.ate coflivenefs ; in others a tendency to a
Jfax, with extremely fetid ftools: the urine is alfo rank
4
C 1 N E- • Practice.
and fet,d generally Ugh coloured; and, when it l,as Scorb™,
itood tor tome hours, throws up an oily fcun, on the fur. 1 v—3
lace. 1 he pulfe is variable ; but molt commonly dower
and more feeble than in the time of perfedt health. A
itiftneis in the tendons, and weaknefs in the pAnts of
the knees, appear early in the difeafe : but as ho rows
more inveterate, the patients generally lofe the life of
their limbs altogether j having a contraction of the flexor
tendons m the ham, with a iwelling and pain in the
joint of the knee. Some have their legs monflroufly
iwelled, and covered over, with livid fpots or ecchy-
mdes ; others have had tumours there ; fome, though
without fwelling, have the calves of the legs and the
fleih of the thighs quite indurated. As perfons far gone
in the fcurvy are apt to faint, and even expire, on be-
mg moved and brought out into the frefh air, the ut-
moff care and_ circumfpedfi< n are requiflte when it is
neceflary to ftir or remove them.
Scorbutic patients are at all times, but more efneci-
aily as the difeafe advances, extremely fubied to pioT
fule bleedings from different parts of the body ; as fn m
the nofe, gums, inteflines, lungs, &c. and likewife
from their ulcers, which generally bleed plentifully if
the fungus be cut away. It is not eafy to conceive a
more difmal and diverflfied fcene of mifery than what is
beheld in the third and lad ftage of this diftempt r • it
being then that the anomalous and more extraordinary
fymptoms appear, fuch as the burfting out of old wounds
and the diffolution of old fradures that have been Ion J
united. 5
Cau/es. The term fcurvy has been indiferiminately
applied, even by phyficians, to almoft all the different
kinds of cutaneous foulnefs ; owing to fome writers of
the laft century, who comprehended fuch a variety of
fymptoms under this denomination, that there are few
chronic difteropers which may not be fo called, accord-
ing to their fcheme : but the difeafe here meant is the
true putrid fcurvy, fo often fatal to feamen, that with
many it has got the name of fea-feurvy, though it be a
difeafe frequently occurring on ffiore, as was experien¬
ced by the Britifh garrifons of Bofton, Minorca, and
many other places. Indeed no difeafe is perhaps more
frequent or more deftrudive to people pent up in gar-
rifons without fufficient fupplies of found animal food
and frefh vegetables. It is fometimes known to be en¬
demic in certain countries, where the nature of the
foil, the general ftate of the atmofphere, and the com¬
mon courfe of diet, all combine in producing that An¬
gular fpeeies of corruption in the mafs of blood which
conftitutes the fcorbutic diatheAs; for the appearances
on diffeding feorbutic fubjeds, fufficiently ffiow that
the feuryy may, with great propriety, be termed a dif¬
eafe of the blood.
. Dr L5.nd has> in a poftfeript to the third edition of
his treatife on the fcurvy, given the refult of his
observations drawn from the diffedion of a confider- '
able number of vidims to this fatal malady ; from which
it appears that the true fcorbutic ftate, in an advanced
ftage of the diftemper, confifts in numerous effufions
of blood into the cellular interftices of moft parts of
the body, fupei Acial as well as internal 5 particularly
the gums and the legs; the texture of the former
being almoft entirely cellular, and the generally de¬
pendent ftate of the latter rendering thefe parts, of
all others in the whole body, the moft apt to receive
and
pratfice. M EDI
jmpeti- and retain tiie flagnant blood, when its crafts comes to
fines, be deftroyed 5 and when it lofes that glutinous quality
which, during health, hinders it from efcaping through
the pores in the coats of the blood-veffcls or through ex-
balant extremities.
A droplical indifpofition, efpecially in the legs and
breaft, was frequently, but not always, obferved in the
fuojefts that were opened, and the pericardium was
fometimes found diitended with water : the water thus
colledled was often fo Ihaxp as to fnrivel the hands of
the dideftor j and in fome inifances, where the Ikin
happened to be broken, it irritated and feftered the
wound.
The flediy fibres were found fo extremely lax and
tender, and the bellies of the mufcles in the legs and
thighs fo fluffed with the effufed ftagnating blood,
that it was always difficult, and fometimes impoffible,
to raife or feparate one mufcle from another. He fays
that the quantity of this effafed blood was amazing ;
in fome bodies it feemed that almoff a fourth part of
the whole raafs had efcaped from the veffels •, and it
often lay in large concretions on the periofteum, and
in fome few inftances under this membrane immediate¬
ly on the bone. Notwith landing this diffolved and
depraved ftate of the external flethy parts, the brain
always appeared perfeftly found, and the vifeera of the
abdomen, as well as thofe in the thorax, were in
general found quite uncorrupted. There were fpots
indeed, from extravafated blood, obferved on the mefen-
tery, inteftines, ftomach, and omentum ; but thefe fpots
were firm, and free from any mortified taint j and, more
than once, an effufion of blood, as large as a hand’s-
breadth, has been feen on the furface of the ftomach j
and what was remarkable, that very fubjecl was not
known while living to have made any complaint of
ficknefs, pain, or other diforder, in either ftomach or
bowels.
Thefe circumftances and appearances, with many
others that are not here enumerated, all prove to a de-
monftration a putrefeent, or at leaft a highly depraved
ftate of the blood : and yet Dr Lind takes no fmall
pains to combat the idea of the feurvy’s proceeding
from animal putrefaction *, a notion which, according
to him, “ may, and hath milled phyfieians to pro-
pofe and adminifter remedies for it altogether inefftc-
tual.”
He alfo, in the preface to his third edition, talks of
the mifehief done by an attachment to delufive theo¬
ries. He fays, “ it is not probable that a remedy for
the feurvy will ever be difeovered from a preconceived
hypothefis, or by fpeculative men in the clofet, who have
never feen the difeafe, or who have feen at moft only a
few cafes of itand adds, “ that though a few partial
faffs and obfervations may, for a little, flatter with hopes
of greater fuccefs, yet more enlarged experience muft
ever evince the fallacy of all pofttive affertions in the
healing art.”
Sir John Pringle, however, is of a verv different
opinion. He “ is perfuaded, after long refleftion, and
the opportunities he ha-> had of converting with thofe
who to much fagacity had joined no fmall experience
in nautical praffice, that upon an examination of the
feveral articles which have either been of old approved,
or have of late been introduced into the navy, it will
appear, that though thefe means may vary in form
CINE.
and in mode of operating, yet they all fome way con¬
tribute towards preventing putrefaction ; whether of
the air in the clofer parts of a (hip, of the meats, of
the water, of the clothes and bedding, or of the body
itfelf”
What Dr Lind has above advanced is the more re¬
markable, as, in die two former editions of his book,
he embraced the hypothefis of animal putrefaction be¬
ing the caufe of the feurvy •, and if thele effufions of
blood, from a deftru&ion of its crafis and the diffolved
ftate of the mufcular fibres, together with the rotten
condition of the mouth and gums, do not betray pu-
trefcency, it is hard to fay what does, or what other
name we fnall bellow on this peculiar fpecies of depra¬
vation which conftitutes the feurvy.
The blood, no doubt, derives its healthy properties,
and maintains them, trom the due fupplies of wholefome
food ; while the infoluble, fuperfluous, effete, and acrid
parts, are carried off by the feveral difeharges of ftool,
urine, and perfpiration.
Our fenfes of tafte and fmell are fufficient to inform
us when our food is in a date of foundnefs and fweet-
nefs, and confequently wholefome j but it is from che-
miftry that we mull learn the principles on w hich thefe
qualities chiefly depend
Experiments of various kinds have proved, that the
foundnefs of animal and vegetable fubftances depends
very much, if not entirely, on the preienee of their
aerial principle. Rottennefs is never obferved to take
place without an emiffion of fixed air from the putrefy¬
ing fubftance : and even when putrefaction has made a
confiderable progrefs, if aerial acid can be transferred,
in fufficient quantity, from fome other fubftance in a
flate of effervefcence or fermentation, into the putrid
body, the offenfive fmell of this will be deftroyed. If
it be a bit of rotten flefli Avith which the experiment is
made, the firmnefs of its fibres will be found in fome
meafure reftored.
'Hie experiments of Dr Hales, as Avell as many
others made fince his time, IIioav that an aerial prin¬
ciple is greatly connected Avith, and remarkably abun¬
dant in, the gelatinous parts of animal bodies, and in
the mucilage or farina of vegetables. But thele are
the parts of our food Avhich are moft particularly nu¬
tritive •, and Dr Cullen, whofe opinion on this as on
every other medical fubjeCl muft be alloAved of the
greatesl Aveight, affirms, in his LeCfures on the Mate¬
ria Medica, that the fubftances on Avhich wc feed are
nutritious only in proportion to the quantities of oil
and fugar which they refpeCtively contain. This oil
and fugar are blended together in the gelatinous part
of our animal food, and in the mucilaginous and fari¬
naceous part of efeulent vegetables and, while thus
intimately combined, are not perceivable by our tafte,
though very capable of being developed and rendered
diftinfl by the poAver of the digeftive organs •, for in
confequcnce of the changes produced during digeftion,
the oily and the faccharine matter become manifeft to
our fenfes, as we may fee and tafte in the milk of
animals, Avhich is chiefly chyle a little advanced in its
progrefs toAvard fanguification ; the oil is obferved to
feparate fpontaneoufly, and from Avhich a quantity of
afiudl fugar may be obtained by a very Ample pro-
cefs.
Thus much being premifed, we can hoav readily
comprehend
Scorbutu*.
■ y—#
MEDICINE.
comprehend how tile blood may come to lofe thofe
qualities of fmoothnefs, tnildnefs, and tenacity which
are natural to it. For if, in the firll place, the fluids,
and organs fubfervient to digellion, fliouid be fo far
tihlempered or debilitated that tiie nutritious parts of
the food cannot be properly developed, the blood mull
be defrauded of its due fupplres; which will alfo be the
cafe it the aliment fhould not originally contain enough
of oily and faccharine matter, or fhould be fo circum-
ftanced, from being dried or falted, as to hinder the
ready cxtricatidli of the nutritious parts 5 or, laftly, if
the natural difeharges fhould be interrupted or fufpend-
ed, fo that the fuperfluous, acrid, and effete fluids are re¬
tained in the general mafs ; in all thefe inflances the
blood muff of neceffity run into proportionate degrees of
depravation.
And hence we may underhand how it may poflibly
happen, that when perfons are greatly weakened by
fame preceding diforder, and at the fame time debarred
the ufe of proper bodily exereife, the feorbutic diathefis
fhould take place, even though they enjoy the advan¬
tages of pure air and wholefome diet. But thefe are
folitary cafes, and very rarely feen ; for whenever the
feurvy feizes numbers, and can be eonfidered as an epi¬
demic difeafe, it will be found to depend on a combina¬
tion of the major part, or perhaps all, of the following
cireumffances :
x. A moift atmofphere, and more efpecially if cold
be joined to this moifture. 2. Too long ceflation
from bodily exercife, whether it be from conflraint,
or a lazy flothful difpoTition. 3. Dejedlion of mind.
4. Negledf of cleanlinefs, and want of fufheient cloth¬
ing. 5. Want of wholefome drink, either of pure wa¬
ter or fermented liquors. And, 6. Above all, the being
obliged to live continually on falted meats, perhaps not
well cured, without a due proportion of the vegetables
Sufficient to correff the pernicious tendency of the fait,
by fupplying the bland oil and faccharine matter requi-
fite for the purpofes of nutrition.
Thefe general 'principles refpecling the caufes and
nature -of feurvy, feem to affiord a better explanation
of the phenomena of the difeafe than any conjectures
cefpedHng it that have hitherto been propofed. It
muft, however, be allowed, that Dr Lind is by no
means the only writer who is difpofed to conlider this
difeafe as not referable to the condition of the circu¬
lating fluids. In a late ingenious treatife on this fab-
jeft by Sir F. Milman, he if renuoufly contends, that the
primary morbid affection in this complaint is a debili¬
tated {fate of the folids arifing principally from rvant
of aliment. But his arguments on this fubject, as well
as thofe of Dr Lind, are very ably anfwered by a ffiill
later writer on this fubject. Dr Trotter, who has drawn
Ms oblervations refpecting it from very extenfive expe¬
rience, and who confiders it as clearly eflablifhed, by
incontrovertible facts, that the proximate caufe of
fcarvv depends on fome peculiar ftate of the blood.—
That this difeafe docs not depend on a debilitated ftate
of the folids, is demenftratively proved from numerous
cafes where every poflible degree of debility occurs in
the folids without the flighted: appearance of feurvy.
Dr Trotter, in the feeond edition of his Obfervations
on the Scurvy, from the refult of farther obfervation
and later difeoveries in chemiftry, has attempted, with
much ingenuity, to prove that the morbid condition
Pradice
of the blood, which takes place in feurvy, arifes from Scorbutus.
t!ie abftradlion of vital air, or, as it is now generally
called, oxygene; and this opinion, though ftill, per¬
haps, in fome particulars requiring farther confirmation-,
is, it muft. be allowed, fupported by many piauiible ar¬
guments.
Prevention and Cure. The feurvy may be prevent¬
ed, by obviating and correcting thofe circumftances
in refpect of the non-naturals which were mentioned as
contributing to the difeafe, and laid down as caulcs.
It is, therefore, a duty highly incumbent on officers
commanding at fea, or in garrifons, to ufe every pof-
fible precaution; and, in the firlt place, to correct the
coldnefs and moifture of the atmofphere by fufficient
fires : in the next, to fee that their men be lodged in
dry, clean, and well ventilated births or apartments:
thirdly, to promote cheerfulnefs, and enjoin frequent
exercife, which alone is of infinite ufe in preventing
the feurvy : fourthly, to take care that the clothing
be proper, and cleanlinefs of perfon ftri&ly obferved :
fifthly, to fupply them with wholefome drink, either
pure water or found fermented liquors ; and if fpirits
be allowed, to have them properly diluted with wa¬
ter and fweetened with melaffes or coarfe fugar : and
laftly, to order the falted meats to be fparingly uied,
or fometimes entirely abftained from 5 and in their
place, let the people live on difterent compofitions of
the dried vegetables ; frefli meat and recent vegetables
being introduced as often as they can poffibly be pro¬
cured.
A clofe attention to thefe matters will, in general,
prevent the feurvy from making its appearance at all,
and will ahvays hinder it from fpreading its influence
far. But when thefe precautions have been neglefred,
or the circumftances fuoh that they cannot be put in
practice, and the difeafe has acftually taken place,
our w'hole endeavour muft be to reftore the blood to
its original ftate of foundnefs : and happily, fuch is
the nature of this difeafe, that if a fufficiency of
nexv matter, of the truly mild nutritious fort, and par¬
ticularly fuch as abounds wdth vital air, fuch as re¬
cent vegetables, or different acid fruits, can be thrown
into the circulation w'hile the ftefliy fibres retain
any tolerable degree of firnmeft, the patient will re¬
cover ; and that in a furprifingly fhort fpace of time,
provided a pure air, comfortable lodgings, fuffeient
clothing, cleanlinefs, and exercife, lend their necef-
fary aid.
This being the cafe, the plan of treatment is to be
conduced almoft entirely in the dietetic way ; as the
change in the mafs of blood, which it is neceffary to
produce, muft be brought about by tilings that can be
received into the ftomach by pints or pounds, and not
by thofe which are adminiftered in drops or grains,
drams or ounces. For here, as there is m uiiorder
of the nervous fyftem, we have no need of thofe
aftive drugs which are indifpenfably neceffarv in fe¬
brile or nervous difeafes ; the Icorbutic dialhcfis be¬
ing quite oppofite to that which tends to produce
a fever or any fpecies of fpafmodic diiorders ; nay,
Dr Lind fays, he has repeatedly found, that even the
infection of an hofpital fever is long refilled by a fccr-
btitic habit.
It will now naturally occur to the reader, what
thofe alimentary fubftance^ muft be which bid the
fair eft
practice. M E D I
Impeti- fairefl to rcftore the blood to its healthy ftate ; and he
gines. needs fcarcely to be told, that they are of thofe kinds
'■“"’’V'""”’ which the ftomach can bear with plcafure though ta¬
ken in large quantities, which abound in jelly or mu¬
cilage, and which allow thofe nutritious parts to be
cafdy developed 5 for though the vifcera in fcorbutic
patients may be all perfectly found, yet wTe cannot ex-
peet that either the digeftive fluids or organs fliould
pofftfs the fame degrees of power, which enable them,
during health, to convert the crude dry farinacea, and
the hard falted flefli of animals, into nourilhment. We
mult therefore fearch for the antifcorbutic virtue in the
tender fweet flcth of herbivorous animals •, in new
milk } and in the mucilaginous acid juices of re¬
cent vegetables, whether they be fruits, leaves, or
roots.
The four juices of lemons, oranges, and limes, have
been generally held as antifcorbutics in an eminent de¬
gree, and their power aferibed to their acid *, from an
idea that acids of ab kinds are the only correftors of
putrefaction. But the general current of praCtical
obfervations fhovvs, and our experiments confirm it,
that the virtue of thefe juices depends on their aerial
‘principle i accordingly, while perfectly recent and in
the mucilaginous flate, and efpeciaily if mixed with
wine and lugar, the juices of any one of thefe fruits
will be found a mold grateful and porverful antifcor¬
butic.
Dr Lind obferving, “ that the lemon juice, when
given by itfelf undiluted, was apt, efpeciaily if over-
dofed, to have too violent an operation, by occafion-
ing pain and ficknefs at the ftomach, and fometimes a
vomiting *, found it neceffary to add to it wine and fu-
gar. A pint of Madeira wine, and two ounces of fu-
gar, were put to four ounces and a half of juice, and
this quantity was found fufticient for weak patients to
ufe in 24 hours: fuch as were very weak tipped a little
of this frequently according as their ftrength would
permit •, others who were ftronger took about two oun¬
ces of it every two hours j and when the patients grew
ftill ftronger, they were allowed eight ounces of lemon
juice in 24 hours.”
While this very pleafant mixture, which is both a
cordial and an antifeptic, may be had, it would be
needlefs to think of preferibing anv other *, but when
the frefh juice cannot be procured, we muft have re-
courfe to fuch other things as may be obtained. But
the various modes of combining and adminifteririg
thefe, fo as to render them perfectly agreeable to the
ftomach, muft always be regulated by circumftances,
and therefore it will be in vain to lay down parti¬
cular directions 5 fince all that we have to do is, to fix
on fuch fruits and other frefh vegetables as can be molt
conveniently had and taken, and contrive to give them
in thofe forms, either alone or boiled up with flefti meat
into foups, which will allow the patients to confume
the greateft quantities.
The firft promifing alteration from fuel) a courfe is
ufually a gentle diarrhoea; and if, in a few days, the
fkin becomes foft and moift, it is an infallible fign of
recovery; efpeeiallv if the patient gain ftrenglh, and
can bear being ftirred or carried into the open air with¬
out fainting.
But if the belly fhould not be loofened by the ufe of
the frefh vegetables, nor the ikin become foft and moift,
CINE. 451
then they muft be afllfted by ftewed prunes, or a decoc- Scorbutus,
tion of tamarinds with fupertartrite of potafh, in order * ^
to abate the coftivenefs ; and by drinking a little decoc¬
tion of the woods, and warm bathing, in order to relax
the pores of the fkin ; for nothing contributes more to
the recovery of feorbutic patients than moderate f\veat-
in?.
O
With regard to particular fymptoms, antifeptic
mouth waters, compofed of a decodtion of cinchona and
infufion of rofes, with a folution of myrrh, muft be ufed
occafionally, in order to cleanfe the mouth, and give
firmnefs to the fpongy gums. Swelled and indurated
limbs, and fliftened joints, muft be bathed with warm
vinegar, and relaxed by the fleam of warm water,
repeatedly conveyed to them, and confined to the parts
by means of clofe blankets: ulcers on the legs muft
never be treated with unftuous applications nor fharp
efcharotics ; but the drefling fliould confift of lint or foft
rags, dipt in a ftrong decodtion of cinchona.
This difeafe at no time requires, or indeed bears,
large evacuations, eitker by bleeding or purging ; and
as has been already mentioned, the belly muft only be
kept open by the frefli vegetables or the mildeft laxatives.
But we are always to be careful that fcorbutic perlons,
after a long abftinence from greens and fruits, be not
permitted to eat voracioufly at firft, left they fall into a.
fatal dyfentery. ,
All, however, that has now been laid down as ne-
ceflary towards the cure, fuppofes the patients to be
in fituations where they can be plentifully furnifned
with all the requifites ; but unhappily thefe things are
not to be procured at fea, and often deficient in gar-
rifons : in order therefore, that a remedy for the feur-
vy might never be wanting, Dr Macbride, in the year
1762, firft conceived the notion, that the infu/ion of
malt, commonly called wort, might be fubftituted
for the common antifcorbutics; and it was accordingly
tried.
More than three years, elapfed before any account
arrived of the experiments having been made : at
length, ten hiftorfes of cafes were received, wherein
the wort had been tried', with very remarkable luccefs;
and this being judged a matter of great importance to
the feafaring part of mankind, thefe were immediate¬
ly communicated to the public in a pamphlet, under
the title of An hijiorical account of a new. method of
treating the feurvu at fea..
This was in 1767; but after that time a confider-
able number of. letters and medical journals, fuffieient
ta-make up a linall volume, were tranfrnitted to Dr
Macbride, particularly by the furgeons of h:s rrajefty’s
fhips who had been employed of late years for mak¬
ing difeaveries in the fbuthern, h'emifphere. Ceitain
it is, that in many inftances it has fucceeded beyond
expectation In others it has fallen ftiort: but whether
this was owing to the untoward fituation of ihe pa¬
tients, or inattention on the part of the perfbns who
were charged with the adminiftraticn of the wort, not
preparing it properly, or not giving it in fufficient
quantity, or to its own want of power, muft be col¬
lected from the cafes and journals themfelves.
During Captain Cookes third voyage, the rroft re¬
markable, in refpect of the health’nefs of the crew,
that ever was performed, the wort is acknowledged to
have been of Angular ufe.
la
M E D I
In a letter which this very celebrated and fuccefs-
ful circumnavigator wrote to Sir John Pringle, he
gives an account of the methods purfued for preferv-
ing the health of his people j and which were pro¬
ductive of fuch happy eifeCts, that he performed “ a
voyage of three years and 18 days, through all the
climates from 520 north to 710 fouth, with the lofs of
one man only by difeafe, and who died of a compli¬
cated and lingering illnefs, without any mixture of
fcurvy. Iwo others wrere unfortunately drowned, and
one killed by a fall 5 fo that out of the whole number
118 with which he fet out from England, he loft
only four.”
He fays, that much wras owing to the extraordinary
attention of the admiralty, in caufing fuch articles to
be put on board as either by experience or conjecture
avere judged to tend molt to prefcrve the health of fea-
tnen : and with refpeft to the wort, he exprefles himfelf
as follows :
“ We had on board a large quantity of malt, of
which was made fweet wort, and given (not only to
thofe men who had manifeft fymptoms of the fcurvy,
but to fuch alfo as were, from circumftances, judged
to be moft liable to that diforder) from one or two to
three pints in the day to each man, or in fuch propor¬
tion as the furgeon thought necelfary, which fome-
times amounted to three quarts in the 24 hours : this
is without doubt one. of the belt fea antifcorbutic
medicines yet found out ; and if given in time, will,
with proper attention to other things, I am perfuaded,
prevent the fcurvy from making any great progrefs
for a confiderable time : but I am not altogether of
opinion that it will cure it, in an advanced ftate, at
fea.”
On this laft point, however, the captain and his
furgeon differ ; for this gentleman pofitively afferts,
and his journal (in Dr Macbride’s poffefTion) confirms
it, that the infufion of malt did effect a cure in a con¬
firmed cafe, and at fea
The malt being thoroughly dried, and packed up
in fmall calks, is carried to fea, where it wdll keep
found, in every variety of climate, for at leait two
years : when wanted for ufe, it is to be ground in a
hand mill, and the infufion prepared from day to day,
by pouring three meafures of boiling water on one
of the ground malt ; the mixture being well mafhed,
is left to infufe for 10 or 12 hours, and the clear in¬
fufion then ftrained off. The patients are to drink it
in fuch quantities as may be deemed neceffary, from
one to three quarts in the courfe of the 24 hours : a
panada is alfo to be made of it, by adding bifeuit,
and currants or raifins ; and this palatable mefs is ufed
by way of folid food. This courfe of diet, like that
of the recent vegetables, generally keeps the bowels
fufficiently open ; but in cafes where coflivenefs never-
thelef' prevails, gentle laxatives mult be interpofed from
time to time, together with diaphoretics, and the topical
afiiffants, fomentations and gargles, as in the common
wav of management.
Captain Cook ivas alfo provided with a large flock
four hr out; (cabbage leaves cut fmall, fermented
■and flopped in^ the fecond flage of fermentation, and
■afterwards preferved by a due quantity of fait). A
pound of this was ferved to each man, twice a-week,
while they were at fea. Sour krout, fmee the trial
C 1 N E- Prance,
made^of iit on board ^ Captain Cook’s fhips, has been Scorbutus.
extenflyely ufed by dire&ion of the Britiih govern¬
ment in many other fituations, where fcorbutus has
prevailed and it has been round to be highly fervice-
able both in preventing and in curing the difeafe. It
was particularly found, during the late American war,
to be highly beneficial to the Britiih troops befieged
in Bofton, who were at that time entirely fed on fait
provifions fent from England, and among whom true
fcorbutus was very fatal till the four krout arrived.
The fcurvy at one period broke out among them with
very alarming appearances ; but by the feafonable ar¬
rival of a quantity of four krout, it was effeftually over¬
come. Care, however, mull be bellowed, that this ar¬
ticle be properly prepared and properly kept. When
due attention is paid to thefe particulars, it may be
preferved in good condition for many months ; and is
confidered both by bailors and foldiers as a very accept¬
able addition to their fait provifions. But when ferved
out to them in a putrid ftate, it is not onlv highly dif-
agreeable to the tafte, but probably alfo pernicious in
its effedts.
^ Among other means of preventing fcurvy, Captain
Cook had alfo a liberal fupply of portable foup;
of which the men had generally an ounce, three
days in the week, boiled up with their peafe ; and
fometimes it was ferved to them oftener ; and when
they could get frelh greens, it was boiled up with
them, and made fuch an agreeable mefs, that it
was the means of making the people eat a greater
quantity of greens than they would otherwife have
done. And what was Kill of further advantage,
they were furnilhed with fugar in lieu of butter or
oil, which is feldom of the fvveeteft fort 5 fo that
the crew were undoubtedly great gainers by the ex¬
change.
In addition to all thefe advantages of being fo
well provided with every necefiary, either in the way
of diet or medicine, Captain Cook was remarkably at¬
tentive to all the circumftances refpefting cleanlinefs,
exercife, fufficient clothing, provifion of pure water,
and purification of the air in the clofer parts of the
ftiip.
From the eflTeft of thele different means, as em¬
ployed by Captain Cook, there can be little doubt
that they will with due attention be fufficient for
the prevention and cure of the difeafe, at leaft in
moft fituations : but befides thefe, there are alfo fome
other articles which may be employed w-ith great ad¬
vantage.
Newly brewed fpruce beer made from a decoflion
of the tops of the fpruce fir and melaffes, is an ex¬
cellent antifcorbutic j it a£ts in the fame way that the
wort does, and will be found of equal efficacy, and
therefore may be fubftituted. Where the tops of
the fpruce fir are not to be had, this beer may be pre¬
pared from the effence of fpruce as it has been call¬
ed, an article which keeps eafily for a great length of
time. But in fituations where neither the one nor
the other can be had, a moft; falutary mefs may be
prepared from oatmeal, by infufing it in water,
in a wooden veffel, till it ferments, and begins to
turn fouriffi ; which generally happens, in mode¬
rately warm weather, in the fpace- of two days;-—
The liquor is then ftrained off from the grounds,
nnd
practice. M E D I
Impeti* and boiled down to tiie confiftence of a jelly, which
gine?. [s t0 be eaten with wine and fugar, or with butter and
u—''v fugar.
Nothing is more commonly talked of than a /and
fcurvy, as a diftinft fpecies of difeafe from that which
has been now defcribed j but no writer has yet given
a defcription fo clear as to enable us to diftinguhh it
from the various kinds of cutaneous foulnefs and erup¬
tion, which indeed are vulgarly termed fcorbutic, but
which are akin to the itch or leprofy, and for the molt
part require mercurials. Thefe, however, are very dif¬
ferent difeafes from the true fcorbutus, which, it is well
known, may prevail in certain lituations on land as
well as at fea, and is in no degree to be attributed to
fea air.
CINE.
43.
35*
Genus LXXXVII. ELEPHANTIASIS.
Elephantiafis, Sauv. gen. 302. Vog. 321. Sag.
gen. 128.
Elephantia Arabum, Vog. 322.
The belt account of this difeafe is that by Dr He-
berden, publilhed in the fir it volume of the Medical
Tranfadtions. According to him, frequently the firit
fymptom is a hidden eruption of tubercles, or bumps
of different fizes, of a red colour, more or lefs intenfe
(attended with great heat and itching), on the body,
legs, arms, and face; fometimes in the face and neck
alone, at other times occupying the limbs only •, the
patient is feverifh ; the fever ceafing, the tubercles re¬
main indolent, and in fome degree fcirrhous, of a livid
or copper colour, but fometimes of the natural colour
of the fkin, or at leal! very little altered ; and after
fome months they not unfrequently ulcerate, difeharging
a fetid ichorous humour in fmall quantity, but never
laudable pus.
The features of the face fwell and enlarge greatly,
the part above the eyebrows feems inflated ; the hair
of the eyebrows falls off, as does the hair of the beard j
but Dr Heberden has never feen any one whofe hair
has not remained on his head. The a/cz nafi are fuell¬
ed and fcabrous \ the noftrils patulous, and fometimes
affefted with ulcers, which, corroding the cartilage and
feptum naji, occafion the nofe to fall. The lips are tu¬
mid the voice is hoarfe ; which fymptom has been ob -
fervtd when no ulcers have appeared in the throat, al¬
though fometimes both the throat and gums are ulce¬
rated. The ears, particularly the lobes, are thickened,
and occupied by tubercles. The nails grow fcabrous
and rugofe, appearing fomething like the rough bark
of a tree; and the diftemper advancing, corrodes the
parts gradually with a dry fordid fcab or gangrenous
ulcer ; fo that the fingers and toes rot and feparate
joint after joint. In fome patients the legs feem rather
polls than legs, being no longer of the natural lhape,
but fuelled to an enormous fize, and indurated, not
yielding to the prelfure of the fingers; and the fuper-
ficies is covered with very thin feales, of a dull whitilh
colour, feemingly much finer, but not fo white as thofe
obferved in the lepra Grcecorurn. The whole limb is
overfpread with tubercles, interfperfed with deep fif-
fures ; fometimes the limb is covered with a thick moilt
fcabby cruft, and not unfrequently the tubercles ulce¬
rate. In others the kgs are emaciated, and fometimes
You. XIII. Part II.
ulcerated *, at other times affected with tubercles with- Elephanti-
out ulceration. The mufcular flelh between the thumb , alis‘
and forefinger is generally extenuated. v
The whole Ikin, particularly that of the face, has a
remarkably Ihining appearance, as if it was varniilred
or finely polithed. The fenfation in the parts affebted.
is very obtufe, or totally aboiifhed ; fo that pinching,
or punbluring the part, gives little or no uneaiinefs ;
and in fome patients, the motion of the fingers and toes
is quite deltroyed. 1 he breath is very ofifenfive ; the
pulle in general weak and flow.
The difeafe often attacks the patient in a different
manner from that above defcribed, beginning almoft m-
fenfibly; a few indolent tubercles appearing on various
parts of the body or limbs, generally on the legs or
arms, fometimes on the face, neck, or bread, and fome¬
times in the lobes of the ears, increafing by very flow
degrees, without any diforder, previous or concomitant,
in refpebt of pain or uneafinefs.
To diftinguifti the diitemper from its manner of at¬
tacking the patient, Dr Heberden ftyles the firft by
fluxion and the other by congeflion. That by fluxion
is often the attendant of a crapula, or furfeit from grofs
foods ; whereby, perhaps, the latent feeds of the difor¬
der yet dormant in the mafs of blood are excited ; and
probably from frequent obfervations of this kind (the
laft meal being always blamed), it is, that, according
to the received opinion, either fiih, (the tunny, macka-
rel, and fhell-fifti, in particular), melons, cucumbers,
young garden-beans, or mulberries, eaten at the fame
meal with butter, cheefe, or any preparation of milk,
are fuppofed to produce the diftemper, and are accord¬
ingly religioufly avoided.
Violent commotions of the mind, as anger, fear, and
grief, have more than once been oblerved to have given
rife to the difordcr ; and more frequently, in the female
fex, a hidden fuppreflion of an accuftomed evacuation,
by bathing the legs and feet in cold water at an impro¬
per feafon.
The diforder by fluxion is what is the oftenefl: endea-
voured to be remedied by timely application ; that by
congeftion, not being fo confpicuous, is generally either
neglefted or attempted to be concealed, until perhaps
it be too late to be cured, at leaft unlefs the patients
would fubmit to a longer courfe of medicine and thifler
regimen of diet than they are commonly inclined to
do.
Several incipient diforders by fluxion have been known
to yield to an antiphlogiftic method, as bleeding, re¬
frigerant falts in the faline draughts, and a folution
of cryftals of tartar in water, for common drink, (by
this means endeavouring to precipitate part of the pec¬
cant matter, perhaps too grofs to pafs the pores by the
kidneys); and when once the fever is overcome, cin¬
chona combined with faflafras, is the remedy princi¬
pally to be relied on. The only topical medicine pre-
feribed by Dr Heberden, was an attenuating embroca¬
tion of brandy and alkaline fpirit. By the fame method
fome confirmed cafes have been palliated. But, except¬
ing in one patient, Dr Heberden never favv or heard of
a confirmed elephantiafis radically cured. He adds,
however, that he never met with another patient pof-
feffed of prudence and perfeverance enough to profi t ute
the cure as he ought.
3 I Genus
MEDICINE.
Genus LXXXVIII. LEPRA.
The Lepbost.
Lepra, Sauv. gen. 303. Lin. 262. Sag. 129.
Lepra Greecorum, Log. 320.
This diftemper is but little known to phyfieians in
the weftern parts of Europe. Wallis tells us, that it
firft begins with red pimples, or puftules, breaking out
in various parts of the body. Sometimes they appear
lingle; fometimes a great number arife together, efpe-
cially on the arms and legs 5 as the difeafe increal’es,
frefh pimples appear, which, joining the former, make
a fort of clufters ; all which enlarge their borders, and
Ipread in an orbicular form. The fuperficies of thefe
puftules are rough, whitilh, and fcaly 5 when they are
icratched the fcales fall off-, upon which a thin ichor
oozes out, which foon dries and hardens into a fcaly
cruft. Thefe clufters of puftules are at firft fmall and
few j perhaps only three or four in an arm or leg, and
of the iize of a ftlver penny. But if the difeafe be fuf-
fered to go on, they become more numerous, and the
clufters increafe to the fize of a crown-piece, but not
exadlly round. Afterwards the affedlion increafes to
fuch a degree, that the whole body is covered with a le¬
prous fcurf. The cure of this diftemper is very much
the fame with that of the Elephantiasis. Here, how¬
ever, recourfe is frequently had to antimonial and mer¬
curial medicines, continued for a confiderable length of
time. In conjunftion with thefe, warm bathing, parti¬
cularly the vapour bath, has often been employed with
advantage.
Although what can ft rift ly be called lepra is now,
at leaft, a very rare difeafe in this country, yet to this
general head may be referred a variety of cutaneous
affeftions which are here very common, and which
in many inftances prove very obftinate. Thefe appear
under a variety of different forms; fometimes under
that of red puftules ; fometimes of white fcurfs 5 fome¬
times of ulcerations •, and not unfrequently a tranfi-
tion takes place from one form to another, fo that
they cannot be divided into different genera from the
external appearance. Thefe affections will often yield
to the remedies already mentioned ; but where anti-
monials and mercurials either fail, or from different
circumftances are confidered as unadvifeable, a cure
may fometimes be effefted by others. In particular
cafes, purging mineral rvaters, the decoflion of cincho¬
na, the infufion of the oenanthe crocata, and various
others, have been employed with fuccefs. Different
external applications alfo have fometimes been em¬
ployed Avith advantage. An article ufed in this Avay,
knoAvn under the name of Goivland’s lotion, with
the compofition of A\rhich we are unacquainted, has
been much celebrated, and has been faid to be employed
with great fuccefs, particularly againft eruptions on the
face and nofe.
Genus LXXXIX. FRAMBOESIA.
The Yaws.
Framboefia, Sauv. gen. 125. Sag. 125.
Defcrip lion. The defeription Avhich is given of this
^ Practice,
diftemper by the anonymous author of a paper in the 6th Frarabcefi,
volume of the Edinburgh Medical Effays, (art. 76.) dif-  
fers, in fome circumftances, from one that Sauvages re¬
ceived from M. Virgile, an eminent furgeon of Mont¬
pelier, avIio practifed twelve yfears in the ifland of St
Domingo j and therefore he diftinguithes the frambee-
fia into two fpecies, Giiineetifis and Americana.
The frambeejia Guineenjis is faid by the firft-mention-
ed Avriter to be fo common on the coaft of Guinea
and other parts of Africa, that it feldom fails to at¬
tack each individual of both fexes, one time or other,
in the courfe of their lives; but moft commonly dur¬
ing childhood or youth. “ It makes its appearance
in little fpots on the cuticle, level Avith the Ikin, at
firft no larger than a pin’s head, which inereafe daily,
and become protuberant like pimples: foon after the
cuticle frets off, and then, inftead of finding pus or
ichor, in this fmall tumor, only Avhite floughs or
fordes appear, under Avhich is a fmall red fungus,
growing out of the cutis, increafing gradually to very
different magnitudes, fome lefs than the fmalleft Avood
ftrawberry, fome as big as a rafpberry, and others ex¬
ceeding in fize even the largeft mulberries; Avhich ber¬
ries they very much refemble, being knobbed as thefe
are.” Thefe protuberances, Avhich give the name to
the difeafe, appear on all parts of the body: but the
greateft numbers, and the largeft fized, are generally
found in the groins, and about the pudenda or anus, in
the armpits, and on the face : Avhen the yaws are very
large, they are few in number 5 and when remarkably
numerous, they are lefs in fize. The patients, in all
other refpe&s, enjoy good health, do not lofe their ap¬
petite, and feem to have little other uneafinefs than
Avhat the fores occafion.
M. Virgile deferibes the fpecies of yaws that is
common among the negroes of St Domingo, and
which Sauvages has termed framboejia Americana, as
beginning from an ulcer that breaks out indiferiminate-
ly in different parts of the body, though moft common¬
ly on the legs ; at firft fuperficial, and not different
from a common ulcer in any other circumftance faving
its not healing by the ufual applications; fooner or
later, numerous fungous excrefcences break out on the
furface of the body, as before deferibed, like little ber¬
ries, moift, with a reddifti mucus. Befides thefe, the
foies of the feet and palms of the hands become raiv,
the fkin fretting off, fo as to leave the mufcles bare j
thefe excoriations are fometimes moift Avith ichor and
fometimes dry, but ahvays painful, and confequently
very diftrefling. They are mentioned alfo by the au¬
thor of the article in the Medical Effays; and both
he and M. Virgile obferve, that there is always one
excrefcence, or yaAV, of an uncommon fize, Avhich is
longer in falling off than the others, and which is con¬
fidered as the majler-ijaw, and fo termed. An ingeni¬
ous inaugural differtation on the fubjedt of the yaAVS
Avas lately publiftied at Edinburgh by Dr Jonathan
Anderfon Ludford, noAV phyfician in Jamaica. The
author of that differtation confiders Dr Cullen as im¬
properly referring framboefia to the clafs of cachexiae.
He thinks that this difeafe ought rather to be referred
to the exanthemata ; for, like the fmallpox, he tells us,
it has its acceflion, height, and decline. It begins
with fome degree of fever either more or lefs violent;
it may be propagated by inoculation; and it attacks
the
353
MEDICINE.
Practice.
Impeti- the fartre individual only once in the courfe of a life-
gines- time, thofe who recover from the difeafe being never
^ * ‘ afterwards afFefted with it. Thefe particulars re-
fpedling frambeefia are relied not merely on the au¬
thority of Dr Ludford, but are fupported alfo by the
teftimony of Dr William Wright, a phyfician of di-
flinguilhed eminence, Avho, while he refided in Jamai¬
ca, had, in the courfe of extenfive praftice, many op¬
portunities of obferving this difeafe, and to whom Dr
Ludford acknowledges great obligations for having-
communicated to him many important fa£ls refpedt-
ing it.
Dr Ludford conhders the yaws as being in every
inftance the confequence of contagion, and as depend¬
ing on a matter fui generis. He fuppofes no peculiar
predifpolition from diet, colour, or other cireumftan-
ces, as being in any degree neceflary. He views
the difeafe as chiefly arifing from conta£l with the
matter, in confequence of deeping in the fame bed,
walhing in the fame veflel with the infe£ted, or the
like. In Ihort, the yaws may be communicated by
any kind of contadl ; nay, it is even believed that flies
often convey the infedlion, when, after having gorged
themfelves with the virulent matter by fucking the ul¬
cers of thofe who are difeafed, they make punftures in
the Ikin of fuch as are found, and thus inoculate
them •, in confequence of which the diforder will foon
appear.
PrognojUs. The yaws are not dangerous, if the cure
be Ikilfully managed at a proper time \ but if the pa¬
tient has been prematurely falivated, or has taken any
quantity of mercury, and if his Ikin has been fuddenly
cleared, the cure will be very difficult, if not imprac¬
ticable.
Cure. In attempting the cure of this difeafe, the
four following indications are chiefly to he held in view :
1. To fupport the ftrength of the patient.
2. To promote excretion bv the fkin.
3. To correft the vitiated fluids.
4. To remove and eounteraft the injuries done either
to the conftitution in general, or to particular parts,
by the difeafe.
With the firfl: of thefe intentions, a liberal diet, con-
iifting of a confiderable quantity of animal food, with
a confiderable proportion of wine, and gentle exercife,
are to be employed : but the cure is principally to
be effefted by mercurial falivation, after the virulent
matter has been completely thrown out to the furface
of the body by fudorifics. The following are the par¬
ticular direftions given on this head by the author of
the article in the Medical Eflays. The yaws being an
infectious difeafe, as foon as they begin to appear on
a negro, he mull be removed to a houfe by himfelf j
or, if it is not certain whether the eruption be the
yaws or not, fhut him up feven days, and look on him
again, as the Jews were commanded to do with their
lepers, and in that time you may in moft cafes be cer¬
tain.
As foon as you are convinced that it is the yaws,
give a bolus of flowers of fulphur, with camphor and
theriaca. Repeat this bolus every night for a fortnight
or three weeks, or till the yaws come to the height;
that is, when they neither increafe in fize or number :
then throw your patient into a gentle falivation with
calomel given in fmall dofes, without farther prepara- FrambDefla¬
tion ; five grains repeated once, twice, or thrice a-day, »
is fufficient, as the patient can bear it. If he fpits a
quart in 24 hours, it is enough. Generally, when the
falivation is at this height, all the yaws are covered
with dry fcaly crufts or fcabs •, which, if numerous,
look terribly. Thefe fall off daily in fmall white feales ;
and in ten or twelve days leave the Ikin fmooth and
clean. Then the calomel may be omitted, and the fa¬
livation permitted to go off fpontaneoufly. A dram of
corrofive fublimate diffolved in an ounce of rum or
brandy, and the folution daubed on the yaws, will, it
is faid, in general clear the Ikin in two days time.
After the falivatien, fweat the patient twice or thrice
in a frame or chair -with fpirits of wine ; and give an
alterative eleCtuary of sethiops and jum guaiac. He
may likewife ufe the decoftion of guaiacum and faffa-
fras fermented with melaffes, for his conftant drink
while the elocluary is taking, and a week or a fort¬
night after the eleduary is finifhed.
The mafter yaw muff be confirmed an eighth or a
tenth part of an inch below the Ikin, with Mercur. cor-
rof. rub. et alum. ujl. part, (equal, and digefted with
dng. cajil. Jlav. 3j. and mercur. corrof. rub. 5j. and ci¬
catrized with lint preffed out of fpirits of wine, and
with the fulphate of copper.
After the yarvs are cured, fome patients are afKicled
with carbuncles in their feet ; which fometimes render
them incapable of walking, unlefs with pain. The
method of cure is, by bathing and paring to deftroy
the cuticle, and then proceed as in the mafter-yaw.
The gentle efebaroties are to be preferred } and all
imaginable care is to be taken to avoid the tendons and
periofteum.
To children under fix or feven years old, at the pro¬
per time of falivating, when the yaws are come to
their full growth, give a grain or two of calomel in
white fugar, once a day, once in two days, or once in
three days, fo as only to keep their mouths a little fore
till the yaws dry, and, falling off in white feales, leave
the Ikin clean. This fucceeds always, but requires a
longer time than in adults.
In St Domingo they are falivated by unfiion 5 but it
does not appear that fuccefs always followed this
praflice. It is alfo ufual in that ifland to give the fo¬
lution of corrofive fublimate along with a dccofticn
of farfaparilla. Twelve ounces of this root, and 12
pounds of the coarfeft; fugar, macerated for 15 days in
12 quarts of water, is mentioned as a fpecific, and faid
to be the prefeription of an Englifti phyfician 5 the dofe
is four ounces every fixth hour.
Genus XC. TRICHOMA. 355
The PLICA PolONICA, or Plaited Hair.
Trichoma, Sauv. gen. 311. Sag. 137.
Plica, Lin. 313.
Plica five Rhopalolis, Vog. 323.
This diforder is onlv met with in Poland and Lithu¬
ania, and confifts of feveral blood-veffels running from
the head into the ends of the hairs ; which cleave toge¬
ther, and hang from the head in broad flat pieces, ge¬
nerally about an ell in length, but fometimes they are
3 I 2 five
v
4 j<> M E D I
Impeti- five or fix yards long } one patient lias more or lefs of
i. . theft-, up to 20, and fometimes 30. They are painful
to the wearer, and odious to every fpeftator. At the
approach of winter an eruptive fever happens to many
in thefe countries: the eruptions principally infeft the
head, and when at the height an ichorous humour flows
from them. In this ftate they are too tender to admit
of being touched, and the matter running down the
hairs mats them together •, the {kin by degrees, break¬
ing, the ramificaiions of the capillary vefi’els following
the courfe of the hair, or prolonged out of the {kin, are
tncreafed to a vaft length.
No method of relief is yet known ; for if the dif-
charge be checked, or the veffels cut off, the confe-
quence is an increafe of more miferable fymptoms, and
in the end death. Sennertus {ays, when all the morbid
matter is thrown out of the body the plicae fall off fpon-
taneoufly. He further i-blerves, that the only fafe prac¬
tice in this caie is, to folicit the peccant matter to the
hairs, to which it naturally tends \ and that this is beft
anfwered by loth ns of bear’s-breech. Some fay that
a decoftion of the herb club-mofs, and its feeds, with
which the head is to be waflied, is a fpecitic.
35* Genus XCI. ICTERUS.
The Jaundice.
Idlerus, Lin. 224. Vog. 306. Boerh.yiR. Junch.
90.
Aurigo, Sauv. gen. 306. Sag. 132.
Cachexiaiclerica, Hojfm. III. 301.
Defcription. The jaundice fiift ftiows itfelf by a lifl:-
leffnefs and want of appetite, the patient becomes dull,
oppreffed, and generally coflive. Thefe fymptoms
have continued but a very fliort time, when a yellow
colour begins to diffufe itfelf over the tunica albuginea,
or white part of the eye, and the nails of the fingers ;
the urine becomes high coloured, with a yellowifh le-
diment capable of giving a yellow timff to linen ; the
ftoels are whitifh or gray. In feme there is a moft
violent pain in the epigaftric region, which is eonfider-
ably increafed after meals. Sometimes the patient has
a continual propenfity to fleep; but in others there is
too great watchfulnefs ; and fometimes the pain is fo
great, that though the patient be fieepy he cannot
compofe himfelf to reft. The pains come by fits ; and
moft women who have had the jaundice and born chil¬
dren, agree, that they are more violent than labour-
pains.. As the difeafe increafes, the yellow colour be¬
comes more and more deep; an itching is felt all over
the fkin •, and even the internal membranes of the vif-
cera, the bon.es, and the brain itfelf, become tinged, as
hath been fhown from dilTesffions, win re the bones have
been found tinged fometimes for years after the jaun¬
dice lias been cured.
In like manner,' all the fecretions are afteifted with
the yellow colour of the bile, which in this difeafe is
diffufed throughout the whole mafs of fluids. The fa-
liva becomes yellowiih and bitter 5 the urine exceflively
high coloured, in fuch a manner as to appear almoft
black 5 nay, the blood itfelf is fometimes- faid to ap¬
pear of a yellow colour when drawn from a vein ; yet
Dr Heberden fays, that he never faw the milk altered
in its colour, even in cafes of very deep jaundice. In
CINE. Practice
procefs of time the blood begins to acquire a tendency Iiftems.
to diffolution and putrefaction j which is known by
the patient’s colour changing from a deep yellow to a
black or dark yellow. Haemorrhages enfue from vari¬
ous parts of the body, and the patients frequently die
of an apoplexy ; though in fome the difeafe degene¬
rates into an incurable riropty j and there have not been
wanting inftances of fome a\1k> have died of the dropfy
after the jaundice itfelf had been totally removed.
Caufes. As the jaundice confifts in a diffufion of
the bile throughout the whole fyftem, it thence fol¬
lows, that whatever may favour the diffufion is alfo to
be reckoned among the caufcs of jaundice. Many dif-
putes have arifen concerning the manner in which the
bile is introduced into the blood; but it is now general¬
ly agreed that it is taken up by the lymphatics of the
gall-bladder and biliary duCls. Hence, a jaundice
may arife from any thing obftruCting the paffage of
the bile into the duodenum, or from any thing which
alters the iiate of the lymphatics in fuch a manner as-
to make them capable of abforbing the bile in its na¬
tural ftate. Hence the jaundice n.ay arife from feirrhi
of the liver or other vifeera preffing upon the biliary
duCIs, and obftruCIing the paffage of the bile ; from
flatus diftending the duodenum, and {hutting up the
entrance of the ductus communis choledochus into it ;
from the fame orifice being plugged up by vifoid bile,
or other fordes ; but by far the moft frequent caufe of
jaundice is the formation of calculi, or more properly
biliary concretions r for although they were long con-
ftdered as being of a calcareous nature, yet more accu¬
rate experiments have now demonftrated, that they con-
fift principally of a febaceous matter; accordingly, while
they are fo light as to fwim in water, they are alfo.
highly inflammable. Thefe are found of almoft all
fizes, from that of a fmali pea to that of a walnut, or
bigger : they are of different colours ; and fometimes
appear as if formed in the inward part by cryftalliza-
tion, but of lamellae on the outer part; though fome¬
times the outward part is covered with rough and
ftrining cryftals, while the inward part is lamellated..
Thefe enter into the biliary du£ls, and ohftrudt them,
caufing a jaundice, with violent pain for fome time ;
and which can be cured by no means till the concretion
is either paffed entirely through the dudlus communis
or returned into the gall-bladder. Sometimes, in the
opinion of many celebrated phyftcians, the jaundice is
oecafioned by fpafmodic conftrictions of the biliary
dudls ; but this is denied by others, and it is not yet
afeertained whether thefe dudls are capable of being
affedted by fpafm or not, as the exiftence'of mufeular
fibres in them has not with certainty been difcovered.
It cannot, however, be denied, that violent fits of paf-
fion have often produced jaundice, fometimes tempora¬
ry, but frequently permanent. This has been by, fome
deemed a fufficient proof of the fpafmodic coni raft ion
of the duffs;. but their opponents iuppofed, that the
agitation occafioned by the paffion might pufti forward
fome biliary concretion into a narrow par: of the duff,
by which means a jaundice would eerainly be pro¬
duced, till the concretion was either driven backward
or forward into the duodenum altogether. But even
fuppofing the duffs themfelves to be incapable of fpafm,
yet there can be no doubt that by a fpafm of the in-
teftines biliary concretions may be retained in the duffs;
Praaice. M E D I
Impeti- and indeed it is principally where the duct entering
gines. obliquely into the inteftine forms as it were a fpecies of
valve that thefe concretions are retained.
In a very relaxed date of the body there is alfo an
abforption of the bile, as in the yellow fever } and in¬
deed in all putrid diforders there is a kind of yellowifh
tinft over the ikin, though much lefs than in the true
jaundice. The reafon of this is, that in thefe dilor-
ders there is ufually an increafed fecretion of bile, com¬
monly of a thinner confidence than in a healthy date,
while the orifices of the lymphatics are probably en
larged, and thus ready to abforb a fiuid fomewhat
thicker than what they ought to take up in a healthy
date ; but thefe diforders are of ihort duration in com-
parifon with the real jaundice, which fometimes lads
for many years. Thefe affeftions, howrever, cannot
with propriety in any cafe be confidered as real in¬
dances of jaundice ; for, to conditute that difeafe, bile
mud not only be prelent in the blood, but wanting in
the alimentary canal.
It is obfervable, that women are more fubjeft to
iaundice than men, which probably arifes from their
more fedentary life *, for this, together with fome of
the depreffing paflions of the mind, is found to pro¬
mote the accefiion of the difeafe, if not abfolutely to
produce it. Pregnant women alfo are frequently at¬
tacked by the jaundice, which goes off after their de¬
livery.
Prognojis. As jaundice may arife from many dif¬
ferent caufes, fome of which cannot be difcovered du¬
ring the patient’s life, the prognofis mud on this ac¬
count be very uncertain. The only cafes which admit
of a cure are thofe depending upon biliary concretions,
or ob draft ions of the biliary dufts by vifcid bile j for
the concretion^ are feldom of fuch a fize that the dufts
will not let them pafs- through, though frequently not
Avithout extreme pain. Indeed this pain, though fo
violent, and almod intolerable to the lick perfon, af¬
fords the bed prognofis ; as the phyfician may readily
affure his patient that there is great hope of his being
relieved from it. The coming on of a gentle diarrhoea,-
attended with bilious dools, together with the ceffation
of pain, are figns of the difeafe being cured. We are
not, however, always to conclude, becaufe the difeafe
is not attended Avith acute pain, that it is therefore in¬
curable ; for frequently the paffage of a concretion
through the biliary dufts is accompanied only Avith a
fenfation of flight uneafinefs.
Cure. The great objefl to be aimed at in the cure
of jaundice is unquedionably the removal of the caufe
which obflrufts the paffage of bile into the intedines :
But before this can be accomplilhed, praftices are of¬
ten neccffary for alleviating urgent fymptoms } which
may be done fometimes by fupplying the Avant of bile
in the alimentary canal, fometimes by affording an
exit for bilious matter from the general mafs of blood,
but mod frequently by obviating the effefts of diden-
tion and obdrufiion to the circulation in the lydem of
the liver.
The meafures to be employed for the removal of the
obflruftion mud depend very much on the nature of
the obdrufting caufe.
When the jaundice arifes from indurated fwellings
or fe'r.hi of the vifeera, it is abfolutely incurable } ne-
C I N E.
437
verthelefs, as thefe cannot always be difcovered, the
phyfician ought to proceed in every cafe of jaundice as
if it arofe from calculi. The indications here are, i.To
diflolve the concretions ; and, 2. To prevent their for¬
mation a fecond time. But unhappily the medical art
has not yet afforded a folvent for biliary concretions.
They cannot even be diffolved when tried out of the
body either by acids or alkalies, or any thing but a
mixture of oil of turpentine and fpirit of wine and
theie fubdances are by far too irritating to be given in
fufficient quantity to affetd a concretion in the biliary
ducts. Boerhaave obferves, that difeafes of the li\rcr
are much more difficult to cure than thofe in any other
part of the body 5 becaufe of the difficulty there is in
getting at the part affedted, and the tedious and round¬
about paffage the blood has to it. The juice of com¬
mon grafs has indeed been recommended as a fpecific
in the jaundice, but on no good foundation. Gliffon
obferves, that black cattle are fubjedl to biliary con¬
cretions Avhen fed with bay or dried draw in winter,
but are cured by the fuccuient grafs in the fpring 5
and Van Swieten tells a drange ffory of a man who
cured himfelf of the juandice by living almoft entire¬
ly on grafs, of Avhich he devoured fuch quantities,
that the farmers were wont to drive him out of their
fields ; but other practitioners have by no means found
thi s in any degree effectual. The only method of cure
now attempted in the jaundice is to expel the concre¬
tion into the inteftines ; for which vomits and exer-
cife are the principal medicines. The former are
juftly reckoned the moft efficacious medicines, they
powerfully fhake all the abdominal and thoracic vifeera j
and thus tend to diflodge any obilructing matter that
may be contained in them. But if there be a ten¬
dency to inflammation, vomits mufi not be exhibit¬
ed till bleeding has been premifed. We muff alfo
proceed with caution if the pain be very ftiarp •, for
in all cafes Avhere the difeafe is attended Avith violent
pain, it Avill be neceflary to allay it by opiates before
the exhibition of an emetic. There is alfo danger,
that, by a continued ufe of vomits, a concretion Avhich
is too large to pafs, may be fo impafted in the duCls
that it cannot even be returned into the gall-bad-
der, Avhich Avould otherwife have happened. In all
cafes, therefore, if no relief folloAVS the exhibition of
the fecond or third emetic, it Avill be prudent to for¬
bear their farther ufe for fome time.
Of all kinds of exercife, that of riding on horfeback
is moft to be depended upon in this difeafe. It ope¬
rates in- the fame manner with vomits, namely, by the
concuffion it gives to the vifeera 5 and therefore the
cautions neceffary to be obferved in the ufe of vomits
are alfo neceffary to be obferved in the ufe of riding.
Cathartics alfo may be of fervice, by cleanfing the
primee vice, and foliciting a difeharge of the bile into
the inteftines j but they muff not be of too draftic a
nature, elfe they may produce incurable obftruclions,
by bringing forward concretions- that are too large to
pafs. Anodynes and the Avarm bath are fervieeable by
their relaxing- quality ; and there can be no doubt,
that, from afting as poAverful antifpafmodics, they often
give an opportunity for the difeharge of concretions
by very flight caufes, Avhen they would otherwife be
firmly" retained. Soap has. been fuppofed to do fervice
Idterus.
43*
Dy he ft be- a folvcnt j but tins is now found to be a miftake, and
i I"t" it acts in no other way than as a relaxant or as a gentle
purgative.
Eut when all means of relief fail, as in cafes of fcir-
rhus, we can then only attempt to palliate the fymp-
toms, and preferve the patient’s life as long as poffible.
1 his is belt aecomplithed by diuretics ; for thus a great
quantity of bilious matter is evacuated, anil the fyftem
is treed from the bad confequences which enfue on its
flagnation in the habit. But even tins is by no means
equal to the common evacuation by ttool ; nor can all
the attempts to fupply the want of bile in the inteftines
by bitters and other ftomaehics reftore the patient to
his wonted appetite and vigour. If the pain be very
violent, we muft on all occafions have recourfe to
opiates j or if the blood has acquired a tendency to
dilfolution, it muft be counterafted by proper anti-
feptics.
If the difeafe goes off, its return muft be prevented
by a courfe of tonic medicines, particularly the cin¬
chona and antifeptics : but vre can by no means be
certain that the jaundice will not return, and that at
any interval ; for there may be a number of concre¬
tions in the gall-bladder, and though one has paffed,
another may very quickly follow, and produce a new
fit of jaundice j and thus fome people have continued
to be affedled with the diftemper, at ftiort intervals,
during life.
In the Eaft Indies, mercury has been lately recom¬
mended as exceedingly efficacious in diforders of the
liver, efpecially thofe which follow intermitting and
remitting fevers. Dr Monro, in his Obfervations on
the means of preferving the health of foldiers, acquaints
us, that he has feen fome ifteric cafes which, he thought,
received benefit from taking a few grains of the fub-
murias hydrargyri at night, and a purge next morning j
and this repeated two or three times a-week.
Infants are fubjeft to a temporary jaundice, com¬
monly called the gum, foon after birth 5 the caufe of
which is not well underftood. It differs remarkably
from the common jaundice •, as, in the latter, the dif¬
eafe is firft difcoverable in the white of the eyes j but
though the ikin of infants in the gum is all over yel¬
low, their eyes always remain clear. The diforder
goes off fpontaneoufly, or by the ufe of a gentle pur¬
gative or two.
557 Class IV. LOCALES.
Vitia, Sauv. Clafs I. Lin. Clafs XI. Vog. Clafs X.
Sag. Clafs I.
Plagae, Sag. Clafs II.
Morbi organici Auctorum.
358 Order I. DYSESTHESIA.
Dyfaefthefiae, Sauv. Clafs VI. Ord. I. Sag. Clafs IX.
Ord. I.
Genus XCII. CALICO.
The Cataract.
Caligo, Sauv. gen. 153. Vog. 288. Sag. gem 259.
Catarafta, Lin. 109.
Prance
A cataraB is-an obftru&ion of the pupil, by the in- Amaurofe.
terpofition of fome opaque fubftance which either di- ''"■“’V'**-
minifiles or totally extinguifties the fight. It is ge¬
nerally an opacity in the cryftalline humour. In a re¬
cent or beginning cataraB, the fame medicines are to
be ufed as in the gutta ferena ; and they will fometimes
fucceed. But when this does not happen, and the ca~
taraft becomes firm, it muft be couched, or rather ex-
trafted j for which operation, lee Surgery. Dr
Buchan fays he has refolved a recent cataraft by giving
the patient fome purges with calomel, keeping a poul¬
tice of frefli hemlock conftantly upon the eye, and a
perpetual blifter on the neck.
'1 here is, however, but little reafon to fuppofe that
thefe practices will frequently fucceed. A refolution
can only be effe&ed here by an abforption of the
opaque matter ; and where this is poffible, there is per¬
haps a better chance of its being effefted by the
agency of the eledtric fluid than by any other means.
For this purpofe eleftricity is chiefly applied under the
form of the e/eBric aura, as it has been called ) but
even this is very rarely fuccefsful.
Genus XCIII. AMAUROSIS. 3c,
The Gutta Serena.
Amaurofis, Sauv. gen. 155. Lin. no. Vog. 238.
Sag. 261.
Amblyopia, Lin. 108. Vog. 236.
A gutta ferena is an abolition of the fight without
any apparent caufe or fault in the eyes. In every cafe
it depends on an affection of fome part of the optic
nerve. But the affections which may produce this
difeafe are of different kinds. When it is owing to a
decay or wafting of the optic nerve, it does not admit
of a cure 5 but when it proceeds from a compreflion
of the nerves by redundant humours, thefe may be in
fome meafure drained off, and the patient relieved.
For this purpofe, the body muft be kept open with
the laxative mercurial pills. If the patient be young,
and of a fanguine habit, he may be bled. Cupping
with fcarifications on the back part of the head will
likewife be of ufe. A running at the nofe may be
promoted by volatile falts, ftimulating powders, &c.
But the moft likely means of relieving the patient,
are iffues or blifters kept open for a long time on the
back part of the head, behind the ears, or on the
neck •, which have been known to reftore fight even af¬
ter it had been for a confiderable time loft.—Should
thefe fail, recourfe muft be had to a mercurial faliva-
tion ; or, what will perhaps anfwer the purpofe better,
12 grains of the corrofive fublimate mercury may be
diffolved in an Englifh pint and a half of brandy, and
a table fpoonful of it taken twice a-day, drinking half
a pint of the decoftion of farfaparilla after it.— Of
late eleflricity has been much celebrated as efficacious,
when no other thing could do fervice and here it has
in fome degree the fame chance of fuecefs as in ether
cafes of infenfibility, depending on an affeftion of the
nerves, in fome of w'hich it has certainly in particular
cafes been of ufe.
In the amaurofis, Dr Porterfield obferves, that it is
of the utmoft confequence to know of how long Hand¬
ing the difeafe has been •, which is not always ealily'
done if one eye only be affefted. This is a very effen-
tial
MEDICINE.
Practice.
MEDICINE.
43'9-
Pvfsefthe- tial point •, bpcaufe an amaurofis of long Handing is al-
together incurable. Mr Boyle mentions the cafe of a
man who had a cataraft for feveral years without knotv-
tng it himfelf, though others did. He difcovered it
at lait by happening to rub his found eye, and was fur-
priftd to find himfelf in the dark. When a perfon,
therefore, has a gutta ferena only in one of the eyes, he
may think that the eye has but lately loft the power of
fight; though this perhaps has been the cafe for feveral
years. On the other hand, he may imagine that a re¬
cent difeafe of this kind is really of long Handing. But
by inquiring at what time he firH became fubjeft to
miHakes in all aftions that require the diHance to be
exaftly diflinguifhed, as in pouring liquor into a glafs,
fnuffing a candle, or threading a needle, we may difco-
ver the age of the difeafe, and thence be aflifled to form
a more juH prognoHic Avith refpeft to its cure. Dr
Porterfield gives an inHance of his conjefturing in this
manner concerning the cafe of a young lady who had
difcovered a lofs of fight in one of her eyes only the
day before. The difeafe was thought to be of long
Handing \ but as the doftor found that Hie had only
been fubjeft to miflakes of the kind above mentioned
for about a month, he drew a favourable prognoflic, and
the difeafe Avas cured.
3(ri Genus XCIV. DYSOPIA.
Depraved Vision.
This diforder may proceed from various eaufes both Paracufis.
natural and accidental, fome of Avhich admit of no re- v
medy. If it be occafioned by a partial adhefion of the
eyelids, the hand of the furgeon is required : if by a
tranfverfe pofition of the pupil, fome mechanical con¬
trivance is neceffary. If it be OAving to an albugo co¬
vering part of the pupil, or to a film rendering a por¬
tion of the cornea opaque, the remedies for thefe affec¬
tions are to be here applied.
Genus XCV. PSEUDOBLEPSIS.
362
Imaginary Vision of Objedls Avhich do not exiff.
Suffufio, Sauv. gen. 217. Sag. 329.
Phantafma, Lin. 73. Sag. 289.
This very often takes place when the body is dif-
eafed, and then the patient is faid to be delirious.
Sometimes, hoAvever, in thefe cafes, it does not amount
to delirium *, but the perfon imagines he fees gnats or
other infefts flying before his eyes ; or fometimes, that
every thing he looks at has black fpots in it, which
lafl is a very dangerous fign. Sometimes alfo fparks
of fire appear before the eyes ; Avhich appearances are
not to be difregarded, as they frequently precede apo¬
plexy or epilepfy. Sometimes, however, people have
been affefted in this manner during life Avithout feeling
any other inconvenience. Such a diforder can rarely if
ever be cured.
Amblyopia, Sauv. gen. 154. Sag. 258.
There are feveral fpecies referred to this genus by
Dr Cullen, viz.
1. Dyrojorn Tenebrarum ; 2. Dysopia Luminis.—
The former of thefe is properly the nij&a/opia, or night-
blindnefs, of ancient authors. But amongH both the
Greek and Latin Avriters, there is a direfl oppofition in
the ufe of this Avord nyctalopia ; fome faying it fignifies
“ thofe who cannot fee by night,” and others exprefs
by it “ thofe Avho cannot fee during the day, but during
the night.'1''—The difference in the account of this dif¬
order, as to its appearing in the night or in the day, is
reconciled by confidering it as of the intermitting kind :
the difference then Avill confiff in the different times of
its approach 5 fo it may be called periodical b/indnefs.
Intermittents appearing in a variety of modes, and the
fuccefs of cinchona in fome inffanees of this fort of
blindnefs, both favour the opinion of its being an inter-
termittent difeafe of the eyes; and this vieAV has ac¬
cordingly been taken of it by fome late Avriters, parti¬
cularly in fome papers in the London Medical Obfer-
A’ations, and Medical Tranfa£lions.
3. Dysopia PROXIMORUM {Prejbytia'), or the defeat
of thofe Avho fee only at too great di/lance. 4. Dysopia
DlSSITORUM (Myopia'), or the deleft of thofe Avho are
jhortfghted.—Thefe are diforders which depend on the
original Hrufture or figure of the eye, therefore admit
of no cure. The inconveniences arifing from them
may, however, be in fome meafure remedied by the
help of proper glaffes. The former requires the aid of
a convex, and the latter of a concave glafs.
5. Dysopia LATERALIS ; a defeft by Avhich objefts
cannot be viewed diffinftly but in an oblique polition.
—Thus, in viewing an objeft placed on the left, they
turn their face and eyes to the right, and vice verfa.—
Genus XCVI. DYSECOEA. 363
DEAFNESS, or Difficulty of Hearing.
Genus XCVII. PARACUSIS. 3<4
Depravation of HEARING.
Paracufis, Sauv. gen. 159. Sag. 265.
Syrigmus, Sauv. gen. 219. Sag. 231.
The funftions of the ear may be injured by Avounds,
ulcers, or any tiling that hurts its fabric. The hear¬
ing may like wife be hurt by exceffive noife } Ancient
colds in the head ; fevers 5 hard Avax, or other fub-
ftances flicking in the cavity of the ear j too great a
degree of moiflure or drynefs of the ear. Deafnefs is
very often the effeft of old age, and is incident to
moH people in the decline of life. Sometimes it is oav-
ing to an original fault in the flrufture or formation of
the ear itfelf. When this is the cafe it admits of no
cure 5 and the unhappy perfon not only continues deaf,
but generally likeAvife dumb, for life.
When deafnefs is the effeft; of Avounds or ulcers of
the ears, or of old age, it is not ealily removed. When
it proceeds from cold applied to the head, the patient
muff be careful to keep his head Avarm, efpecially in
the night; he fhould likeivife take fome gentle purges,
and keep his feet warm, and bathe them frequently in
lukewarm Avater at bedtime. When deafnefs is the ef¬
feft of a fever, it generally goes off after the patient
recovers. If it proceed from dry Avax flicking in the
ears, it may be foftened by dropping oil into them $
afterwards they muft be fyringed Avith warm milk and
Avater.
If deafnefs proceeds from drynefs of the ears, Avhich
may
MEDICINE.
ftiay be known by looking into them, half an ounce
of the oil of fweet almonds, and the fame quantity of
camphorated fpirit of wine, or tincture of afafoetida,
may be mixed together, and a few drops of it put into
the ear every night at bedtime, Hopping them after¬
wards with a little wool or cotton. Some, inftead of
oil, put a fmall llice of the fat of bacon into each ear,
which is faid to anfwer the purpofe very well.—When
the ears abound with moilture, it may be drained off by
an iffue or feton, which fhould be made as near the af¬
fected parts as poHible.
Some, for the cure of deafnefs, recommend the gall
of an eel mixed with fpirit of wine, to be dropped in¬
to the ear ; others, equal parts of Hungary water and
fpirit of lavender. Etmuller extols amber and mulk j
and Brookes fays, he has often known hardnefs of hear¬
ing cured by putting a grain or two of mulk into the
ear with cotton wool. Where, however, an applica¬
tion with confiderable ftimulant power is neceffary,
camphorated oil, with the addition of a few drops of
volatile alkaline fpirit, may be confidered as one of the
bell. It is proper, how7ever, to begin with a fmall quan¬
tity of the alkali, increaling it as the ear is found to
bear it. In fome inltances, Avhere deafnefs depends on
a Hate of infenfibility in the nerves, eleftricity, parti¬
cularly under the form either of fparks, or of the elec¬
tric aura, has been employed with great fuccefs. Great
benefit has alfo in fome cafes been derived from galva-
nifm. But thefe and other applications muH be varied
according to the caufe of the diforder.
Though fuch applications may fometimes be of fer-
vice, yet they mucli oftener fail, and frequently they
do hurt. Neither the eyes nor ears ought to be tam¬
pered with ; they are tender organs, and require a very
delicate touch. For this reafon, what we would chief¬
ly recommend in deafnefs, is to keep the head warm.
From whatever caufe this diforder proceeds, this is al¬
ways proper 5 and more benefit has often been derived
from it alone, in the moH obffinate cafes of deafnefs,
than from any medicines whatever.
Genus XCVIII. ANOSMIA.
DcfcB of Smelling.
Anofmia, Scuiv. gen. 156. Lin. 113. Vog. 248.
Sag. 262.
Caifes. Morbid affections in the fenfe of fmelling,
may be confidered with refpeft to their caufes, as arif-
ing from one of two fources ; either from fome orga¬
nic affeClion of the parts here principally concerned,
or from a mere atonic Hate of the parts without any
obvious affeCtion. The fenfe of fmelling may be di-
miniihed or deffroyed by various difeafes of the parts j
as, the moiffure, drynefs, inflammation or fuppuration
of that membrane which lines the infide of the nofe,
common! v called the 0IfaBory membrane i the compref-
fion of the nerves which fupply this membrane, or Tome
fault in the brain itfelf at their origin. A deieCt, or
too great a degree of folidity, of the fmall fpongy
bones of the upper jaw, the caverns of the forehead,
&c. may likewife impair the fenfe of fmelling. It
may alfo be injured by a collection of fetid matter in
tliofe caverns, which keeps conffantly exhaling from
them. Few things are more hurtful to the fenfe of
fmelling than taking great quantities of fnuff.
Cure. When the nofe abounds with moiffure, after
gentle evacuations, fuch things as tend to take off ir¬
ritation and coagulate the thin fnarp ferum may be ap¬
plied ; as the oil of anife mixed with fine flour, cam-
phire diffolved in oil of almonds, &c. The vapours of
amber, frankincenfe, gum-maflic, and benzoin, may
likewife be received into the nofe and mouth. For
moiffening the mucus when it is too dry, fome recom¬
mend fnuff made of the leaves of marjoram, mixed with
oil of amber, and anifeed ; or a Hernutatory of calcined
fulphate of zinc, 12 grains of which may be mixed with
two ounces of marjoram-tvater and filtrated. The fleam
or vapour of vinegar throAvn upon hot iron received up
the noffrils is likewife of ufe for foftening the mucus,
opening obffruCIions, &c.
If there be an ulcer in the nofe, it ought to be
dreffed Avith fome emollient ointment, to AA’hich, if the
pain be very great, a little laudanum may be added.
If it be a venereal ulcer, it is not to be cured without
mercury. In that cafe, the folution of the corrofive
fublimate in brandy may be taken, as direCted in the
gutta ferena. The ulcer ought likeAvife to be walhed
Avith it; and the fumes of cinnabar may be received
up the noflrils.
If there be reafon to fufpeCl that the nen'es which
fupply the organs of fmelling are inert or Avant flimu-
lating, volatile falts, flfong fnuffs, and other things
which occafion fneezing, may be applied to the nofe.
The forehead may likewife be anointed with balfam
of Peru, to Avhich may be added a little of the oil of
amber.
Genus XCIX. AGEUSTIA.
Defect of Tasting.
Ageuflia, Sanv. gen. 157. Sag. 263.
Ageuffia, Lin. 114.
Apogeufis, Vog. 449.
Caufe. This difeafe alfo may arife either from an
organic affeflion, or an atonic Hate of the parts. The
tafle may be diminiffied by cruffs, filth, mucus, aphthee,
pellicles, Avarts, &c. covering the tongue ; it may be
depraved by a fault of the faliva, Avhich, being dif-
charged into the mouth, gives the fame fenfation as if
the food which the perfon takes had really a bad tafle *,
or it may be entirely deflroyed by injuries done to the
nerves of the tongue and palate. Fcav things prove
more hurtful either to the fenfe of tailing or fmelling
than obftinate colds, efpecially thofe Avhich affedi the
head.
Cure. When the tafte is diminilhed by filth, mu¬
cus, &c. the tongue ought to be fcraped, and fre¬
quently Avalhed with a mixture of Avater, vinegar, and
honey, or fome other detergent. When the faliva is
vitiated, Avhich feldom happens unltfs in fevers or
other difeafes, the curing of the diforder is the cure of
tills fymptom. To relieve it, however, in the mean
time, the folloAving pradliees may be of ufe : if there
be a bitter tafte, it may he taken array bv vomits,
purges, and other things Avhich evacuate bile: Avhat
is called a nidorous tafle, arifing from putrid humours,
is
pra&ice,
Oyforexise- is correcled by tlie juice of citrofis, oranges, and other
u^v—acids : a fait tafte is cured by plentiful dilution with
watery liquors: an acid tafte is deftroyed by abforbents
^and alkaline falls, as powder of oyfter-fliells, fait of
wormwood, &c.
Wheft the fenfibility of the nerves which fupply the
organs of tafte is diminiftied, the chexving of horfe-
radiih, and of other ftimulating fubftances, will help to
recover it.
,g7 Genus C. ANAESTHESIA.
T)efe£i of the Serife of FEELING.
Sauv. gen. 161. Lin. 218. Eoy, 267.
Caufes, &c. This fenfe may be hurt by any thing
that obftrufts the nervous fyftem, or prevents its being
regularly conveyed to the organs of touching, as pref-
fure, extreme cold, &c. It may likexvile be hurt by
too great a degree of fenftbility, when the nerve is not
fufficiently covered by the cuticle or fcarf-fkin, or where
there is too great a tenfton of it, or it is too delicate.
Whatever diforders the functions of the brain and
nerves, hurts the fenfe of touching. Hence it appears
to proceed from the fame general eaufes as palfy and
apoplexy, and requires nearly the fame method of treat¬
ment.
In a Jhipor, or defedt of touching, which arifes
from an obftrutftion of the cutaneous nerves, the pa¬
tient muft firft be purged; afterwards fuch medicines
as excite the a£tion of the nerves, or ftimulate the fy¬
ftem, may be ufed. For this purpofe, the fpirit of
hartfhorn, either by itfelf or combined with eflential
oils, horfe-radifti, &c. may be taken inwardly *, the
difordered parts, at the fame time, may be frequently
rubbed with frefli nettles or fpirit of fal ammoniac.
Blifters and finapifms applied to the parts will likexvife
be of ufe; and alfo warm bathing, efpecially in the na¬
tural hot baths.
441
are many circumftances which feem to render it pro- Bulimia,
bable that it more frequently arifes from a morbid
condition of the fecreted fluid poured into the ftoe
mach, by means of which the aliment is diflolved.
When the activity of this fluid is morbidly increafed,
it will both produce too ludden a folution of the folid
aliment, and likewife operate as a powerful and pecu¬
liar ftimulus to the ftomach, giving an uneafy lenfa-
tion, fimilar to that which takes place in natural hun¬
ger. Such things are proper for the cure as may en¬
able the ftomach to perform its office : chalybeates and
other tonics xvill generally be proper. In fome, brandy
drunk in a morning has been ufeful 5 and frequent
fmoking tobacco has relieved others. Oil, fat meat,
pork, opiates, and in fhort every thing which in a found
perfon xvould be moft apt to pall the appetite, may alfta
be ufed as temporary expedients, but cannot be ex-
pe&ed to perform a cure. In fome, the pylorus has
been found too large 5 in which cafe the dileafe mull
have been incurable.
Genus CII. POLYDIPSIA. S7#
Excessive Thirst.
Polydipfia, Sauv. gen. 224. Lin. 80. Vog. 275*
Sag. 336.
This is almoft always fymptomatic ; and occurs in
fever, dropfy, fluxes, &c. The cure is very generally
obtained only by the removal of the primary difeafe j
and it is belt palliated by the gradual introduction of
diluents : But when thefe ai-e contraindicated, it may
often be fuccelsfully obviated by fuch articles taken
into the mouth as have effect in augmenting the flow
of faiiva.
Genus CIII. PICA. 37*
Longing, or Falfe Appetite.
MEDICINE.
Order II. DYSOREXIAE.
Sect. I. AFPETIFllS ERRONF.I.
Morofitales, Sauv. Clafs VIII. Order II. Sag*
Clafs XIII. Order II.
Pathetici, Lin. Clafs V. Order II,
Hypersefthefes, Vog. Clafs VII.
Genus CL BULIMIA.
Insatiable Hunger, or Canine Appetite.
Bulimia, Sauv. gen. 223. Lin. 79. Sag. gen. 335.
Bulimus, Vog. 296.
Addephagia, Vcg. 297.
Cynorexia, Vog. 298.
This difeafe is commonly owing to fome fault in
the ftomach, by which the aliments are thrown out
too foon } and unlefs the perfon be indulged in his
delire for eating, he frequently falls into fainting fits.
Sometimes it is attended with fuch a ftate of the fto¬
mach, that the aliment is rejected by vomit almoft im¬
mediately after being fwallowed ; after which the ap¬
petite for food returns as violent as ever. But there
Vol. XIIL Part II.
Pica, Sauv. gen. 222. Sag. 334.
Citta, Lin. 78.
Allotriophagia, Vog. 299.
Malania, Vog. 3°o.
The pica is alfo very generally fymptomatic of other
difeafes, as of worms, chlorofis, pregnancy, &c. and is
therefore chiefly to be combated by the removal of the
primary afreftion. It may, however, be obferved, that
peculiar longings occurring in certain difeafes, as for
example in fevers, often point out a natural cure. The
indulgence of fuch appetites to a moderate degree is
feldom productive of any inconvenience, and often fol¬
lowed by the belt confequences.—Hence there are fome
praftitioners who think that fuch craving fliould very
generally be indulged; particularly when the patient
can afiign no reafon xv hat ever for fuch particular long¬
ings. but is merely prompted by an uncommon and in¬
explicable defire.
Genus CIV. SATYRIASIS.
Satyriafis, Sauv. gen. 228. Lin. 81. Sag. 340.
Satyrufs is a violent defire of venery in men, even
fo that reafon is depraved by it. The pulfc is quick,
and the breathing iliort; the patient is fleeplefs, thirfty,
3 K aird
442 M E D I
Byfore.Ucc.^ and loathes his food j the urine is evacuated with dif-
v ' -‘ ficulty, and a fever foon comes on. Thefe fymptoms,
however, are probably not fo much the confequence of
fatyriafis, as merely concomitant effedls refulting from
the fame caufe. And indeed this affedtion is moft
frequently the concomitant of a certain modification
of infanity. The nature and caufe of this affedlion
are in moft inftances very little afcertained; but as far
as wc are acquainted with the treatment, it agrees very
much with the affedlion next to be mentioned, which,
of the two, is the moft common occurrence.
373 Genus CV. NYMPHOMANIA.
Furor Uterinus.
Nymphomania, Sauv. 220. Sag. 241.
Satyriafis, Lin. 81.
The furor uterinus is in moft inftances either a
fpecies of madnefs or a high degree of hyfteries. Its
immediate caufe is a preternatural irritability of the
uterus and pudenda of women (to whom the diforder is
proper), or an unufual acrimony of the fluids in thefe
parts.—Its prefence is known by the wanton behaviour
of the patient: fhe {peaks and adls with unreftrained
obfcenity 5 and as the diforder increafes, fhe fcolds,
cries, and laughs, by turns. While reafon is retained,
file is filent, and feems melancholy, but her eyes dif-
cover an unufual wantonnefs. The fymptoms are bet¬
ter and worfe until the greateft degree of the diforder
approaches, and then by every word and adlion her
condition is too manifeft.—In the beginning a cure may
be hoped for \ but if it continue, it degenerates into a
mania.—In order to the cure, blood-letting is common¬
ly recommended in proportion to the patient’s ftrength.
Camphor in dofes of 15 or 20 grains, with nitre, and
fmall dofes of the tinfture of opium, fhould be repeated
at proper intervals. Some venture to give cerufa aceta-
ta in dofes from three to five grains. Befides bleeding,
cooling purges fhould alfo be repeated in proportion to
the violence of fymptoms, &c. What is ufeful in
maniacal and hypochondriac diforders, is alfo ufeful
here, regard being had to fanguine or phlegmatic ha¬
bits, See. When the delirium is at the height, give
opiates to compofe j and ufe the fame methods as in a
phrenitis or a mania. Injedions of barley-water, with
a fmall quantity of hemlock-juice, according to Rive-
rius, may be frequently thrown up into the uterus r
this is called; but matrimony, if poffible, fhould
be preferred. For although this cannot be reprefent*
ed as a cure for the difeafe when in an advanced ftate,
yet there is reafon to believe that it has not unfre-
quently prevented it where it would otherwife have
taken place.
374 Genus CVI. NOSTALGIA.
Vehement D ESI EE of REVISITING one's COUNTRT.
Noftalgia, Sauv. gen. 226. Lin. 83. Sag. 338.
1 his is to be reckoned a fpecies of melancholy j and
unlefs. it be indulged, it very commonly proves not
only incurable but even fatal. Although it cannot
be confidered as altogether peculiar to any nation,
yet it is obferved to be much more frequent with,
cine. praaicc
fome than with others ; and it lias particularly been Noftalgia,
remarked among Swifs foldiers in the fervice of foreign >
ftates. 6
Sect. II. AP PET ITUS DEFICIENTES.
Anepithymiae, Sauv. Clafs VI. Ord. II. Sap. IX.
Ord. II. &
Frivativi, Lin. Clafs VI. Order III.
Adynamiae, Vog. Clafs VI.
Genus CVII. ANOREXIA.
Want of Appetite.
Anorexia, Sauv. gen. 162. Lin. 116. Vog. 279.
Sag. 268.
The anorexia is fymptomatic of many difeafes, but'
feldom appears as a primary affedion j and it is very
generally overcome only by the removal of the affedion
on which it depends.
Genus CVIII. ADIPSIA.
Want of Thirst.
Adipfia, Sauv. gen. 163. Lin. 117. Vog. 281. Sag.
269.
This by Dr Cullen is reckoned to be always fymp¬
tomatic of fome diftemper affeding the fenforium com¬
mune.
37«
Genus CIX. ANAPHRODISIA.
Impotence to VENER T.
Anaphrodifia, Sauv. gen. 164. Sag. 270.
Atecnia, Lin. 119.
Agenefia, Vog. 283.
For this, fee the article Impotence in the alphabe¬
tical order.
Order III. DYSCINESLE.
Genus CX. APHONIA.
Lofs of Voice.
Aphonia, Sauv. gen. 166. Lin. 115. Vog. 253.
Sag. 272.
377
37S
379
The lofs of voice may proceed from various caufes.
If one of the recurrent nerves, which are formed by
the par vagum and the nervus accejjbrius, and reach
the larynx, be cut, the perfon is capable of only as it
were a half-pronunciation j but if both be cut, the
fpeeeh and voice are both loft. The lofs of fpeech
happening in hyfteric patients is alfo called aphonia;
but more properly that lofs of fpeech is thus named
which depends on fome fault of the tongue.
Since the motion of any part is deftroyed, or leffen-
ed at leaft, by the interception of the nervous fluid
in its paffage thither, and fince the nerves deftined for
the motion of the tongue arife principally from the
fifth pair, it appears that the feat of this diforder is in
the fifth pair of nerves, and that the immediate caufe
Practice. M Vj I
DyfeineHse. Is a diminution or total deftrutlion of the nervous
^ 1/ power in them. Hence a palfy of the tongue, which
is either antecedent or fubfequent to hemipleftic or apo-
pledlic diforders, demand our utmoft attention*
If an aphonia appears alone, it generally befpeaks
an approaching hemiplegia or apoplexy ; but if it fuc-
ceed thefe diforders, and is complicated with a weak
memory and a fluggifhnefs of the mental powers, it
threatens their return. That aphony ufually termi¬
nates the belt which proceeds from a ftagnation of
ferous humours comprefling the branches of the fifth
pair of nerves, which run to the tongue j but it is no
lefs affli&ive to the patient, and is very obftinate of cure.
Other caufes of this diforder are, the ftriking in of
eruptions on the fkin, a congeftion of blood in the
fauces and tongue, obftru&ed periodical evacuations in
plethoric habits, fpafmodic affe&ions, worms, a crumb
of bread falling into the larynx, fear, too free an ufe
of fpirituous liquors j alfo whatever deftroys the liga¬
ments which go from the arytsenoid to the thyroid car¬
tilages, will deftroy the voice.
The prognoJHcs vary according to the caufe. That
fpecies which is owing immediately to fpafms, foon gives
way on the removal of them. If a palfy of the tongue
be the caufe, it is Very apt to return, though relieved,
but often continues incurable.
In order to the cure, we muft: endeavour firft to re¬
move whatever obftrufts the influx of the nervous fluid
into the tongue, and fecondly to ftrengthen the weak
parts. Thefe general intentions, in all cafes, being re¬
garded, the particular caufes mull be removed by re¬
medies accommodated to each.
If worms be the caufe, antifpafmodics may give pre-
fent relief *, but the cure depends on the deftruftion or
expulfion of the animals themfelves. In cafe of a con¬
geftion of blood about the head, bleeding and nitrous
medicines are to be ufed.—That fpecies of aphony
which remains after the (hock of an hemiplegia or apo¬
plexy, requires blifters to be applied to the nape of the
neck ; if fpafmodic conftriftions about the fauces and
tongue be the caufe, external paregorics are of the
greateft fervice, anodyne antifpafmodics may be laid
under the tongue, and the feet bathed in Avarm wrater j
carminative clyfters alfo are ufeful.—When a palfy of
the tongue produces this complaint, evacuations, ac¬
cording to the patient’s habit, muft be made, and Atarm
nervous medicines muft be externally applied, and in¬
ternally adminiftered •, blifters alfo ftiould be placed be¬
tween the fhoulders.—In cafe of repelled cuticular erup¬
tions, fudorifics Ihould be given, and the patient’s drink
ftiould be warm. The fpiritus ammoniae fuccinatus, or
vinum antimonii, may be employed either in combina¬
tion with other articles, or by themfelves, and given
at proper diftances of time, in the patient’s drink,
or on a bit of fugar.—Sometimes the ferum Aoavs
fo rapidly to the fauces and adjacent parts, in a
falivation, as to deprive the patient of all power
to fpeak ; in this cafe diaphoretics and laxatives,
Avith a forbearance of all mercurials, are the fpeedieft
remedies.
.1*0
Genus CXI. MUTITAS.
Dumbness.
Mutitas, Sauv. gen. 165. Vog’. 257. Sag. 271.
CINE.
44.
Dumb people are generally born deaf; in Avhich Mutitas.
cafe the diftemper is incurable by medicine : though
even fuch people may be taught not only to read and
Avrite, but alfo to fpeak and to underftand what others
fay to them. From fome obfervations on the method
in which this has been accompliftied, Are may refer the
reader to the article Dumbness, in the alphabetical
order. But in thefe cafes, admitting of cure in the
manner above alluded to, the dumbnefs proceeds prin¬
cipally, if not folely, from the deafnefs. For Avhen it
proceeds from a defedt of any of the organs neceflary
for fpeech, the tongue for inftance, it is always incura¬
ble ; but if it arife from a palfy, the medicines applica¬
ble in that cafe will fometimes reftore the fpeech.
Genus CXII. PAR APHONIA. 3**
Change in the Sound of the Voice.
Paraphonia, Sauv. gen. 168.
Cacophonia, Sag. 274.
Raucedo, Lin. 146.
Raucitas, Vog. 252.
Afaphia, &c. Vog. 250, 251, 254, 255, 256.
The voice may be changed from various caufes. In
males it becomes much more hard about the time of pu¬
berty ; but this can by no means be reckoned a difeafe.
In others it proceeds from a catarrh, or Avhat avc call
a cold; it arifes alfo from affedlions of the nofe and pa¬
late, as polypi, ulcers, &c. in Avhich cafe the cure be¬
longs properly to Surgery. In fome it arifes from a
laxity of the velum pendulum palati and glottis, Avhich
makes a kind of fnoring noife during infpiration. The
cure of this laft cafe is to be attempted by tonics and
fuch other medicines as are of fervice in difeafes attend¬
ed Avith laxity.
Genus CXIII. PSELLISMUS. 38a
DefeSl in Pronunciation.
Pfellifmus, Sauv. gen. 167. Lin. 139. Sag* 273.
Traulotis, See. Vog. 258, 259, 260, 261.
Of this difeafe (if fuch it may be called), there are
many different kinds. Some cannot pronounce the let¬
ter S ; others labour under the fame difficulty Avith
R, L, M, K, &c. ; Avhile fome Avfio can Avith fufficient
cafe pronounce all the letters, yet repeat their Avords,
or the firft fyllables of them, in fuch a ftrange manner,
that they can fcarce be underftood. Very frequently
thefe defedts arife entirely from habit, and may then be
got the better of by thofe Avho have the refolution to
attempt it; as we are told that Demofthenes the cele¬
brated orator got the better of a habit of Hammering
by declaiming Avith pebbles in his mouth. Sometimes,
hoAVever, pronunciation may be impeded by a wrong
conformation of the tongue or organs of fpeech ; and
then it cannot by any pains Avhatever be totally re¬
moved.
Genus CXIV. STRABISMUS.
Squinting.
Strabifmus, Sauv. gen. 116. Lin. 304. Vog. 514.
Sag. 222.
3 K 2 Defeription.
3*3.
b •£*
44 ^
, -vi::ir!euae; D.fcription. This difeafe flimvs itfelf by an uncom-
' 111011 contraction of the raafcles of the eye j whereby
the axis of the pupil is drawn towards the nofe, temples,
forehead, or cheeks, fo that the ptrfon cannot behold an
object diredtly.
Caufts, Prognq/is, &c. I. This difeafe may proceed
from cultorn and habit j while in the eye itlelf, or ia
its mufcles, nothing is preternatural or defective.
Thus children by imitating thole that fquint, and
infants by having many agreeable objects prefented tq
them at once, which invite them to turn one eye to
one and the other eye to another, do frequently con¬
tract a habit of moving their eyes differently, which
■afterwards they cannot fo ealily correCt. Infants
likewife get a cuftom of fquinting by being placed
obliquely towards a candle, window, or any other-
agreeable objeCt capable of attracting their fight: for
though, to iee the objeCt, they may at firlt turn both
eyes towards it ) yet, becaufe fuch an oblique fituation
is painful and laborious, efpecially to the molt diftant
©ye, they foon relax one of the eyes, and content
themfelves with examining it with the eye that is
m.ext it •, whence arifes a diverfity of fituation ^nd a
habit of moving the eyes differently.
In this cafe, which may admit of a cure if not too
much confirmed, it is evident, that obje&s will be feen
. in the fame place by both eyes, and therefore muff
appear fingle as to other men ; but becaufe, in the eye
that fquinis, the image of the objeCI to which the
other eye is direCIed falls not on the mold fenfible and
delicate part of the retina, which is naturally in the
axis of the eye, it is cafy to fee that it muff be but.
faintly perceived by this eye. Hence it is, that white
they are attentive in viewing any objeCt, if the hand
be brought before the other eye, this objeCt will be
but obfeurely feen, till the eye change its fituation
and have its axis directed to it ; which change of fitu¬
ation is indeed very eafy for them, becaufe it depends
on the mufcles of the eyes, whofe functions are entire j
but, by reafon of the habit they have contracted’of
moving their eyes differently, the other eye is at the
fame time frequently turned afide, fo that only one at a
time is direCted to this objeCt.
II. The J} mb if thus may proceed from a fault in the
firlt conformation, by which the moft delicate and
leniible part of the retina is removed from its natural
fituation, which is direCtly qppofite to the pupil, and is
placed a little to a fide of the axis of the eye ; which
obliges fuch people to turn away the eye from the objeCt
they would view, that its piClure may fall on this moft
fenfible part of the organ.
When this is the cafe, the difeafe ip altogether in¬
curable, and the phenomena that arife therefrom differ
in nothing from the phenomena of the former cafe,
excepting only that here, r. The objeCt to which the
eye is not direCted will be belt feen *, which is the re-
verfe of what happens when this difeafe arifes barely
from habit and cuftom. 2^ No objeCt will appear
altogether clear and dirtinCt: for all objeCts to which
the eye is direCted, by having their image painted in
the retina at the axis of the eye, where it is not very
fenfible, will be but obfeurely feen ; and objeCts that
are placed fo far to a fide of the optic axis as is ne-
ceffarv for making their image fall on the moft fenfible
and delicate part of the retina, mult appear a little
MEDICI N E. PiaaiM
confufed, becaufe the feveral pencils of rays that come StrabifnnJ
tnmfrom fall, tuo obliquelv on the ervllalline tn ho -v—
tnmfrom fall, tuo obliquely on the cryllalline to be
accurately collected in fo many diftinct points of the
retina-j., though it muff be acknowledged, that this
confuiion will, for the moft part, be fo fmall as toefcape
unobferved.,
HI.. 1 his difeafe may proceed from an oblique po-
fition of the cryftaliine, where the rays that come di,
reClly to the eye from an objeCt, and that ought to
converge to the point of the retina, which is in the
axis of the eye, are, by reafon of the obliquity of the
cryftaliine, made to converge to another point on that
ffoe of the vifual axis where the cryftalline is moft
elevated; and therefore the objeCt is but obfeurely
feen, becaufe its image falls not on the retina at the
axis of the eye, where it is moft fenfible : But the
rays that fall obliquely on the eye, will after refrac¬
tion, converge to this moft fonfible part of the re¬
tina 5 and, by converging there, mull imprefs the
mind with a clear idea of the objeCt from u hence
they came. It is for this reafon that the eye ne¬
ver moves uniformly with the other, but turns away
from the objeCt it would vierv, being attentive to
the objeCt to which it is not direCted. When this is
the. cafe, it is in vain to expect any good from me¬
dicine.
The fymptoms which naturally arife from it are,
i. The objeCt to which the eye is direCted will be
but faintly feen, becaufe its image falls on the retina
where it is not very fenfible. 2. 'I he objeCt to which
the eye is not direCted, by having its image painted
on the retina at the axis of the eye, will be clearly-
perceived.. But, 3. This fame objeCt mult appear
feme what indifiinCt, becaufe the pencils of rays that
flow from it are not accurately collected in fo many
diftinCt points in the retina, by reafon of their oblique
incidence on tile cryftaliine. 4, It muff be feen, not
in its proper place, but thence ttanfiated to fome
other place fituated in the axis of vifion. And, 5. Be¬
ing thus tranfiated from its true place, where it is feen
by the other eye that does not fquint, it muft neceffa-
rily appear double ; and the diftance between the
places of its appearance ,vill be ftill greater, if the
cryftalline of the other eye incline to the contrary
fide.
IV. This difeafe may arife from an oblique pofi-
tion of the cornea p w hich, in this cafe, is gene¬
rally more arched and prominent than what it is na¬
turally.
When the eye has this conformation, no objeCI to
which it is direCted can be clearly feen, becaufe its
image falls not on the retina at the axis of the eye p
and therefore the eye turns afide from the objeCI it-
would view, that its image may fall on the moft fen¬
fible part of the retina.
When the ftrabifmus proceeds from this caufc, the
prognoftic and the phaenomena that attend it will be-
much the fame as in the cafe immediately preceding j
from which neverthelefs it may be diftinguilhed by.
the obliquity of the cornea, which is manifeft to the
fenfes, and if the cornea be alfo more arched and'
prominent than what it is naturally, which is common-'
ly the cafe, the eye will alfo be fhort-fighted.
V. This want of uniformity in the motions of our
eyes, may arife from a, dcfoCI, or any great weaknels
or
3ra£tice.
i.fcinefiaj. or imperfedion, in the fight of both or either of the
—eyes *, and this, according to Dr Porterfield, is the
xnoft common caufe of this difeafe. The prognoftic in
this cafe is the fame with that of the difeafe from which
it proceeds.
VI. Another caufe from wdiich the ftrabifmus may
proceed, lies in the mufcles that move the eye. When
any of thofe mufcles are too fhort or too long, too
tenfe or too lax, or are feized with a fpafm or paralyfis,
their equilibrium will be deftroyed, and the eye will
be turned towards or from that fide where the mufeles
are faulty.
In this cafe, the difeafe frequently yields to medi¬
cine, and therefore admits of favourable prognoftic •,
excepting only when, by a fault in the firit confor¬
mation, any of the mufcles are longer or Ihorter than
their antagonift ; in w'hich cafe, if ever it thould hap¬
pen, no medicine can be of any ufe.
As to what concerns the optical phrenomena, they
are the fame here as in cafe firft : only when the dif¬
eafe commences not till, by euftom and habit, the
uniform motion of the eyes has been rendered ne-
eeflarv, all objects do for fome time appear double 5
but in time they appear fingle.
LnJlhj, This want of uniformity in the motions of
o.ur eyes may proceed from a preternatural adhefion or
attachment to the eyelids : of this we have an inftanee
in Langius. And that the fame thing may alfo be r,e-
cafioned by a tumor of any kind within tire orbit,
prefling the eye aiide, and reftraining it from follow¬
ing the motions of the other, is fo evident, that in-
ftances need not be brought to prove it. Here al-
fi) the cafe may admit of a favourable prognoftic ;
and as for what concerns the optical phrenomena,
they mull be the fame as in the cafe immediately pre¬
ceding.
The cure, in confirmed cafes, is to be efte&ed
by mechanical contrivances, by which the perfon
may be obliged to look, ftraight upon objects, or not
fee them at all; or at leaft that he may fee with
uneafinefs and confufedly when he {quints. In the
68th volume of the Plulofophical Tranfaftions we have
an account of a confirmed cafe of fquinting of a very
uncommon kind. The patient was a bov of five vears
old, and viewed every objeft which was prefented to
him with but one eye at a time. If the objedt was
prefented on his right fide, he viewed it with his left
eye *, and if it was prefented on his left fide, he viewed
it with his right eye. He turned the pupil of that
eye which was on the fame fide with the objedt in
fuch a diredtion that the image of the objedt might
fall on that part of the bottom of the eye where the
optic nerve enters it. When an objedt was held di-
redlly before him, he turned his head a little to one
fide, and obferved it with but one eye, viz. that moft
di.lant from the objedt, turning away the other in
the manner above deferibed *, and when he became
tired of obferving it with that eye, he turned his lieadl
the contrary way, and oblerved it with the other eye
alone, with equal facility $ but never turned the axis
of both eyes on it at the fame time. He faw letters
which were written on bits of paper, fo as to name
them with equal eafe, and at equal diftances, with one
eye as with the other. There was no perceptible dif¬
ference. in the diameters of the irifes, nor in the con*
5,
445
tradlility of them after having covered his eyes from Strabifmus.
the light. Thefe obfervations were carefully made by *
writing fingle letters on ftireds of paper, and laying
wagers with the child that he could not read them
when they were prelented at certain diftances and in
certain diredtions.
As from thefe circumftances it appeared that there
was no defedt in either eye, which is frequently the
cafe with perfons who fquint, and hence that the dif¬
eafe was limply a depraved habit of moving his eyes,
the difeafe feemed capable of a cure. A paper gno¬
mon was made for this purpofe, and fixed to a cap j
and when this artificial nofe was placed over his reaL
nofe, fo as to projedt an inch between his eyes, the
child, rather than turn his head fo far to look at oblique
objedts, immediately began to view them with that eye
which was next to them. But having the misfortune
to lofe his father foon after this method was begun to
be followed, the child was negledted for fix years, du¬
ring which time the habit was confirmed in fuch a
manner as feemed to leave little room to hope for a
cure. The fame phyfician, however, being again cal¬
led, attempted a fecond time to remove the deformity
by a fimilar contrivance. A gnomon of thin brafs
was made to ftand over his nofe, with a half circle of
the fame metal to go round his temples : thefe were
covered with black filk, and by means of a buckle
behind his head, and a crofs piece over the crown of
his head, this gnomon was worn without any incon¬
venience, and projedted before his nofe about two
inches and a half. By the ufe of this machine he
foon found it lefs inconvenient to view all oblique ob-
jedts with the eye next to them than the eye oppofite
to them.
After this habit was weakened by a week’s ufe of
the gnomon, two bits of wood, about the lize of a
goofe quill, were blackened all but a quarter of an inch
at their fummits 5 thefe were frequently prefented to
him to look at, one being held on one fide the extre¬
mity of his black gnomon, and the other on the other
fide of it. As he viewed thele, they were gradually
brought forwards beyond the gnomon, and then one
Avas concealed behind the other : by thefe means, in an¬
other week, he could bend both his eyes on the fame
objedt for half a minute together ; and by continuing
the ufe of the fame machine, he was in a fair Avay of
being cured when the paper was written.
Dr Darwin, who writes the hiftory of the above cale,
adds, that all the other {quinting people he had occa-
fion to attend, had one eye much lefs perfedt than
the other : thefe patients, fays he, are certainly cure-
able by covering the beft eye many hours in a day •, as
by a more frequent ufe of the rveak eye, it not only
acquires a habit of turning to the objedts Avhich the
patient Aviihes to fee, but gains at the fame time a
more diftindt vifion j and the better eye at the fame
time feems to lofe fomeAvhat in both theft: refpedts,,
which alfo facilitates the cure.
Genus CXV. CONTRACTURA. 3^
ContrnSiions of the LlMBf.
Contradhira, Smv. gen. 119. Lin. 299. Sag. 225.
Qbftipitas, Stmt. gen. 1 J.
Caput
MEDICINE.
44*5 M E D I
Apocenofes.
1 —— v—■—> Caput obftipum, Pag. ^13.
Digitium, Vog. 221.
The contradtion of various mufcles of the body is
generally the confequence of fome other difeafe, as the
rheumatifm, gout, fcurvy, or palfy, efpecially that fpe-
cies of the latter which follows the co/ica PiEionum. It
is exceedingly difficult of cure *, though the warm me¬
dicinal waters are much recommended, and have fome-
times done great fervice. Of late eledtricity has been
found to perform furprifing cures in this way.
3S5 Order IV. APOCENOSES.
Apocenofes, Vog. Clafs 11. Ord. II.
Fluxus, Sauv. Clafs IX. Sag. Clafs V.
Morbi evacuatorii, Lin. Clafs IX.
W Genus CXVI. PROFUSIO.
Flux of Blood.
Profufio, Lin. 239.
Hsemorrhagia, Vog. 81. Boerh. 218.
The difeafe commonly known by the name of bloody
Jlux, is the putrid or contagious dyfentery, a difeafe
which has already been treated of. But independent
of the difcharge of blood which then takes place, hse-
morrhagy may take place from the alimentary canal
as well as from other parts of the fyftem. In fuch in-
ftances, however, if we except the place from which
the difcharge occurs, the phenomena are very much
the fame as in menorrhagia, haemoptyfis, and other
hsemorrhagies already treated of j while the difeafe is to
be combated on the fame principles and by the fame
remedies.
3S7 Genus CXVII. EPHIDROSIS.
ExceJJive Sweating.
Ephidrofis, Sauv. gen. 238. Sag. gen. I94«
Sudor, Lin. 208.
Hydropedefis, Vog- 121.
This is generally fymptomatic ; and occurs in al-
moft aR fevers, but efpecially in the latter Rages of
the hedtic. Sometimes it is a primary difeafe arifing
merely from weaknefs ; and then eafily admits of a cure
by the ufe of the cinchona, the cold bath, and other
tonics.
3*8 Genus CXVIII. EPIPHORA.
Flux of the Lachrymal Humour.
Epiphora, Sauv. gen. 259. Lin. 172. Vog. 99.
Sag. 195.
This by Sauvages is defcribed as an involuntary
effufion of tears without any remarkable itching, heat,
or pain. It follows long continued ophthalmias ; or
it may be occafioned by immoderate Rudy, or any
thing that weakens the eyes : hence it comes on about
the age of 50 years, when the eyefight naturally be¬
comes weak. ^ It in general grows worfe in the win-
i'er-time, and is very hard to cure. Some authors re-
CINE. Pradice,
commend purgatives, and bliRers on the nape of the Ptvaiifmm.
neck, in order to draw off the abundant humours •, but
as the difeafe evidently proceeds from wreaknefs, it
would rather feem proper to purfue a contrary method.
Sauvages recommends to the patients to abflain from
Rudy, wine, and faked meats ; and alfo to avoid fmoke
or wind, and at night to foment the eyes with an in-
fufion of four cloves in two ounces of proof-fpirit. 
Hungary water, rofe water with fulphate of zinc dif-
folved in it, See. have alfo been recommended.
Genus CXIX. PTYALISMUS. 3s0
Salivation.
Ptyalifmus, Sauv. gen. 261. Lin. 176. Vog. 103,
Sag. 197.
A falivation is often fymptomatic, but rarely a prima¬
ry difeafe. Dr Cullen is of opinion, that when the lat¬
ter happens to be the cafe, it arifes from laxity j and
then is to be cured by auringents and tonics. In the
Medical Tranfadlions we have the following account of
a falivation brought on by a foreign fubRance irritating
one of the parotid glands.
In the month of April 175D a young lady about
the age of 16 years, of a delicate habit, but fubjeft to
no particular complaints, perceived the beginning of a
difeafe which afterwards proved mod obflinate and
loathfome, viz. an inceffant fpitting. The quantity of
this difcharge was different at different times, varying
from one pint to two pints and a half in 24 hours.
As to its quality, it feemed to be no other than the or¬
dinary fecretion of the falival glands. By fo large and
conRant an evacuation, her Rrength became extreme¬
ly impaired, and the mod efficacious medicines had
proved ufelefs. She had taken large quantities of cin¬
chona, both alone and combined with preparations of
iron : and afterwards the fetid gums, opium, amber,
alum, and the Neville-Holt water, had in fucceffion
been given her. In the mean time an exaft regimen
had been preferibed : ffie had been ordered to ride con-
ftantly j and to confine herfelf to a mucilaginous diet,
fuch as veal, calves feet, &c. Likewife a gentle open¬
ing medicine had now and then been interpofed. The
difeafe Rill continued unaltered, ffie had afterwards
tried the tinBura falumina ; and had, at the fame time,
been encouraged to chew cinchona, and to fwallow the
faliva. But all thefe attempts had been vain; and after
ffie had taken fome or other of the medicines above
mentioned until the end of September 1753> namely,
above two years, it appeared to her phyfician, Sir George
Baker, unreafonable to expedt relief in fuch a cafe from
any internal medicines whatever.
He now conceived a fufpicion, that fome extrane¬
ous body having accidentally found its way into the
meatus auditorius, might poffibly be the caufe of this
extraordinary fecretion, by keeping up a continued ir¬
ritation in the parotid glands. With this view he ex¬
amined her ears, and extradled from them a quantity of
fetid wool. How, or when, it came thither, no ac-'
count could be given.
To this fubRance he attributed the beginning of the
falivation, notwithRanding'that the difeafe did not im¬
mediately abate on the removal of the wool j as it ap--
peared to be no improbable fuppofition that the dif-
i charge
MEDICINE.
’radice.
.pocenofes. charge might be continued by the force of habit, though
—-V ' the original caufe no longer remained.
It feemed, therefore, expedient to introduce fome
other habit, in the place of the increafed fecretion of
faliva ; which habit might afterwards be gradually left
off. With this intention, he prevailed on the patient
to chew perpetually a little dry bread, and to fwallow
it with her fpittle. In a few weeks, it became necef-
fary for her to chew the bread only at certain hours in
the day ; and thus, after two months, (lie became en¬
tirely free from a molt difguftful and tedious difor-
der.
It is worthy of obfervation, that, at firft, the fwallow-
ing of fo much faliva frequently occafioned a naufea ;
and that then, for a few hours, Hie was obliged to fpit
it out as ufual ; and that during the greateft* part of
the time, Avhen {he chewed the bread, Ihe had a {tool
or two every day more than common.
,9, Genus CXX. ENURESIS.
An involuntary FLUX of URINE.
Enurefis, Sauv. gen. 264. Lin. 195. Vog. 113.
Sag. 200.
This is a diftemper which frequently affe£ts chil¬
dren, otherwife healthy, when alleep •, and is extreme¬
ly difagreeable. Often it is merely the effect of lazi-
nefs, and may be driven off by proper correction ; but
fometimes it proceeds from an atony or weaknefs of
the fphindter of the bladder. Many ridiculous cures
have been prefcribed for it, and among the reft field-
mice dried and powdered. Tonics are frequently of
ufe; but fometimes the diftemper proves obftinate, in
fpite of every thing we can ufe. In the London Me¬
dical Obfervations we find blifters much recommend¬
ed in this difeafe when applied to the region of the os
facrum. A girl of 13 years of age had been fubjeCt
to an enurefis for four years. She could retain her
water but a very little while in the day-time, but it
flowed continually in the night. She had taken Peru¬
vian bark and elixir of vitriol in confiderable quantities j
alfo valerian and the volatile julep, without effeCl.
She was feverely threatened, as the phyfician fufpefted
it might arife from a bad habit 5 but this producing no
effeft, a blifter was applied to the os facrum, which in
24 hours totally removed the difeafe. A man aged 3 2,
having been feized with an incontinence of urine and
palfy of the lower extremities in confequence of tak¬
ing a quack medicine, was cured of the incontinence
of urine in 24 hours by one blifter, and of the palfy it-
felf by another. A woman of 50 having been feized
with an enurefis and paralytic affeftion of the right
thigh and leg in confequence of a fprain, was cured of
both by a fingle blifter. Several other cafes are men¬
tioned, by which the power of blifters in removing this
diftemper feems to exceed that of every other medi¬
cine whatever.
591 Genus CXXI. GONORRHOEA.
Gonorrhoea, Sauv. gen 208. Lin. 200. Vog. 118.
Sag. 204.
The gonorrhoea is a flux of vifcid matter of various
colours, from the urethra in men and the vagina in wo-
A
men. It commonly proceeds from coition with a
perfon infefted with the venereal difeafe, and is one of
the moft common forms under which that difeafe ftiows
itfelf.
Defcription. The firft fymptoms of the difeafe in
men are commonly a fenfation at the end of the penis
not unlike a flea-bite, together with a fulnefs of the
lips of the urethra, and fome degree of tenfion in the
penis, the urinary canal feeling as if tightened, and-
the urine flowing in a fmall and unequal ftream : a
little whitifti mucus is to be feen about the orifice of
the urethra, and oozing from it when {lightly preffed,
efpecially if the preffure be made on the fpot where the
forenefs is moft felt. The difcharge foon inereafes in
quantity, and varies in its colour according to the
degree of inflammation. The patient feels a fenfation
of heat and pain in evacuating his urine, particularly
at certain fpots of the urethra, and above all towards
its orifice \ and the involuntary ere£1 ions to which he
is fubjefted from the ftimulus, particularly when warm
in bed, occafion a diftortion or curvature of the penis,
attended with exquifite pain. When the inflammation
is violent, the glans appears tumid and tranfparent,
the tenfion extends through the whole of the penis,
the perinaeum is affefted with fwelling and rednefs, and
even the loins, buttocks, and anus, ft npathize and af¬
ford a very uneafy fenfation. Someumes the prepuce
inflames about the end of the penis, and cannot be
drawn back, occafioning wThat is called a phymqfis ; at
other times, as in the paraphymojis, it remains in an
inflamed ftate below the glans, fo that it cannot be
drawn forwards; and, if the ftridture and inflammation
be violent, may terminate in gangrene. Now and
then, efpecially when there is a phymofis, we may
perceive a hard chord extending along the back of the
penis. This is an inflamed lymphatic, and may be
confidered as a prelude to a bubo. When, however,
a bubo does appear, almoft univerfally fome ulceration
is previoufly to be difcovered about the prseputium,
or glans penis •, which gives ground to prefume that
fome other contagious matter befides that of gonor-
rhoea may have been applied to the urethra. For it is
certain that matter capable of communicating the con¬
tagion of gonorrhoea to a female, is often copioufly
applied to the whole glans penis of a male for feveral
days together, Avithout giving either ulceration or
bubo.
In mild cafes, the feat of the difeafe is in the urethra,
not far from its orifice *, but it frequently happens that
the virus infinuates itfelf much higher up, fo as to affedt
CoAvper’s glands, the proftate, and parts very near to the
neck of the bladder.
In the generality of cafes, the inflammation goes
on increafing for feveral days, commonly for a Aveek
or a fortnight ; after Avhich the fymptoms begin to
abate; and the running, Avhen left to itfelf, gradually
leffens in quantity, and becomes Arbiter and thicker,
till at length it totally flops. The colour of the mucus,
however, is by no means a certain guide in thefe cafes :
for in many patients it is of a yellowifli, and fome¬
times of a greenifti hue to the very laft ; but in gene¬
ral it becomes more confiftent toAvards the clofe of the
difeafe.
In Avomen, the external parts of generation being ,
fewer and more Ample, the difeafe is lefts complicated
than
446 M E D I
Apocenofes. than in men. Sometimes the vagina only is affecled *7
^ and when this happens, the fymptoms are very trifling:
but in general it comes on with an itching and fenfation
of heat as in the other fex $ and is attended with in¬
flammation of the nymphae, in fide of the Inbia, clitoris,
cantnculcT mjrtformes, the orifice and fometitnes the
whole of the meatus urinarius* Very often the deep-
feated glands of the vagina are affected, and it is fome-
times difficult to diftinguilh tlie difeharge of a go¬
norrhoea from that of the ffuor albus.
Caufos, &c. Many ingenious arguments have of
late been advanced to prove, that the gonorrhoea and
the lues venerea are different affe£tions, originating
ifrom two drftimft fpecies of virus } and this contro-
verfy ftill, perhaps, remains to be decided by future
fafts. Certain it is, that in 19 of 20 cafes of gonor¬
rhoea, no fymptom whatever of fiphylis appears j and
that the difeafe readily admits of cure without having
recourfe to thofe remedies which are univerfally requi¬
site for combating the contagion of fiphylis. It is by
no means wonderful, that in fome cafes both conta¬
gions, fuppofing them different, fhould be communi¬
cated at the fame time. Nay, cafes are by no means
rare, ivhere the contagion of itch, though effentially
different from both, has been communicated with ci¬
ther. But as undeniable proof that the contagion in
both cafes is precifely the fame, it has been alleged by
fome, that the matter of a chancre introduced into the
urethra will generate a gonorrhoea, and that the dif¬
eharge from a gonorrhoea will produce chancre, bubo,
and every other fymptom of fiphylis. On the other
hand, however, it is contended, that when experiments
of this nature are conducted with the greateft accu¬
racy, the matter of fiphylis uniformly produces fiphy¬
lis, and that of gonorrhoea, gonorrhoea only. With¬
out pretending to decide on which of thefe experi¬
ments the greateft dependence is to be put, we may
only obferve, that while an almoft inconceivably fmall
portion of fiphylitie matter applied to the glans penis,
from connexion with an infected female, infallibly
produces fiphylis if it be not fpeedily removed, the
matter of gonorrhoea, in every inftance of that difeafe,
is applied to the whole furface of the glans penis for
many days together without producing almoft any bad
effe6t whatever. From this, therefore, there is ground
for inferring, either that it is not capable of being ab-
forbed, or that if abforbed it is innocent.
But while there have been difputes with regard to
the peculiar nature of the matter in gonorrhoea, there
have alfo been controverfies with refpeft to the fource
from whence it is derived. While fome fuppofe it to
be principally purulent matter arifing from ulcerations,
others aflert that no fueh ulceration is ever produced iti
the urethra by gonorrhoea. They contend that the in-
creafed fecretien in thefe cafes is exactly limilar to
what happens in the catarrh. But the comparifon
will by no means hold good in every particular: in the
latter the whole membrane of the nofe is equally irri¬
tated whereas in the gonorrhoea, only particular parts
of the urethra feem to be a fit* tied. The difeafe, in
the generality of cafes, feldom extends more than an
inch and a half along that canal, and in many is con¬
fined (at leaft in the beginning) to a fmall fpot about
an inch from the extremity of the glans. The dif-
CINE. Pradicc,
charge is produced from that part 0? the urethra where Gonorrhcea
the pain is felt j and the patient, when he voids his ‘'"•“■v-—1
mine, feels no fmarting till it reaches the inflamed fpot:
but as the diforder increafes, the inflammation aftefts
a greater number of points, juft in the lame manner aa
chancres affe<ft different parts of the glans. It might
be fuppofed that dilieftion would at once clear up this
matter, and put an end to the difpute j but this is far
from being the cafe. Dr Simmons has feen feveral
urethras opened in perfons who had a gonorrhoea at
the time of their death : in three of them the furface
of the urethra, as un the cafes related by Morgagni,
appeared for fome way down of a llight red colour,
and in all of them was covered w ith mucus j but with¬
out any appearance of ulceration, except in two diflec¬
tions at Paris, in which moft of the gentlemen prefent
were convinced that they faw evident marks of it:
but Dr Simmons lays that the appearances W'ere to
him not fufficiently fatisfafrory to enable him to decide
with certainty on the fubjetft. On the other hand,
when we confider that the difeharge in a gonorrhcea is
fometimes tinged with blood, and that when this hap¬
pens a little blood veffel is no doubt ruptured, we
can have nq reafon to doubt that an ulceration may,
and fometimes does, happen in thefe cafes 5 efpecialiy
as we often obferve an excoriation near the orifice of
the urethra. It is certain, that uherever there is con-
fiderable inflammation, there will be danger of ulcera¬
tion. Befides, from a negle&ed or badly-treated go¬
norrhoea, avc often fee fiitulas in perinea, and other ul¬
cers of the urethra, penetrating through its fubftance,
and affording a paflage to the urine. And there can
be no doubt that flight ulcerations of this canal often
occur, and are afterwards perfeftly obliterated, in a
fimilar manner to what happens in the papillae of the
tongue, the tonfils, &c. Such an obliteration will
the more readily take place in a part like the urethra,
defended with mucus, and not expofed to the air,
which is known to have no little eft'eft in hardening a
cicatrix.
But whether ulcers take place or not, whether the
virus of gonorrhoea be precifely of the fame kind with
that which gives fiphylis, or of a different kind, there
is reafon from the phenomena of the difeafe to con¬
clude, that the matter firft acts by mixing with the
mucus at the extremity of the urethra ; and that from
thence it is propagated uprvards, particularly where the
excretories of mucus are moft numerous •, and that on
the parts to -which it is applied, it operates as a peculiar
irritating caufe. The confequences of this irritation
will be inflammation and an increafed fecretion of
mucus 5 and fo fat the complaint will be local. In
ninety-nine cafes of an hundred, a local affection of this
kind conftitutes the whole of the difeafe ; and of this
inflammation, ulcerations within the urethra, ftrfelures,
and other local affc&ions, may be the confiquence.
But whether a difeafe of the habit ever takes place,
unlefs when the contagion of fiphylis is communicated
with that of gonorrhoea, ftill remains to be determined
by future obfervations and experiments.
Nothing can be more variable than the period at
which the difeafe makes its appearance after infeftion-
Perhaps, at a medium, vre may place it between the
4th and 14th day : but in fome cafes it happens within
>4
practice. M E D I
Apocenofei. 24 hours j and in olliers, not before tlie end of five or
ul—v 1 ~ ' even fix rveeks : neither of thefe extremes, however,
are common.
From what has been faid of the manner in which
the contagious matter in gonorrhoea a£ts, and of the
influence it exerts on thofe parts with which it comes
in contact, it follows, that the prevention of gonor¬
rhoea mull depend on the removal of the contagious
matter, as foon as that can be done 5 and where this is
either altogether neglected or not properly accomplifh-
ed, that the cure mull depend on counteracting the in¬
flammation which this contagious matter excites, and
the confequences which refult from it.
The firft of thefe intentions may be moft certainly
and moft eafily accomplifhed by careful lotion of all
the parts to which the contagious matter has any
chance of being applied. Thefe parts, at leaft on the
firfi: application of the matter, are readily accefiible :
for even in men there is no reafon to believe that it
at firft penetrates to any extent in the urethra. This
waihing of the parts fhould be performed as foon as
pofiible ; becaufe then the matter is both moft ac-
ceffible and leaft involved with mucus: but although
wafhing cannot be accomplifhed at an early period, it
fhould not be negleCted afterwards 5 for from the dif-
eafe uniformly commencing, even when it does not
appear till a confiderable time after the application of
the contagious matter, with a peculiar fenfe of titilla-
tion at the external parts, particularly in men at the
extremity of the urethra, there is reafon to believe that
the contagious matter attached to the mucus may re¬
main latent there for a very confiderable time. For
the purpofe of wafhing, with a view to the prevention
of this difeafe, recourfe may be had to almoft any wra-
tery fluid, provided it be not fo flimulant as to pro¬
duce bad effedls from injuring the parts. Pure water,
properly applied, is perhaps one of the befl: lotions •,
but there can be no doubt that its powTer in removing
the contagious matter may be fomewhat increafed by
fuch additions as render it a more powerful folvent of
mucus. With this intention, one of the moft power¬
ful additions is the vegetable alkali, either in its mild or
cauftic ftate. In the latter ftate it is the moft adtive,
but in the former it is moft fafe ; and the carbonas pot-
ajfce of the Edinburgh pharmacopoeia, to the extent
of half a dram, dilfolved in fix or eight ounces of
water, is one of the belt lotions that can be employed.
The purpofe of removing the contagion may often alfo
be effedtually anfwered from wafhing rvith water im¬
pregnated with foap ; for there the alkali, though in
a cauftic ftate, is prevented from exerting any difa-
greeable effedts, in confequence of its being combined
with oily matters.
With the view of preventing gonorrhoea, fome have
advifed, that the alkali either in its mild or cauftic
ftate, properly diluted with water, fhould be injedted
into the urethra : and there can be no doubt, that by
this means the contagious matter, when it has entered
the urethra, may be removed. A removal may alfo
be effedted by the in]cdtion of a weak folution of cor-
rofive fublimate, which feems to adt not by diffolving
the mucus but by producing an augmented fecretion.
But at a very early period of the dileafe, injedfions are
probably unneceffary •, and if it has made any confide¬
rable progrefs, they are dangerous : for from the aug-
Vol. XIIL Part II.
CINE.
449
mented fenfibility of the part, even very gentle ones are Gonorrhoea,
apt to excite a high degree of inflammation. v
There are pradlitioners who, fuppofing that the body
poflefies powers to expel the virus, and that the difeafe
has a certain period to run through its feveral flages of
progrefs, acme, and decline, are for leaving the cure to
nature 5 or at leaft content themfelves with affifting her
by an antiphlogiftic regimen, gentle evacuations, and
the like.
That in many cafes the diforder admits of a natural
cure, there can be no doubt; the increafed fecretion of
mucus carrying off the virus fafter than it is formed,
till at length the infedlion is wholly removed : But it
is equally certain, that in every cafe, by the applica¬
tion of fuitable remedies to the inflamed part, we may
fhorten the duration of the complaint, and abridge the
fufferings of the patient, with the fame certainty and
fafety as we are enabled to remove the effefts of an
ophthalmia or any other local inflammation, by proper
topical applications. General remedies, fuch as occa-
fional blood-letting, a cooling diet, the liberal ufe of
diluting liquors, and mild purges, are by all allowed
to be ufeful, and even neceffary. Aftruc W'as of opi¬
nion that in thefe cafes blood-letting ought to be re¬
peated five or fix times *, and there are ftill many prac¬
titioners who depend much on repeated evacuations of
this fort for a removal of the inflammation. But there
is, perhaps, not one cafe in ten in w hich it is at all re-
quifite ; and this fmall number of cafes will confift only
of the ftrong and plethoric : in fuch, when the chordee
is frequent and painful, and the pulfe hard and full,
the lofs of from eight to twelve ounces of blood will be
beneficial, but it will be feldom necefiary to repeat the
operation. The inflammation in thefe cafes is kept up
by the local ftimulus of the virus and the urine \ and
all that we can expeff from venefeftion is to moderate
the pain and the frequency of ereflion. In perfons of a
delicate habit, and of an irritable fibre, the evacuation
wfill do no good j but if repeated will certainly be liable
to do harm, by increafing irritability, and of courfe
rendering the patient more fufceptible of ftimulus.
The utility, and even the necefiity, of a cooling re¬
gimen, are fufficiently obvious; wine and fpirituous
liquors, fpiceries, a fifti-diet, much animal-food, and
falted and high-feafoned difhes of every fort, will con-
ftantly add to the complaint. The patient fhould eat
meat only once a-day, and that fparingly. He fnould
abftain from hot flippers. Milk, mild vegetables, and
fruit, Ihould conftitute the principal part of his diet
while the inflammatory fymptoms continue. Every
thing that tends to excite the venereal imagination
ftiould be ftudioufly avoided ; for whatever promotes
ere&ions of the penis will increafe the inflammation,
and of courfe add fuel to the difeafe. For the fame
reafons much walking or riding on horfeback will be
hurtful, from the irritation kept up in the perinaeum
by fuch means. Violent exercife of any kind, or any
thing that is liable to increafe the heat and the momen¬
tum of the blood, will of courfe be improper.
The drinking freely of mild, cooling, mucilaginous
liquors, fuch as linfeed-tea, orgeat, whey, milk and
water, almond emulfion, and the like, wrill be extreme¬
ly ufeful, by diluting the urine, and preventing its falls
from ftimulating the urethra. When the heat and pain
in making water are very confiderable, mucilaginous
3 L fubftances
45° M E D I
^ P ' ^7‘C" S found to have the beft eifecf, particularly
the gum tragacanth. It is a common practice to give
equas quantities of this gum or gum-arabic and nitre,
and to diilolve nitre in the patient's drink, with a view
to leden the inflammation. JBut in thele cafes nitre is
always improper it is known to be a powerful diure¬
tic, its chief adtion being upon the urinary paflages ; fo
that the ftimulus it occalions will only lerve to increafe
the evil it is intended to alleviate. Supertartrite of
potafs, on account of its diuretic quality, -will be equal¬
ly improper. Our view here is not to promote a pre¬
ternatural flow of urine ; for the virus, being infoluble
in water, cannot eaflly be walked away by fueh means;
but our object ought to be, to render the urine that is
lecreted as mild and as little ttimulating as poflible.
^ Mild purges, which conftitute another material part
«f the general remedies, are no doubt extremely ufeful
when exhibited with prudence; but it is well known
that the abufe of purgative medicines in this difeafe
has been productive of numerous evils. Formerly it
v/as a pretty general pradtice to give a large dofe of
calomel at bed time, three or four times a-week ; and
to work it off the next morning with a Itrong dofe
of the pihiLe coccite, or fome other drallic purge. This
method was perfevered in for feveral weeks : in confe-
quence of which the patient often found himfelf trou¬
bled with an obttinate gleet, and perhaps his conftitu-
tion materially injured; the effea of fuch a method
being (efpecially in irritable habits) to weaken the
ftomach and bowels, and lay the foundation of hypo-
chondrial complaints. Violent purging likewife often
occafions fttangury, and other troublefome fymptoms.
The cathartics employed in thefe cafes fliould be
gentle; fuch as Rochelle fait, manna, tartarifed alkali,
and the like. 1 hey thould be given only in a dofe fuf-
fieient to procure two or three ftools, and be repeated
only every two or three days. The daily ufe of the
purgative eledluaries that are ftill given by Ibme prac¬
titioners, ferves only to keep up a continual irritation
on the bladder, and of courfe to prolong the inflam¬
mation.
The topical remedies that are ufed con lift chiefly of
different torts of injedtions, the ingredients of which are
extremely various ; but their modes of operation may
in general be referred to their mucilaginous and feda-
tive, or to their detergent, ftimulating, and aftringent
qualities. In the hands of Ikilful pradiitioners, great
advantages may doubtlefs be derived from the ufe of
thefe remedies ; but, on the other hand, the improper
and unfeafonable adminiftration of them may prove a
fource of irreparable mifcliief to the patient.
We know that mucilaginous and oilv injedtions will
tend to allay the local inflammation ; and that a feda-
tive injedlion, fueh as a folution of opium, will Men
the irritability of the parts, and of courfe produce a
fimilar effedt; the utility of fuch applications is there¬
fore fufficiently obvious.
A detergent injection, or one that will add upon the
mucus of tlie urethra, inereafe the difeharge of it, walk
it awav, and with it the venereal virus that is blended
with it, can only be ufed as a prophyladtic before the
fymptoms ot infedlion have made their appearance.
But great eircumfpedtion is neceffary in the ufe of
this kind of injt&ion. If it be too weak, it can
be of no efficacy ; and if it be too ftrong, it may prove
C 1 N E- . Pradie,
dangerous to the patient. A fuppreffion of urine has Conorrhoe
been brought on by the improper ufe ot an injedtion of
this kind. When the fymptoms of inflammation have
once made their appearance, the ftimulus of fuch an in¬
jedtion muff be extremely hazardous. Excoriation of
the urethra has but too often been produced by remedies
of this fort in the hands of adventurous and unlkilful
pradtitioners.
While the inflammation of the urethra continues
every thing that ftimulatts it mult be hurtful. If the
injedtion excites a painful fenlation in the urethra, as is
but too often the cafe, it will be liable to produce 1 well¬
ed tellicles, difficulty in making' water, excoriation, and
other efledts of increafed inflammation : if, by its alirin-
gency, the running be cheeked before the virus that
excited the difeharge be properly fubdued, the patient
will be expofed to frelli dangers ; and perhaps to a va¬
riety of local complaints, fuch as obltrudtions in the
urethra, and abfeefles in pennao, which are well known
to be fometimes owing to applications of this fort im¬
properly managed.
When the inflammation has fubfided, gently ftimu¬
lating and aftringent injedtions may be uled with fafe-
ty, and with conliderable advantage : for as the in-
flammation is at firft excited by the ftimulus of the ve¬
nereal virus, fo when the former begins to Men, we
may be affured that the adlivitj of the latter has abated
in proportion ; and, in general, when the inflamma¬
tory fymptoms are entirely removed, it will be found,
that the mucus is no longer of an infedtious nature,
but is merely the effedl of an increafed fecretion and
of relaxation. Mild aftringents will therefore ferve to
brace and ftrengthen the veffels feereting mucus, and
in this way will lefi'en the difeharge, and greatly pro¬
mote the cure. It is certain, that in the greater num¬
ber of cafes, a gonorrhoea, which if treated by internal
remedies alone, would continue for five or fix weeks,
or longer, may, when judicioufly treated with injec¬
tions, be cured in a fortnight, and very often in lefs
time. The great aim, therefore, of the pradlitioner
ought to be at firft to make ufe of fuch injedlions only
as will tend to lubricate the furface of the urethra, and
to counteradl and deftroy the ftimulus of the virus : as
the inflammation abates, he may add fome gently aftrin¬
gent preparation to a mucilaginous and fedative injec¬
tion ; taking care that its aflringency be fuited to the
ftate of the difeafe, and to the irritability of the pa¬
tient. Amongft a great variety of fubftanees, mer¬
cury in different forms is one of thofe that is the moft
frequently employed in injedlions. All thefe mercurial
injedlions have more or lefs of aftringeney ; and, ac¬
cording to Dr Simmons, it is folely to this property
that we are to aferibe their effedts ; for the idea of
their corredfing the venereal virus was originally in¬
troduced, and has, he thinks, been continued, upon mif-
taken principles.
Calomel, mixed with the mucus difeharged in a go¬
norrhoea, has no more power in deftroying the infec¬
tious properties of that mucus than ceruffe or any other
preparation would have. A diluted folution of lubli-
mate injedled into the urethra, will, like a folution of
verdigrife, or blue vitriol, or any other ftyptic, con-
ftringe the mouths of the lacunae ; but this is all that
it will do, for it will never leflen the infedlious nature
of the virus. The fame thing may be obferved 02
crude
Practice.
MEDICINE.
/Vpoceno.cs. crude rucrcury cxtmgindied by means of mucilage, or
l—-v ' of mercurial ointment, blended with the yolk of an egg,
and which, when thrown up into the urethra, will act
nearly in the fame manner as balfam of copaiva, or any
other ftimulating injedion. The llimulus of mercury,
however, has often been found of coltflderabie efficacy •,
and in women, when the vagina only was affected, af¬
ter walking the parts well, the cure has been accom-
pliihed by rubbing them repeatedly with mercurial
ointment.
As the gonorrhoea is only a local affeftion, it may
be inferred, that the internal ufe of mercury is unne-
ceffary towards the cure. Very often indeed this com¬
plaint may be removed without having recourfe to mer¬
curials. Sometimes patients have been met with whofe
general health has been greatly impaired by a long con¬
tinued ufe of mercury in fuch cafes, while the original
difeafe, the gonorrhoea, was rendered much worfe by
it. In fome it has degenerated into a gleet, that v'as
cured with extreme difficulty ; in others it has brought
on a variety of dillreffing fymptoms. In cafes of gonor¬
rhoeas, therefore, whenever mercury is adminiftered, it
ought to be, not with a vie w to expedite the cure, but
merely to obviate the dangers of fyphilis. When the
infection is apparently flight, and the inflammation and
the fymptoms trifling, we may proceed without the af-
filtance of mercury, efpecially if the patient be of a
rveak, relaxed, and irritable habit, likely to be injured
by mercurial medicines. On the other hand, when the
difeharge is violent, the inflammation conllderable, or
the feat of the difeafe high up in the urethra, it is per¬
haps the moft prudent plan to give mercurials in fmall
dotes, and in fuch forms as feem the bell adapted to the
conflitution of the patient.
The pilules hijdrargyn, as prepared according to the
receipts inferted in the lail edition either of the Lon¬
don or Edinburgh Pharmacopoeias, in both of which
the mercury is rendered aftive merely by triture, may
perhaps be confidered as one of the mildeft and moft
sfficacious forms under which mercury can be exhibited
by the mouth. Its efficacy will depend on its not ir¬
ritating the boivels, and thus palling off by ftool •, care
muft likewife be taken to prevent its affe<fting the
mouth. Of the chemical preparations of mercury, the
mildeft and leaft irritating is calomel. It may be given
from gr. ift. to gr. iii. at bed-time, occaftonally inter-
poling a mild purgative to prevent it from falivating ;
but in general the mercurial pill juft mentioned is to be
preferred.
When there is no chancre nor bubo, no appearance
in Ihort of fypbilitic infection, it would be improper
to adminifter corrolive fublimate, the mercurius calci-
natus, or any other of the more acrid preparations of
mercury.
After a gonorrhoea proceeding from venereal caufes
has been removed, another kind of running without
pain, called the gonorrhoea mucofa, or gleet, fometimes
remains. Sometimes it arifes from a conftridlion and
excoriation of the urethra, and frequently it is the ef¬
fect of an enlargement and difeafed ftate of the pro-
ftate. In each of thefe cafes, as the gleet is the effeeft
of irritation, the cure will depend on the removal of
the local difeafe that occafions it. But there is ano¬
ther fpecies of gleet that feems to depend chiefly on
relaxation. It is in general free from infection, and
is moft common in thofe who have had long and fre- Obf
quent gonorrhoeas. It is likewife often the effect of a
debilitated habit, from fevere purging, or a long con¬
tinued ufe of mercurials. A difeharge of this kind is
more frequent in women than in men ; or, at lealt, the
fluor albus, after a gonorrhoea, will often be miftaktn
for a gleet.
When there is no reafon to fufpedt remaining con¬
tagion, aftringent inieftions will be of the greateft fer-
vice. It will be neceffary, at the fame time, to attend
to the health of the patient, by employing cinchona,
chalybeate waters, cold bathing, and fuch other reme¬
dies as will tend to flrengthen the fyftem : and indeed
by the ufe of thefe, particularly by the cinchona, Inch
runnings are often fuccefsfully combated in thofe who
from appreheniion of dangerous confequences cannot be
prevailed upon to employ inje&iofts. When there is
no tendency to inflammation, the balfam of coprflva may
be preferibed with advantage in large dofes. Lir Sim¬
mons fays he once faw a complaint of this fort removed
by applying a blifter to the perinseum, after it had re¬
filled a variety of other remedies. In the Medical Ob-
fervations alfo we have an account of-a 'fleet and in-
continence of urme removed at once by a blifter to the
os faerum. In general, however, the other methods
above mentioned will be fufficient to remove it, though
fometimes it will continue for a long time in fpite of all
our endeavours to check it.—Other kinds of gonorrhoea,
in which the femen itfelf is ejedled, efpecially during
fleep, may be cured by tonics and a mild cooling regi-
taen.
Order V. EPISCHESES.
Genus CXXII. OBSTIPATIO. 323
Costiveness.
Obftipatio, Zfrz. 166. Vog. 128. Sag. 221.
Coftivenefs is fometimes occafloned by debility in
dyfpeptic perfons, fometimes it is the effect of rigi¬
dity, and fometimes it is fymptomatic of the colic.
It may proceed from an affe£tion of the liver ; drink¬
ing rough red wines, or other aftringent liquors ; too
much exercife, efpecially on horfeback : it may like¬
wife proceed from a long ufe of cold infipid food, w hich
does not lufficiently ftimulate the inteftines. Sometimes
it is owing to the bile not defeending to the inteftines,
as in the jaundice; and at other times it proceeds from
difeafes of the inteftines themfelves, as a palfy, fpafms,
tumors, &c.
Exceffive coftivenefs is apt to occafion pains of the
head, vomiting, colics, and other complaints of the
bowels. It is peculiarly hurtful to hypochondriac and
hyfteric perfons, as it generates wind and other diltref-
fing fymptoms.
Perfons who are generally coflive Ihould live upon
a moiftening and laxative diet ; as roafted or boiled
apples, pears, ftewed prunes, raiflns, gruels, with cur¬
rants, butter, honey, fugar, and fuch like. Broths
with fpinage, leeks, and other foft pot-herbs, are like¬
wife proper. Rye-bread, or that which is made of a
mixture of wheat and rye together, ought to be ea!en.
No perfon troubled with coftivenefs Ihould eat white
bread alone, efpecially that which is made t>f fine
3 L 2 flour.
451
ipat’o*
392
452 M E D T
Epifcheies. f]our# ^ The befl bread for keeping the belly foluble is
ivhat in fome parts of England they call tnejlin. It is
made of a mixture of wheat and rye, and is very agree¬
able to thofe who are accuitomed to it.
Coftivenefs is increafed by keeping the body too
warm, and by every thing that promotes the perfpira-
tion 5 as wearing flannel, lying too long in bed, &c.
Jntenfe thought, and a fedentary life, are likewife hurt¬
ful. All the fecretions and excretions are promoted by
moderate exercife without doors, and by a gay, cheer¬
ful, fprightly temper of mind.
'1 he drink fliould be of an opening quality. All ar¬
dent fpirits, auftere and aftringent wines, as port, cla¬
ret, &c. ought to be avoided. Malt liquor that is fine
and of a moderate ftrength is very proper. Butter-milk,
whey, and other watery liquors, are likewife proper,
and may be drank in turns, as the patient’s inclination
dir efts.
Thofe who are troubled with coftivenefs ought, if
poflible, to remedy it by diet, as the conftant ufe of me¬
dicines for that purpofe is attended with many incon¬
veniences, and often with bad confequences. In time
the cuftom becomes neceflary, and generally ends in a
total relaxation of the bowels, indigeftion, lofs of appe¬
tite, wafting of the ftrength, and death.
The learned Dr Arbuthnot advifes thofe who are
troubled with coftivenefs to ufe animal oils, as frefti-
buttcr, cream, marrow, fat broths, &c. fie likewife
recommends the exprefled oils of mild vegetables, as
olives, almonds, piftaches, and the fruits themfelves ;
all oily and mild fruits, as figs; decoftions of mealy ve¬
getables ; thefe lubricate the inteftines ; fome faponace-
ous fubftances which ftimulate gently, as honey, hydro-
mel, or boiled honey and water, unrefined fugar, &c.
are ufeful.
The doftor obferves, that fuch lenitive fubftances
are proper for perfons of dry atrabiliarian conftitutions,
who are fubjeft to aftriftion of the belly and the piles,
and will operate when ftronger medicinal fubftances are
fometimes ineffeftual; but that fuch lenitive diet hurts
thofe whofe bowels are weak and lax. He likewife ob¬
ferves, that all wTatery fubftances are lenitive ; and that
even common water, whey, four milk, and butter-milk,
have that effeft :—That new milk, efpecially alfes milkj
ftimulates ftill more when it fours on the ftomach; and
that whey, turned four, will purge ftrongly :—That
moft part of fruits are likewife laxative ; and that fome
of them, as grapes, will throw fuch as take them im¬
moderately, into a cholera morbus, or incurable diar¬
rhoea.
When the body cannot be kept open without medi-
cine, gentle dofes of rhubarb may be taken twice or
thrice a-week. This is not near fo injurious to the fto¬
mach as aloes, jalap, or the other draftic purgatives fo
much in ufe. Infufions of fenna and manna may like¬
wife be taken, or half an ounce of tartarifed alkali dif-
folved in water gruel. About the fize of a nutmeg of
lenitive eleftuary taken twice or thrice a-day, generally
anfwers the purpofe very well.
354 Genus CXXIII. ISCHURIA.
Suppression of Urine.
Ifchuria, Sauv. gen. 293. Lin. 167. Vog. 129.
Sag. 212. Home's Clinical Experiments, feft. xv.
3
CINE.
R his difeafe is diftinguilhed
according as the feat of it is
ureters, the bladder, or the urethra; and hence .
fpecies are named renalis, are l eric a, vejica/is, and
thralis.
Pra&ice.
into various fpecies, Ifchuria.
in the kidneys, the
thefe
urc-
1. Ifchuria renalis, or a fuppreflion of urine from an 39c
afteftion of the kidneys, happens but rarely ; however.
Dr Home in his Clinical Experiments deferibes fuch
a cafe. In the end of December 1774, a man of a
full habit, aged 33, was feized with fhivering, cold-
nefs, and feverc cough. Three days after, his urine
appeared high-coloured, was paffed with pain, and
in fmall quantity. About the 8th of January I77<j,
he was attacked with violent pains in the fmall of his
back, oyer the whole abdomen, and in the ankles,
■with pain in the region of the liver when prefled. A
general fwelling wras afterwards obferved all over the
body, but chiefly in the ankles and abdomen, which
laft was tenfe and hard. Ihele were attended with
vomiting, bad appetite, and confiderable thirft. When
he entered the clinical ward (January 21ft), .the cough,
ficknefs, and vomiting, had gone off, but the fuppref-
fion of urine remained. The little which he made was
paffed with his ftools, fo that Dr Home faw it but
once ; and then it was pale, and had a white powder
at bottom. The pains and fwellings which retained
the impreflion of the finger, continued ; he had a
headach, and a very flow pulfe, beating only 48 ftrokes
in a. minute. He had taken a great many diuretic
medicines before his admiflion. The day after his re-
ception, he was feized with a fpontaneous diarrhoea,
which continued during the remainder of his life.
Cryftals of tartar were exhibited in dofes of half an
ounce each morning; at bed-time he took 20 drops
of tinfture of opium with a fcruple of nitre, and con¬
tinued this courfe for eight days without any increafe
of urine. Ihe ftronger and heating diuretics were
then tried, as an infufion of juniper berries and pills
of garlic ; but they were attended with no manifeft
advantage. Whenever the pulfe became fo ftrong that
he could bear bleeding, eight ounces of blood were
taken away, which was fizy. This was thrice repeat¬
ed ; he appeared eafier after each bleeding, his pulfe
bore it well, and the fwellings and other fymptoms
abated. The heating diuretics, in this ftate, were
given up, . and a mixture of vinegar and nitre was
fubftituted in their place, in each dofe of which, taken
every two hours, there was a fcruple of nitre. Fo¬
mentations were applied to the region of the kidneys,
and camphorated oil was afterwards rubbed on the
part. He wras ordered the femicupium, whjch, from
a deficiency of water in the hofpital at that time, he
got only once; and which then feemed to have a good
effeft, as he palled a gill of urine when he was in it.
Notwithftanding this, however, the difeafe continually
gained ground ; he became comatofe, delirious, and
died ten days after his admiflion. On diffeftion, the
kidneys were found of an irregular form ; fome watery
veficles appeared on their furface, containing black
gritty particles like fine fand ; and the lower part of
the right kidney was confiderably inflamed. The
pylorus, part of the duodenum, and a confiderable
part of the fmall inteftines, were much inflamed. In
the abdomen were found about five pounds of fluid,
and in the cavities of the thorax about half a pound.
The
practice.
ipifchefes. The lungs were a little inflamed, and full of fmall
—v tubercles on their furface and in their fubftaxjce: the
heart was large, and a polypus in each ventricle. About
iix ounces of fluid were found in the pericardium : in
the brain nothing preternatural appeared, except about
an ounce of water in each ventricle.
Dr Home feems to have been at a lofs for the re¬
mote caufe of this fuppreflion of urine, which mani-
feftly had its immediate origin from the kidneys having
loft the power of performing their functions. He
thinks the inflammation which appeared in the right
kidney wras fcarce fufEcient to have occafioned the
diftemper, as the other would have fupplied its place :
for which reafon alfo he thinks that the ifchuria wTas
owing to a general aiTedlion of the fyftem ; and that
it was of an arthritic nature, the patient having been
troubled with complaints of that kind for a long time
before.
39S 2. The ifchuria ureteric a is alfo a rare difeafe, unlefs
the obftruilion proceeds from a ftone or clot of blood
flopping up the paflage. Gravel or ftones, indeed, are
very frequently Formed in the kidneys 3 and, by falling
into the ureters, occafion an ifchuria, with violent pain,
and fymptoms more or lefs urgent in proportion to
the ftze and fliape of the ftones. Sometimes it is
attended with eoldnefs of the extremities, naufea,
vomiting, and fpaftic conftridtion of the praecordia,
a difficulty of making vrater, conftipation of the belly,
difficulty of breathing, flupor of the thigh, retraftion
of the tefticle, inquietude, lofs of ftrength, fyncope, and
convullion fits. When the violent pain has continued for
feveral days and nights without intermiffion, and has
brought the patient exceeding low, and the fuppreffion
of urine is complete, with coldnels of the extremities
and convulfions of the tendons, death is at hand. Nor
is it a good fign when the ftone continues long in the
ureter •, for then the appetite decays, a naufea and
retching to vomit fupervene, and the patient is con-
fumed with a hetftic heat. Sometimes the pain is at¬
tended with an inflammation of the ftomach and in-
teftines \ and fometimes the difeafe ends in a dropfy
of the brcaft, or lethargy, which foon carry off the
patient.
The indications of cure are, to exclude the flone as
eafily as poffible, and prevent the breeding of others.
If the patient be of a fanguineous temperament, Sy¬
denham recommends to take away ten ounces of blood
from the affefted fide ; and then to give the patient a
gallon of poffet-drink in which two ounces of marffi-
mallow roots have been boiled, injefting at the fame
time an emollient glyfter. After the pofiet drink has
been vomited up, and the clyfter .returned, give a
pretty large dofe of an opiate. But if the patient be
old or weak, or fubjeft to nervous affeflions, bleeding
may be omitted, efpecially if his urine at the begin¬
ning of the fit be coffee-coloured, and mixed with
gravel ; but as to other things, the cure is the
fame.—Huxham highly recommends an emollient bath
prepared of a decoftion of marfhmallow root, lintfeed,
fenugreek feed, and flowers of chamomile, to which
may be added a fewr white poppy feeds. By the ufe of
this bath he fays he has feen the moft cruel fit of the
gravel fuddenly ended, when neither copious bleeding
nor opiates had the leaft effefl. Mild diuretics are al¬
fo of fervice. Hoffman recommends dulcified fpirit of
453
nitre as proper to relax the fpaftic ftridlure. It is to be lichuria.
taken with fuitable diftilled waters and fyrup of pop-  
pies j or in broth, Arith a ferv fpoonfuls of oil of fweet
almonds. Turpentine glyfters are alfo accounted very
ferviceable ; and may be prepared Avith ten ounces of a
decodftion of chamomile, Avith half an ounce of turpen¬
tine diffolved in the yolk of an egg, and about as much
honsy. The fal diureticus, or acetis potajjee, is much
efteemed by fome, Avhen taken along Avith an opiate.
But Avhen the ftone is too big to pals, Arbuthnot re¬
commends a cool and diluent diet to hinder the further
groAVth of it. Whey, infufion of lintfeed, deco&ion of
marihmallows, and gently refolving diuretics, are alfo
proper. To put a ftop to the vomiting, the compound
tincture of benzoin, formerly named balfamum trauma-
ticum, has fometimes been ufed with fuccefs, Avhen al-
moft every other means have failed.
3. The ifchuria veficalis may arife from a ftone in 357
the bladder j and this indeed is the moft common
caufe of it : but there are certain cafes, in Avhich,
though the ufual quantity of urine, or perhaps more,
be palled, the patient dies from the retention of a ftill
greater quantity in the bladder. Of this Dr Home
gives the folloAving inftances. A man of 58 years of
age, of a ftrong fpare habit, and never fubjeft to the
gravel, had, during the winter of 1777, a cough
with expe&oration, which went off in the beginning
of 1778. About the 17th of February 1778 he felt
fome difficulty in palling his urine, and much pain
about the region of the bladder. He continued in
this Avay for ten days, after AA'hich he became eafier on
application of fome medicines. The abdomen then
fwelled, and he had pains in his loins and thighs.
On the 3d of March he Avas admitted into the clinical
Avard : his abdomen Avas then fwelled and tenfe ; and
an evident fluctuation was felt, which fome that touched
him thought was fonorous and produced by wind. A
tumor Avas difeovered between the navel and fpine
of the os ilium on the left fide, which gave him much
pain, efpecially Avhen preffed. This tumor became
more eafily felt after the fwelling of the abdomen de-
creafed, feemed round, and very near as large as the
head of a child. It appeared very much on the left
fide, even Avhen the patient lay on the right, and it then
became dependent. He paffed urine frequently, and
rather more than in health, as it was computed at four
pints a-day. It Avas alA\Tays clear, and of a light co¬
lour. His body had a ftrong difagreeable fmell j his
Ikin was dry, belly bound, and his appetite entirely
gone, fo that he had hardly taken any food for 12 days.
His legs fwelled {lightly for fome days in the evening.
His pulfe was generally regular, fometimes floAver than
natural, and fometimes a little quicker; being once felt
at 64, and another time at 92. He Avas often feized,
efpccially after eating or drinking, AA'itli hiccough ;
AAThich increafed and lafted till his death. On the 20th
day of his difeafe, after fome dofes of fquills, the gene¬
ral fwelling of his abdomen fell, became much fofter,
and more diftinClly difeovered the fwelling of the left
fide. The next day a vomiting came on ; he became
delirious, and died the day following. The body be¬
ing opened, it appeared that the tumor Avhich Avas fo
diftinClly felt on the left fide of the abdomen, Avas
owing to a diftenfion of the bladder AA'ith urine. Its
fundus reached to about the divifion of the aorta into
the
MEDICINE,
454
Epifchefes.
MED!
the iliacs j it entirely filled the pelvis, and contained
between five and fix pounds of unne of a pale colour.
On examining the external furface, its neck, and the
beginning of the urethra, were found to be furrounded
nith a fcirrholity, which impeded the evacuation of
tne mine. Ihe bladder itfelf was much thickened,
but not more ;n one part than another. The ureters
entered naturally j but were much thickened in their
upper half near the kidney. The kidneys were fome-
v hat enlarged j particularly the left, which had feveral
watery veficles on its external furface. Thefe organs
were not in their ufual fituation ; but lay clofe on
each fide of the fpine, and very near the aorta: fo
that the renal vellels were very fhort. What was very
Angular, the lower end of each arofe over the fpine,
and they were united together by their membranes,
the aorta palling beneath the union. The bladder had
preiled conliderably on this part ; and the peritoneum
covering them was confiderably thicker than natural.
The lungs adhered every where to the pleura, and in
jome places very firmly : they were of a loofe texture
and black colour } and the veins of the lower extremi¬
ties were turgid with blood. It does not appear that
this patient got any medicines farther than a few dried
fquills, which diminilhed the fwellings and brought off
much wind. He alfo got a mixture of mulk, and af¬
terwards of opium, for his hiccough ; but without fuc-
eefs. His difeafe was miftaken for an afeites'; and the
catheter was not tried : but in another cafe the ufe of
this inlfrument was apparently of more fervice than any
internal medicines. f nis laft patient \vas about po
years of age, and laboured under fymptoms very fimi-
iar to thofe already mentioned. When admitted into
the clinical wrard, he had the hypogaftric region fwel*
led, and difficulty of palling his water 5 but without
pain, vomiting, or hiccough. He had loft all appe¬
tite } was thirfty, and coftive. His pulfe was 110, and
weak. In the evening about three Englilh pints of
pale clear mine were drawn off by means of the cathe¬
ter : the next day all the fymptoms were gone off or
abated. After this lie continued to pafs feme urine,
feme times voluntarily, fometimes involuntarily and in-
fenfibly ; but fomuch always remained behind, that his
bladder was eonftantly full, unlefs when the urine was
drawn off, which was done twice every day. The urine
was fometimes pale, fometimes of a deep red colour ;
and once there was fome blood mixed with it, which
perhaps might have been occafioned by the catheter.
About the iixth day the urine was very putrid, with
much purulent like matter at the bottom, and was paf.
fid with more pain. About the nth, the putrid
iraell went off. i he next day all the urine paffed in-
fenfibly except what was drawm off $ and an hiccough,
though not very fevere, had come on. In this wray
he continued without fever, though frequently troubled
with the hiccough, efpecially during thofe nights in
which the urine had not been drawn off. A month
after admiffion, the bladder, with the affiftance of
iije catheter, w'as almoft entirely, though infenfibly
evacuated, and the hiccough had left him 5 he had no
other complaint but that of voiding his urine infen-
fibly, the natural effect of a feirrhous bladder, and
which was probably incurable. With this patient
;the hot bath and mercurials were tried, in order
Genus CXXIV. DYSURIA.
Difficulty of discharging urine.
Dyfuria, Sauv. gen.
Sng. 213.
Stranguria auBorum.
265. Lin. 57. Vog. 164.
A difficulty of making water may arife from many
different caufes \ as from lome acrid matter in the
blood, cantharides, for inftance j and hence a ftran-
gury very often fucceeds the application of blifters.
In many cafes it arifes from a compreffion ©f feme
of the neighbouring parts ; of the uterus, for inftanee,
in a date of pregnancy. Or it may arife from a fpaf-
modic affection of the bladder, or rather its fphimfter ;
or from an inflammation of thefe parts, or others near
them. Hence the difeafe is diftinguithed into fo many
fpecies, the cure of which is to be attempted by reme¬
dies indicated by their different caufts.
But the moft common, as well as the moff dangerous
fpecies is that arifing from a calculous concretion, or
Stone in the Bladder.
Dyfuria calculofa, Sauv. fp. 12.
The figns of a ftone in the bladder are, pain, elpe-
cially about the fphinfter $ and bloody urine, in ccnfe-
quenefe
39*
C 1 N E- . , Praflicc
tl’ ^ten ^ie hfirrhofity of the bladder, but without Ifthuria
4. The ifcliuria urethral is arifes from fome tumor
obit rusting the pafiage of the methra, and thus hin-
dering the flow of urine. It is no uncommon di-
ftemper, and often follows a gonorrhoea. Dr Home
gives us an example of this alfo.—The patient was a
man of 60 years of age, who had laboured under a
gonorrhoea fix months before, and which was flopped
by fome medicines in two or three days. He felt
foon afterwards, a difficulty in palling his urine, which
gradually increafed. About 10 days before his ad¬
miffion into the clinical ward, it was attended with
pains in the glans, and ardor wince; he had palled
only about eight ounces the day before his admiffion,
and that with very great difficulty ^ and the hypoga¬
ftric region was fuelled and pained. On introducing
the catheter, three pounds of urine were drawn off, by
which the pain and Iwelling were removed. The in¬
urnment required force to make it pafs the neck of the
bladder, and blood followed the operation : and the
finger, introduced into the anus, felt a hard tumor a-
bout its neck. He was treated with mercurial pills and
ointment, by which the fu elling about the neck of the
bladder foon began to deereafe ; but at the fame time a
fu elling of the right teftiele appeared.- He was vomit¬
ed with four grains of turbith-mineral, the fuhfulphas
hydrargijn Jluvus of the prefent pharmacopoeia, which
operated gently j and here Dr Home obferves, that
though thefe vomits are little ufed, from a miftaken no¬
tion of their feverity, he never faw them operate with
more violence than other vomits, or than he could have
wilhed. The fuelling diminilhed in confcquence of the
emetic and fome external applications 5 and the cure
was completed by bleeding and a decoction of mezereon
root.
3«
43s
Pra£tfce. - M E D I
£pllclu' , qiience of r.;dir'.? or being jolted In a carriage ; a fenfe
' ^ of weight in the psrinceum ; an itcliinefs of the vlans
penis; flimy iediment in the urine ; and frequent^lfou-
pages in making water : a tenefmus alfo comes on while
the urine is dilcharged : but the molt certain fhm is
when the ftone is fclt by the finger introduced into the
■anus, or by founding.
Caujes, ike. ' It is not eafy to fay what the particu¬
lar caufes are wnich occafion the apparently earthy par¬
ticles of the fluids to run together, and form thofe cal¬
culous concretions which are found in different parts of
the body, and efpecially in the organs for fecreting and
difeharging the urine.
1 he gout and ftone are generally fuppofed to have
fome affinity, becaufe gouty people are for the moft
part afflicted with tne gravel. But perhaps tins is
in part owing to their long confinement, and to lyino-
on the baek, which perople who labour under the gout
are often obliged to fubmit to; fince the want of exer-
cife, and this pofture, will naturally favour the ftagna-
tion of grofs matters in the kidneys : befides, there are
many inftances of people feverely afflidted with the ftone
for the greateft part of a long life, who have never had
the leaft attack of the gout.
There is, however, good reafon for believing, that
fome farther connedtion takes place between the two
difeafes •, and when treating of the gout we have al¬
ready given fome account of the opinion of an inge¬
nious anonymous author, who has endeavoured to
prove, that both the one and the other depend on a
peculiar acid, the concreting, lithic, or uric acid, which
is always prefent m blood j and which may be precipi¬
tated fiom thence by various caufes, fuch as the mtro-
dudhon of othei acids, or the like. "When thus preci¬
pitated, he fuppofes It to produce the whole phenomena
of both difeafes. The objedfions we formerly ftattd
to his theory of gout, do not equally militate" againft
that of calculus ; and it is at leaft certain, from the
beft chemical analyfis, that what are commonly called
urinary calculi, and have been confidered as entirely
an earthy matter, confift principally of acid in a folid
ftate united only with a fmall proportion of earth or
mucus. We may, therefore, whether this hypothefis
be altogether well founded or not, juftly view lithiafis
as depending, in a great meafure, on the reparation of
an acid from the blood.
# Whatever may be the particular caufe of the difpofi-
tion to lithiafis, the kidneys appear to be the moft like¬
ly places for particles to concrete or run together, be-
eaufe of the great quantity of blood which paffes
through the renal arteries, and which comes imme¬
diately from the heart, fraught with .various newly.re¬
ceived matters, that have not undergone much of the
adiion of the veffels, and therefore cannot as yet be fup¬
pofed to be thorooghlv aftimilated.
Anatomifts who have carefully examined the kid¬
neys in the human fubjeft, particularly M. Bertin, in¬
fo! m us, that there are two lets of tuhuh urinifen;
the one continued direffly from the extremities of
the renal artery, and (lie other fpringing from that
veficular texture which is confpicuous in the kid¬
neys.
It is in this veficular part of the kidney that we
prefirme the particles of the concreting matter firft
ft agnate and coalefce : for it is hardly to be fuppofed,
CINE.
that fuch folid matters could be allowed to flop in
the extremities of the renal arteries, iinee the blood,
and the urine feparated from it, muft flow through
tliefe veflels with great degrees of force and velocity }
but. in the intermediate veiiculte the particles maj lie,
and there attraefting each other, loon come to acquire
fenfible degrees of magnitude, and thus become land
or gravel. As long as this land or gravel formed in
the veficular part of the kidney lies quiet, there will
be no pain or uneafinefs, until the concretions become,
laige enough to preis either on the adjoining tubuli,
01 on the blood-velfels 5 then a fenfe ot weight, and
a kind of obtufe pain in the loins, will be left. But
when the fmall pieces of concreting matter fhall be
diflodged and waffled off by the force of the circu¬
lating fluids, or loofened by fome fpafmodic adfion of
the moving fibres in tliefe parts, they will in their paf-
fage create pain, raife different degrees of inflamma¬
tion, or perhaps lacerate fome blood veffels, and caufe
bloody urine.. When thefe little concretions happen to
be detained in the pelvis of the kidney, or any other
place, where a flow of urine continually paffes, they
loon increafe in fize, and become calculi, from the con-
ftant acceffion of particles, which are attracted by the
original bit of land, which thus becomes the nucleus
of a ftone.
It is an opinion which Hippocrates firft advanced,
and which has been almoft univerially adopted by his
followers, and has remained till lately uncontrovert¬
ed, that the ftone and gravel are generated by the uffl
of hard water, from the quality, which the waters of
certain fprings poffefs, of depoliting a large earthy fedi-
ment, either in the aquaeduds through which they are
conveyed, or in the vcflels in which they are boiled or
preferved, it was conjedured, that in pafling through
the kidneys, and efpecially whilft retained in the blad¬
der, they would let fall their groilcr particles, which
by the continued appofition of frefh matter, conneded
by the animal gluten, and compaded by the mufcular
adion of that organ, would in time form a calculus fuf-
ficiently laige to produce a train of the moft excruciat¬
ing fymptoms. And this reafoning a priori has been
fuppofed to be confirmed by fads and experience j for
not to mention the authority of Hippocrates, Dr Lifter
has.obferved, that the inhabitants of Paris are peculiarly
fubjed to the ftone in the bladder. Nicholas de Bleg-
ny has related the hiftory of one who was diffeded at
Paris, in whom the pylorus, a great part of the duode¬
num, and the ftomach itlclf, were found incruftated
with a itony matter, to the thicknefs of a finger’s
breadth. And it is well known, that the water of the
river Seine, with which that city is fupplied, is fo im¬
pregnated with calcareous matter, as to incruftate, and
in a fhort time to choke up, the pipes through which
it runs. But on the other hand it is objeded, that the
human calculus is of animal origin, and by chemical
analyfis. appears to bear very little analogy to the ftony
concretions of water : and though it be allowed, that
more perfons are cut for the ftone in the hofpitals at
Paris than in moft other places; yet upon inquiry it is
found, that many of thofe patients come from different
provinces, and from towns and villages far diftant from
the Seine.
Dr Pereival conjedures, that though this difeafe may
chiefly depend upon a peculiar diipofition to concrete
in
455
Dvfuria.
M E D I
in the animal fluids, wliicli in many inftances is here¬
ditary, and in no inftance can with certainty be impu¬
ted to any particular caufe ; yet hard water is at lead;
negatively favourable to this diathefls, by having no
tendency to diminiih it. The urine of the moft healthy
perfon is generally loaded with an apparently terreous
matter, capable in favourable circumftances of forming
a calculus j as is evident from the thick cruft which it
depolits on the fides of the veffels in which it is contain¬
ed. And it feems as if nature intended by this excre¬
tion to difcharge all the fuperfluous falts of the blood,
together with thofe earthy particles, which are either
derived from our aliment, and fine enough to pafs
through the iadteals, though infuperable by the powers
of circulation, or which arife from the abrafion of the
folids, or from the diflolution of the red globular part
of our fluids. Now water, whether ufed as nature pre-
fents us with it, or mixed with wine, or taken under
the form of beer or ale, is the great diluter, vehicle,
and menftruum, both of our food, and of the faline,
earthy, and excrementitious parts of the animal juices.
And it is more or lefs adapted to the performance of
thefe offices, in proportion to its degree of purity. For
it mu ft appear evident to the mofl: ordinary underftand-
ing, that a menftruum already loaded, and perhaps fa-
turated with different contents, cannot a£! fo power¬
fully as one which is free from all fenfible impregna¬
tion. Nor is this reafoning founded upon theory alone 5
for it is obferved, that Malvern water, which iffues
from a fpring in Worcefterfhire, remarkable for its un¬
common purity, has the property of diffolving the little
fabulous ftones which are often voided in nephritic
complaints. And the foluticn too, which is a proof
of its being complete, is perfeftly colourlefs. Hence
this water is drunk with great advantage in diforders
of the urinary paffages. And during the ufe of it, the
patient’s urine is generally limpid, and feldom depoiits
any fandy fediment. Yet notwithftanding this appear¬
ance of tranfparency, it is certainly at fuch times load¬
ed with impurities, wThich are fo diluted and diffolved
as not to be vifible. For it is attended with a ftrong
and fetid fmell, exaclly refembling that of afparagus.
Hoffman mentions a pure, light, Ample water in the
principality of Henneberg, in Germany, which is re¬
markable for its efficacy in the ftone and gravel; and
a water of fimilar virtues was difeovered not many years
ago in the Black foreft, near Ofterod, which upon exa¬
mination did not afford a Angle grain of mineral matter.
Indeed it is worthy of obfervation, that moft of the
fprings which were formerly held in great efteem, and
were called holy wells, are very pure, and yield little
or no fediment.
Dr Percival informs us that a gentleman of Man-
chefter, who had been long fubjeft to nephritic com¬
plaints, and often voided fmall ftones, was advifed to
refrain from his own pump water, which is uncom¬
monly hard, and to drink conftantly the foft water
-of a neighbouring fpring j and that this change alone,
Avithout the ufe of any medicine, has rendered the re¬
turns of his diforder much lefs frequent and painful.
A lady alfo, much affedled with the gravel, was in¬
duced by the perufal of the firft edition of Dr Perci-
"val’s Effay, to try the effeft of foft water •, and by the
conftant ufe of it remained two years entirely free from
-her diforder.
CINE. ^ Prafuce.
In nephritic cafes, diftilled water would be an excel- Dyfuri?,.
lent fubftitute for Malvern water, as the following ex-
periment evinces.
Two fragments of the fame calculus, nearly of equal
weight, wrere immerfed, the one in three ounces of di¬
ftilled wTater, the other in three ounces of hard pump-
water. The phials were hung up clofe together in a
kitchen-chimney, at a convenient diftance from the fire.
After 14 days maceration, the calculi were taken out,
and carefully dried by a very gentle heat. The for¬
mer, viz. that which had been immerfed in diftilled
water, was diminiftied in its weight a grain and a half;
the latter had loft only half a grain.
It is the paffage of thefe calculi from the kidneys
dow n into the bladder, w hich occafions the pain, vo¬
miting, and other fymptoms, that conftitute what is
ufually termed a fit of the gravel or fane.
When an inflammation is actually raifed, the difeafe
is known by the name of nephritis, and has been already
treated of.
As foon as the ftone paffes through the ureter, and
falls into the bladder, the pain and other nephritic
fymptoms ceafe ; and every thing will remain quiet,
either till the ftone be carried into the urethra, or until
it has remained long enough in the bladder to acquire
weight fufficient to create new diftrefs.
If a ftone happen to be fmooth and of a roundiih
form, it may lie in the bladder and acquire confider-
able bulk before it can be perceived by the patient;
but when it is angular, or has a rugged furface, even
though it may be Imall in fize, yet it feldom fails to
raife pain, and occafion bloody urine, or the difcharge
of a flimy fluid, with tenefmus, and difficulty in making
Avater.
There have been various attempts made to diffolve
the ftone ; and there are certainly fome articles Avhich
have this effeft Avhen applied to them out of the body ;
but the almoft total impoffibility of getting thefe con-
A'eyed to the kidneys, renders it extremely doubtful
Avhether a folvent ever Avill be difeovered. Of all the
articles employed for this purpofe, no one perhaps has
had greater reputation than fixed alkaline fait in its cau-
ftic ftate, particularly under the form of the lixivium
caujHcum, or aqua potaffee, as it is now called : but this
being of a very acrid nature, it requires to be Avell
ffieathed by means of fome gelatinous or mucilaginous
vehicle. Veal-broth is as convenient as any for
this purpofe ; and accordingly it is ufed by thofe who
make a fecret of the cauftic alkali as a folvent of cal¬
culus.
Mr Blackrie, who has taken much pains in this in¬
quiry, has proved very fatisfaflorily, that Chittrick’s
noftrum is no other than foap-kes given in veal-broth,
which the patients fend every day to the doctor, who
returns it mixed up with the medicine, in a clofe veffel
fecured by a lock.
It is not every cafe, hoAvever, that either requires
or Avill bear a courfe of the cauftic alkali. Some cal¬
culi are of that loft and friable nature, that they Avill
diffolve even in common water; and there are cafes
wherein it appears that tire conftant ufe of fome very
Ample deccdlion or infufion of an infignificant vege¬
table, has brought away large quantities of earthy
matter, in flakes which apparently have been united
together in layers to form a lione. Dr Macbride af-
fures
practice. M E D I
Epifehefes. fares us, that a decoction of raw coffee, only 30 ber-
-»■ v ' ries in a quart of water, boiled till it acquired a deep
greenifh colour, taken morning and evening to the
quantity of eight or ten ounces, with ten drops of
fweet fpirit of nitre, had the powerful effeft of bring¬
ing away, in the courfe of about two months, as
much earthy matter in flakes as filled a large tea-cup.
The patient was far advanced in years •, and, before he
began this deco61ion, had been reduced to great extre¬
mities by the continuance of pain and other diftref-
fing fymptoms: he was purged occafionally with oleum
ricini.
Very lately the alkali in a mild ft ate, and in a dif¬
ferent form, has been much ufed by many calculous
patients, and with great advantage, under the form
of what is called alkaline aerated water, the aqua fuper-
carbonatis potaffm of the prefent edition of the Edin¬
burgh Pharmacopoeia. For the introduction of this
medicine, or at leaft for its extenfive ufe, we are chiefly
indebted to the ingenious phyfieian Dr William Fal¬
coner of Bath. He has lately publiflied an account of
the Aqua Mephitica /llkalina, or folution of fixed al¬
kaline fait, faturated with fixable air, in calculous dif-
orders 5 which contains a number of cafes ftrongly fup-
porting the benefit to be derived from it. But whe¬
ther the good effeCts obtained in thefe inftances are to
be explained from its operating as a folvent of calculus,
feems to be extremely doubtful. There are indeed cafes
in Dr Falconer’s treatife, of patients in whom, after
ufing it for a confiderable time, no ftone could be de¬
tected by founding, although it had been difeovered in
that way before they began the employment of it. But
in many inftances, the relief has been fo fudden, that it
may be concluded, that, notwithftanding the eafe ob¬
tained, the calculus ftill remained. In fuch cafes, it
probably removed from the urine that quality bv which
it gives to the calculus frefli accretions, producing that
roughnefs of its furface by which it is chiefly capable of
aCting as a ftimulus. For the diftrefling fymptoms re-
fulting from ftone are chiefly to be attributed to the
inflammatory and fpafmodic affeftions which it induces j
and when its furface is leaft capable of operating as a
ftimulus, thefe of courfe will be leaft confiderable. It
is therefore not improbable, that this remedy produces
relief, by preventing frefh additions being made to the
calculus.
An infufion of the feeds of daucus fylveffris fweeten-
ed with honey, is another fimple and much celebrated
remedy; it has been found to give confiderable eafe in
cafes where the ftomach could not bear any thing of an
acrid nature. The leaves of the uva urji were ftrongly
recommended by the late celebrated De Haen 5 and
this, whatever its way of operating may be, feems to have
been produdlive of good effedls in fome inftances. There
is no reafon to believe that it has any influence in dif-
folving calculus *, and indeed it feems to be chiefly ufe-
ful in thefe inftances where ulcerations take place in the
urinary paffages.
In the Edinburgh Medical Commentaries, vol. iii.
we have an account of a method ufed by the inhabi¬
tants of Arabia Petraea for curing the ftone, to which
they are very much fubjedl, and which the author (an
Englifh gentleman of experience and candour") affirms
he has feen frequently performed with fuccefs. By
means of a catheter, they injedt into the bladder a tveak
Vol. XIII. Part II.'
CINE.
ley of alkali with the purified fat of a fheep’s tail, and D)
a proper quantity of opium, all put together. Their ca-
theters are made of gold and in performing the ope¬
ration they introduce them quite into the bladder ; fo
that the compofition is fafely conveyed to the ftone
without hurting any other part. But when a ftone
is fituated in the kidney, they have no method of
cure.
If this method of curing by injedtion could be fafely
pradlifed, it would no doubt have the advantage over
that of taking alkalies by the mouth, where the medi¬
cine is not only much weakened, but the conllitution of
the patient runs the rilk of being greatly injured. But
from fome experiments mentioned in the fccond volume
of the Medical Tranfadlions, and ftill more from the
chemical analyfis of urinary concretions, lately publifli¬
ed by Fourcroy and other modern chemifts, it appears
that the human calculi are very different from one an¬
other in their natures. Some, for inftance, will eafily
yield to an alkaline menftruum, and very little to an
acid ; wffiile others are found to refift the alkali, and
yield to the acid •, and fome are of fuch a compadl na¬
ture, that they yield neither to acids nor alkalies. An
attention, however, to the fragments, feales, or films,
which the ftone may call off, and alfo to the contents
and fediment of the urine, may lead to the difeovery of
what folvent is proper, or whether the ftone can be dif-
folved by any. To ufe either alkalies or acids impro¬
perly may be hurtful •, though there may be fuch kinds
of calculi as demand the alternate ufe of acids and al¬
kalies 5 nay, there may be found calculi of oppofite
kinds in the fame fubjedl.
In fuch cafes as will not allow us to think of diffol-
ving the ftony concretions, and where the only obje&
is to palliate and procure eafe from time to time,
little more can be done than to keep the bowels open
occafionally by fome gentle cathartic, and wafti off as
much of the loofe gravelly matter and flime as can be
removed by fuch mild diuretic infufions and decoc¬
tions as ffiall be found to pafs freely and fit well on
the ftomach. Perfons afflidled with the ftone fhould be
careful in refpedl of their diet, and ftudioufly avoid all
heavy and flatulent food, as well as high fauces that
are apt to turn rancid. For the fame reafon, butter and
acids are to be fhunned ; for thefe often create heart¬
burning, and every thing that offends the ftomach
raifes the nephritic pain •, uch is the fympathy that
obtains between the digeftive and the uropoietic or¬
gans.
There have been furgeons bold enough to entertain
an idea of cutting even into the kidney, in order to
extraft a ftone : this, however, except in cafes where
an abfeefs has been formed, and nature points out the
way, is both very uncertain and very hazardous. But
cutting into the bladder for the fame purpofe, is an an¬
cient and well known operation, and often crowned
with fuccefs. A defeription, however, of this opera¬
tion belongs to the article SURGERY, to which we re¬
fer ; and here fhall only make this remark, that a fur-
geon fhould never begin his operation, until he and his
affiftants are perfedtly fatisfied, from adlually feeling
the ftone, that there is one in the bladder •, becaufe it
has fometimes happened, that when the incifion has
been made, no ftone could be found : and the patient
having died in confequence of the operation, and the
3 M body
458 M E D I
Epifchefes. body being opened, it has appeared that the fymptoms
which occauoned the belief of a Hone in the bladder
arofe from fome other caufe.
Vv HEN a dyfuria proceeds from any acrimonious mat¬
ter thrown into the blood, it may be readily cured by
bleeding, emollient clyfters, cooling and diluting drinks
with gum arabic or gum tragacanth, linfeed tea, or
the warm bath. When it arifes from inflammations of
the bladder or parts adjoining to it, we are to regard
it^ only as a fymptomatic affedtion; and the remedies
ufed to remove the primary difeafe will alfo remove the
dyfuria. Sometimes it may arife from an ulcer of the
bladder 5 in which cafe it is generally incurable } a
mild nutritious diet rvill, however, protract the patient’s
life } and even render that life tolerable, by alleviating
fymptoms.
401 Genus CXXV. DYSPERMATISMUS.
'Difficult Emission of Semen.
Dyfpermatifmus, Sams. gen. 260.
Sterilitas, Zz'/z. 171. Sag. 211.
Agenefia, Vog. 283.
This impediment proceeds generally from obftruc-
tions in the urethra, either by tumors in itfelf, or in
the cavernous bodies of the penis 5 in which cafe the
treatment is the fame as in the ifehuria urethralis ;
fometimes it is owing to a kind of epileptic fit which
feizes the man in the venereal a£t; and fometimes the
femen, when ejedled from the proper receptacles, is
again abforbed, or flows into the bladder, and is expel¬
led along with the urine. The laft cafe it is very diffi¬
cult, or even impoffible, to cure ; as proceeding from
feirrhi, or other indiffoluble tumors of the verumonta-
num, or the neighbouring parts. It is alfo, in gene¬
ral, incurable. In fome it proceeds merely from too
violent an eredlion ; in which cafe emollient and relax¬
ing medicines will be of fervice 5 and we have an ex¬
ample of a cure performed by means of thefe in the firfl:
volume of the Edinburgh Medical Eflays.
40* Genus CXXVI. AMENORRHOEA.
Suppression of the Menses.
Amenorrhoea, Vog. 130.
Dyfmenorrhcea, Lin. 168. Sag. 218.
This obftrudlion, with many other fymptoms, as
dyfpepfia, yellowifh or greenifh colour of the Ikin, un-
ufual appetites, &c. conflitutes the chloroffis already
treated of, a difeafe which feldom or never appears
without a fuppreflion of the menfes. In Dr Hume’s
Clinical Experiments we find the virtues of feveral em-
menagogues fet forth in the following manner. Chaly-
beates feldom or never fucceeded : they were always
found more ufeful in diminifhing the evacuation when
^ ^ Pra&ice,
too violent, than in reftoring it when deficient. The Amenor.'
tincture ot black hellebore proved fuccefsful only in one rl'cea.
of nine or ten cafes, though given to the length of four '’""Y—^
tea-fpoonfuls a-day, which is double the quantity re¬
commended by Dr Mead. Compreffion of the crural
artery, recommended by Dr Hamilton in the Phyfical
and Literary Eflays, vol. ii. proved fuccefsful only in
one of fix cafes. From the effeas produced by this
compreffion, it has the firongeft appearance of loading
the uterus with blood : from the fenfations of the pa¬
tient it produces ths fame effeas as the approach of the
menfes, and has every appearance in its favour ; yet
does not fucceed. Dr Hume fuppofes that the uterus is
molt frequently in too plethoric and inflammatory a
ftate j in which cafe, this remedy will do more hurt
than in a ftate of inanition 5 however, he owns, that in
the caie in which it did fucceed, the patient was ple¬
thoric and inflammatory. Venefeaion is recommended
as an excellent remedy 5 the dodfor gives three inftan-
ces of its fuccefs, and fays he could give many more.
It a£ts by removing the plethoric ftate of the uterus,
relaxing the fibres, and giving the veffels full play j fo
that their adlion overcomes all refiftance, and the eva¬
cuation takes place. It is of no great moment from
Avhence the blood is taken : the faphaenic vein has been
fuppofed to empty the uterus moft 5 but it is difficult to
get the proper quantity from it, and the quantity of the
difeharge cannot be fo well meafured. The powder of
favine is a moft powerful remedy *, and proved fuccefs¬
ful in three cafes out of four in which it was tried. It
was given to the quantity of half a dram twice a-day.
It is a ftrong topical ftimulus, and feems improper in
plethoric habits. Madder-root, according to Dr Hume,
is a very powerful medicine in this difeafe 5 and proved
fuccefsful in 14 out of 19 cafes in which it Avas tried,
being fometimes exhibited in the quantity of two feru-
ples, or a dram, four times a-day. It has fcarcely any
fenfible effedls ; never quickens the pulfe, or excites in¬
flammatory fymptoms : on the contrary, the heat, thirft,
and other complaints abate ; and fometimes thefe fymp¬
toms are removed, though the difeafe be not cured 5 but
when it fucceeds, the menfes appear from the third to
the 12th day.
We have now confidered all thofe difeafes enumera¬
ted in Dr Cullen’s Nofology, the cure of which is to
be attempted chiefly by internal medicines. The other
genera either require particular manual operations, or a
very confiderable ufe of external applications *, and
therefore more properly fall under the article Surgery.
To this, therefore, we fhall refer the genera which fall
under the three laft orders of the clafs of locales, viz.
the tumores, effopue, and dia/yfes; and we ihall add,
by way of Appendix, a few obfervations on fome im¬
portant affe&ions to which Dr Cullen has not given
a place in his fyftem, or which pradlitioners in general
are not agreed in referring to any one particular genus
which he has mentioned.
APPENDIX,,
Appendix. d. L iJ 1
Angin_a
peiSoris.
u^v—' A P P E
ANGINA PECTORIS.
Dr Heberden was the firft who deferibed this dif-
eafe, though it is an extremely dangerous, and, by his
aceount, not very rare affeilion. It feizes thofe who
are fubjedl to it when they are walking, and particu¬
larly when they walk foon after eating, with a molt
difagreeable and painful fenfation in the bread, which
feems to threaten immediate deftrudlion : but the mo¬
ment they Hand dill, all the unealinefs vanifhes. In all
other refpetfs the patients at the beginning of this dif-
order are well, and have no fhortnefs of breath ; from
which the angina pectoris is totally different. After it
has continued fome months, the fits will not ceafe in-
ftantaneoufly on Handing ftill ; and it will come on not
only when the patients are walking, but when they are
lying down, and oblige them to rile up out of bed every
night for many months together. In one or two very
inveterate cafes, it has been brought on by the motion
of a horfe or carriage, and even by fwallowing, cough-
ing, going to ffool, fpeaking, or by any diiturbance of
mind. The perfons affected were all men, almoft all
of whom were above 50 years of age, and molt of them
with a Ihort neck and inclining to be fat. Something
like it, however, was obferved in one woman, who was
paralytic •, and one or two young men complained of it
in a flight degree. Other practitioners hare obferved
it in very young perfons.
When a fit of this fort comes on by walking, its du¬
ration is very Ihort, as it goes off almoft immediately
upon flopping. If it comes on in the night, it will laft
an hour or two. Dr Heberden met with one in whom
it once continued for feveral days ; during all which
time the patient feemed to be in imminent danger
of death. Moft of thofe attacked with the diftemper
died fuddenly : though this rule was not without excep¬
tions 5 and Dr Heberden obferved one who funk under
a lingering illnefs of a different nature.
The os Jterni is ufually pointed to as the feat of this
malady. It feems as if it wras under the lower part of
that bone, and at other times under the middle or up¬
per part, but always" inclining more to the left fide j
and in many cafes there is joined with it a pain about
the middle of the left arm, which appears to be feated
in the biceps mufcle.
The appearance of Dr Heberden’s paper in the Me¬
dical Tranfadftions very foon raifed the attention of the
faculty, and produced other obfervations from phy-
ficians of eminence j particularly Dr Fothergill, Dr
Wall of Worcefter, Dr Haygarth of Chefter, and Dr
Percival of Manchefter. It alfo induced an unknown
fufferer under the difeafe to write Dr Heberden a very
fenfible letter, deferibing his feelings in the moft na¬
tural manner; which, unfortunately, in three weeks
after the date of this anonymous epiftle, terminated
in a fudden death, as the writer himfelf had appre-
henrled.
The youngeft fubjeCt that Dr Fothergill ever faw
afflicted with this diforder was about 30 years of age j
C I N E. 45 <
Angina
Pedlori?.
N D I X.
and this perfon was cured. The method that fticceed-
ed with him wras a courfe of pills, compofed of the maf$
of gum pill, foap, and native cinnabar ; with a light
chalybeate bitter : this vTas continued for fome months,
after which he went to Bath feveral fucceflive feafons,
and acquired his ufual health : he was ordered to be
very [paring in his diet j to keep the bowels open 5 and
to ufe moderate exercife on horfcback, but not to take
long or fatiguing Avalks.
The only fymptom in this patient that is mentioned,
was a ftriClure about the cheft, which came on if he
was walking up hill or a little fafter than ordinary, or
if he was riding at a very brilk trot; for moderate ex¬
ercife of any kind did not affeCI him : and this uneafy
fenfation always obliged him to flop, as he felt himfelf
threatened with immediate death if he had been obliged
to go forward.
It is the tbarp conftriCtive pain acrofs the cheft which
(according to Dr Fothergill’s obfervation) particularly
marks this lingular difeafe 5 and which is apt to fuper-
vene upon a certain degree of mufcular motion, or what¬
ever agitates the nervous fyftem.
In fuch cafes as fell under the infpeCtion of Dr Fo¬
thergill, he very feldom met with one that was not at¬
tended vTith an irregular and intermitting pulfe 5 not
only during the exacerbations, but often when the pa¬
tient was free from pain and at reft : but Dr Heber¬
den obferves, that the pulfe is, at leaft fometimes, not
difturbed j and mentions his having once had an op¬
portunity of being convinced of this circumftance, by
feeling the pulfe during the paroxyfm.
But no doubt thefe varieties, as well as many other
little circumftances, will occur in this difeafe, as they
do in every other, on account of the diverfity of the hu¬
man frame ; and if thofe which in general are found
to predominate and give the diftinguilhing chara&er
be prefent, they will always authorife us in giving the
name to the difeafe : thus, when we find the conftric-
tory pain acrofs the cheft, accompanied with a fenfe
of ftrangling or fuffocation *, and ftill more, if this pain
fhould ftrike acrofs the breaft into one or both arms ;
we (hould not hefitate to pronounce the cafe an angina
pectoris.
As to the nature of this difeafe, it appears to be
purely fpafmodic : and this opinion null readily prefent
itfelf to any one who confiders the fudden manner of
its coming on and going off-, the long intervals of per-
fett ejle 5 the relief afforded by wine and fpirituous
cordials the influence which paflionate affettions of
the mind has over it -, the eafe which comes from
varying the pofture of the head and {boulders, or from
remaining quite motionlefs 5 the number of years for
which it will continue, without otherwife difordering
health-, its bearing fo well the motion of a horfe or
carriage, which circumftance often diftinguifh.es fpaf¬
modic pains from thofe which arife from ulcers : and,
laftly, its coming on for the moft part after a full meal,
and in certain patients at night, juft after the firft fleep,
at which time the incubus, convulfive althma, and
other difeafes, juftly attributed to the difordered func-
3 M 2 lion’s
460
Angina
Pedloris
(.ions of die nerves, are peculiarly apt to return or to be
, aggravated.
from all thefe circumftanccs taken together, there
can be little doubt that this affeflion is of a fpal'modic
nature: but though it Ihould be admitted, that the
whole diftrefs in tbefe cafes arife from fpafm, it may not
be fo eafy to afcertain the particular mufcles which are
thus affefted.
The violent fenfe of ftrangling or choking, which
fhows the circulation through the lungs to be inter¬
rupted during the height of the paroxyfm j and the pe¬
culiar conlfri&ive pain under the fternum, always in¬
clining (according to Dr Heberden’s obfervation) to
the left fide 5 together with that mod diilretTing and
alarming fenfation, which, if it were to incrcafe or
continue, threatens an immediate extinction of life ;
might authorife us to conclude that the heart itfelf is
the mufcle affedted : the only objection to this idea is,
that the pulfe is not always interrupted during the pa¬
roxyfm. The appearances in two of the diliedtions, fa¬
vour the opinion that the fpafm aSedts the heart ; as in
one fubjedt the left ventricle was found as empty of
blood as it it had been wafhed j and in another, the
fubftance of the heart appeared whitifh, not unlike a
ligament $ as it fhould feem, in both cafes, from the
force of the fpafm fqueezing the blood out from the vef-
fels and cavities.
If this hypothefis be allowed, we mud: conclude that
the fpafm can only take place in an inferior degree, as
long as the patient continues to furvive the paroxyfm 5
fmee an affedfion of this fort, and in this part, of any
confiderable duration or violence, mud inevitably prove
fatal: and accordingly, as far as could be traced, the
perfons who have been known to labour under this dif-
eafe have in general died fuddenly.
The diiTeClions alfo (how, that whatever may be the
true feat of the fpafm, it is not noceffary for the bring¬
ing of it on, that the heart, or its immediate appenda¬
ges, fhould be in a morbid date ; for in three out of the
dx that have as yet been made public, thefe parts
were found in a found date.
On opening the body of the poor gentleman who
wrote the letter to Dr Heberden, “ upon the mod
careful examination, no manifed caufe of his death
could be difeovered; the heart, in particular, with its
veffels and valves, were all found in a natural condi¬
tion.”
In the cafe communicated by Dr Percival to the pub-
litliers of the Edinburgh Medical Commentaries, “ the
heart and aorta defeendens were found in a found date.”
And in Dr Haygarth’s patient, “ on opening the tho¬
rax, the lungs, pericardium, and heart, appeared per¬
fectly found.” Not to mention Dr Fothergill’s pa¬
tient (R. M.), in whofe body the only morbid ap¬
pearance about the heart was a fmall white fpot near the
apex. thus the caufe, whatever its nature might have
been, was at too great a didance, or of too fubtile a
nature, to come under the infpeCtion of the anatomid.
Rut there was a circumdanee in two of the fubjefls that
is worthy of remembrance ; and which fliows that the
crafis of the blood, while they were living, mud have
■been greatly injured, namely, its not coagulating, but
remaining of a cream-like confidence, without any re¬
paration into forum and craflamentum.
M E D 1 C 1 N E. Appendix,
From all that we have feen hitherto publiihed, it does An^
not appear that any confiderable advances have been
made towards the actual cure of this anomalous fpafm.
The very judicious and attentive Dr Heberden (to
whom the public are highly indebted for fird makino-
the diforder known) confefles, that bleedings, vomits,
and other evacuations, have not appeared 'to do any
good: wine and cordials taken at bed-time, will fome-
times prevent or weaken the fits ; but nothing does this
fo effedually as opiates: in flrort, the medicines ufually
called nervous or cordial, fuch as relieve and quiet con-
vulfive motions, and invigorate the languidiing princi¬
ple of life, are what he recommends.
Dr Wall mentions one patient, out of the 12 or 13
that he had feen, who applied to him early in the dif-
eafe, and was relieved confiderably by the ufe of anti-
monial medicines joined with the fetid gums : he was
dill living at the time the dodor wrote his paper,
(November 1772), and going about with tolerable eafe!
Two Avere carried off by other diforders j all the red
died fuddenly.
Dr Fothergill’s directions are chiefly calculated with
the vieAv to preArent the diforder from gaining ground,
and to alleviate prefent didrefs. Accordingly he en¬
joins fuch a kind of diet as may be mod likely to pre¬
vent irritability : in particular, not to eat voracioufly
to be very abdemious in refpe£t to every thing heatino- •
fpices, Spirits, wines, and all fermented liquors : °to
guard mod fcrupuloufly againd paflion, or any vehement
emotions 5 and to make ufe of all the ufual means of
edabliihing and preferving general health : to mitigate
exceffes of irritability by anodynes ; or pains, if they
quicken the circulation : to difperfe flatulencies when
they didend the domach, by moderate dofes of carmina¬
tives ; amongd which, perhaps, fnnple peppermint wa¬
ter may be reckoned one of the fated. But lince obefity
is judly confidered as a principal predifpofing caufe, he
infids drongly on the necedity of preventing an increafe
of fat, by a A^egetable diet, and ufing every other prac¬
ticable method of augmenting the thinner fecretions.
Thefe Avere the only means recommended by the
practitioners mentioned aboAre for oppodng this formi¬
dable difeafe : but Dr Smyth of Ireland has, Ave are
told, difeovered that it may be certainly cured by
iflues, of which Dr Macbride gives the following in¬
dance.
“ A. B. a tall well-made man ; rather large than
otherAvife j of healthy parents, except that there had
been a little gout in the family ; temperate *, being
very attentive to the bufinefs of his trade (that of a
watchmaker), led a life uncommonly fedentary ; had,
from his boyhood upwards, been remarkably fubjefl
to alarming inflammations of his throat, Avhich feized
him, at lead, once in the courfe of the year 5 in all other
refpecds AA'ell.
•i767j (then 48 years of age), he Avas taken,
Avithout any evident caufe, Avith a hidden and very
difpiriting throbbing under the dernum. It foon
afterAvards increafed, and returned upon him every
third or fourth Aveek, accompanied with great anxiety,
very laborious breathing, choking, a fenfation of
fulnefs and didenfion in the head, a bloated and
dulhed countenance, turgid and Avatery eyes, and a
very irregular and unequal pulfe. The paroxyfm in¬
vaded,'
Pectoris,
/
Appendix:. M EDI
Angma vaded, alrnoft conftantly, while he was fitting after
Pe&oris. dinner : now and then he was feized with it in the
morning, when walking a little fafter than ufual j and
was then obliged to flop, and reft on any objeft at
hand. Once or twice it came on in bed ; but did not
oblige him to fit up, as it was then attended with no
great difficulty in breathing. In the afternoon fits,
his greateft eafe was from a fupine pofture 5 in which
he ufed to continue motionlefs for fome hours, until,
quite fpent and worn out with anguiffi, he dropt into
a dumber. In the intervals between thefe attacks,
which at length grew fo frequent as to return every
fourth or fifth day, he w7as, to appearance, in perfedf
health.
“ Thus matters continued for more than twro years ■,
and various antifpafmodics were ineffeftually tried for
his relief. In 1769, there fupervened a very lliarp
conftrictory pain at the upper part of the fternum,
ftretching equally on each fide, attended with the for¬
mer fymptoms of anxiety, dyfpnoea, choking, &c.
and with an excruciating cramp, as he called it, that
could be covered with a crown-piece, in each of his
arms, between the elbow and the wrift, exactly at the
infertion of the pronator teres; the reft of the limb
was quite free. The fits W'ere fometimes brought on,
and always exafperated, by any agitation of mind or
body. He once attempted to ride on horfeback du¬
ring the paroxyfm} but the experiment was near
proving fatal to him. The difference of feafon or wea¬
ther made no impreffion upon him. Still, in the in¬
tervals, his health was perfectly good ; except that his
eyes, which before his illnefs were remarkably ftrong
and clear, were now growm extremely tender : and
that his fight was much impaired. He had no flatu¬
lency of ftomach, and his bowels were regular.
“ In this fituation, February 22. 1770, he applied
to me for affiftance. I had feen, I believe, eight or
ten of thefe frightful cafes before. Twro of the patients
dropt dead fuddenly. They w'ere men between 40 and
50 years of age, and of a make fomewhat flefliy. The
fate of the others I was not informed of; or, at leaft
cannot now recollect.
“ Having found the total inefficacy of blifters and
the whole clafs of nervous medicines in the treatment
of this anomalous fpafm, I thought it right to attempt
the correfting or draining off of the irritating fluid
in the cafe now1 before us. To this purpofe, I ordered
a mixture of lime-water with a little of the compound ju¬
niper-water, and an alterative proportion of Huxham’s
antimonial wine : I put the patient on a plain, light,
perfpirajfie diet 5 and reftrained him from all vifeid,
flatulent, and acrimonious articles. . By purfuing this
courfe, he w7as foon apparently mended ; but after he
had perfifted regularly in it for at leaft two months,
he kept for fome time at a ftand. I then ordered a
large iffue to be opened on each of his thighs. Only
one was made. However, as foon as it began to dif-
charge, his amendment manifeftly increafed. The fre¬
quency and feverity of the fits abated confiderably :
and he continued improving gradually, until, at the
end of 18 months he was reftored to perfect health :
•which he has enjoyed, without the leaft interruption,
till now, except when he has been tempted (perhaps
once in a twelvemonth) to tranfgrefs rules, by making
a large meal on falted meat, or indulging himfelf in
CINE. 461
ale or rum-punch, each of which never failed to dif- Angina
order him from the beginning of his illnefs : and even i -,,e^oriS- _
on thefe occafions, he has felt no more than the flighteft
motion of his former fufferings; infomuch that he
■would defpife the attack, if it did not appear to be of
the fame flock with his old complaint. No other caufe
has had the leaft ill effedt on him.
“ Though rum was conftantly hurtful, yet punch
made with a maceration of black currants in our vul¬
gar corn-fpirit, is a liquor, that agrees remarkably well
with him.
“ He never took any medicine after the ifllie began
to difeharge ; and I have directed that it ffiall be
kept open as long as he lives. The inflammations of
his throat have difappeared for five years pall j he
has recovered the ftrength and clearnefs of his fight;
and his health feems now to be entirely re-eftablilh-
ed.”
Dr Macbride, in a letter to Dr Duncan, publiffied
in the Edinburgh Medical Commentaries, gives the
following additional obfervations on this difeafe.
“ Within thefe few weeks I have, at the defire of %
Dr Smyth, vifited, three or four times, a very inge¬
nious man who keeps an academy in this city, of about
34 years of age, who applied to the doctor for his ad¬
vice in January laft.
“ I fhall give you his fymptoms as I had them front
his own mouth, which appear to me to mark his cafe
to be an angina pectoris, and as deplorable as any
that I have read of. It was ftrongly diftinguilhed by
the exquifite conftriclory pain of the fternum, extend¬
ing to each of his arms as far as the infertion of the
deltoid mufcle, extreme anxiety, laborious breathing,
firangling, and violent palpitation of the heart, with
a moil irregular pulfe. The paroxyfms were fo fre¬
quent, that he fcarcely ever efcaped a day, for fix or
feven years, without one. They were ufually excited
by any agitation of mind or body, though flight. He
had clear intervals of health between the fits. I he
diftemper feems hereditary in him, as he fays his fa¬
ther was affected in the fame manner fome years pre¬
vious to his death. He has a ftrong gouty taint,
which never ftauved itfelf in his limbs ; and he has led
a life of uncommon fedentarinefs, from intenfe appli¬
cation to mathematical ftudies, and attention of mind,
and paffion, even from his boyiffi years. 1 hefe circum-
ftanccs may, perhaps, account for his having been taken
with this difeafe at fo early an age as 17.
“ A large iffue w7as immediately opened in each of
his thighs. In a month aftenvards he began to mend,
and has gone on improving gradually. He can now
run up flairs brifldy, as I faw him do no later than
yefterday, without hurt 5 can bear agitation of mind;
and has no complaint, excepting a flight oppreffion of
the breaft, under the fternum, which he feels fome¬
times in a morning, immediately after dreffing him¬
felf, and which he thinks is brought on by the motion
ufed in putting on his clothes ; though for a complete
Aveek preceding the day on which I faw’ him laft, he
told me that he had been entirely free from all un-
eafinefs, and was exulting that he had not had fueh an
interval of eafe for thefe laft fe\ren years.
“ Doctor Smyth alfo ffiowed me, in his a dv erf aria,
the cafe of a gentleman Avho had been under his care
in 1760, which he had forgotten Avhen my book
went
4152 M E D T
^'Fever ^ ^en*: ^ ^ie Prcfs> and which he was reminded of the
' v 1 '' °^er da7 dy a vifit from his patient. It was a ge¬
nuine angina peftoris, brought on by a very feden-
taiy life, and great vexation of mind, clearly marked
by the exquifite pain under the fternum, that extend¬
ed acutely to the upper extremities, particularly along
the left arm, together with the other fymptoms of
dyfpnoea, anxiety, palpitation of the heart, &c. re¬
cited in the cafe above. The diforder w'ent off in
1762, by large fpontaneous difeharges from the piles,
but returned upon him feverely in 1765. Iffues in
liis thighs were then recommended to him, but not
made. But, whether it wras by the perfuafion of fome
.friend, or of his own accord, he went into a courle
of James s powder, in fmall alterative doles, com¬
bined with a little caftor and afafoetida. This he
perlilfed in for about fix weeks 5 in the meanwhile, he
had large acrimonious gleetings from the fcrotum, and
a. plentiful difcharge of ichor from the anus.—From this
time he began to find his complaints grow lefs and lefs
diftrefling, and he has now been totally free from them
# for fix years pall.”
404 The PUERPERAL, or Childbed Fever.
This fpecies of fever, as its name imports, is pecu¬
liar to women- in childbed } and is ufually the moll
fatal of all thediforders to which the fex is liable. But,
notwithftanding the prevalence of it in all ages, its
real nature has remained, to the prefent time, aYubjeft
ol much difpute and uncertainty. The critical period
of its invafion, when febrile commotions are apt to be
excited by various accidents, and the equivocal fymp¬
toms which accompany it, have even afforded room
for queftioning whether it be a primary or a fecondary
difeafe. Some writers have confidered it as proceeding
entirely from an inflammation of the uterus } others
have imagined it to be the confequence of an obftruc-
tion to the fecretion of the milk 5 while the greater
number has been inclined, for reafons equally if not
more plaufible, to impute it to a fuppreffion of the
lochia.. If we examine this fever attentively, however,
according to its natural courfe, and independently of all
the accidental concomitant fymptoms with which it is
not effentially connedled, we may fafely pronounce it to
be a primary difeaie of a particular nature, and perhaps
not the necefiary confequence of any of the caufes above
mentioned
This fever is moft generally incident to women with¬
in 48 hours after delivery, though it may fupervene on
the fourth or fifth day, and fometimes confiderably
mter. It is preceded, like other fevers, by a rigor,
which is commonly violent j and when happening du¬
ring the time of labour, may be confounded with the
pains of parturiency. In its earlier ftage it is attended
with the figns of inflammation. A great pain is felt
m the back, fips, and the region of the uterus ; which,
m tee part laft mentioned, is accompanied with the
lenfe of heat and throbbing. A bidden change in the
quality or quantity of the lochia now alfo takes place ;
the patient is frequently troubled with a tenefmus ; and
the urine, which is very high-coloured, is difcharged
in final] quantity and with pain. At the firft attack
of the fever, the woman is generally leized with a vic-
miting of porraceous matter, as in the cholera morbus,
C .2
CINE- . Appendix.
to \, inch difeafe it then bears a ftrong refemblance t-uerpertf
ut in Lead of this fymptom, there is fometimes only Fever.
a naufea, or loathing at the ftomaeh, with a difagree- ^
able taffe m the mouth. The belly fwells to a confi-
derable bulk, and becomes fufceptible of painful fen-
fations from the flighteft impreffion. The tonoue is
generally dry, though fometimes moili, and covered
with a thick browniih fur. When the fever has con¬
tinued a few days, the fymptoms of inflammation
ulually fubfide, and the diieafe acquires a more putrid
form.. At this period, if not at the very beginning of
the diforder, a bilious or putrid diarrhoea, of a danger¬
ous and obilinate nature, fupervenes, and accompanies
it through all its future progrefs ; each motion to flool
being preceded by a temporary increafe, and followed
by an alleviation of pain. The patient ufually nau-
feates all kind of food and drink, except what is cold
and acidulated. A brown or blackifh forties, the con¬
fequence of putrid exhalations, adheres to the edges of
the teeth ; a troublefome hiccough is at length produ¬
ced, which greatly exafperates the pains of the abdo¬
men.;, petechiae.or vibiees alfo appear, with fometimes
a miliary eruption, but which produces no mitigation
of the difeafe. Through the whole courfc of the fever,
the patient is affeded with great anxiety and deiefticn
of fpirits. J
Such in general is the courfe of the puerperal fever :
the fymptoms of which, however, may be often varied,
according to the conftitution of the patient, the degree
of the difeafe, and its earlier or later invafion. When
the ivoman is naturally weak, or her ftrength has been
greatly reduced by immoderate evacuations after de¬
livery ; when the diieafe is violent, and immediately
follows that period ; its progrefs and termination are
proportionably rapid and fatal. In fuch unfortunate
circumftances, many have been known to expire with¬
in 24 hours from the firft attack of the difeafe ; nay,
there are fome inftances where the rigor has concluded5
the fcene. The cataftrophe, however, is moft rrene-
rally fufpended for fome days; and the number o/thefe
is variable, though the 11th from the commencement
of the fever may juftly be fixed as the period which
is ufually deeifive.. In whatever ftage of the difeafe an
unfavourable termination may happen, it would feem
as if the commencement of the patient’s recovery were
not marked by any critical revolution of the fever, as
depending on an alteration of the humours ; but that
the cure is gradually effected, either by a fpontaneous
vomiting, or a long-continued difcharge by ftool of
that porraceous matter, the exiftence of which in the
ftomaeh is ufually evinced at the firft attach, of the
difeafe. The moft unfavourable prognoftic, therefore,
arifes from fuch a weaknefs of the patient as renders
her unable to fuppoi t fo tedious an evacuation as that by
which the fever is overcome. When the lochia return
to their former ftate, when the fwelling and tendernefs
of the abdomen abate, and there is a moifture on the
Ikin, we have realon to hope for a happy termination
of the difeafe.
Though the puerperal fever may generally be afcer-
tained from the dcfeription which has been given, and
chiefly by that remarkable tendernefs of the abdomen
which particularly diftinguifties it: yet, as fome of its
fymptoms may be confounded with thofe arifing from
other difeafes, and which require a different method
of
appendix. M E D I
Puerperal 0f cure, it will be proper to mention Here the eircum-
Fever. fiances by which it may be known with greater cer-
"■"_v tainty.
The pains of the abdomen, attending the childbed
fever, may be dillinguifhed from thofe called after-
pains, by their uninterrupted continuance through the
courfe of the difeafe, though fometimes they" fuffer
exacerbations •, whereas, in the latter, they often to-
tally intermit. They are alfo diftinguifhable by the ab-
fence of fever with concomitant fymptoms in’the one,
and their evident exiftence in the other.
Many circumftances evince a diffimilarity between
the puerperal and miliary fevers, notwithllanding the
fymptoms of anxiety and oppreflion are common to
both mfomuch that the nature of the approachin0*
difeafe may be afeertained at the very commencement
of its attack. In the puerperal fever the rigor is more
violent, of longer duration, and not interrupted, as it is
in the other. The pulfe is fuller and ftronger the tkin
is more hot ; and the tongue, whether moiit or dry,
though generally the latter, is not of a white, but
brownifh appearance 5 and the urine is alfo higher co¬
loured. Eruptions, which are critical in miliary fevers,
procure no mitigation of the puerperal fever, and
cordials generally increafe it.
When the original attack of the puerperal fever hap¬
pens to coincide with the febrile commotion which is
excited in childbed women by the milk, the nature of
it may at firft be mifapprehended ; but the concomitant
fymptoms, and greater violence of the difeafe, muft in
a fhort time diflipate fuch an error.
From all the moft accurate accounts of this difeafe,
and from the period at which it generally commences,
there feems reafon to conclude, that it owes its rife
more immediately to accidents after delivery. For it
is allowed that it may follow a labour under the belt
and moft favourable circumftances, though endeavours
to dilate the os internum are fuppofed frequently to
produce it. The more immediate caufes generally af-
figned by authors are a ftoppage of perfpiration, the
too free ufe of fpic'es, and the neglect of procuring
ftools after delivery 5 hidden frights, too hafty a fe-
paration of the placenta, and binding the abdomen too
tight. The putrid appearance, hoivever, which this
difeafe fo loon aflumes, affords ground to fufpeft that
the prcdifpoftng caufe of it is a vitiated ftate of the
humours 5 for it is generally obferved to be moft pre¬
valent in an unhealthy feafon, and among women of a
weakly and fcorbutic conftitution. But from its pre¬
valence in fome particular hofpitals, while others in the
fame city are entirely free from it, there can be little
doubt that it is often communicated by contagion from
one female to another. This opinion is corroborated
alfo by many other circumftances j particularly by the
means by which it has been removed from hofpitals.
It would feem, however, that this contagion does not
a£l on the female fyftem without a certain predifpofition,
and that this predifpofition is induced by thofe changes
to which the female habit is fubjefted in confequence of
delivery.
Within thefe few years this fever has been treated
of by feveral writers, moft of whom have differed from
each other in their fentiments of the nature of the dif¬
eafe. The firft; in the order of publication is Dr
Denman, who feems to be of opinion, that it may de-
CINE. -463
rive its origin either from a redundancy or too great Puerperal
acrimony of the bile, the fecretion of which appears, Fever-
to be much interrupted in the time of geftation. In
.Dr Manning’s treatife on this fever, he" mentions its
being highly probable that fuch a caufe contributes
greatly to produce the difeafe, efpecially where the
putrid tendency of the humours is increafed by un-
wholefome air and diet.
It has likewife been the fate of the puerperal fever,
that no difeafe has more divided the fentiments of phy-'
ficians in regard to the method of cure. The appa¬
rent indications and contra-indications of bleeding,
and other remedies, arifing from the complication of
inflammatory and putrid fymptoms ; the equivocal ap¬
pearance of the vomiting and purging, as whether
they be critical or fymptomatical 5 and the different
caufes whence fymptoms fimilar to each other may
arife in pregnant women ; all thefe circumftances con¬
cur to involve the fubjefl in great obicurity and inde-
cifion. If we carefully attend to the feveral charac-
teriftics of the difeafe, however, fo as to be able to di-
ftinguifh it from every other puerperal complaint, and
obferve at the fame time the ufual manner of its de-
clenfion, our judgment may be guided in the method
of cure by the falutary efforts of nature. But, in
order to obtain a clearer view of the genuine indica¬
tions, it will be proper to confider them under the fe¬
veral lights in which they have been generally apitated
by authors.
One of the moft effential points to be afeertained in
the cure of the childbed fever, refpedts the pro¬
priety of bleeding. A free ufe of the lancet has been
generally regarded as the moft fuceefsful expedient
in practice ; and there are fome inftances of critical
haemorrhages which wmuld feem to confirm its uti¬
lity. But Dr Denman thinks we may fafely affirm
from experience, that for one who rvill be benefited by
large bleeding, a much greater number will be inju¬
red, and that even almoft irretrievably. Nor can this
feem furprifing, when we confider the fituation of
childbed women. In moft, the evacuations confe-
quent upon delivery are fufficient to diminifh any un¬
due fuperabundance of the fluids 5 and if, as frequent¬
ly happens, the difeafe be produced by too hafty a fe-
paration of the placenta, the confequence of which is
generally a very copious difeharge of blood, we can
never fuppofe that nature will be affifted in overcoming
the febrile commotion, by the farther evacuation of
the vital fluid, through the defeat of which ffie is now
rendered unequal even to the ordinary fupport of the
animal oeconomy. We may appeal to every praflical
phyfician, how much he has known the pulfe to fink,
and what a train of nervous fymptoms he has obferved
to fucceed an excels of the difeharge above mentioned..
Befides, it is an axiom in phyfic, that a remedy which
cures any diforder, will always prove fufficient to pre¬
vent it; and therefore, if bleeding were the proper cure
in the childbed fever, the difeafe ought to have been
prevented by a large evacuation of blood, when that
happened previous to its attack. Experience, how¬
ever, in this, as in all other difeafes, is the only uner¬
ring guide we can follow 5 and whoever regulates his
practice by fadl and obfervation, will be convinced that
bleeding, efpecially in a larger quantity, is, in general,
very far from being attended with fuccefs. Bleeding
is
M E D I
1'ucrperai is feldom proper, except in women of plethoric confti-
i ~ ^; j tutions, and in whom the hgns of inflammation rife
high. Nor even in fuch patients ought it to be re¬
peated without great caution, and the exiftence of
itrong indications. Bleeding, when ufed in proper cir-
cumftances, may unquefdionably palliate the fever 5 but
that it often ihortens the duration of it, appears to be
a matter of much doubt. On this account the prac¬
tice becomes Hill more fufpicious and exceptionable,
when we conlider that by venefeblion improperly ufed
the patient’s ftrength may be fo far reduced as not to
fupport the tedious loofenefs by which the difeafe is
generally carried off. Though bleeding, however,
ought in general to be ufed with great caution, there
are certainly many cafes in which it is both neceffary
and advantageous.
The genuine nature and effe&s of the loofenefs in
this difeafe, is another controverted point of the high-
eft importance, and which merits the moft attentive in¬
quiry. Phyftcians, obferving that women who die of
the puerperal fever are generally molefted with that
evacuation, have been induced to confider this fymp-
tom as of the mold dangerous and fatal tendency •, and
what, therefore, we fhould endeavour by every means
to reftrain. In this opinion, however, they would
feem to have been governed by too partial an obfer-
vation of fa<fts. For experience certainly authorifes the
affertion, that more women appear to have recovered
of the childbed fever, through the intervention of a
diarrhcea, than have been deftroyed by that caufe. If
it alfo be conftdered, that purging is ufually almoft the
only fenftble evacuation in the more advanced ftate of
the difeafe, and is that which accompanies it to its la-
teft period, we ftiall have the ftrongeft reafon to think
that it is critical rather than fymptomatical, and ought
therefore to be moderately fupported, inftead of being
unwarily reftrained. Nay, the advantage which is
found to attend vomiting as well as purging in the
earlier ftage of the difeafe, would feem to evince that
the matter difeharged by thefe evacuations is what
chiefly foments the difeafe. Emetics and purgatives,
therefore, in the opinion of Dr Manning, are the only
medicines on which any rational dependence is to be
placed in this fever ; at leaft, they are certainly fuch
as are found the molt fuccefsful. It is an eftablifhed
rule in praftice, to preferibe a vomit at the beginning
of every fever attended with any naufea or loathing of
the ftomach, and where there is not any reafon to ap¬
prehend an inflammation of that organ. Nor does the
llate of childbed women afford the fmalleft ground for
prohibiting our recourfe to the fame expedient in an-
fwering a ftmilar indication.
It is fo feldom a phyfician is called during the ri¬
gor preceding the puerperal fever, that he has few op¬
portunities of trying the effefts of remedies in that ear¬
ly ftate of the difeafe. When fuch occur, however,
we (hould endeavour as much as poflible to abate and
ihorten that period, as the fucceeding fever is general¬
ly found to bear a proportion to the violence and du¬
ration of it. For this purpofe, -warm diluting drinks
fhould be plentifully ufed, with a fmall quantity of vo¬
latile fpirits or brandy. When Dr Manning appre¬
hended fuch an accident, he fometimes ordered the
nurf to give immediately a difh or two of warm fack-
yyhey > taking care that it was not too Itrong, which
CINE.
Appendix.
is a caution that ought always to be remembered : for Puerpc-ai
though a free ufe of the more cordial and fpirituous Fever,
kinds of liquors might perhaps foon abate the rigor,
there is danger to be feared from their influence on the
approaching fever, efpecially in women of a ftrong and
healthy eonftitution. In all cafes, warm applications
to the extremities, fuch as heated bricks, towrels, or
toafted grains in a linen bag, may be ufed with perfect
fafety, and fome advantage.
When the hot fit is advanced, the firft thing Dr
Manning orders is fome emollient injedlion, as chicken-
water, or water and milk, which ought to be frequent¬
ly repeated through the courfe of the difeafe. Thefe
prove beneficial, not only by promoting the difeharge
from the inteftines, which feems in fa<ft to be the fo-
lution of the difeafe ; but alfo by a£ling as a kindly
fomentation to the uterus and adiacent parts. With
this intention they are particularly ferviceable when
the lochia are fuppreffed. Great care, however, is re-
quifite in adminiftering them, on account of the ten-
dernefs and inflammatory difpofition, which at that
time render the parts in the pelvis extremely fufceptible
of pain.
The next ftep in the method of cure ought to be
to promote the difeharge of the morbid matter both by
the ftomach and inteftines. This intention may be ad-
fwered by a remedy preferibed by Dr Denman—Two
grains of tartrite of antimony rubbed up with a fcrupl©
of the powder of lapilli cancrorum.
Of a powder thus prepared, Dr Denman gives from
two to fix grains, and repeats it as circumftances re¬
quire. If the firft dofe do not procure any fenfible
operation, he repeats it in an increafed quantity at the
end of two hours, and proceeds in that manner; not
expelling any benefit but from its fenfible evacuation.
Should the difeafe be abated, but not removed,
(which fometimes happens), by the efl'eft of the firft
dofe, the fame medicine muft be repeated, but in a lefs
quantity, till all danger be over. But if any alarming
fymptoms remain, he does not hefitate one moment to
repeat the powder, in the fame quantity as firft given;
though this be feldom neceffary, if the firfi: dofe ope¬
rates properly.
It is to be obferved, fays Dr Denman, that as the
certainty of cure depends upon the proper repetition
of the medicine, the method of giving it at ftated
hours does not appear eligible. If the firft dofe pro¬
duce any confiderable effeft by vomiting, procuring
ftools, or plentifully fweating, a repetition of the me¬
dicine in a lefs quantity will feldom fail to anfwer our
expectations; but great judgment is required in adapt¬
ing the quantity firft given to the ftrength of the pa¬
tient and other circumftances. We are not to expedt
that a difeafe which from the firft formation carries fo
evident marks of danger, Ihould inftantly ceafe, even
though a great part of the caufe be removed.
Frequent doles of the faline draughts ought alfo to
be given, which not only promote the evacuation by
the inteftines, but likewife increafe the falutary dif-
charges of urine and perfpiration. Thefe medicines
are particularly ferviceable in fubduing the remains of
the fever, after its violence has been broken by the
more efficacious remedies above mentioned ; but when
they are ufed even in the decline of the difeafe, gentle
laxatives of rhubarb and magnefia, as advifed by Dr
Denman,
Appendix. INI E D I
Puerperal Denman, ought to be frequently interpofed, fmce,
fever. as he juitly obferves, without ftools we can do little
lervice.
Although the difcharge by the inteftines appears to
have the moft falutary etfedt in this dil'eafe ; yet when
the ftomach has not been properly unloaded of oflfen-
five matter, though a great naufea and ficknefs had in¬
dicated the expediency of fuch an evacuation at the
beginning of the fever, the continuance of the loofe-
neis is fometimes fo long protracted as in the end to
prove fatal. In this alarming Hate of the difeafe,
when the Hools are very frequent and involuntary,
and all appearances threaten danger, Dr Denman fays,
that a clyfter of chicken-water injeCted every one, two,
or three hours, or as often as poffible without fatiguing
the patient too much, with a cordial diaphoretic draught
taken every fix hours, has produced better effeCls than
could be expefted.
While thefe medicines are employed, we fhould en¬
deavour to mitigate the pains of the belly by relaxing
applications. During the courfe of the difeafe, the pa¬
tient ought to drink freely of diluting liquors, and ab-
ftain from every thing of a heating quality, unlefs great
faintnefs fhould indicate the ufe of a fmall quantity of
feme cordial medicine.
Such is the praCtice recommended in this difeafe by
Dr Denman. We thall now take a curfory view of the
fentiments of fucceeding writers on this fubject.
According to Dr Hulme, the proximate caufe of
the puerperal fever is an inflammation of the inteifines
and omentum •, for the confirmation of which opinion
he appeals to diffeClions. He fuppofes. the chief pre-
difponent caufe of the difeafe to be the preflure of the
gravid uterus againlt the parts above mentioned. The
omentum, fays he, in the latter ftage of pregnancy,
mull either be flat, which is its natural fituation, or be
rumpled or carried up by the gravid uterus in folds or
doublings. When the latter is the cafe, which he ob¬
ferves is probably not feldom, the danger of a ftrangu-
lated circulation will be greater.
Mr White, who has alfo written on this difeafe, ju-
dicioutly remarks, that were Dr Hulme’s hypothefis
well founded, the diforder ought rather to take place
before delivery, and be immediately removed at that
period : That it would likewife moft generally happen
to women at their firft labour, when the abdominal
mufcles are lefs yielding, and the pains more violent 5
the contrary of which is inoft frequently experienced
to be the cafe.
It alfo deferves to be remarked, that, upon Dr
Hulme’s fuppofition, we cannot account for the dif¬
eafe being more common and fatal in large towns and
in hofpitals, than in the country and private pra&ice,
while other inflammatory diforders are more endemic
among thofe who live in the latter than the former fi¬
tuation. Even admitting the friflion of the inteftines
and omentum againft the uterus to be as violent as Dr
Hulme fuppofes, is it not highly improbable, that any
inflammation could be occafioned by the preffure of
fuch foft fubftances upon each other ? Or, were this
effect really produced, ought not the puerperal fever
to be more common and fatal after the moft laborious
deliveries ? But this oblervation is not fupported by
•xperience.
Dr Hulme, in favour of his own hypothefis, alleges
Vol. XIII. Part II.
CINE. 465
that it gives a fatisfa&ory anfwer to the queftion, Puerperal
“ Why all lying-in women have been, and ever will
be, fubjeit to this difeaie ?” In this propofition, how- v
ever, the dobtor iuppotes fuch an univeriality of the
difeaie as is not confirmed by obfervation. It is af¬
firmed upon undoubted authority, that in many parts
of Britain the puerperal fever is hardly known 5 where¬
as, were it really produced by the caufes he aifigns, it
would be equally general and unavoidable.
But how peculiar ioever this author’s fentiments
are in refpett of the proximate caufe of this difeaie,
they have not led him to any method of cure different
from the eftabliihed piabtice. On this fubjebt Dr
Hulme divides his obfervations into two parts j compre¬
hending under the former the more fimple method of
treatment, and under the latter the more complex. He
fets out with remarking, that the patient being gene¬
rally coftive at the beginning of the difeafe, an emol¬
lient opening clyiter will often give immediate relief j
but if this fhould not prove effectual, recourfe muft be
had to cathartics. Thofe which he found anfwer his
purpofe beft, were the ful catharticus amarus, the oleum
ricim, emetic tartar, and antimonial wine. W hen the
bowels have been fufficiently cleared and the pain a-
bates, he advifes encouraging a gentle diaphorelis by
medicines which neither bind the body nor are heat¬
ing ; fuch as fmall dofes of ipecacuan, emetic tar-ar,
and antimonial wine, combined with an opiate in a
moderate dofe, and given once or twice in the courfe
of 24 hours 5 adminiitering the faline draughts in the
intermediate fpaces. If, preceding or during this
courfe, a ficknefs at ftomach or vomiting attend, he
advifes aflifting the efforts of nature, by drinking plen¬
tifully of chamomile tea, warm water, or any other di¬
luting liquor. He concludes with recommending a
cooling regimen, reft of body, and tranquillity of mind j
prohibiting all kinds of bandage upon the abdomen,
and enjoining particular attention to the ftate of the
bowels, which ought to be kept gently open for feme
time, even after the diforder feems to be gone off, till
the patient be quite out of danger.
So much for the fimple treatment: we now proceed
to the fecond part, where he deferibes the method of
pradice when the difeafe is in its more irregular and
complicated ftate.
Wrhen a diarrhoea accompanies the difeafe, he ob¬
ferves that it ought by no means to be checked, but
fupported, by ordering the patient to drink plentiful¬
ly of mild aperient liqours. If the pain of the hypo-
gaftric region be attended with flitches in the fides or
over the pit of the ftomach, and a pulfe that refills
the finger pretty ftrongly, he remarks that bleeding
Avould then be highly neceffary: declaring, however,
his opinion, that, in the puerperal fever, bleeding is
to be confidered only as a fecondary means of relief,
though the nrft in point of time •, that it ought to be
advifed with great caution ; and that the greateft de¬
pendence is always to be placed upon evacuations by
ftool.
Mr White imputes the puerperal fever to a putref-
cent difpofition of the humours, contracled during preg¬
nancy, and fomented by the hot regimen commonly
ufed by women in childbed. In conformity to this
opinion, the chief means which he recommends for pre¬
venting the difeafe is a cool regimen and free circula-
3 N tio»
466 M E D I
Puerperal tion of air, which he evinces to be of the greateft im-
i portance. In refpedl of bleeding, he informs us, that,
upon the flrictefl. inquiry, he cannot find that thofe who
have bled the molt copioully have had the greateft fue-
cefs, either in private or holpitai practice, fie even
lee ms to queftion the propriety of this evacuation in any
cafe ; but approves of emetics, cathartics, and clyfters,
for cleanfing the prinue vice, and likevvife of fuch me¬
dicines and diet as will corredt the putrid humours : add¬
ing, tnat an upright polture and free ventilation are at
all limes ufeful, and abfolutely neceiTary, botli for the
prevention and cure of the difeafe.
Another writer who treats of the childbed fever is
Dr Leake, who has publilhed the refult of his obferva-
tions on this difeafe from April 1768 to the autumn of
the year 17705 but chiefly from December 176910
May 177°, during which period the childbed fever
prevailed much about London.
Dr Leake tells us that this fever generally commen¬
ced the evening of the fecond or morning of the third
day alter delivery, with a rigor or Ihivering fit. Some¬
times it invaded foon after delivery 5 and at other times
though rarely, it has feized fo late as the fifth or fixth
day. Now and then it feemed to be occalioned by
catching cold, or by errors in diet 5 but oftener by an¬
xiety of mind. Sometimes the thirl! was great 5 though
the tongue had, in general, a better appearance at the
beginning than is common in other fevers. It was fel-
dom ever black or very foul : but, as the difeafe advan¬
ced, became white and dry, with an increafe of thirl! 5
and at laft ivas of a brownilh colour towards the root,
where it was {lightly covered with an infpiflated mu¬
cus. The lofs of Ifrength was fo great and hidden,
that few of the patients could turn in bed without af-
liltance, even fo early as the firlt or fecond day after
the attack. The lochia, from firlt to lalt, were not
obltructed, nor deficient in quantity 5 neither did the
quality of this difeharge feem to be in the leal! alter¬
ed from its natural date 5 a prefumption, fays the au¬
thor, that the uterus was not at all affebted. Of this
he was convinced by making a confiderable preffure
above the pubes with the hand, which did not occa-
fion pain 5 but when the fame degree of preflure was
applied higher, between the Itomach and umbilical re¬
gion, it became almoll intolerable. A perfeft crifis
feldom if ever happened in this fever, which he imputes
to the great oppreflion of the vital powers, whereby
they were rendered unable to produce fuch an event.
When the difeafe proved mortal, the patient general¬
ly died on the 10th or nth day from the firlt attack.
In thofe who died of the fever, the omentum was found
luppurated 5 an inflammation of which part, or of the
inteftines, Dr Leake concludes to be the proximate
cauie of the difeafe.
. In confequence of this idea of the caufe of the dif¬
eafe, Dr Leake affirms that venefeftion is the only re¬
medy which can give the patient a chance for life. But,
though it be the principal refource to be depended
upon at the beginning of the fever, he obferves that
it will feldom prove of fervice after the fecond or third
day 5 and if direfted yet later, will only weaken and
exhauft the patient 5 when, matter having begun to
form in the omentum, the progrefs of the difeafe can
no longer be prevented by that evacuation. At this
period the blood begins to be tainted by the abforption
5
C 1 N E- Appendix.
of the purulent fluid 5 and the fever, from being inflam- Puerperal
matory, is changed into a putrid nature. Fever.
After bleeding in fuch a quantity as the fymptoms ' r—'
require, he adviies that the corrupted bile be evacua¬
ted and corre&ed as foon as pofiible 5 that the diar¬
rhoea, when exceflive, be reltrained by emollient ano¬
dyne cly Iters and gentle fudonfics, or even by opiates
and mild aftringents, when the patient’s flrength be¬
gins to fink under the difeharge 5 and, lallly, that
where the figns of the putrefaction or intermiffion take
place, antiieptics and the cinchona may be admini-
Itered.
The great uniformity of the fymptoms in all Dr
Leake’s patients might authorife an opinion, that the
fever which he deferibes was in a great meafure a dif¬
eafe fui generis, and depended much upon the conlti-
tution of the air preceding and during the period in
which the fever prevailed.
Dr Kirkland has alio made judicious obfervations on
this fubjefl, He rejeefs the opinion that the puerpe¬
ral fever is a difeafe fui generis, and arifes always from
the fame caufe. The particular lituation of childbed
women, he acknowledges, occafions a fimilarity in the
appearance of all the febrile fymptoms : but he afr
firms that the fame kind of fever may be produced by
various caufes 5 for inftance, by an inflammation of the
uterus or abdomen, by putrid blood or other matter,
and putrid miafms. The fymptoms, he obferves, will
vary according to the time of feizure. If the fever
happen in three or four days after delivery, all the
fymptoms ufual to the fituation of the patient will
make their appearance 5 but if it do not invade till
the milk has been fecreted, and the lochial difeharge be
nearly finilhed, the fymptoms, if the breads are proper¬
ly drawn, will, for the mod part, be thofe only which
are common to that kind of diforder by which the fe¬
ver has been produced.
With refped to the cure of puerperal fevers, Dr Kirk¬
land advifes the antiphlogidic method when they arife
from inflammation 5 but when this method fails of fuc-
cefs, and a diarrhoea fupervenes, the difeafe has changed
its nature, having become more or lefs putrid, and re¬
quires a very different treatment.
His obfervations relative to the management of the
diarrhoea merit attention. No one, lays he, would
purge and bleed to cure the colliquative fever arifing
from the abforption of matter in large wounds 5 and yet
the only difference is, that in the puerperal fever the
matter abforbed from the uterus, &c. adds with more
violence, becaufe the blood is commonly thinner and
the habit in a more irritable Hate. We fee, continues
he, that abforbed matter purges as effectually as if any-
purging medicine had been given by the mouth 5 and
may we not therefore do harm by additional purging,
when there has been a large evacuation, efpecially as
purges in this cafe are incapable of entirely removing
the fatties morbi?
He confiders cinchona as the principal remedy, as
foon as the pulfe finks, the heat is leffened, and the
ftomach will bear it. If this increafe the diarrhoea be¬
yond moderation, he joins with it fmall dofes of lauda¬
num j but if the diarrhoea Ihould entirely flop without
the fever going off, in place of laudanum he advifes a
proper quantity of rhubarb. Should the diarrhoea, not-
withltanding the ufe of the medicines propofed, be¬
come
Append!*. M E D T
Puerperal come fo violent as to endanger tlie patient, he agrees
Fever- with Mr White in recommending the columbo root
^ , J which is a warm cordial, and removes the irritability of
the ftomach and inteftines more powerfully than any
other bitter he knows.
Of this difeafe alfo, as it appeared in Derbyfhire and
fome of the adjacent provinces, an account has been
publilhed by Dr Butter. Concerning the caufes and
nature of the difeafe, he obferves, that pregnancy
feems to add much to the natural fenlibility of the fe¬
male conditution •, becaufe at this period women are
nften fubjeft to a train of nervous fymp'oms, which ne¬
ver moleft them at other times. During geftation like-
wife, the appetite is for the moft part keen, while the
digeftion appears to be impaired ; and this weaknefs is
increafcd not only by improper food, of which the wo¬
man is frequently defirous, but alfo by the inaftivity at¬
tending her fituation. To thefe circumftances, it is
added, that the inteftinal paffage being interrupted by
the uterine preffure, coftivenefs generally prevails.
From the feveral obfervations here enumerated, Dr
Butter concludes, that the proximate caufe of the puer¬
peral fever is a fpafmodic affe&ion of the firft paflages,
with a morbid accumulation in their cavity •, and upon
this fuppofition he endeavours to account for the various
fymptoms of the difeafe.
In treating of the method of cure, he lays down
two indications •, the former of which is to promote
two, three, or four ftools daily, in a manner fuited
to the llrength of the patient, till fuch time as they
refume a natural appearance. The fecond indication is
to relieve all uneafy fymptoms, fuch as heat, thirft,
headach, &c.
With refpedt to the opinion entertained by Dr But¬
ter of the caufe of the puerperal fever, it nearly coin¬
cides with that of Mr White. But however plaulible
it may appear, we are not entirely fatisfied that a dif¬
eafe attended with fo peculiar fymptoms as the puer¬
peral fever can depend principally upon an irritability,
which is not reftrifted either to the pregnant or puer¬
peral ftate.
The late Dr Thomas Voung profeflbf of midwifery
in the univerfity of Edinburgh, although he publilhed
nothing on the fubjefl of the puerperal fever, wrote
a very ingenious diflfertation refpe&ing it, which was
read in the Philofophical Society of Edinburgh. In
that dilfertation, after giving a very accurate account
of the fymptoms of the difeafe, which coincides very
nearly with the account given by others, he endea¬
vours to fliow, that the 'puerperalfever, ftr’nflly fo called,
is in every intlance the confequence of contagion ; but
he contends, that *he contagious matter of this difeafe
is capable only of producing its effe£f, in confequence
of a peculiar predifpolition given by delivery and its
confequenees. In fupport of this doftrine, he re¬
marks, that for many years the difeafe was altogether
unknown in the lying-in -ward of the Royal Infirmary
at Edinb rgh ; but that after it was once accidentally
introduced into the hofpital, almoff every woman was in
a Ihort time after delivery attacked with it; although
prior to her delivery, (lie may have lain, even for weeks
together, not only in the fame ward with the infefled,
but even in the very next bed. He remarks, that it
was onlv eradicated from the hofnita.l m confequence of
the wards being entirely emptied, thoroughly venti-
C I N E.
lated, and new painted. After thefe procefles, puer¬
peral females in the hofpital remained as free from
this difeafe as formerly. 1 he puerperal fever, accord¬
ing to Dr Young, has very generally a ftrong ten¬
dency to the typhoid type ; although he allows, that
in the beginning it is not unfrequently attended with
inflammatory fymptoms, and even with topical inflam¬
mation, particularly in the inteftinal canal. On this
idea, he conliders the puerperal fever as admitting of
the fame variety of treatment with oilier affedih ns
depending on contagion, in which fometimes an in¬
flammatory, fometimes a putrefcent tendency, prevails j
fuch, for example, as fmailpox or eryfipelas. But
from the prevailing putrefcent tendency in this affec¬
tion, he confiders the free accefs of cool air, with the
liberal ufe of antifeptics, as being very generally requi»
fite.
It deferves to be remarked, that though the feveral
writers who treat of this fubjedl have conducted their
method of cure conformably to their particular idea of
the caufe of the difeafe, refpefting which their fenti-
ments are very different, they feem to have been equally
fuccefsful in the treatment of their patients. Indeed
the feveral writers differ lefs from each other in their
method of cure than might be expected, where fo great
an oppofition of theoretical fentiment prevails. For
after endeavouring to eftablifti indications correfpon-
dent to their particular fyftems, thofe who contend for
the expediency of promoting the inteftinal difeharge,
diffuade not from having recourfe to phlebotomy when
the difeafe is attended with inflammatory fymptoms $
while, on the other hand, the moft ftrenuous advocates
for bleeding admit the utility of the former evacuation.
It appears, therefore, that a due regulation of the alvine
difeharge is neceffary through the whole courle of the
fever, but venefedtion only fometimes.
WORMS.
Thofe infefling the human body are chiefly of three
kinds : the afearides, or fmall round and flrort white
worms; the teres, or round and long worm j and the
teen in, or tape-worm.
The afearides have ufually their feat in the redtum.—
The teretes or lumbrici are about a fpan long, round and
fmooth : they are feated for the moft part in the upper
fmall inteftines; but fometimes they are lodged alfo in
the ftomach, and in any part of the inteftines, even to
the redrum.—The. tape-worms are from two to forty
feet long, according to t he teftimony of Platerus ; they
generally poffefs the whole trad! of the inteftines, but
efpecially the ileum : they very much referable a tape
in their appearance, whence the name of tape worm;
but another fpecies of this genus, from he refera-
blance of each joint to a gourd feed, has the name of
the gourd-worm.
In the Medical Tranfadtions, vol. i. Dr Heberden
gives a very accurate account of the fymptoms pro¬
duced by the cfcandes, from an eminent phyfician who
was troubled with them all his life. They brought on
an uneafinefs in the redtum, and an almoft intolerable
itching in the anus*, which fenfations moft ufuslly
came on in the evening, and prevented fleep for feveral
hours. They were attended with heat, fometimes fo
confiderable as to produce a fwelling in the redtum
3 N 2 both.
468
Worms.
M E D I
both internally and externally j and if thefe fymptoms
■vrere not foon relieved, a tenefmus was brought on,
with a mucous dejeftion. Sometimes there was a gri-
ping pain in the lower part of the abdomen, a little
above the os pubis. If this pain was very fevere, a
bloody mucus followed, in which there wyere often
found afcarides alive. I hey were alfo fometimes fuf-
pefted of occafioning difturbed deep, and fome degree
of headach.
On this cafe Dr Heberden obferves, that the gene¬
ral health of the patient did not feem to have fuffered
from the long continuance of the difeafe, nor the im¬
mediate inconveniences of the diforder itfelf to have
increafed. “ It is (fays he) perhaps univerfally true,
that this kind of worms, though as difficult to be cu¬
red as any, yet is the lead dangerous of all. They
have been known to accompany a perfon through the
whole of a long life, without any reafon to fufped:
that they had haftened its end. As in this cafe there
was no remarkable licknefs, indigeftion, giddinefs, pain
of the ftomach, nor itching of the nofe, poffibly thefe
fymptoms, where they have happened to be joined with
the afcarides, did not properly belong to them, but
arofe from fome other caufes. There is indeed no one
fign of thefe worms, but what in fome patients will
be wanting.”
The above-mentioned patient ufed purging and irri¬
tating clyfters with very little fuocefs. One dram
and a half of tobacco was infufed in fix ounces of
boiling water j and the drained liquor being given as
a clyder, occafioned a violent pain in the lower part
of the abdomen, with faintnefs and a cold fweat :
this injection, though retained only one minute, a&ed
as a fmart purge, but did little or no good. Lime-
water was alfo ufed as a clyder which brought on a
codivenefs, but had no good effect. Six grains of
fait of deel were diffolved in fix ounces of water, and
injedted. This clyder in a few minutes occafioned an
aching in the redhim, griped a little without purging,
and excited a tenefmus. Some few afcarides were
brought off with it ; but all of them w^ere alive. The
uneafy fenfation in the redtum did not abate till fome
warm milk was thrown up. Whenever the tenefmus
or mucous dools were thought worth the taking no¬
tice of, warm milk and oil generally gave immediate
relief. If purging was neceflary, the lenient purges,
fuch as manna with oil, were, in this particular cafe,
made ufe of: rhubarb was found too dimulating. 
But, in general, the mod ufeful purge, and which
therefore was mod ufually taken, was cinnabar and
rhubarb, of each half a drachm : this powder feldom
failed to bring away a mucus as tranfparent as the
white of an egg, and in this many afcarides were
moving about. The cinnabar frequently adhered to
this mucus, which did not come off in large quanti¬
ties, when a purge was taken without cinnabar. Calo¬
mel did no more than any other purge which operates
brilkly would have done •, that is, it brought array af¬
carides, rvith a great deal of mucus. Oil given as a
clyder fometimes brought off thefe animalcules : the oil
fwam on the furface of the mucus, and the afcarides wrere
alive and moving in the mucus itfelf, which probably
hindered the oil from coming in contact with them and
killing them.
Dr Heberden alfo obferves, that mucus or dime is
4
CINE. Appendix.
the proper ned of the afcarides, in which they live, Worms.
and is perhaps the food by which they are nouriffied ;' r—J
and it is this mucus which prelerves them unhurt,
though furrounded with many other liquors, the im¬
mediate touch of which would be fatal. It is hard to
fatisfy ourfelves by what indinft they find it out in
the human body, and by what means they get at it j
but it is obfervable in many other parts of nature, as
well as here, that where there is a fit foil for the
hatching and growth of animals and vegetables, na¬
ture has taken fufficient care that their feeds ffiould
find the way thither. Worms are faid to have been
found in the intedines of dill-born infants. Purges,
by leffening this dime, never fail to relieve the pa¬
tient : and it is not unlikely, that the worms which
are not forced away by this quickened motion of the
intedines, may, for want of a proper quantity of it,
lahguiffi, and at lad die j for if the afcarides are taken
out of their mucus, and expofed to the open air, they
become motionlefs, and apparently die in a very fhort
time. Dr Heberden fuppoles that the kind of purge
made ufe of is of fome confequence in the cure of all
other worms as w'ell as afcarides ; the animals being
always defended by the mucus from the immediate
adlien of medicines; and that therefore thofe purges
are the bed which aft brilkly, and of which a repe¬
tition can be mod eafily borne. Purging waters are
of this fort, and jalap efpecially for children ; two or
more grains of which, mixed with fugar, are mod eafi¬
ly taken, and may be repeated daily.
From Dr Heberden’s obfervations, tve may eafily fee
why it is fo difficult to dedroy thefe animals; and wdiy
anthelmintics, greatly celebrated for fome kinds, are
yet fo far from being fpecifics in the difeafe. As the
worms which refide in the cavities of the human body
are never expofed to the air, by which all living crea¬
tures are invigorated, it is evident, that in themfelves
they mud be the mod tender and eafily dedruftible
creatures imaginable, and much lefs will be requifite to
kill them than any of our common infefts. The
mod pernicious fubdances to any of the common in¬
fefts are oil, caudic fixed alkali, lime, and lime-water.
The oil operates upon them by fhutting up the pores
of their bodies 5 the lime-water, lime, and caudie al¬
kali, by diffolving their very fubdance. In the cafe
of intedinal worms, however, the oil can have very
little effeft upon them, as they are defended from it
by the moidure and mucus of the intedines j the like
happens with lime-water : and therefore it is neceffary
that the medicine diould be of fuch a nature as to
dedroy both mucus and infefts together ; for which
purpofe the caudic fixed alkali is at once fafe and ef¬
ficacious ; nor is it probable that any cafe of worms
whatever could refid the proper ufe of this medicine.
A very large dofe of any fait indeed will alfo dedroy
the mucus and dedroy the worms 5 but it is apt to
inflame and excoriate the domach and intedines, and
thus to produce worfe didempers than that which it
w'as intended to cure. Dr Heberden gives the fol¬
lowing remarkable cafe of a patient cured of worms
by enormous dofes of common fait, after trying many
other remedies in vain. In February 1757, the pa¬
tient was feized with uncommon pains in his domach,
attended with naufea, vomiting, and eondipation of
bowels, and an almod total lofs of fleep and appetite a
H®
Appendix. M E D I
Worms He foon became mucb emaciated, and could neither
—■'Y-—' Hand nor walk upright ; his belly grew fmall and
hard, and clofely retracted, infomuch that the fternum
covered the navel, and the latter could fcarce be dif-
covered or felt by the finger : his urine was always
milky, and foon depofited a thick white fediment j his
excrements were very hard and lumpy, refembling
thofe of (heep, only of a brown colour ; nor had he
ever a ftool without fome medicine or other to pro¬
cure it. In this fituation he continued four years ;
during which time he had been in an infirmary, at¬
tended by eminent phyficians, but was difmilfed as in¬
curable. At laft he was advifed by a neighbour to
drink fait and water, as he faid he knew one cured
by it who had for many years been afflidded with the
fame kind of pains in the belly and ftomach. As his
diftemper was now almoft infupportable, he willingly
tried the experiment. Two pounds of common fait
were diffolved in as little water as poffible, all which
he drank in lefs than an hour. Soon afterwards he
found himfelf greatly oppreflfed at the ftomach, grew
extremely fick, and vomited violently ; on the fourth
ftraining he brought up about half a pint of fmall
worms, part afcaridcs, and the reft refembling thofe
worms which are called the botts, and frequently met
with in the ftomach of horfes, but much fmaller, and
about the lize of a grain of wheat. The fait foon
began to operate downwards, and he had five or fix
very copious fetid ftools, tinged with blood ; and in
them difeharged near an equal quantity of the fame
kind of worms he had vomited. Being greatly fa¬
tigued with the violence of the operations, he fell into
a calm fleep, which lafted two hours, during which
he fvveated profufely, and awoke much refrefhed.
Inftead of his ufual pains, he novr only complained of
a rawnefs and forenefs of his gullet, ftomach, and
bowels, with an almoft unquenchable thirft ; to allay
which, he drank large quantities of cold water, -whey,
butter-milk, or whatever he could get. The urine he
now palled was fmall in quantity, and rendered with
very great difficulty, being highly faturated with the
fait, from whence arofe a moft troublefome dyfuria
and ftrangury. However, thefe fymptoms gradually
abated by a free ufe of the liquors above mentioned ;
and on the third morning he was fo well recovered,
that he took two pounds more of fait, diflolved in the
like quantity of water. The effe&s were nearly fimi-
lar to the former j only that moft of the worms were
now burft, and came arvay with a confiderable quan¬
tity of flime and mucus. The drought, ftrangury, &c.
returned with their former violence, but foon yielded
to the old treatment. He fweated very copioufly for
three days, flept eafily, and by that time could ex¬
tend his body freely : on the fifth day he left his bed,
and, though very weak, could -walk upright ; his
ftrength and appetite foon returned, and he became
robuft and well.
The anthelmintic medicines which have been recom¬
mended by one perfon or other, are in a manner innu¬
merable -, but the principal are,
i. ^uickjilver. This is very efficacious againft all
kinds of worms, either taken in the form of calomel
or corrofive fublimate. Even the crude metal boiled in
water, and the water drunk, has been recommended as
an almoft certain cure. But this, it is evident, can
CINE.
469
receive no impregnation from the mercury. If, there¬
fore, it have any effedt, it muft be from fome for gn
and accidental impregnation. In moft inftances there
can be no objection to mercury, but only that it is
not endowed with any attenuating quality whereby
the mucus in which thefe infedls refide can be dif¬
folved. It therefore fails in many cafes, though it
will moft certainly deftroy worms where it can get
at them.
2. Powder of tin. This was for fome time cele¬
brated as a fpecific, and indeed we may reafonably
expedl good effects from it •, as by its weight and
grittinels it rubs off the mucus and worms it contains
from the coats of the inteftinal canal, in which cafe they
are eafily evacuated by purgatives. In order to pro¬
duce any confiderable effedts, it muft be given in a large
dofe.
Worms.
3. Geoffrcea inermis, or cabbage bark. This remedy
is ufed by the inhabitants of Jamaica. The firft account
of it which appeared in this country was publifhed in
the Phyficaland Literary Effays, vol. ii. by Mr Duguid
furgeon in that ifland. He acquaints us, that the inha¬
bitants of Jamaica, young and old, white and black,
are much infefted with worms, efpecially the long
round fort j the reafon of which, he thinks, is the quan¬
tity of fweet vifeid vegetables which they eat. On dif-
fedting a child of feven months old, who died of vomi¬
ting and convulfions, twelve large worms were found ;
one of them filled the appendix vertmformis, and three
of them were entwitled in fuch a manner as to block
up the valvu/a Tulpii, fo that nothing could pafs from
the fmall to the great guts.—The cabbage bark, how¬
ever, he tells us, is a fafe and effedlual remedy, and
the moft powerful vermifuge yet known j and that it
it frequently brings away as many worms by ftool as
would fill a large hat. He owns that it has fome times
violent effedls ; but this he aferibes to the negroes who
make the decodlion (in which form the bark is ufed)
too ftrong, and not to the remedy itfelf.
Mr Anderfon, furgeon in Edinburgh, has alfo given
an account of this bark and its operation, in a letter
to Dr Duncan, publiffied in the Edinburgh Medi¬
cal Commentaries, volume iv. p. 84. From this ac¬
count it appears, that there are two different kinds
of cabbage bark ; the one much paler than the other :
the pale kind operates much more violently than the
other. It often occafions loofe ftools, great naufea, and
fuch like fymptoms, attended with great untafinefs
in the belly : in one or two inftances it was fuf-
pefled of inducing fyncope. The darker coloured
kind refembles the caffia lignea, though it is of a
much coarfer texture. This kind, Mr Anderfon
thinks, may be exhibited in any cafe where an an¬
thelmintic is neceffary ; the dangerous fymptoms might
have followed either from the ufe of the firft kind, or
from an over-dole of the fecond. The ufual method of
preparing the medicine is by boiling two ounces and a
half of the bark in two quarts of water to a pint and a
half. Of this a tea-fpoonful may be given at, firft in the
morning, gradually increafing the quantity till we
come to four or five table-fpoonfuls in a day. When
exhibited in this manner, Mr Anderfon informs us,
that he never faw it produce any violent fymptoms,
and has experienced the beft effe.fts from it as an an¬
thelmintic. After the ufe of this decoftion for eight
or
470
Worm«.
w or nIne mornings fucceffively, a dofe of jalap with
caleRiel muft be given, which feldom fails to bring
away the worms, feme dead, fome alive. If at any
tiroc iiit decodlion produce more than one or two
loofe ftools, a few drops of liquid laudanum may be
given ; and, in general, Mr Anderfon gave 15 or 20
drops of the fpirit of lavender with each dofe.
In a letter from Dr ilufh, profefTor of chemiftry at
Philadelphia, to Dr Duncan of Edinburgh, the. follow¬
ing account is given of another preparation of this me¬
dicine. “ It has long (lays he) been a complaint
a "ong phyficians, that we have no ’vermifuge medicine
which can be depended upon. Even calomel fails in
ina y caies where there are the moll pathognomonic
ligns of worms in the bowels. But this complaint, it
is hoped, is now at an end. The phyficians of Jamaica
have lately found, that the cabbage-bark, as it is ca'led
in the Weft Indies, made into a fyrup with brown fu-
gar, is an infallible antidote to "them. I have ufed
above 30 pounds of it, and have never found it fail in
one inftance. The fyrup is pleafant ; it fometimes
pukes, and always purges, the firft or fecond time it is
given.”
The moft accurate botanical defeription of the geof-
froea inermis, 01 the tree furniftung the worm bark, as
it has often been called, is that which was publiftied
fome years ago in the Philofophical Tranfadions by
Eb Wright, formerly phyfxcian at Jamaica, now of
Edinburgh, who alfo highly extolls this remedy as an
anthelmintic.
Notwdthftandingthefe encomiums, however, the cab¬
bage bark has not come into general ufe in Britain.
But difeafes from the teretes, or lutnbnci as they are
often called, the fpecies of worm againft which this
bark is employed, much lefs frequently occur in Bri¬
tain than in fome other countries. When they do oc¬
cur, in almoft every inftance they readily yield to more
gentle and fafe anthelmintics ; and the worms may not
only be expelled by calomel, but by the vegetable bit¬
ters ; as the powder of the artemilia fantonica, or the
like.
4. Couhage, or cow-itch. This is the Dolichos urens
or pruriens of Linnaeus and the principles on which
it acts have been already explained under the ar¬
ticle Dolichos. It is fomewbat fimilar to the pow¬
der of tin, but bids fair for being more efficacious.
It might at firft appear to occur as objedions to this
medicine, that by the hairs of it entangling themfelves
with one another, calculi might be formed in the in-
teftines, or obftrudions equally bad ; or if the ffiarp
points and hooks with which it abounds were to ad¬
here to the nervous coats of the inteftines themfelves,
they might occafion a fatal irritation, which could not
be removed by any means whatever. But from the
experience of thofe who have employed it extenfively
m niadjee, it would appear, that thele objedions are
entirely theoretical : and that it maybe employed with
perfed fafety. The fpiculae, gently feraped off from a
fingle pod,, and mixed with fyrup or melaffes, are taken
for a dofe in the morning faffing. This dofe is repeat¬
ed in this manner for two or three davs without any
fenfible operation ; but ever, a very flight purgative
taken afterwards has been found to difeharge an almoft
incredible quantity of worms. And according to Dr
Bancroft, who has given a very particular account of
MEDICINE. Appendix
2 ff ’n h'S Nf,tUraI Hi,lo7 °f Gukna, it is one of Wo™
the iaieft and moft certain anthelmintics yet difeovered-
but, as well as the bark of the Geoffreea, it has hither*
to been very little ufed in Britain, probably from its
not being neceflary.
S' Indian pink.. This plant, which is the Spigelia
man/andica or Linnaeus, is alfo an American plant
and was firft recommended in the Edinburgh Phyfical
and Literary Effays by Dr Garden of Charleftown in
South Carolina. He is of opinion that a vomit ought
always to precede the ufe of it j and informs us, that
half a dram of it purges as brifkly as the fame quan¬
tity of rhubarb. At other times he has known it pro¬
duce no effedl on the belly though given in very large
quantity : In fuch cafes it becomes neceffary to add 3
grain or twm of fweet mercury, or fome grams of rhu¬
barb ; but then it is lefs efficacious than when it proves
purgative without addition. The ufe of it, however
in fmall dofes, is by no means fafe ; as it frequently
produces giddinefs, dimnefs of fight, convulfions, &c»
The addition of a purgative, indeed, prevents thefe ef-
fefts ; but at the fame time, as already obferved, it di-
miniflies the virtue of the medicine. The doftor there¬
fore recommends large dofes, as from them he never
knew any other effedf than the medicine’s proving eme¬
tic or violently cafhartic. The doib is from 12 to 60
or 70 grains of the root in fubftance, or two, three, or
foui drains of the infufion, twice a-day. This medicine
has alfo had its day, and is now very far from being
confidered as a fpecific. ®
The long round worms feem to be the moft dan¬
gerous which infeft 'the human body, as they often
pierce through the ftomach and inteftines, and thus
bring on a miferable death. The common fymptoms of
them are naufea, vomiting, loofenefs, fainting, {lender
intermitting pulfe, itching of the nofe, and epileptic
fits. By the confumption of the chyle they produce
hunger, palenefs, weaknefs, coftivenefs, tumor of the
abdomen, erudations, and rumbling of the inteflines;
but it is from the perforation of the inteftines that
the difeafe proves fo frequently fatal. A child may
be known to have worms from his cold temperament,
paltntfs of the countenance, livid eyelids, hollow eyes,
itching of the nofe, voracity, ftartings, and grinding
of the teeth, in fleep; and more efpecially by a very
fc tid breath. Very frequently, however, they are void¬
ed by the mouth and anus, in which cafe there is no
room for doubt. In the Medical Commentaries, vol. ii.
we have an account of the inteftines being perforated
by a w’orm, and yet the patient recovered. The pa¬
tient was a woman troubled with an inflammation in
the lower part of the abdomen. The pain was fo vio¬
lent, that for fix days (he flept none at all; the tumor
then broke, difeharged upwards of a pound of thin wa¬
tery fanies, immediately after which the excrements
followed. The next day (he was extremely loir •, her pidfe
could fearcely be felt; the extremities were cold; and
there w>as a confiderable difeharge from the wound,
which had already begun to mortify. She got a de-
coflion of cinchona with wine, which alleviated the
fymptoms; but in removing the mortified parts a wo'Tn
was found amom* them nine inches long, and as thick
as an eagle’s quill. By proper applications, the dif-
charge of excrements ceafed, and ffie recovered perfed:
health. She was fenfible of no accident giving rife to
the
appendix. M E J) I
Worms, the inflammation ; fo that in all probability it arofe en-
tirely from the worm itfelf.
The tccnia, or tape-worm as it is called, is one of
thofe moil difficult to be removed from tire human body.
It is of two kinds, ta-nia folium and tcenia lata ; for
a defcription of which fee the article Ti'ENlA.—The
reafon of its being fo difficult to cure is, that though
portions of it are apt to break off and be difcharged,
it is endowed with a power of reproduction, fo that
the patient is little or nothing better. The fymptoms
occafioned by it are not different from thofe above
defcribed. A fpecific againft the tcenia lata has been
lately fo much celebrated in France, that the king
thought proper to purchafe it from the proprietor
(Madame Nouffer), and the account of it has been
tranflated into Englith by Dr Simmons. The patients
are required to obferve no particular regimen till the
day before they take the fpecific. That day they are
to take nothing after dinner till about 7 o’clock \ after
which, they are to take the following foup : “ Take
a pint and a half of water, twro or three ounces of
good freffi butter, and two ounces of bread cut into
thin flices: add to this fait enough to feafon it, and
then boil it to the confiftence of panada.” About a
quarter of an hour after this, they take a bifcuit and a
glafs of white wine, either pure or mixed with water ;
or even wTater alone, if they have not been accuflomed
to wine. If the patient has not been to ftool that day,
(which, however, is not ufual with patients in this
way), the following elyfter is to be injefted. “ Take
a fmall quantity of the leaves of mallows, and boil them
in a fufficient quantity of water, mixing with it a little
fait, and when drained off add two ounces of olive
oil.” Next morning, about eight or nine hours after
the fupper above mentioned, the fpecific is to be taken.
This is no other than two or three drams of the root
of male fern, poly podium filix mas of Linnaeus, gathered
in autumn, and reduced to fine powder. It is to be
taken in any diftilled water, or in ccmmon water. This
medicine is apt to occafion a naufea: to avoid which,
Madame Nouffer allows her patients to chew any thing
that is agreeable, but forbids any thing to be fwallow-
ed; or they may fmell to vinegar, to check the fick-
nefs: but if, notwithftanding this, the fpecific be thrown
up, a freffi dofe muff be fwallowed as foon as the fick-
nefs is gone off, and then they muff try to fleep. About
two hours after this the following bolus is to be taken.
“ Take of the panacea of mercury 14 times fublimed,
and feleft refin of fcammony, each ten grains ; of freffi
and good gamboge fix or feven grains : reduce each of
thefe fubitances feparately into powder, and then mix
them with fome conferve into a bolus.” This compofi-
tion is to be fwallowed at two different times, walking
it down with one or twro dilhes of weak green-tea, after
which the patient muff walk about his chamber. When
the bolus begins to operate, he is to take a diffi of the
fame tea occafionally, until the worm be expelled ;
then, and not before, Madame Nouffer gives him broth
or foup, and he is directed to dine as is ufual after tak¬
ing phyfic. After dinner he may cither lie down or
walk out, taking care to conduct himfelf difcreetly,
to eat but little fupper, and to avoid every thing that
is not of eafy digeffion.
The cure then is complete ; but it is not always ef-
fe&ed with the fame quicknefs in every fubject. He
CINE.
who has not kept down the whole bolus, or who is not
Efficiently purged by it, ought to take, four hours af¬
ter it, from two to eight drams of Epfom fait diffolved
in boiling water. The dofe of this fait may be varied
according to the temperament and other circumftances
of the patient.
If the worm ffiould not come away in a bundle, but
in the form of a thread (which particularly happens
when the worm is involved m much tenacious mucus),
the patient muff continue to fit upon the clofe-ftool
without attempting to draw it away, drinking at the
fame time warm weak tea: fometimes this alone is not
fufficient, and the patient is obliged to take another
dofe of purging fait, but without varying his pofition
till the worm be wholly expelled.
It is unufual for patients who have kept down both
the fpecific and purging dofe, not to dilcharge the
vrorm before dinner-time. 1 his, hou7ever, fometimes
happens when the dead wrorm remains in large bundles
in the inteftmes, fo that the faeces becoming more
limpid towards the end of the purging, pafs by it
without drawing it with them. The patient may in
this cafe eat his dinner ; and it has been obferved, that
the food, joined to the ufe of a clyfter, has brought
about the expuliion of the worm.
Sometimes the worm is brought away by the aftion
of the fpecific alone, before the patient has taken the
purging bolus : when this happens,Aviadame Nouffer
gives only two-thirds of it, or fubftitutes the fait in its
ftead.
471
Worms.
Patients muff not be alarmed by any fenfation of
heat or uneafinefs they may feel during the a6tion of
the remedy, either before or after a copious evacua¬
tion, or juft as they are about to void the umrm. Thefe
fenfations are tranfitory, and go off fpontaneoully, or
by the affiftance of the vapour of vinegar drawn in at
the nofe.
They who have vomited both the fpecific and bolus,
or who have kept down only a part of them, fome¬
times do not void the worm that day. Madame Nouf¬
fer therefore directs them to take again that night the
foup, the wine and bifcuit; and if circumftances re¬
quire it, the clyfter. If the vmrm do not come away
during the night, ftie gives them early the next morning
another dofe of the fpecific, and, two hours afterwards,
fix drams or an ounce of purging fait, repeating the
whole procefs of the preceding day ; excepting the
bolus, which foe fuppreffes.
She obferves, that very hot weather diminifties in
fome degree the action of her remedy •, ffie therefore
prefers the month of September for adminiftering it 5
but as ffic has not been always able to choofe the fea¬
fon, and has been fometimes obliged to undertake the
cure of patients in the hotteft days of fummer, ffie
then gave her fpecific very early in the morning j
and with this precaution ftie faw no difference in its
effefts.
On the day appointed for the trial of this medicine
before the commiffioners nominated by the king of
France, it was exhibited to five different perfons; but
only one of them was certainly known to have the tcenia
lata by having difcharged parts of it before. That
perfon wras cured 5 the fecond voided a potion of the
tairia folium; the third fome afcarides, with a part of
the tcenia folium; the fourth and fifth voided no worms;
but
472 M E D I
Worms, but the laft confidered much of the vifcid dime he void-
' ^ ed tt< be worms in a diffolved date.
i'his trial was thought fuifieient to afcertain the ef¬
ficacy of the medicine, and further trials were made
by .hufe to whom the fecret was communicated. The
firlt voided two taenia, after much vomiting and 18 or
20 ilools 5 the fecond had no vomiting, but was as vio¬
lently purged, and difchargcd two worms } the third
had 20 copious itools during the night, and difeharged
the worm in the morning ; and the fifth was affehted
in much the fame manner. Some others who were not
relieved, were fuppofed not to have a taenia.
This fpecific, however, is not to be confidered as a
new difcovery j the efficacy of fern in cafes of taenia
having been known long ago. Theophraflus prefcribes
its root, in dofes of four drams, given in water fweeten-
ed with honey, as ufeful in expelling flat worms.—
Diofcorides orders it in the fame dofe, and adds, that
its cffe6ts are more certain when it is mixed with four
oboli (40 grains) of fcammony or black hellebore ; he
particularly requires that garlic (hould be taken before
hand. Pliny, Galen, Oribafius, and Aetius, afcribe
this fame virtue to fern ; and are followed in this by
Avicenna, and the other Arabian phyficians. Dor-
flenius, Valerius Cordus, Dodonaeus, Mathiolus, Da-
lechampius, who commented on Diofcorides, or copied
him in many things, all mention the fern-root as a fpe¬
cific againrt the taenia. Senncrtus, and Burnet after
him, recommended in fimilar cafes an infufion of this
plant, or a dram of its powder, for young perfons, and
three drams for adults. Simon Paulus, quoted by Ray
and Geoffroy, confiders it as the moft efficacious of all
poifons againft the flat worm, and as being the bafis of
all the fecret remedies extolled by empirics in that
difeafe, Andry prefers diftilled fern-water to the root
in powder, or he employs it only in the form of an opiate,
or mixed with other fubfiances.
Thefe are not the only authors who have mentioned
the taenia 5 many others have defcribed this worm,
the fymptoms it excites, and the treatment proper to
expel it. Almoft all of them mention the fern-root,
but at the fame time they point out other remedies as
poffefling equal efficacy. Amongfl: thefe we find the
bark of the root of the mulberry-tree, the juice of the
auricula murus, the roots of chameeleon niger, gin¬
ger, zedoary ; decodfions of mugwort, fouthernwood,
wormwood, penny-royal, origanum, hylfop, and in ge¬
neral all bitter and aromatic plants, &c. Some of
them diredl the fpecific to be Amply mixed and taken
in wine or honey and water; others join to it the ufe
ipf fiome purgative remedy, which they fay adds to its
efficacy. Oribafius, Sylvius, &c. diftinguifh the fpe¬
cific that kills the worm, from the purgative that eva¬
cuates it, and direft them to be given at different
times. Sennertus gives a very fatisfadlory reafon for
adopting this method. If we give, fays he, the pur¬
gative medicine and the fpecific at the fame time, the
latter will be haftily carried off before it can have ex¬
erted its powers on the worm : whereas, if we give
the fpecific firft, and thus weaken the worm, it will
foiled! itfelf into a bundle, and, being brought away
by means of the purge, the patient will be cured. The
cure will be more fpeedy if the prinue vice have been
previoufly lubricated. Thefe precautions are all of
them effential to the fuccefs of the remedy, nor are
^ 1 N E. -Appendix
they negledled by Madame Nouffer in her method of Worms
treatments I he panada and injection ffie prefcribes the
night before, to lubricate the inteftines, and prepare
the pnmee vice. The fern root, taken in the morning,
kills and detaches the worm ; of this the patients are
fenfible by the ceffation of the pain in tile ftomach
and by the weight that is felt in the lower belly!
The purgative bolus adminiftered two hours after this
procures a complete evacuation ; it is compofed of fub-
ftances that are at once purgative and vermifuge, and
which, even when adminiftered alone, by different
phyficians, fometimes fucceeded in expelling the worm.
If this purgative appear to be too ftrong, the reader is
defired to recoiled, that it produced no ill effeds in
either of the cafes that came under the obfervation of
the phyficians appointed to make the trials ; and that
in one of thofe cafes, by diminilhing the dofe, they
evidently retarded the evacuations.—Regard however,
they obferve, is to be had both to the age and the
temperament of the patient, and the treatment ffiould
always be direded by a prudent and experienced phy-
fician, who may know how to vary the proportions of
the dofe as circumftances may require. If the purga¬
tive be not of fufficient flrengtli, the worm, after be- •
ing detached by the fpecific, remains too long a time
in the inteftines, and becoming foon corrupted, is
brought away only in detached portions : on the other
hand, if the purgative be too ftrong, it occafions too
much irritation, and evacuations that cannot fail to be
inconvenient.
Madame Noufter’s long experience has taught her
to diftinguifti all thefe circumftances with Angular
adroitnefs.
This method of cure is, as we have feen, copied in
a great muafure from the ancients : it may be poffible
to produce the fame effeds by varying the remedies $
but the manner of applying them is by no means in¬
different : we (hall be always more certain of fuccefs
if the inteftines be previoufly evacuated, and if the
fpeeific be given feme time before the purgative bolus.
It is to this method that Madame Nouffer’s conflant
fuecefs is attributed.
Her remedy has likewife fome power over the tcenia
folium; but as the rings of this worm feparate from
each other more eafily than thofe of the tcenia lata^ it
is almoft impoflible for it to be expelled entire. It
will be neceffary therefore to repeat the treatment- fe-
veral times, till the patient ceafe to void any portions
of worms. It muft likewife be repeated, if, after the
expulflon of one tcenia folium, another ffiould be gene¬
rated in the inteftinal canal. I'his laft cafe is fo rare,
that it has been fuppofed that no perfon can have
more than one of thefe worms j and for this reafon it
has been named folitary worm, which, being once re¬
moved, could never be renewed or replaced by a fe¬
cond : but experience has proved, that this notion is
an ill-founded prejudice and we know that fometimis
thefe worms fucceed each other, and that fometimes
feveral of them exift together. Two living taenise have
frequently been expelled from the fame patient. Dr
De Haen relates an inftance of a woman who voided
18 taeniae at once. In thefe cafes the fymptoms are
ufually more alarming ", and the appetite becomes excef-
five, becaufe thefe worms derive all their nouriffiment
from the chyle. If too auftere and ill-judged a regime*
deprive*
MEDICINE.
Appendix.
Worms, deprives them of this, they may be expected to attack
even the membranes of the inteftines themfelves. This
evil is to be avoided by eating frequently.
Such are the precautions indicated in this difeafe.
The ordinary vermifuge remedies commonly procured
only a palliative cure, perhaps becaufe they were too
often improperly adminiftered. But the efficacy of
the prefent remedy, in the opinion of the French phy-
licians, feems to be fufficiently confirmed by experi¬
ence. To the above account, however, it feems proper
to fubjoin the following obfervations by Dr Simmons.
“ A Swifs phyfician, of the name of Herrenfc/iwand,
more than 20 years ago, acquired no little celebrity
by difiributing a compofition of which he ftylcd him-
felf the inventor, and which was probably of the fame
nature as Madame Nouffer’s. Several very eminent
men, as Tronchin, Hovius, Bonnet, Cramer, arid
others, have written concerning the eifedls of this re¬
medy. It feems that Dr Herrenfclnvand ufed to give
a powder by way of preparation, the night before he
adminiftered his fpecific. Nothing could be faid with
certainty concerning the compofition either of one or
the other. The treatment was fald fometimes to pro¬
duce moft violent eifedls, and to leave the patients in
a valetudinary ftate. Dr De Haen wras diffuaded by
his friends from ufing it, becaufe it difordered the pa¬
tients too much. It will be readily conceived, now
that we are acquainted with Madame Nouffer’s method,
that thefe effe£Is were occafioned wholly by the pur¬
gative bolus. It is not ftrange, that refin of fcam-
mony or jalap, combined with merctirius dulcis and
gamboge, all of them in ftrong dofes, Ihould in many
fubjefts occafion the greateft diforders. It feems like¬
ly, however, that much of the fuccefs of the remedy
depends on the ufe of a draftic purge. Some of the
ancients who were acquainted with the virtues of the
fern root, obferved that its efficacy was increafed by
fcammony. Refinous purges, efpecially when com¬
bined with mercury, have often been given with fuc-
eefs in cafes of tcenia. Dr De Haen faw a worm of
this fort five ells long expelled by the refin of jalap
alone. Dr Gaubius knew a woman who had taken a
variety of anthelmintic remedies without .any effeft,
though fhe had voided a portion of tcenia an ell and
a half long previous to the ufe of thefe medicines : but
at length, after taking a purge of fingular ftrength,
ffie voided the worm entire. Many other inftances of
the fame kind are to be met with in authors. Other
remedies have occafionally been given with fuccefs.
In Sweden, it has been a pra6lice to drink feveral
gallons of cold water, and then to take fome draftic
purge. Eoerhaave fays, that he himfelf faw a tcenia
meafuring 300 ells expelled from a Ruffian by means of
the fulphate of iron.
From fome late accounts, there is reafon to believe
that Dr Herrenfchwand’s remedy for tcenia does not fo
exadtly agree with that of Madame Nouffer as Dr Sim¬
mons feems to imagine. According to the account
given us by a gentleman who had his information from
Dr Herrenfchwand himfelf, it confifts entirely of gam¬
boge and fixed vegetable alkali.
e O/POISONS.
4 8
Of many poifons we have already treated, but there
are fome of which nothing has hitherto been faid. A-
Vol. XIII. Part II.
mong the moft fatal of thefe are the bites- and ftings of
ferpents, fcorpions, &c. According to Dr Mead, the
fymptoms which follow the bite of a viper are, an acute
pain in the place wounded, with a fwelling, at firft red,
but afterwards livid, which by degrees fpreads farther
to the neighbouring parts 5 with great faintnefs, and a
quick, low, and fometimes interrupted pulfe ; great fick-
nefs at ftomach, with bilious convulfive vomitings, cold
fweats, and fometimes pains about the navel. Frequent¬
ly a fanious liquor runs from the fmall wound, and little
puftules are raifed about it : the colour of the whole
Ikin in lefs than an hour is changed yellow, as if the
patient had the jaundice. Thefe fymptoms are very fre¬
quently followed by death, efpecially if the climate be
hot, and the animal of a large fize. This is not, how¬
ever, the cafe with all kinds of ferpents. Some, we are
affured, kill by a fatal fleep •, others are faid to produce
an univerfal hsemorrhage and diffoiution of the blood ;
and others an unquenchable thrift. But of all the
fpecies of ferpents hitherto known, there is none whofe
bite is more expeditioufty fatal than that of the rattle-
fnake. Dr Mead tells us, that the bite of a large fer-
pent of this kind killed a dog in a quarter of a minute ;
and to the human fpecies they are almoft equally fatal.
Of this ferpent it is faid, that the bite makes the per-
fon’s Ikin become fpotted all over like the fir in of the
ferpent and that it has fuch a motion as if there wer«
innumerable living ferpents below it. But this is pro¬
bably nothing more than a diffoiution 6f the blood, by
which the fkin becomes fpotted as in petechial fevers,
at the fame time that the mufcles may be convulfed as
in the diftemper called hieranofos, which was former¬
ly thought to be the effedl of evil fpirits : but it is even
not improbable that obfervers have been fomewhat aid¬
ed by fancy and fuperftition when they thought that
they detected fuch appearances.
It has juftly appeared furprifing to philofophers, how
fuch an inconfiderable quantity of matter as the poifon
emitted by a viper at the time of biting ffiould produce
fuch violent effefts. But all inquiries into this matter
muft neceffarily be uncertain ; neither can they contri¬
bute any thing towards the cure. It is certain that the
poifon produces a gangrenous difpofition of the part it-
felf, and likewife feemingly of the reft of the body j
and that the original quantity of poifon continues fome
time before it exerts all its power on the patient, as it
is known that removing part of the poifonous matter
by fudtion will alleviate the fymptoms. The indica¬
tions of cure then are three ; 1. Ta remove the poifon¬
ous matter from the body : Or, 2. If this cannot be
done, to change its deftru£Uve nature by fome powerful
and penetrating application to the wound : And, 3. To
counterafl the effedls of that portion already received
into the fyftem.
The poifonous matter can only be removed from
the body by fucking the wound either by the mouth,
or by means of a cupping glafs ; but the former is
probably the more efficacious, as the faliva will in fome
meafure dilute and perhaps obtund the poifon. Dr
Mead directs the perfon who fucks the wound to hold
wurm oil in his mouth, to prevent inflammation of the
lips and tongue : but as bites of this kind are moft
likely to happen in the fields, and at a diftance from
houfes, the want of oil ought by no means to retard
the operation, as the delay of a few minutes might
3 O prove
474
Poifons.
M E D I C I N E
prove of the mo ft fatal confequence ; and it appears
J from Dr Mead’s experiments, that the taking the
poifon of a viper into the mouth undiluted, is attended
with no worfe confeqtiences than that of railing a flight
inflammation. A quick exciflon of the part might alfo
be of very great fervice.
The only way of atifwering the fecond indication is,
by deftroying the poifoned part by a red-hot iron, or
the application of alkaline falts, which have the power
of immediately altering the texture of all animal fub-
ftances to which they are applied, provided they are not
covered by the fldn 3 and as long as the poifon is not
totally abforbed into the fyftem, thefe muft certainly be
of ufe.
To anfwer the third indication, Dr Mead recommends
a vomit of ipecacuanha, encouraged in the working with
oil and warm water. The good effefts of this, he fays,
are owing to the fhake which it gives to the nerves,
whereby the irregular fpafms into which their whole
fyftem might be drawn are prevented. After this the
patient muft go to bed, and a fweat muft be procured
by cordial medicines 3 by which the remaining effedls
of the poifon will be carried off.
It has been confidently afferted by many, that the
American Indians are poffeffed of fome fpecific remedy
by which they can eafily cure the bite of a rattlefnake.
But Mr Catefby, who muft have had many opportuni¬
ties of knowing this, pofitively denies that they have
any fuch medicine. They make applications indeed,
and fometimes the patient recovers 3 but thefe recove¬
ries he afcribes to the ftrength of nature overcoming
the poilon, more than to the remedies made ufe of.
He fays, they are very acute in their prognoftics whe¬
ther a perfon that is bit will die or not 3 and when
they happen to receive a bite in certain parts of the
body, when the teeth of the animal enter a large vein,
for inftance, they quietly refign themfelves to their
fate, without attempting any thing for their own re¬
lief. Indeed, fo violent and quick is the operation of
this poifon, that unlefs the antidote be inftantly ap¬
plied, the perfon will die before he can get to a houfe.
It would feem therefore eligible for thofe who are in
danger of fuch bites, to carry along with them fome
ftrong alkaline ley, or dry alkaline fait, or both,
which could be inftantly clapt on the wound, and by
its diffolving power w'ould deftroy both the poifon
and the infefted parts. Strong cordials alfo, fuch as
ardent fpirits, volatile alkali, &c. might poflibly ex¬
cite the languid powers of nature, and enable her to
expel the enemy, which would otherwife prove too
powerful. This feems to be fomewhat confirmed from
the account we have in the Philofophical Tranfaftions
of a gentleman bit by a rattlefnake, who was more
relieved by a poultice of vinegar and vine-allies put to
his wound than any thing elfe. The vine allies being
of an alkaline nature, muft have faturated the vinegar,
fo that no part of the cure could be attributed to
it: on the other hand, the allies themfelves could not
have been faturated by the fmall quantity of acid ne~
ceffary to form them into a poultice 3 of confequence
they muft have operated by their alkaline quality.—
Soap ley, therefore, or very ftrong fait of tartar, may
reafonably be thought to be the beft external applica¬
tion, not only for the bites of vipers, but of every
Appendix.
venomous creature 3 and in fact we find dry fait uni-Difeafesof
verfally recommended both in the bites of ferpents and Children,
of mad dogs. Dr Mead recommends the fat of vipers '■"‘“v—-J
immediately rubbed into the wound 3 but owns that it
is not fafe to trull to this remedy alone.
Some years ago the volatile alkali was ftrongly re¬
commended by M. Sage of the French academy, as a
powerful remedy againft the bito of the viper : and,
by a letter from a gentleman in Bengal to Dr Wright,
it would appear that this article, under the form of the
eau de luce, which is very little if any thing different
from the fpiritus ammonia; fuccinatus of the London
Pharmacopoeia, has been employed with very great
fuccefs againll this affeflion in the Fall Indies : but
from the trials made with it by the abbe Fontana, pub-
lilhed in his Treatife on the Poifon of the Viper, it
would appear that it by no means anfwered his expecta¬
tion ; and the efficacy of this, as well as of the fnake
pills mentioned under the article HYDROPHOBIA, ftill
requires to be confirmed by further experience.
MELiENE.
This is a diftemper not very common, but it has
been obferved by the ancient phyficians, and is de-
fcribed by Hippocrates under the name of morbus
niger. It Ihows itfelf by a vomiting and purging of
black tar-l'ke matter, which Hippocrates, Boerhaave,
and Van Swieten, fuppofed to be occafioned by atra
bilis. But Dr Home, in his Clinical Experiments, en¬
deavours to Ihew that it is owing to an effufion of blood
from the meferaic veffels, which, by its ftagnation and
corruption, affumes that ftrange appearance. The
difeafe, he fays, frequently follows haemorrhage 3 and
thofe of a fcorbutic habit are moft fubjeCl to it. It
is an acute difeafe, and terminates foon 3 yet it is not
attended with any great degree of fever. In one of
Dr Home’s patients the crifis happened on the eighth
day by diarrhoea 3 in another, on the 14th, by fweat and
urine 3 and a third had no evident critical evacuation.
As to the cure, Dr Home obferves, that bleeding is
always neceffary where the pulfe can bear it 3 nor are
w'e to be deterred from it by a little weaknefs of the
pulfe, more than in the enteritis. Emetics are hurtful,
but purgatives are ufeful. But the moft powerful
medicine for checking this haemorrhage is the fulphuric
acid : and, that this might be given in greater quantity,
he mixed it with mucilage of gum arabic 3 by which
means he was enabled to give double the quantity he
could otherwife have done. The cold bath was tried
in one inftance, but he could not determine whether it
was of any fervice or not. The cure wras completed by
exercife and cinchona.
Of the DISEASES o/CHILDREN.
Dr Buchan obferves, that from the annual regifters
of the dead, it appears that about one half of the
children born in Great Britain die under twelve years
of age 3 and this very great mortality he attributes
in a great meafure to wrong management. The par¬
ticulars of this wrong management enumerated by
him are,
1. Mothers not fuckling their own children. This,
he owns, it is fometimes impoffible for them to do 3
but
409
41*
3
Appendix. M E JD I
pii'eafes of but where it can be done, he affirms that it ought
(jhildren, ncver to be omitted. This, he fays, would prevent the
unnatural cuftom of mothers leaving their own children
to fuckle thofe of others ; on which he paffes a mod:
fevere cenfure, and indeed fcarce any cenfure can be
fevere enough upon fueh inhumanity. Dr Buchan in¬
forms us, “ He is hire he fpeaks within bounds,
when he fays not one in a hundred of thefe children
live who are thus abandoned by their mothers.” For
this reafon he adds, that no mother fkould be allowed
to fuckle another’s child till her own be fit to be
weaned. A regulation of this kind would fare many
lives among the poorer fort, and would do no harm
to the rich ; as moft women who make good nurfes are
able to fuckle two children in fucceffion upon the fame
milk.
2. Another fource of the difeafes of children is the
unhealthinefs of parents : and our author infills that
no perfon who labours under an incurable malady ought
to marry.
3. The manner of clothing children tends to pro¬
duce difeafes. All that is necefiary here, he fays, is
to wrap the child in a foft loofe covering; and the
foftnefs of every part of the infant’s body fufficiently
fhows the injury which mull neceffarily enfue by pur-
fuing a contrary method.
4. A new-born infant, inftead of being treated with
fyrups, oils, &c. ought to be allowed to fuck the mo¬
ther’s milk almoft as foon as it comes into the rvorld.
He condemns the practice of giving v'ines and fpiri-
tuous liquors along with the food foon after birth 5
and fays, that if the mother or nurfe has a fufficient
quantity of milk, the child will need little or no other
food before the third or fourth month. But to this it
may reafonably be objedted, not only that the nurfing
would thus be very fevere on the mother j but if the
child be left thus long without other food, it will not
eafily relifh that food for fome time, and its llomach is
apt to be eafily hurt by a flight change of diet after it
has been long accuftomed to one thing. The human
fpecies are unqueilionably fitted by nature for a mixed
aliment, both from the vegetable and animal kingdom.
And the analogy of other animals belonging to the
clafs of mammalia for whom milk is equally provided
at the earlieft periods of life, would lead us to the con-
clufion, that mixed aliment is well fitted for the human
fpecies even in the earlieft periods of infancy. The
lamb is no fooner dropt than, by natural inftindl, it
crops the grafs as well as it fucks its mother. And the
ftomach in the human fpecies, immediately after birth,
can digeft other food as well as milk. Neither can it
be (hown, that the ftrongeft and moil'healthy infants are
thofe which get no other food but the mother’s milk
during the firft months of their life. In fa£l, chilcnen
are evidently of a wreak and lax habit of body, fo that
many of their difeafes rnuft arife from that caufe 5 all
directions which indiferimmately advife an antiphlo-
giftic regimen for infants as foon as they come into
the world, mull of neceftity be wrong. Many inftances
in fact might be brought to Ihow, that by the prepo-
fterous methc* of ftarving infants, and at the fame
time treating them with vomits and purges, they are
often hurried out of the world. Animal food indeed,
particularly under the form of broths, is exceflively
agreeable to children, and they ought to be indulged
c I N E.
with it in moderation. This will prove a much better
remedy for thofe acidities with which children are of¬
ten troubled, than magnefia alba, crabs eyes, or other
abforbents, which have the moft pernicious clfccls on
the ftomachs of thefe tender creatures, and pall the ap¬
petite to a furprifing degree. The natural appetites of
children are indeed the belt rule by which rve can judge
of what is proper or improper for them. They mull no
doubt be regulated as to the quantity ; but we may be
allured that avhat a child is very fond of will not hurt
it, if taken in moderation. When children are fick»
they refufe every thing but the breaft ; and if their dif-
temper be very fevere, they Avill refufe it alfo, and in
this cafe they ought not to be prefled to take food of
any kind ; but Avhen the ficknefs goes off, their appe¬
tite alfo returns, and they ay ill require the ufual quanti¬
ty of food.
According to Dr Armftrong, inward Jits, as they
arc called, are in general the firft complaint that ap¬
pears in children ) and as far as he has obferved, moft,
if not all infants, during the firft months, are more or
lefs liable to them. The fymptoms are thefe : The
child appears as if it Avas alleep, only the eyelids are
not quite clofed } and if you obferve them narroAvly,
you will fee the eyes frequently twinkle, with the Avhite
of them turned up. There is a kind of tremulous mo¬
tion in the mufcles of the face and lips, Avliich pro¬
duces fomething like a fimper or a fmile, and fometimes
almoft the appearance of a laugh. As the diforder
increafes, the infant’s breath feems norv and then to
ftop for a little ; the nofe becomes pinched 5 there is a
pale circle about the eyes and mouth, Avhich fometimes
changes to livid, and comes and goes by turns ; the
child Harts, efpecially if you attempt to ftir it though
ever fo gently, or if you make any noife near it. Thus
difturbed, it fighs, or breaks Avind, A\diich gives relief
for a little, but prcfently it relapfes into the dozing.
Sometimes it ftruggles hard before it can break Avind,
and feems as if falling into convulfions 5 but a violent
burft of Avind from the ftomach, or Ammiting, or a loud
fit of crying, fets all to rights again. As the child
increafes in ftrength, thefe fits are the more apt to go
off fpontaneouily and by degrees ; but in cafe they do
not, and if there is nothing done to remo\re them, they
either degenerate into an almoft conftant droAvfinefs,
(Avhich is fucceeded by a fever and the thrufn), or elfe
they terminate in vomitings, four, curdled, or green
ftools, the Avatery gripes, and convulfions. The thrufh
indeed very often terminates in thefe laft fymptoms.
As thefe complaints naturally run into one another, or
fucceed one another, they may be confidered, in a man¬
ner, as only different Itages of the fame difeafe, and
which derive their origin from the fame caufe. Thus,
the inAArard fits may be looked upon as the firft ftage of
the diforder 5 the fever, and thrufh (when it happens),
as the fecond ; the vomitings, four, curdled, green
or Avatery ftools, as the third 5 and convodfions, as the
laft.
As to the caufe of thefe complaints, he obferves,
that in infants the glandular fecretions, which are all
more or lefs glutinous, are much more copious than in
adults. During the time of fucking, the glands of the
mouth and fauces being fqueezed by the contraflion
of the mufcles, pour forth their contents plentifully $
which afterwards mixing Avith the mucus of the gullet
3 O 2 and
47s
Difeafes of
Children.
470
MEDICINE.
D’feafes of ancl ftomach, render tlie milk of a (limy confiftence, by
t t:^1^ren- -which means it is not fo readily abforbed into the lac-
teals ; and as in moft infants there is too great an aci¬
dity in the ftomach, the milk is thereby curdled, which
adds to the load ; hence ticknefs and fpafms, which,
being communicated by fympathy to the nerves of the
gullet and fauces, produce the convulfive motions above
defended, which go commonly by the name of inward
fits. The air, Jikewife, which is drawn in during fric¬
tion mixing with the milk, &c. in the ftomach, per¬
haps contributes towards increafing the fpafms above
mentioned. Dr Armftrong is the more induced to
attribute thefe fits to the caufes now affigned, that they
always appear immediately after fucking cr feeding j
efpecinliy if the child has been long at the breaft, or
fed heartily, and has been laid dowm to fleep without
having ftrft broken wind. Another reafon is, that
nothing relieves them fo foon as belching or vomiting;
and the milk or food they throw up is generally either
curdled, or mixed -with a large quantity of heavy
phlegm. If they be not relieved by belching or vomit¬
ing, the fits fometimes continue a good while, and gra¬
dually abate, according as the contents of the ftomach
are puftied into the inteftines *, and as foon as the former
is pretty well emptied, the child is waked by hunger,
cries, and wants the breaft ; he fucks, and the fame
procefs is repeated.—Thus, feme children for the firft
w'eeks are kept almoil always in a doze, or feemingly
fo } cfpecially if the nurfes, either through lazinefs or
want of {kill, do not take care to roufe them when
they perceive that it is not a right deep, and keep them
awake at proper intervals. This dozing is reckoned a
bad fign amongft experienced nurfes %7 who look upon
it as a forerunner of the thrufh, as indeed it often is j
and therefore, when it happens, wre ought to be upon
our guard to ufe the neceffary precautions for prevent¬
ing that diforder.
For thefe diforders, the only remedy recommended
by Dr Armftrong is antimonial wine, given in a few
drops according to the age of the infant. By this
means the fuperabundant mucus will no doubt be eva¬
cuated ; but at the fame time wre muft remember, that
this evacuation can only palliate, and not cure the dif-
eafe. This can only be effected by tonics 5 and, when
from inward fits and other fymptoms it appears that the
tone of the ftomach is very weak, a decoftion of cin¬
chona, made into a fyrup, will readily be taken by in¬
fants, and may be fafely exhibited from the very day
they come into the world, or as foon as their bowels
are emptied of the meconium by the mother’s milk or
any other means.
Dr Clarke obferves, that fra&ures of the limbs and
eomprejjions of the brain, often happen in difficult la¬
bours ; and that the latter are often followed by con-
vulfions foon after delivery. In thefe cafes, he fays, it
will be advifable to let the ravel-ftring bleed two or
three fpoonfuls before it be tied. Thus the oppreffion
of the brain will be relieved, and the difagreeable eon-
fequences juft mentioned will be prevented. But if
this has been negledled, and fits have adtually come
on, we muft endeavour to make a revulfion by all the
means in our power •, as by opening the jugular vein,
procuring an immediate difeharge of the urine and me¬
conium, and applying fmall blifters to the back, legs,
*r behind the ears. The femicupium, too, would feem
Appendix.
to be ufeful in this cafe, by driving the oppreffive load Difeafesof
of fluids from the head and upper parts. Children.
It fometimes happens after a tedious labour, that the ^
child is fo faint and weak as to difeover little or no
figns of life. In fuch a cafe, after the ufual cleanfing,
the body ftiould be immediately wrapped in warm flan¬
nel, and brifkly toffed about in the nurfe’s arms, in
order, if poffible, to excite the languid circulation.
If this fail, the breaft and temples may be rubbed with
brandy or other fpirits ; or the child may be provoked
to cry, by whipping, or other ftimulating methods, as
the application of onion, or fait and fpirit of bartfhorn,
to the mouth and noftrils. But after all thefe expe¬
dients have been tried in vain, and the recovery of the
child abfolutely defpaired of, it has fometimes been
happily revived by introducing a fliort catheter or
blowpipe into the mouth, and gently blowing into
the lungs at different intervals. Such children, how¬
ever, are apt to remain weak for a confiderable time,
fo that it is often no eafy matter to rear them ; and
therefore particular care and tendernefs will be required
in their management, that nothing may be omitted
which can contribute either to their prefervation or
the improvement of their ftrength and vigour.
All the diforders which arife from a retention of the
meconium, fuch as the red gum, may eafily be removed
by the ufe of gentle laxatives ; but the great fource of
mortality among children is the breeding of their teeth.
The ufual fymptoms produced by this are fretting ;
reftleffnefs ; frequent and hidden iiartings, efpecially in
deep ; coftivenefs; and fometimes a violent diarrhoea,
fever, cr convulfions. In general, thofe children breed
their teeth with the greateft eafe, who have a moderate
laxity of the bowels, or a plentiful flow of faliva dur¬
ing that time.
In mild cafes, we need only, when neeeffary, endea¬
vour to promote the means by which nature is obferved
to carry on the bufinefs of dentition in the tafitft man¬
ner. For this purpofe, if a coftivenefs be threatened,
it muft be prevented, and the body kept always gently
open 5 the gums ftiould be relaxed by rubbing them
frequently with fweet oils, or other foftening remedies
of that kind, which will greatly diminilh the tenfion
and pain. At the fame time, as children about this
period are generally difpofed to chew whatever they get
into their hands, they ought never to be without fome-
thing that will yield a little to the preffure of their
gums, as a cruft of bread, a wax candle, a bit of li¬
quorice root, or fueh like ; for the repeated mufcular
aclion, occafioned by the conftant biting and gnawing
at fuch a fubftance, will increafe the difeharge from the
falivary glands, while the gums will be fo forcibly pref-
fed againft the advancing teeth, as to make them break
out much fooner, and with lefs uneafinefs, than would-
otherwife happen. Some likewife recommend a flice of
the rind of freffi bacon, as a proper mafticatory for the
child, in order to bring mfeifture into its mouth, and
facilitate the eruption of the teeth by exercifing the
gums. If thefe means, however, prove ineffedlual, and
bad fymptoms begin to appear, the patient will often
be relieved immediately by cutting the inflamed gum
down to the tooth, where a fmall white point {hows
the latter to be coming forward. When the pulfe is
quick, the Ikin hot and dry, and the child of a fuffi-
cient age and ftrength, emptying the veffels by bleed¬
ing.
appendix. IM E O
D,ie»fes of ing, efpecially at the jugular, will frequently be necefla-
Children. ry here, as well as in all other inflammatory cafes; and
 v 1 the belly fhould be opened from time to time by emol¬
lient, oily, or mucilaginous clyfters. But, on the
contrary, if the child be low, funk, and much weaken¬
ed, repeated dofes of the fpirit of hartfhorn, and the
like reviving medicines, ought to be preferibed. Blif-
ters applied to the back, or behind the ears, will often
be proper in both cafes. A prudent adminiftration of
opiates, w hen their ufe is not forbid by coltivenefs or
otherwife, is fometimes of great fervice in difficult
teething, as, by mitigating pain, they have a tendency
to prevent its bad effects, fuch as a fever, convullions,
or other violent fymptoms •, and often they are abfolutely
necciTary, along with the teftaceous powders, for check¬
ing: an immoderate diarrhoea.
O # t
When cathartics are neceflary, if the child feems too
tender and weak to bear their immediate operation,
they Ihould be given to the nurfe ; in w'hich cafe they
will communicate fo much of their active powders to the
milk as will be fufficient to purge the infant. This at
leaf! certainly holds with regard to fome cathartics ;
fuch, for example, as the infulion of fenna, particular¬
ly if a very weak infulion be employed, and not ufed
to fuch an extent as to operate as a purgative to the
nurfe.
As molt young children, if in health, naturally lleep
much, and pretty foundly, wre may always be apt to
lufpeft that fomething is amifs when they begin to be
1 abject to watching and frights $ fymptoms which fel-
dom or never occur but either in. confequence of fome
prefent diforder not perceived, or as the certain fore¬
runners of an approaching indifpofition. We Ihould
immediately, therefore, endeavour to find out the caufe
of watchfulnefs, that we may ufe every poffible means
to remove or prevent it; otherwife the want of natural
reft, which is fo very prejudicial to perfons of all ages,
will foon reduce the infant to a low and emaciated
ftate, which may be followed by a hedtic fever, diar¬
rhoea, and all the other confequences of weaknefs.
Thefe fymptoms, being abvays the effedts of irritation
and pain, may proceed, in very young infants, from
crudities or other affedlions of the primes vice producing
flatulencies or gripes ; about the fixth or feventh month,
they may be owing to that uneafinefs which commonly
accompanies the breeding of the teeth •, and after a
child is weaned, and begins to ufe a different kind of
food, worms become frequently an additional caufe of
watchings and difturbed fleep. Hence, to give the ne-
ceffary relief on thefe occafions, the original complaint
muft firft be afeertained from the child’s ape and other
concomitant circumftances, and afterwards treated ac¬
cording to the nature of the cafe. Women and nurfes
are too apt to have recourfe to opiates in the w'atchings
of children, efpecially when their own reft happens
to be much difturbed by their continual noife and cla¬
mour. But this practice is often prejudicial, and never
ought to have place when the belly is in the leaft ob-
Itrufted.
There is no complaint more frequent among children
than that of worms, the general fymptoms of which
have been already enumerated \ but it muft be obferved,
that all the fymptoms commonly attributed to worms,
may be produced by a foulnefs of the bowels. Hence
practitioners ought never to reft fatisfied with admini-
I C I N E.
477
ftering to their patients fuch medicines as arc poffeffed
only of an anthelmintic quality, but to join them with
thofe which are particularly adapted for cleanfing the
primee vice ; as it is uncertain whether a foulnefs of the
bowels may not be the eaufe of all the complaints. This
practice is ftill the more advifable, on account of vifeid
humours in the inteftlnes affording lodgement to the ova
of worms } which, without the convenience of fuch a
receptacle, would be more fpeedily difeharged from the
body.
The difficulty of curing what is called a worm fever,
arxfee, according to Dr Mufgrave, from its being fre¬
quently attributed to worms, when the caufe of the
diforder is of a quite different nature. Pie does not
mean to deny that worms do fometimes abound in the
Difeafes of
Children.
human body, nor that the irritation caufed by them
docs fometimes produce a fever ; but he apprehends
thefe cafes to be much more uncommon than is gene¬
rally imagined, and that great mifehief is done by treat¬
ing fome of the diforders of children as worm cafes,
which are really not fo. Dr Hunter is of the fame
opinion on this point. He has, we are told, diffefted
great numbers of children who have been fuppofed to
die of worm fevers, and whofe complaints were of courfe
treated as proceeding from worms, in whom, however,
there appeared, upon diffeffion, to be not only no
worms, but evident proofs of the diforder’s having been
of a very different nature.
The fpunous worm fever, as Dr Mufgrave terms it,,
has, in all the inftances he has feen of it, arifen evi¬
dently from the children having been indulged with
too great quantities of fruit. Every fort of fruit eaten
in excefs will probably produce it} but an immoderate
ufe of cherries feems to be the molt common caufe of it.
The approach of this diforder has a different appear¬
ance, according as it arifes from a habit of eating fruit
in rather too large quantities, or from an exccffive
quantity eaten at one time. In the former cafe, the
patient gradually grows weak and languid : his colour
becomes pale and livid ; his belly fwells and grows
hard ; his appetite and digeftion are deftroyed ; his
nights grow reftlefs, or at leaft his fleep is much di¬
fturbed with ftartings, and then the fever foon follows,
in the progrefs of which, the patient grows comatofe,
and at times convulfed ; hr which ftate, when it takes
place to a high degree, he often dies. The pulfe at
the wrift, though quick, is never ftrong or hard ; the
carotids, however, beat with great violence, and ele¬
vate the fkin fo as to be diftinftly feen at a diftance.
The heat is at times confiderable, efpecially in the
trunk ; though at other times, when the brain is much
eppreffed, it is little more than natural. It is fome¬
times accompanied by a violent pain of the epigaftric
region, though more commonly the pain is flight, and
terminates in a coma •, fome degree of pain, however,
feems to be infeparable from it, fo as dearly to diftin-
guiffi this diforder from oilier comatofe affeftions.
When a large quantity of fruit has been eaten at
once, the attack of the diforder is inftantaneous, and
its progrefs rapid ; the patient often palling, in the
fpace of a few hours, from apparently perftd health,
to a ftupid, comatofe, and almoft dying ftate. The
fymptoms of the fever, when formed, are in both cafes
nearly the fame; except that, in this latter fort, a little
purulent matter is fometimes difeharged, both by vo¬
mit
47'S M E D I
Difeafos of mlt and Itool, from the very firft day. The ftools, in
, <yk|i^rcn- _ both cafes, exhibit fometimes a kind of curd refembling
curdled milk, at other times a floating fubflance is ob-
ferved in them; and fometimes a number of little threads
and pellicles, and now and then a Angle worm.
Strong purgatives, or purges frequently repeated, in
this diforder, are greatly condemned by Dr Armftrong,
as they in general not only aggravate the fymptoms al¬
ready prefent, but are fometimes the origin of convul-
Aons. Bloodletting is not to be thought of in any ftage
of the diforder.
Although frequent purging, however, be not recom¬
mended, yet a Angle vomit and purge are advifed in
the beginning of the diforder, with a view to evacuate
fuch indigefted matter and mucus as happens to remain
in the ftomach and bowels. Thefe having operated
properly, there is feldom occaAon for repeating them;
and it is fufficient, if the body be coftive, to throw up,
every fecond or third day, a clyfter, compofed of fome
grains of aloes, dilfolved in flve or Ax ounces ofinfuAon
of chamomile.
The principal part of the cure, however, depends
upon external applications to the bowels and ftomach 5
and as the caufe of the difordtr is of a cold nature, the
applications muft be warm, cordial, and invigorating ;
and their adfion muft be promoted by conftant adlual
heat.
When any nervous fymptoms come on, or remain af¬
ter the diforder is abated, they are eaftly removed by
giving a pill with a grain or twTo of afafoetida once or
twice a-day.
The diagnoftics of wmrms are very uncertain 5 but,
even in real worm cafes, the treatment above recom¬
mended would, it is imagined, be much more effica¬
cious than the practice commonly had recourfe to. As
worms either And the conftitution weakly, or very foon
make it fo, the frequent repetition of purges, particu¬
larly mercurials, cannot but have a pernicious effedt.
Bear’s-foot is ftill more exceptionable, being in truth
to be ranked rather among poifons than medicines.
Worm feed and bitters are too offenftve to the palate
and ftomach to be long perflfted in, though fometimes
very ufeful. The powder of coralline creates difguft
by its quantity •, and the infuAon of pink root is well
known to occaAon now and then vertiginous complaints
and flts.
Fomenting the belly night and morning with a
ftrong decodlion of rue and wormwood, is much re¬
commended. It is a perfedlly fafe remedy, and, by
invigorating the bowels, may therefore have fome in¬
fluence in rendering them capable of expelling fuch
worms as they happen to contain. After the fomenta¬
tion, it is advifed to anoint the belly with a liniment,
compofed of one part of effential oil of rue, and two
parts of a decodtion of rue in fweet oil. It is, howrever,
a matter of great doubt whether thefe external applica¬
tions, in confequence of the articles with which they
are impregnated, exert any influence on the worms
themfelves.
The diet of children difpofed to ■worms ftiould be
warm and nourifliing, conflfting in part at leaft of ani¬
mal food, which is not the worfe for being a little fea-
foned. Their drink may be any kind of beer that is
tvell hopped, with now and then a fmall draught of
C I N E. Appendix.
porter or negus. A total abftinence from butter is Medical Ji j
not fo neceflary, perhaps, as is generally imagined. ^P^eiue
Poor checfe muft by all means be avoided : but fuch
as is rich and pungent, in a moderate quantity, is par¬
ticularly ferviceable. In the fpurious worm fever, the
patient Ihould be fupported occaflonally by fmall quan¬
tities of broth ; and, at the clofe of it, when the appe¬
tite returns, the flrft food given ihould be of the kinds
above recommended.
The diet here recommended will, perhaps, be
thought extraordinary, as the general idea is at pre¬
fent, that, in the management of children, nothing
is fo much to be avoided as repletion and rich food. It
is no doubt an error to feed -children too well, or to
indulge them with wine and rich fauces 5 but it is
equally an error to conAne them to too ft rift or too
poor a diet, which weakens their digeftion, and ren¬
ders them much more fubjeft to diforders of every
kind, but particularly to diforders of the bow'els. In
regard to the fpurious worm fever, if it be true that
acid fruits too plentifully eaten are the general caufe
of it, it follorrs as a confequence, that a warm nutri¬
tious diet, moderately ufed, will moft effeftually coun-
teraft the mifehief, and fooneft reftore the natural
powers of the ftomach. Beftdes, if the diforder does
not. readily yield to the methods here direfted, as there
are many examples of its terminating by an inflamma¬
tion and fuppuration of the navel, it is highly advife-
able to keep this probability in view, and, by a mode¬
rate allowance of animal food, to fupport thofe powers
of nature, from which only fuch a happy crifls is to be
expefted.
BeAdes thefe, many other difeafes might here be
mentioned, which, if not peculiar to infants, are at
leaft peculiarly modified by the infant ftate. But into
details refpefting thefe we cannot propofe to enter. It
is fufficient to fay, that due regard being paid to age
and conftitution, the cure is to be condufted on the
fame general principles as in the adult ftate.
MEDICAL JURISPRUDENCE. 4„
During the progrefs of fcience in Europe this fub¬
jeft has not been altogether neglefted. But w e may
fafely venture to aflert, that even from many enlighten¬
ed governments it has hitherto claimed much lefs at¬
tention than its importance merits. At the Britifti
univerffties this has been too much the cafe. It is
indeed true, that for near 20 years a few leftures on
this fubjeft have been delivered at the univerflty of
Edinburgh, by the profeffor of the inftitutions of medi¬
cine. But he could by no means conAder the fubjeft
on that extenAve fcale which its importance merited.
And he had often exprefled his regret, that, as in fe-
veral of the foreign univerAties, a profeffbrfhip had not
been inftituted for the exprefs purpofe of giving a courfe
of leftures on medical jurifprudence. That deleft,
however, in medical education at Edinburgh is now
fupplied. When that able and upright ftatefman Lord
Grenville, to whom every thing that regarded the laws
of his country was an objeft of peculiar attention, was
at the head of his majefty’s councils, a regius profelfor-
flrip of juridical and political medicine was eftablifhed
in the univerAty of Edinburgh by a royal warrant.
And
appendix.
ledicalJu-And there is every reafon to hope, that this appoint-
jprudcnce. ment p.e attended with many eiFedls highly benefi-
^ cial to the nation.
A fliort view of the extent and importance of this
fubjeft will, we prefume, not be unacceptable to the in¬
telligent reader.
Whatever aid the fcience of medicine can contribute
towards the good of the flate, and the execution of its
laws, has been by the Germans denominated State Me¬
dicine j a new, but not improper, appellation, for that
branch of knowledge which many writers have termed
Medical Jurifprudence.
It comprehends both medical police and juridical
medicine. The former confifts of the medical precepts
which may be of ufe to the legillalure or to the magi-
ftracy. The latter is the aggregate of all the informa¬
tion, afforded by the different branches of medicine,
which is neceffary for elucidating doubtful queftions in
courts of law.
Although there are fome traces of juridical medicine
in the Juilinian code 5 fuch as determining the real pe¬
riod of birth, with a view to prevent the impolition of
fpurious children : it properly originated with the code
of laws enafted by the emperor Charles V. under the
name of Conjlitutio criminahs Carolina ; in which it is
ordained, that the opinions of phyficians Ihould be ta¬
ken, with regard to the danger of wounds, child-mur¬
der, murder, poifoning, procured abortion, concealed
pregnancy, &c. Thefe direftions, and the impoffibili-
ty which was found of determinating many queftions
by limply legal means, induced fome legillators to en¬
join, that all tribunals and judges fhould procure from
fworn phylicians, appointed to this office, their opi¬
nions concerning all the fubje&s to be mentioned here¬
after.
Since that time, it has been treated fyftematically
by many learned men 5 fuch as Fortunatus Fidelis,
Zacchias, Alberti, Hebenftreit, Haller, Ludwig, Plenck;
and laftly, in the moft mafterly manner, by Metzger.
Numberlefs differtations have been Avritten on all its
parts •, and among thofe Avho contributed to its advance¬
ment, we may reckon Ambrofe Parry, Bohn, Butener,
Morgagni, Camper, and Gruner. Colleflions of cafes,
illuftrating its principles, have been made by Amman,
Daniel, Bucholz, Pyl, Scherf and Metzger. Thefe
are only a feAV of the principal Avriters Avho have at¬
tended to this fcience : to enumerate more AAmuld be
unneceffary.
From its very nature, it is evident hoAV neceffary a
knoAvledge of this fcience muft be to every medical
praflitioner, Avho is liable to be called upon to illuftrate
any queftion comprehended under it -before a court of
juftice. On his aiffwers, the fate of the accufed perfon
muft often depend j both judge and jury regulating their
decilion by his opinion. On the other hand, Avhile he
is delivering his fentiments, his oAvn reputation is before
the bar of the public. The acutenefs of the gentlemen
of the Lav is univerfally acknoAvledged ; the verfatility of
their genius, and the quicknefs of their apprehenfion,
are rendered almoft inconceivable, by conftant exercife.
It is their duty to make every poffible ^ xertion for the
intereft of their client, and they feldom leave unnoticed
any inaccurate or con trad iftory evidence. Hoaa’ cau¬
tious muft, then, a medical pra&iiioner be, Avhen ex¬
amined before fuch men, when it is their duty to expofe
479
his errors, and magnify his uncertainties, till his evi- Medical Ju-
dence feem contradiflory and abfurd ? How often muft ”fPru^enc*'
he expofe himfelf to fuch fevere criticifm, if he be not
mafter of the fubjeft on which he is giving evidence, and
have not arranged his thoughts on it according to juft
principles ? On the other hand, he may deferve and gain
much credit, by fo public a difplay of judgment and
profefiional knoAvledge.
Some acquaintance Avith this part of medical fcience
muft be ufeful at leaft, and fometimes neceffary, to
judges and lawyers. They Avill thus be enabled to
eftimate Iioav much they may depend on the opinion of
any phyfician, and Avill knoAV hoAV to direft their que¬
ftions, fo as to arrive at the truth, and avoid being mif-
led by his partiality or favourite opinions. To the
laAvyer Avho condufls the defence of an accufed perfon,
in a criminal cafe, it is almoft indifpenfable 5 Avithout
it, he cannot do juftice to the caufe of his client.
Before criminal courts, the queftions Avhich occur moft
generally are, respecting
1. The caufe of death, as afeertained from the ex¬
amination of the body.
2. The fufficiency of the fuppofed caufe to have
produced death.
3. Probable event of Avounds, contufions, &c.
4. The importance of the part injured.
5. Suppofed child-murder 5 Avhether ftill-born or
not.
6. Whether death accidental or intended.
7. Abortion ; its having occurred,
8. Spontaneoufty, from habit ; accidentally, from
external violence or paflxons of the mind 5 or
intentionally, from the introduction of a ftiarp
inftrument, ufe of certain drugs, &e.
9. Rape j its being attempted or confummated ;
recent or previous defloration.
10. The refponfibility of the accufed for his actions.
Before civil courts the queftions generally regard,
1. The ftate of mind ; madnefs, melancholy, idio-
tifm.
2. Pregnancy 5 concealed, pretended.
3. Parturition j concealed, pretended, retarded, pre¬
mature.
4. The firft-born of tAvins.
5. Difeafes ; concealed, pretended, imputed.
6. Age and duration of life.
Before conftftorial courts, the fubjets inveftigated are,
1. Impotence j general, relative, curable, incurable.
2. Sterility; curable, relatively incurable, abfolute-
ly incurable.
3. Uncertainty of fex *, hermaphrodites.
4. Difeafes preventing cohabitation } Arcnereal dif-
eafe, leprofy, &c.
MEDICAL POLICE. 4ia
Of incomparably greater confequence, and more
Avidely extended influence, is the fecond divifion of this
fubjedl. It regards not merely the Avelfare of individu¬
als, but the profperity and fccurity of nations. It is
perhaps the moft important branch of general police j
for its influence is not confined to thofe Avhom acciden¬
tal circumftances bring Avithin its fphere, but extends
over the whole population of the ftate.
Many
MEDICINE.
40O
M E B I
Medical Many of It? principles have been long acknowledged,
* °^ce' and conlidered as neceflary confequences of medical and
political truths •, and fome few of them have acquired
the authority of laws. But it was referved for the phi¬
lanthropic Frank, to collect the whole into one vaft
and beneficent fyllcm, and to feparate it from juridical
medicine ; in the old fyftems of which, it was neglect¬
ed, or mentioned only in a few Ihort paragraphs. His
enlarged mind perceived at once, and fully vindi¬
cated its importance. The very name of Medical Po¬
lice, is now fufficient to attract the attention of legifia-
tors and of magiftrates, and to make them defirous of
becoming acquainted with its principles, and anxious to
fee them carried into execution. In fa£t, its influence
is already vifible in the countries where it is cultivated.
If the principles of medical police were feparated from
the profeflional part of medicine, and communicated in
a form generally intelligible, in what country have we
reafon to exped: more beneficial effefts from its influ¬
ence than this ? Where is the fpirit of patriotifm and
benevolence fo prevalent ? What nation is more gene¬
rous in its public inftitutions. Where does the indivi¬
dual facrifice a part of his wealth fo willingly for the
benefit of the community ? It feems only neceflary to
prove that an undertaking will be of advantage to the
Hate, to have it carried into inftant execution. But,
■ can medical knowledge be more ufefully employed than
in pointing out the means of preferving or improving
health ; of fupplying healthy nourilhment to the poor,
specially in times of fcarcity ; of oppofing the intro-
duftion of contagious difeafes, and of checking their
progrefs ; of fecuring to the indigent the advantages in¬
tended by their benefa&ors ; of rearing the orphan to
be the fupport of the nation which has adopted him j
and of diminilhing the horrors of confinement to the
poor maniac and the criminal ? Thefe good effects
are not to be promoted fo much by rigid laws, as by
recommendation and example. Nor can it be reafon-
ably objected to a fyftem of medical police, that it is a
pleafing dream, which flatters the imagination, but the
execution of which is in reality impracticable. As
well might we entirely throw afide the rules of hu¬
manity, becaufe no one is able to obferve them all;
or live without laws, becaufe no exiiting code is unex¬
ceptionable.
Medical police may be defined,—The application of
the principles deduced from the different branches of
medical knowledge, for the promotion, prefervation and
reftoration of general health.
I he effeCts to be expeCted from it are the general
welfare of the ftate, and increafe of healthy population ;
and are to be attained by means of public inltitutions,
exprefs laws, and popular inftruCtion. InftruCting the
people, and convincing them of the propriety of certain
precautions and attentions, in regard to their own and
the general ftate of health, are neceffary to fecure the
good effeCts of our public inftitutions and regulations ;
to obtain refpeCt and obedience in many things, to
which no exprefs law can be adapted ; and, to induce
them to forego what may be prejudical to the fafety of
the community, and of themfelves.
Public medical inftitutions and laws, muff be adapted
to the country for which they are intended. Many lo¬
cal circumftances, national character, habits of life, pre¬
valent cuftoms and profeflions, fituation, climate, &c.
CINE.
,    Appendix.
make comidcraDie varieties necenary# And many in- Medical
ftitutions, many a law which would be highly beneficial Police
to the public health, in fome circumftances, would be ^
ufelefs, impracticable, and even hurtful, in others.
Thefe caufes and their effeCts, rnufi, therefore, be par¬
ticularly attended to.
The principal authors who have writen on this fub-
jeCt, are Alberti, Heifter, Plaz, Frank, Huffty, Metz¬
ger, and Hebenftreit; to whom we may add Howard
and Rumford
The fubjeCts which it comprehends, cannot be claf-
fed very regularly or fyftematically. Its views.will be
different, according to occafional and temporary caufes;
and its interference may fometimes be advantageouilv
extended beyond what may feem the ftriCt limits of a
branch of the medical profeflion.
Medical Police relates to
The Situation of Places of Abode. ConftruClion
of houfes.
Air. Means of counteraffing its impurity—Its various
impregnations.
Water. Its neceffity and purity.
Food. Its various kinds—Comparative quantities of
nourifnmeat afforded by them—Cheaper
kinds, which may be fafely fubftituted in
times of fcarcity—Bread—Animal food—
Butcher meat—Fifh—Vegetables—Veffels
Cookery ; Flealthy ; (Economical.
Drink. Beer—Ale—Porter—Cyder—Spirituous li¬
quors—Wine—Warm drinks—Adultera¬
tions of thefe liquors—Hurtful additions—■
Veffels.
Fire and Light.
Clothing.
Cleanliness.
Professions. Manufa&urers — Mechanics—Soldier*
■—Sailors^Men of letters.
Healthy Propagation.
Pregnant and Puerperal Women.
New-Born Infants. Regifters of birth.
Physical Education.
Prevention of Accidents. From poifon—Hurtful
Effluvia—Maniacs—Rabid animals.
Restoration of the Apparently dead. Humane
Societies—Care of the dying—Danger of
too early—too late burial—Places of inter¬
ment—manner of conducing it—Bills of
mortality.
Contagious and Epidemic diseases. Plague—Pu¬
trid fever—Dyfentery—Smallpox—Inocu¬
lation—Extirpation of them—Leprofy—
Itch and pox—Precautions to be taken,
to prevent their introduction, to diminifh
their violence, to deftroy their caufe, and to
counteract their effeCts.
Management of Public Institutions in -which
many people are collected under the care of
the public.
Hofpitals for the Indigent:
1. Lying-in Hofpitals.
2. Foundling ditto.
3. Orphan ditto.
4. Hofpitals for Education.
5. Aged
MEDICINE,
5. Aged.
6. Blind.
7. Maimed.
Military Hofpitals :
Prifoners of War.
Lazarettoes.
Work-houfes.
Prifons.
Hofpitals for the Sick.
Maniacs.
Convalefcents.
Incurables.
Obfervatlons on the Means of preferring Headth.
Having now treated of all the moil important difeafes
to which the human body is fubjefled, we fhall conclude
the article Medicine, with a few obiervations on the
means of preferving health, both for the general manage¬
ment of valetudinarians, and of thofe alfo who with to
obtain long life and good health by avoiding the caufes
of thofe difeafes which the human fpecies often bring
upon themfelves. On this fubject much has been writ¬
ten at almoft every period of medicine. And we may
refer thofe readers who with for a full and extenlive
view of this intereding fubjedl to a very elaborate work
lately publifhed by Sir John Sinclair, Bart, entitled the
Code of Health and Longevity. Here we cannot pro-
pofe to give even an abridged view of this extentive in¬
quiry ; but mutt content ourfelves with offering only a
very few general obfervations.
I. Rules for the Management 0/Valetudinarians.
That part of the medical fyftem which lays down
rules for the prefervation of health, and prevention of
difeafes, termed Hygieina, is not to be llri£lly underltood
as if it refpe&ed only thofe people who enjoy perfedl
health, and who are under no apprehenfions of difeafe,
for fuch feldom either defire or attend to medical ad¬
vice •, but is rather confidered as relating to valetudi¬
narians, or fuch as, though not actually lick, may yet
have fufficient reafon to fear that they will foon become
fo : hence it is that the rules muft be applied to correft
morbific difpofitions, and to obviate various particulars
which were fhown to be the remote or poflible caufes of
difeafes.
From the way in which the feveral temperaments
are commonly mentioned by fyfteraatic writers, it Tumid
feem as if they meant that every particular con'nfution
might be referred to one or other of the four *, but this
iis fir from being the cafe, fince by .much the greater
number of people have temperaments fo indiftinftly
marked, that it is hard to fay to which of ihe tempera¬
ments they belong.
When wre a&ually meet writh particular perfons who
have evidently either,
1. Top much ftrength and rigidity of fibre, and too
much fenfibiliiy ;
2. Too little ftrength, and yet too much fenfibi-
% >
3. Too much ftrength, and but little fenfibility $
«r,
4. But little fenfibility joined to weak refs ;
we should look on fuch perfons as more or lefs in the
Vol. XIII. Part II.
48c
valetudinary ftate, who require that thefe morbific dif- ''cans of
pofitions De particularly watched, leii mey lali into !™ei:v
thofe difeafes which are connected with the different, ^ ~ .
tempt raments.
People of the firft-mentioned temperament being
liable to fuffer from continued levers, efpecialiy of Lue
inflammatory fpecies, their fcheme of preferving health
ftiould confift in temperate living, with reipect Doth to
diet and exercife ; they ihould itudiouiiy avoid immo¬
derate drinking, and be remarkably cautious left any
of the natural difeharges be checked. People ot this
habit bear evacuations well, efpecialiy bleeding : they
ought not, however, to lofe blood but when they really
require to have the quantity leffened ; becaule too
much of this evacuation would be apt to reduce the
conititution to the fecond-mentioned temperament, in
which ftrength is deficient, but fenfibility ledundant.
Perfons of the fecond temperament are remarkably
prone to fuffer from painful and fpafmobic diieales, and
are eafily ruffled j and thofe of the fofter lex who have
this delicacy of habit, are very much difpoled to hyfte-
rieal complaints. The fcheme here Ihould be, to
ftrengthen the folids by moderate exercife, cold bath¬
ing, cinchona, and chalybeate waters } particular at¬
tention fhould conftantly be had to the ftate of the
digeftive organs, to prevent them from being overload¬
ed with any fpecies of faburra which might engender
flatus, or irritate the fenfible membranes of the liomach
and inteftines, from whence the difoider would foon be
communicated to the whole nervous fyftem. Perfon#
of this conftitution fhould never take any of the draftic
purges, or ftrong emetics ; neither fhould they lofe
blood but in cafes of urgent neceflity. But a principal
{hare of management, in thefe extremely irritable con-
ftitutions, conlifts in avoiding all fudden changes of
every fort, efpecially thofe with refpefl to diet and
clothing, and in keeping the mind as much as poifible
in a ftate of tranquillity : hence the great advantages
which people of this frame derive from the ufe of me¬
dicinal waters drank on the fpot, on account of that free¬
dom from care and ferious bufinefs of everv kind, which
generally obtains in all the places plan: ed lor the re¬
ception of valetudinarians.
The third-mentioned temperament, where there is
an excels of ftrength and but little fenfibilfty, does not
feem remarkably prone to any ditlreffing or dangerous
fpecies of difeafe \ and therefore it can hardly be fup-
pofed that perfons fo circumftanced will eh her of them¬
felves think of any particular fcheme of management,
or have recourfe to the faculty for their inflruclions;
fuch conftitut ions, however, we may obferve, bear
all kinds of evacuations well, and form-times require
them to prevent an over-fulnefs, which might end in
an oppreffion of the brain or fome other organ ot im¬
portance.
But the fourth temperament, where we have weak-
nefs joined to want of fenfibility, is exceedingly apt to
fall into tedious and dangerous difeafes, arifing from a
deleft of abforbent power in the proper fets of vefiels,
and from languor of the circulation in general :
whence corpulency, dropfv, jaundice, and different
degrees of fccrbutic affeftion. In order to prevent
thefe, or any other fpecies of accumulation and depra¬
vation of the animal fluids, ihe people of this cenfti-
tution Ihould ufe a generous courfe of diet, with hr ilk
3 P texercife,
appendix.
Means of
prefer vuig
Health.
482
M'eTvinl exercife, and be careful that none of the fecretions be
^Health!° interrupted, nor any of the natural difcharges fupprefied.
ymm mJ ^ hefe conftitutions bear purging well, and often re¬
quire it ; as alfo the ufe of emetics, which are frequent¬
ly found neceiTary to fupply the place of exercife, by
agitating the abdominal vifeera, and are of fervice to
prevent the ftagnation of bile, or the accumulation of
mucous humours, which hinder digeltion, and clog the
firft paffages. The free ufe of muftard, horfe-radilh,
and the like fort of ftimulating dietetics, is ferviceable
in thefe torpid habits.
When the general mafs of fluids is increafed beyond
what is conducive to the perfe&ion of health, there
arifes what the writers term a plethora, which may
prove the fource of different difeafes ; and therefore,
when this overfulnefs begins to produce languor and
oppreflion, care Ihould be taken in time to reduce the
body to a proper ftandard, by abridging the food and
increafing the natural difcharges, ufmg more exercife,
and indulging lefs in deep.
But in oppofite circumftances, where the fluids have
been exhaufted, we are to attempt the prevention of
further walte by the ufe of ftrengthening ftomachics,
nourilhing diet, and indulgence from fatigue of body
or mind.
Vitiated fluids are to be confidered as tainted either
with the different kinds of general acrimony, or as be¬
traying figns of fome of the fpecies of morbific matter
which give rife to particular difeafes, fuch as calculus,
fcurvy, &c.
During the ftate of infancy, we may fometimes ob-
ferve a remarkable acidity, which not only fhows itfelf
in the firft paffages, but alfo feems to contaminate the
general mafs of fluids. As it takes its rife, however,
from weak bowels, our views, when we mean to pre¬
vent the ill confequences, muft be chiefly direfted to
ftrengthen the digeftive organs, as on their foundnefs
the preparation of good chyle depends 5 and hence
fmall dofes of rhubarb and chalybeates (either the na¬
tural chalybeate waters mixed with milk, or the tnurias
ammonice et ferri in dofes of a few grains, according
to the. age of the child), are to be adminiftered ; and
the diet is to be fo regulated as not to add to this
acid tendency : brifk exercife is likewife to be enjoined,
with fridions on the ftomach, belly, and lower extre¬
mities.
Where the fluids tend to the putrefcent date, which
{hows itfelf by fetid breath, fponginefs and bleeding of
the gums, a bloated look and livid caff, the diet then
Ihould be chiefly of frefli vegetables and ripe fruits,
with wine in moderation, due exercife, and ftrengthen¬
ing bitters.
Where acrimony fhows itfelf by itching eruptions,
uncommon third, and flulhing heats, nothing will an-
fwer better than fuch fulphureous waters as the Harrow-
gate and Moffat, at the lame time ufing a courfe of
diet that ftiall be neither acrid nor heating.
So far with refped to thofe kinds of morbific mat¬
ter which do not invariably produce a particular fpe¬
cies of difeafe : but there are others of a fpecific nature,
iome of which are generated in the body fpontaneouf-
ly, and feem to arife from errors in diet, or other cir¬
cumftances of ill management with refpedl to the ani¬
mal economy •, and hence it is fometimes poflible, to
a certain degree if not altogether, to prevent the ill con-
MEDICINE. Appendix.
fequences. Thus, there are inftances where returns of Means of
the gout have been prevented by adhering ftriftly to a Prefervin?
milk diet. Health.
I he rheumatifm has alfo been fometimes warded off
by wearing a flannel Ihirt, or by ufing the cold bath
without interruption.
Calculus may be retarded in its progrefs, and pre¬
vented from creating much diftrefs, by the internal ufe
of foap and lime-water, by foap-lees taken in milk or
in yeal-broth, or by the ufe of aerated alkaline water,
which may perhaps be confidered as being both more
fafe and more efficacious, and at the fame time more
pleafant, than any of the other praftices.
The fcurvy may be prevented by warm clothing and
perfeverance in brilk exercife, by drinking wine or cy¬
der, and eating freely of fuch vegetable fubftances as
can be had in thofe fituations where this difeafe is moft
apt to ftiow itfelf.
In conftitutions where there is an hereditary difpo-
fition to the fcrophula, if early precautions be taken to
ftrengthen the folids by cold bathing, a nouriftiing
courfe of diet, and moderate ufe of wine, the conftitu-
tion which gives rife to the difeafe will probably be
prevented from producing any very bad effedts.
The other kinds of morbific matter, which are of the
fpecific nature, are received into the body by infedlion
or contagion.
The infedtion of a putrid fever or dyfentery is beft
prevented by immediately taking an emetic on the firft
attack of the ficknefs or fhivering; and if that do not
completely anfwer, let a large blifter be applied be¬
tween the fhoulders : by this method the nurfes and
other attendants on the fick in the naval hofpitals have
often been preferved. As to other infedlious morbific
matter, we muft refer to what has already been faid
when treating of hydrophobia, poifons, gonorrhoea, &c.
The ill eft efts which may arife from the different
fpecies of faburra, are to be obviated, in general, by
the prudent adminiftration of emetics, and carefully
abftaining from fuch kinds of food as are known to
caufe the accumulation of noxious matters in the firft
paffages.
Crude vegetables, milk, butter, and other oily fub¬
ftances, are to be avoided by perfons troubled with a
fournefs in the ftomach •, brilk exercife, efpecially ri¬
ding, is to be ufed, and they are to refrain from fer¬
mented liquors : the common drink Ihould be pure
water; or water with a very little of fome ar¬
dent fpirit, fuch as rum or brandy. Seltzer and Pyr-
mont waters are to be drunk medicinally ; and aroma¬
tic bitters, infufions, or tinftures, acidulated with ful-
phuric acid, will be found ferviceable, in order to
ftrengthen the fibres of the ftomach, and promote the
expulfion of its contents, thereby preventing the too
hafty fermentation of the alimentary mixture. In or¬
der to procure immediate relief, magnefia alba, or creta
prceparata, will feldom fail ; the magnefia, as well as
the chalk, may be made into lozenges, with a little
fugar and mucilage ; and in that form may be carried
about and taken occafionally by people afflifted with
the acid faburra.
In conftitutions where there is an exuberance or ftag¬
nation of bile, and a troublefome bitternefs in the
mouth, it is neceffary to keep the bowels always free,
by taking occafionally fmall dofes of pure aloes, oleum
risini.
Appendix. M E D I
Means of rlcini, fupertartrite of potafs, fome of the common pur-
preferving ging l'alb>, or the natural purging waters.
Health- \\riien tliere is a tendency to the empyreumatic and
rancid faburra, people Ihould carefully avoid all the va¬
rious kinds of thofe o;ly and high-feafoned articles of
diet generally termed made-difhes, and eat fparingly of
plain meat, without rich iauchtts or much gravy } and
in thefe cafes the mold proper drink is pure water.
II. Rules for thofe who enjoy perfeEl Health.
There can be no doubt, that, in general, tempe¬
rance is the true foundation of health j and yet the
ancient phylicians, as we may fee in the rules laid
down by Celfus, did not feruple to recommend indul¬
gence now and then, and allowed people to exceed
both in eating and drinking j but it is fafer to pro¬
ceed to excefs in drink than in meat; and if the
debauch (hould create any extraordinary or diflrefling
degree of pain or licknefs, and a temporary fever
{hould enfue, there are two ways of {baking it off,
either to lie in bed and encourage perfpiration, or to
get on horfeback, and by brilk exercife reftore the
body to its natural Hate. The choice of thefe two
methods muff always be determined by the peculiar
circumftances of the parties concerned, and from the
experience which they may before have had which a-
grees beft with them.
If a perfon ftiould commit excefs in eating, efpe-
cially of high-feafoned things, with rich fauces, a
draught of cold water, acidulated with fulphuric acid,
will take off the fenfe of weight at the ftomach, and
affiff digeftion by moderating and keeping within
bounds the alimentary fermentation, and thus prevent¬
ing the generation of too much flatus. The luxury of
ices may be here of real fervice at the tables of the
great, as producing fimilar effefts with the cold water
acidulated. Perfons in thefe circumilances ought not
to lay themfelves down to fleep, but {hould keep up
and ufe gentle exercife until they are fenfible that the
ftomach is unloaded, and that they no longer feel any
oppreflive weight about the praecordia.
If a man be obliged to faff, he ought, if poflible,
during that time, to avoid laborious work : after fuffer-
ing fevere hunger, people ought not at once to gorge
and fill themfelves 5 nor is it proper, after being over¬
filled, to enjoin an abfolute faff : neither is it fafe to in¬
dulge in a ftate of total reft immediately after exceflive
labour, nor fuddenly fall hard to work after having been
long without motion: in a word, all changes {hould be
CINE. 483
made by gentle degrees j for though the conftitution of Means of
the human body be fuch that it can bear many altera-
tions and irregularities without much danger, yet, when . ~ ‘' >
the traniitions are extremely fudden, there is a great rifk.
of producing fome degree of dilorder.
It is alfo the advice of Celius to vary the fcenes of
life, and not confine ourfelves to any fettled rules: but
as ina&ion renders the body weak and liitleff, and exer¬
cife gives vigour and ftrength, people {hould never long
omit riding, walking, or going abroad in a carriage.
Fencing, playing at tennis, dancing, or other fimiiar
engagements, which afford both exercife and amufement,
as each fliall be found moft agreeable or convenient, are
to be ufed in turn, according to t he circumftances and
tendency to any particular Ipecies of difeafe. But when
the weaknefs of old age {hall have rendered the body
incapable of all thefe, then dry frictions writh the flefli-
brufti will be very requifite to preferve health, by
accelerating the flow of humours through the fmalleft
orders of veffels, and preventing the fluids from ftag-
nating too long in the cellular inter ft ices of the flefliy
parts.
Sleep is the great reftorer of ftrength •, for, during
this time, the nutritious particles appear to be chiefly
applied to repair the wafte, and replace thofe that
have been abraded and wafhed off by the labour and
exercife of the day $ but too much indulgence in fleep
has many ineonveniencies, both with refpect to body
and mind, as it blunts the fenfes, and encourages the
fluids to ftagnate in the cellular membrane ; whence
corpulency, and its neceffary confequences languor and
weaknefs.
The proper time for fleep is the night, when darknefs
and filence naturally bring it on: fleep in the daytime,
from noife and other circumftances, is in general not fo
found or refrefliing •, and to fome people is really diftrefs-
ful, as creating an unufual giddinefs and languor, efpe-
cially in perfons addifled to literary purfuits. Cuftom,
however, frequently renders fleep in the day neceffary j
and in thofe conftitutions where it is found to give real
refrefliment, the propenfity to it ought to be indulged,
particularly in very advanced age.
With regard to the general regimen of diet, it has al¬
ways been held as a rule, that the fofter and milder kinds
of aliment are moft proper for children and younger fub-
jefts: that grown perfons {hould eat what is more fub-
ftantial 5 and old people leffen their quantity of folid
food, and increafe that of their drink both of the dilu¬
ent and cordial kind.
INDEX.
A.
-Adipsia, Gen. 108.
Ageustia, Gen. 99.
Amaurosis, Gen. 93.
Amenorrhoea, Gen. 126.
Amentia, Gen. 65.
Anaphrodisia, Gen. 109.
Anasarca, Gen. 73.
Anesthesia, Gen. 100.
Anorexia, Gen. 107. N° 375
N° 376 Anosima, Gen. 98. 365
366 Aphonia, Gen. no. 379
360 Aphtha, Gen. 35. 233
402 Apoplexia, Gen. 42. 255
326 Arthropuosis, Gen. 25. 216
377 Ascites, Gen. 79. 343
339 Asthma, Gen. 55. 292
366 Atrophia, Gen. 70. 333
Abortus, N° 247
Abfcefs of the lungs, 186
Acute rheumatifm, 205
Acrimony of the blood, J03
Adynamia;, "* 271
^Egyptian phyficians, 2
JEfculapius, 4
JEtius, 43
Alexander, 44
3 P 2 Amentia,
4§4
Amentia, N° 326
Amphimerina cardlaca, ijj
paludofa, 1 j 2
AnapJirodifia, ^ 7 7
Angina pecloris, ^03
Animal fat, ^72
Anxiety, 76
Apotenofes, 385
Apoplexy, fanguineous, 256
iei-ous, _ 257
hydrocephalic, 258
Appearance of the venereal difeafe, 33
Arabians, 46
Arthrodynia, 209
Afclepiades, 33
Atonic gout, 213
B.
Bulima, Gen. 101. 369
Bajlard pleurify, 208
Bleeding at the nofe, 233
Bloody flux, 234
Branks, 182
Buff-coloured cruft on the blood, 99
Burning fever, 140
c.
Calico, Gen. 92.
Carditis, Gen. 13.
Catarrhus, Gen. 40.
Chlorosis, Gen. 47..
Cholera, Gen. 60.
Chorea, Gen. 31.
Colica, Gen. 39.
Contractura, Gen. 113.
Convulsio, Gen. 30.
Cynanche, Gen. 10.
Cystitis, Gen. 20.
Cachexies,
Canine appetite,
madnefs,
Cardiac fyncope,
Catalepjis,
CataraB,
Catarrh, from cold,
from contagion,
Caufes of aflfeftions of the folids,
Caufus,
Celfus,
Cellular texture,
Cephalalgia,
Chemical analyfis of the animal folid,
Chickenpox,
Childbed fever,
Children, difeafes of,
Chincough,
Cholera,
fpontaneous,
accidental,
Chronic rheumatifm,
Circulation,
Coehac paflion,
College of Salernum,
Confirmed phthifis,
Continued fevers,
Confantine,
Confumption, pulmonary,
277
308
284
301
384
283
176
201
330
3^9
322
273
263
359
231
253
70
140
40
71
4°5
68
226
404
410
299
308
309
310
209
95
3I5
48
239
164
49
237
MEDICINE.
Convulfve tertian,
Corpulency,
Coft-venefs,
Cough,
Cove pox.
Croup,
N° 133
335
108, 393
103
224
180
D.
Diabetes,. Gen. 62.
Diarrhoea, Gen. 61.
Dysegoea, Gen. 96.
Dysenteria, Gen. 41.
Dysopia, Gen. 94.
Dyspepsia, Gen. 43.
Dyspermatismus, Gen. 123.
Dyspnoea, Gen. 36.
Dysuria, Gen. 124;
Deafnefs,
Debility,
Delirium,
Dffculty of difeharging urine,
Digefion,
depraved,
Difcovery of the circulation,
Difeafes from accidents,
from paflions of the mind,
from age and fex,
from climate,
in the mufcular power,
Difinclion of difeafes,
Divifon of the functions,
Double quartan,
tertian,
3*§
311
363
254
361
275
401
292
399
363
9*
84
399
107
275
55
65
66
63
64
87
57
56
J56
128
Dropfy,
of the brain,
of the breaft,
of the abdomen,
of the uterus,
of the ferotum,
Dumbnefs,
Duplicated quartan,
tertian,
Dyscefhefce,
Dyscinefce,
Dysentery,
Dysorexia,
D yspermatif/ms,
E.
339
238
342
343
344
345
380
*54
129
358
378
254
368
401
Elephantiasis, Gen. 87.
Enteritis, Gen. 16.
Enuresis, Gen. 120.
Ephidrosis, Gen. 117.
Epilepsia, Gen. 33.
Epiphora, Gen. 118.
Epistaxis, Gen. 36.
Erysipelas, Gen. 26.
Emphysema,
Empirics,
Empyema,
Epilepfy,
Epifchefes,
Eraffratus,
Eruptive tertian,
Erythema,
Exanthemata,
ExceJJive perfpiration,
352
*95
390
387
286
388
235
218
336
33
187
286
392
31
*34
174
2*7
116
Excefive fehhfl:,
Exciting caufe of difeafes,
F.
Framboesia, Gen. 89.
Fainting,
Falfe appetite,
Febres,
Feeling,
depraved,
Fever, continued,
remittent,
Intermittent,
fcarlet,
childbed,
Flooding,
Fluor albus,
Furor uterinus,
G.
Gastritis, Gen. 13.
Gonorrhoea, Gen. 121.
Galen,
Gout,
Greek phyllcians,
Green fieknefs,
Gutta ferena,
H.
60
354
272
37*
*25
64
*38
126
230
404
245
2501
373
*92
39i
4*
211
3
277
360
Hemoptysis, Gen. 37.
HiEMORRHOis, Gen. 38.
Hepatitis, Gen. 17.
Hydrocele, Gen. 8i.
Hydrocephalus, Gen. 76,
HydromeTra, Gen. 80.
Hydrophobia, Gen. 64.
Hydrorachitis, Gen. 77.
Hydrothorax, Gen. 78.
Hypochondriasis, Gen. 46.
Hysteria, Gen. 63.
Hysteritis, Gen. 21.
Hcemorrhagice,
Hearing,
depraved.
Heartburn,
HeElic fever.
Hemiplegia,
Hepatic flux.
Hereditary difeafes,
Herophi/us,
Hippocrates,
Hooping cough.
Hydrocephalic apoplexy,
I.
236
240
198
345
340
344
322
34*
342
276
321
204
364
300
170
267
3*7
62
32
5
299
258
Icterus, Gen. 91. 336
Ischuria, Gen. 123. 394
Idiotifm, 86, 326
Iliac paffion, 113
Impetigines, 348
Incipient phthifis, 238
Incontinence of urine, 120
Incubus, 329
Inf animation of the bladder, 201
of the brain, 1.76
of the heart, 188
of the inteflines, 195
of the kidney, 200
of the liver, 198
Infamptutm
[ndex.
Inflammation of the lungs,
J of the mefent&y,
of the omentum,
of the peritoneum,
of the fpleen,
of the ftomach,
of the uterus,
Inflammatory tertian,
Inoculation,
Intermittentes,
Intumeflc entue,
Irregular tertian,
Itching,
Jaundice,
Jewijh phyficians,
K.
King's evil,
Lepra, Gen. 88.
Ltucorrhcea,
Ikntenj,
Locales,
Lochial difeharge, immoderate,
Locked )*vi,
Loofenefs,
Lofs of voice,
Lues venerea,
Lumbago,
M.
Mania, Gen. 67.
Melancholia, Gen. 66.
Menorrhagia, Gen. 39.
Miliaria, Gen. 31.
Mutitas, Gen. nr.
Madnefs, melancholy,
furious,
Malignant fore throat,
Marcores,
Mealies,
Melancholy and mama,
Melcene,
Memory,
Menfes, immoderate flow of,
Methodical feet,
Mifplaced gout,
Mobility,
Moderns,
Morbid thinnefs of the blood,
thicknefe of the blood,
Mumps,
N.
Nephritis, Gen. 19.
Nostalgia, Gen. 106.
Nymphomania, Gen. 105.
Nauflea,
Nettle rafh,
Nervous confumption,
fever,
Nightmare,
Nirles,
o.
Obstipatio, Gen. 122.
Odontalgia, Gen. 23.
Oneirodynia, Gen. 68.
N°
183
191
190
189
r99
192
204
I35
225
125
334
127
77
349
353
250
316
357
248
280
109
379
35°
206
328
327
245
229
380
327
328
179
331
227
85
409
83
246
36
215
88
54
101
102
182
200
374
373
LI 2
221
333
166
329
228
393
210
329
MEDICINE.
Ophthalmia, Gen. 8. N° 17^
OhJlruEled perfpiration, 115
Occajional fyncope, 274
Ocfljphagus, dangerous affection of, .;o6
Oribajius, 42
Origin of difeafes, 62
P.
Palpitatio, Gen. 54.
Paracusis, Gen. 97.
Paralysis, Gen. 43.
Par aphonia, Gen. 112.
Pemphigus, Gen. 34.
Peritonitis, Gen. 14.
Pertussis, Gen. 57.
Pestis, Gen. 27.
Phlogosis, Gen. 7.
Phrenitis, Gen. 9.
Phusconia, Gen. 82.
Physometra, Gen. 74.
Pica, Gen. 103.
Pneumatosis, Gen. 72.
Pneumonia, Gen. 11.
Polydipsia, Gen. 102.
Polysarcia, Gen. 71.
ProFusio, Gen. 116.
Pseudoblepsis, Gen. 95.
Psellismus, Gen. 113.
Ptyalismus, Gen. 119.
Pyrosis, Gen. 58.
Pain,
Palpitation,
Palfy,
from poifons,
Paracelfus,
Paraplegia,
Paulus,
Peripneumonia,
Phlegmaftce,
Phlegmone,
Phthijis,
Piles,
external,
from a procidentia ani,
running,
blind,
Plague,
Plethora,
Plica pokmica,
Pleuritic,
Podagra,
Poifons,
Praxagoras,
Predifponent caufe,
Proximate caufe,
Puerperal fever,
Pulmonary confumption,
Pulfation of the arteries,
Putrid fever,
Putrid fore throat,
Pyrexict,
Quart ana, Gen. 2.
Quotidiana, Gen. 3.
290
3.64
265
38r
232
189
299
221
171
175
346
338
371
336
184
370
33?
386
362
382
389
300
75
97
92, 265
269
52
268
45
184
171
3 73
237
240
241
242
243
244
221
100
355
185
211
408
30
59
61
404
237
96
167
179
124
353
160
48s
Qualities of the animal folids,
Quartan with fymptoms of other dif¬
eafes,
complicated With other dif¬
eafes,
Quotidian, genuine,
partial,
remitting,
Quotidiana deceptiva,
N° 69
358
359
161
162
163
35o
R.
Rachitis, Gen. 83.
Raphania, Gen. 52.
Rheumatismus, Gen. 22.
Rubeola, Gen. 30.
Regular gout,
Remittent tertian,
Remitting quartan,
Refpiration,
Retrocedent gout,
Rheumatifm in the loins,
in the hip-joint,
in the thorax,
Rha*zes,
Rickets,
Rules for preferving health,
for valetudinarians,
S.
347
285
205
227
212
338
160
104.
214
206
207
208
47
347
414
433
Satyriasis, Gen. 104.
Scarlatina, Gen. 32.
Scorbutus, Gen. 86.
ScrofHula, Gen. 84.
Siphylis, Gen. 85.
Splenitis, Gen. 18.
Strabismus, Gen. 114.
Syncope, Gen. 44.
Synocha, Gen. 4.
Synochus, Gen. 6.
St Anthony's fire,
St Vitus's dance,
Sanguineous apoplexy,
Salivation,
Sciatica,
Scirrhus,
Scurvy,
Sea feurvy.
Semen, difficult emiffion of,
Semi-tertian,
Serapion,
Serous apoplexy,
Sight,
Sleep,
Sleepy tertian,
Smallpox,
diftindl,
confluent,
inoculated,
Smell,
Smelling, depraved,
Sneezing,
Lor anus,
Spafm,
Spafmi,
Spafmodic colic,
tertian,
372
203
35i
349
35a
199
383
272
163
168
218
284
256
389
207
122
3 511
ib.
401
33i
34
257
81
94
132
222
223
224
225
79
365
106
39
93
278
302
333
Spina
5
486
Spina bifida,
Spitting of blood,
Spurious tertian,
Stone in the bladder,
Strang unj,
Stitle of medicine in the 15th and 16th
centuries, jo
in the 17 th and 18th centmies, 54
402
IJ7> 394
51
58
No 341
236
127
400
09
SuppreJJion of menfes,
of urine,
Sweating ficknefs,
Symptoms of difeafe,
T.
Tabes, Gen. 69.
Tertian a, Gen. 1.
Tetanus, Gen. 48.
Trichoma, Gen. 90.
Trismus, Gen. 49.
Tympanites, Gen. 73.
Typhus, Gen. 5.
Tujle,
Tajling, depraved,
TenefmuSy
332
126
279
355
280
337
164
78
366
in
M E D I C I M
Tertian complicated with other
orders,
varied from its origin,
Themifon^
TheJfaluSy
I'hrujh,
Toot hack.
Torpor,
Tremor,
7 riple quartan,
Triplicated quartan,
Triple tertian,
Tritceophya Americana,
apodes,
carotica,
deceptiva,
elodes,
leipyria,
fyncopalis,
typhodes,
vratiilavienfis,
U.
Urticaria, Gen. 33.
Urinary calculi,
E,
dif- V.
N° 136 Varicella, Gen. 29.
137 Variola, Gen. 28.
37 Vaccine inoculation,
38 Vuriolodes,
233 Venereal difeafe,
210 Vertigo,
90 Vefunice,
270 Vigour,
157 Vis medicatrix natura;,
I55 Vijion depraved,
130 Vital tolids,
148 Vomica,
144 _ W.
145 Want of appetite,
147 of third,
143 Wajling of the body,
146 Water braih,
139 in the head,
142 Whites,
141 Worms,
Y.
231 Taws,
121 Tellow fever,
83
Index
N°226
222
224
228
350
82
325
89
36l
73
186
375
376
332
300
340
2C0
407
MED
Medicis. , MEDICIb, Cosmo DE, was born in the year 1389,
and was in the prime of life, at the death of his father
Giovanni. His conduct was diflmguilhed for urbanity
and kindnefs to the fuperior ranks of his fellow-citizens,
and by a conftant attention to the wants of the lower
clafs, whom his munificence abundantly relieved. His
prudence and moderation, however, could not reprels the
ambitious defigns of the rival families, the Florentines
and Medici 5 for in 1433, Rinaldo de Albizi, at the
head of a formidable party, carried the appointment of
the magittracy. On returning from his country leat he
was feized upon by his adverfaries, and committed to
prifon. The confpirators not agreeing as to the proper
method of difpatchmg their priloner, one Peruzzi re¬
commended poifon, which was heard by Cofmo, who
refufed to take any other fuftenance than a fmall por¬
tion of bread. In this difmal fituation he remained
four days, fhut up from all his kindred and friends,
where he foon expefted to be numbered with the dead!
But the man employed to take him off, unexpeaedly
proved his friend. Malavolta, the keeper of the prifon,
relented, and declared that he had no juft reafon to be
alarmed, as he hefitated not to eat of every thing that
was brought him.
His brother Lorenzo, and his coufin Averardo,
railed a confiderable body of men in Romagna and
other difttiels; and being joined by the commander of
the republican forces, they marched to Florence to re¬
lieve him. A decree was obtained from the magi-
ftracy, by which he was banifhed to Padua for ten
years, his brother to Venice for five, and feveral of
their relations (hared a limilar fate. Padua was in the
dominions of Venice, and he received a deputation
from the fenate b< fore lie reached it, promifing him
their prote&ion and aftiitance in whatever he Ihould de-
M E D
fire. He rather experienced the treatment of a prince M a- •
than of an exile, as they entertained the higheft expeda- ■
tions from his great commercial knowledge. From ^
this period his life may be confidered as one continued
fcene of uninterrupted profperity, and his family
received education equal to that of the greateft poten¬
tates. In his public and private charities he was almoft
unbounded, and perhaps poffefled more wealth than
any fingle individual in Europe at that period. In his
promotion of fcience and encouragement of learned men
he was truly exemplary, and from this fource he acquired
the greateft honour and efteem.
His foftering hand proteded the arts as well as the
fciences ; and architedure, fculpture, and painting, all
flouriftied under his powerful protedion. The coun¬
tenance he (howed to thefe arts was not fuch as their
profeffors generally receive from the great; for the
fums of money which he expended on pidures, ftatues,
and public buildings, appear almoft incredible. When
he approached the period of his mortal exiftence, his
faculties were ftill unimpaired ; and 20 days before he
died, he requefted Ficino to tranfiate from the Greek
the treatife of Xenocrates on death. He died on the
ift of Auguft 1464, at the age of 75, and gave ftrid
mjundions, that his funeral ihould be conduded with
as much privacy as poflible. By public decree he was
honoured with the title of Pater Patrice, an appellation
Avhich was infcribed on his tomb, and was declared by
competent judges, to be founded in real merit.
Medici, Lorenzo de, ftiled, with great propriety,
the Magnificent, was the grandfon of Cofmo, and about
16 years of age at his deceafe. In 1469 his father died,
and he fucceeded to his authority as if it had conftitut-
ed a part of his fortune. In the year 1474, Lorenzo
incurred the dilpleafure of the pope for the oppofition
he
MED [ 487 ] MED
Medicis. he made to fome of his encroachments on the petty
-'V-—' princes of Italy, and for this reafon he deprived him
of the office of treafurer of the Roman fee, which he
conferred on one Pazzi, connefled with a Florentine
family, the intereft of which he thus fecured, and in¬
tended to facrifice Lorenzo and Juliano to his private
revenge. Their affaffination was fixed for Sunday,
April 26. 1478, and the cathedral was the place in
which a monfier of an archbiffiop had refolved to mur¬
der them by the inftigation of the pope. When the
people faw one of their favourites (Juliano) expiring,
and the other (Lorenzo) covered with blood, their rage
was not to be expreffed in language. The interference
of the magiftrates was finally victorious, who had the
courage and virtue to hang the archbiffiop from one of
the windows, arrayed in his pontifical robes, which
made Florence refound with the acclamation—Medici,
Medici! down with their enemies !
Lorenzo was delivered from that part of the cathe¬
dral to which he had fled for refuge, and was trium¬
phantly carried home, where his wounds were attended
to by men of ability. His friends in the mean time
purfued the confpirators, and fpared none who happen¬
ed to fall in their wray. In a word, the generality of
them were either hanged or decapitated, and very few
had the good fortune to efcape their uncommon vigil¬
ance. Much to the honour of Lorenzo, he exerted all
his influence to prevent the indifcriminate maiTacre of
his cruel enemies, and reftrain the juft indignation of
the people, begging that they would truft the magi-
ftrates with the punifhment of the guilty 5 and the re-
fpeft in which he was held had the moft aftonifhing
effeft in reftraining the vengeance of popular indigna¬
tion.
No fooner had hoftilities ceafed between Pope Sextus
and the Florentine republic, than Lorenzo began to
develope plans for fecuring the internal peace and tran¬
quillity of Italy, by which the highefl: honour has been
conferred on his political life. But the life of this great
man was again brought into imminent danger by the
intrigues of Cardinal Riario, and fome Florentine exiles,
who determined to aflaffinate him in the church of the
Carmeli, on the feftival of the Afcenfion 1481 5 but
the plot was happily difcovered, the confpirators were
executed, and after this Lorenzo very feldom went
abroad without being furrounded by a number of friends
in whom he could fecurely confide.
When we attentively examine the chara&er of Lo¬
renzo, it will not perhaps appear aftoniffiing, that Italy,
Chriftendom, and even the Mahometans themfelves,
conferred upon him the mofi: flattering approbation.
Even Prince Mirandola chofe Florence as the place of
his refidence entirely upon his account, and there end¬
ed his mortal career. To a moll engaging perfon Lo¬
renzo added almofl: every other accompliffiment. He
was the favourite of the ladies, the envy of his own fex,
and the admiration of all. He was declared to be un¬
rivalled in chivalry, and one of the moft eminent ora¬
tors that the world in any age has produced. Accord¬
ing to the opinion of his contemporaries, he wTas even
fuperior to Julius Caefar himfelf, except as a general,
yet he would alfo have proved a moft confummate com¬
mander had not peace been always the darling of his
foul. We recoiled! a memorable pafiage in the Ram¬
bler, which may here be appofitely introduced. A
I
great man condefcending to do little things, is like the Medicls.
fun in his weftern declination •, he remits his fplendor, nt—"
but retains his magnitude, and pleafes more though he
dazzles lefs. To fuch little things did Lorenzo fre¬
quently fubmit, often feeking pleafure in his nurfery,
and fpending hours there in all the frivolous pranks of
childiffi diverfion. The gravity of his life, if contraft-
ed with its levity, muft make him appear as a compo-
fition of two different perfons, incompatible, and, as it
were, impoflible to be joined the one with the other.
Such were the love and veneration of the citizens
for Lorenzo, that the phyfician who attended him on
his deathbed, terrified to return to Florence, left the
houfe in a ftate of diffradlion, and plunged himfelf into
a well. When Ferdinand king of Naples was inform¬
ed of his death, he cried out, “ This man has lived
long enough for his own glory, but too fliort a time for
Italy.” He died on the 8th of April 1492, amidlt a
number of his weeping friends, who appeared deeply
confcious of fuch an irreparable lofs.
Medicis, Jo An Je, on account of his bravery and.
knowledge in military affairs, was furnamed the Invin¬
cible. He was the fon of John, otherwife called Jour-
dain, de Medicis. His only fon Cofmo I. ftyled the
Great, was chofen duke of Florence after the murder
of Alexander de Medicis, A. D. 1537. He firfl: car¬
ried arms under Laurence de Medicis againft the duke
of Urbino, afterwards under Pope Leo X. Upon the
death of Leo, he entered into the fervice of Francis I.
which he quitted to follow the fortune of Francis Sfor-
za duke of Milan. When Francis I. formed an alliance
with the pope and the Venetians againft the emperor,
he returned to his fervice. He was wounded in the
knee at Governola, a fmall town in the Mantuan ter¬
ritory, by a mulket ball; and being carried to Mantua,
he died the 29th of November 1526, aged 28. Bran-
tome relates, that when his leg was to be cut off, and
when he was informed that he needed fome perfon to
fupport him, “ Proceed without fear (faid he), I need
nobody !” and he held !;he candle himfelf during the
operation. This anecdote is alfo mentioned by Varchi.
John de Medicis was above the middle ftature, ftrong,
and nervous. His foldiers, to exprefs their affeflion for
him and their concern for his lofs, affumed a mourning
drefs and ftandards, which gave the name of the black
band to the Tufcan troops whom he commanded.
Medicis, Laurence or Laurencin de, wras defcended
from a brother of Cofmo the Great, and affedled the
name of popular. In 1537, he killed Alexander de
Medicis, whom Charles V. had made duke of Florence,
and who was believed to be the natural fon of
Laurence de Medicis duke of Urbino. Fie was jea¬
lous of Alexander’s power, and difguifed this jealoufy
under the fpecious pretext of love to his country. He
loved men of learning, and cultivated literature. His
works are, I. Lamenti, Modena, izmo. 2. Acidojio
Commedia, Florence 1595, l2mo. He died without
iffue.
Medicis, Hypolitus de, natural fon of Julian de
Medicis and a lady of Urbino, was early remarkable
for the brilliancy of his wit and the graces of his per¬
fon. Pope Clement VII. his coufin, made him car¬
dinal in 1529, and fent him as legate into Germany
to the court of Charles V. When that prince went
into Italy, Medicis, yielding to his warlike difpcfition,
appeared
MED [ 488 ] MED
ity?- appeared in the dref? of an officer, and advanced be-
fore the emperor, followed by feveral refpeflable gen¬
tlemen of the court. Charles, naturally fufpicious, and
afraid that the legate intended to do him fome ill
offices with the pope, font after him and caufed him
to be apprehended. But when he underllood that it
was a mere fally of humour in the young cardinal, he
fe t h im at liberty in a few days. The character which
Medicis obtained by the happy fuccc-fs of this ap¬
pointment was of effential fervice to him. He 'was
confidered as one of the Supports of the Holy See j
and a little before Clement’s death, when the corfair
Barbaroflh made a defeent into Italy to the great
terror of Rome, which was only defended by 200 of
the pope’s guards, Medic is was defpatched to protect
the courts from the fury of the barbarians. On his
arrival at the place of dertination, lie was fortunate
enough to find that Barbaroila had withdrawn him-
felf at that critical moment ; which allowed him to
claim the honour of the retreat without expofing his
perfon or his army. When he returned to Rome, he
was of great fervice in the election of Paul III. who
neverthelefs refufed to make him legate to Ancona,
though that office had been promifed to him in the
conclave. Enraged alio that the pope had bellowed
the principality of Florence on Alexander de Medicis,
fuppofed to be the natural fon of Laurence duke of
tlrbino, he was prompted by his ambition to belfev.c
that he might fucceed to that dignity by the deftruc-
tion of Alexander. He entered into a confpiracy
againft him, and determined to carry him off by a
mine ; but the plot was difeovered before he had ac-
compliffied his purpofe. Octavian Zanga, one of his
guards, was arrefted as his chief accomplice. Hy-
politus de Medicis, apprehenfive for his own fafety,
retired to a caftle near Tivoli. On his road to Naples,
he fell Tick at Itri in the territory of Fondi, and died
Angult 13. 1535, in his 24th year, not without fufpi-
cion of being poifoned. His houfe was an afylum for
the unfortunate, and frequently for thofe who rvere
guilty of the blacked: crimes. It was open to men of
all nations; and he was frequently addreffed in twenty
different languages. He had a natural fon named Af-
druhal de Medicis, who was a knight of Malta. This
anecdote proves that his manners were more military
than ecclefiartic. lie wore a fword, and never put on
the habit of cardinal except on occafions of public cere¬
mony. He was wholly devoted to the theatre, hunt¬
ing, and poetry.
Mudjcis, Alexander de, firft duke of Florence in
I53°» 'v'as natural fon of Laurence de Medicis, fur-
named the Tiunger, and nephew of Pope Clement VII.
He owed his elevation to the intrigues of his uncle
and to the arms of Charles V. This prince having
made himfelf marter of Florence after an obrtinate
ffege, conferred the fovereignty of ibis city on Alex-
ande’-. and at erwards gave him in marriage Margaret
of Aullria Ins natural daughter. According to the
terms of capitulation granted to the Florentines, the
new duke was to be only hereditary doge, and his
authority was tempered by councils ; which left them
av leaft a ffiadow of their ancient liberty. But Alex¬
ander, who fell himfelf fupported by the emperor and
the pope, was no fooner in poffeffion of his new dig¬
nity, than he began to govern like a tyraiff J being-
guided by no law but his own caprice, indulging the Medicis
moft brutal paffions, and making light of difhonour- Medieta;
ing families, and of violating even the alylum of the
cloifters to gratify his luff. Among the confidants of
his debauchery was a relation of his own, Laurence
de Medicis. This young man, who was only 22 years
of age, at the mitigation of Philip Strozzi, a zealous
republican, conceived the defign of aflaffinating Alex¬
ander, and thereby of delivering his country from op-
preffion. From the moment when he firft became at¬
tached to him, he tried to gain his confidence, for no
other reafon but that he might the better have it la
his power to take away his life. A confiderable time
elapled before he found fuch an opportunity as he de-
fired. At length, under pretence of procuring the
duke a tete a tete with a lady of whom he was deeply
enamoured, he brought him alone and unattended into
his chamber, and put him under his bed. He went
out, unuer pretence of introducing the objedl of his
paffion ; and returned along with an aflaffin by profef-
fion, to whom alone be had entrufted his defign, only
to rtab him. ihis cruel feene happened on the ni^ht
betwixt the 5th and 6th of January 1537. Alexander
was only 26 years of age. The Florentines derived no
advantage from this crime of Laurence, for they failed
in their attempt to recover their liberty. The party of
the Medicis prevailed, and Alexander was fuceeeded
by Cofmo: whofe government, it muff be confefted,
was as juft and moderate, as that of his predeceflor
had been violent and tyrannical. Laurence de Me*-
dicis flit’d to Venice, to fome of the leaders of the
malecontents at Florence, who had taken refuge there $
but not thinking himfelf in fuffieient fecurity, he
went to Conftantinople, whence he returned fome
time after to Venice. He was there affaffinated in
1547, ten years after the duke’s murder, by two foldiers,
one of whom had formerly been in Alexander’s guards;
And thefe foldiers were generous enough to refufe a
confiderable fum of money, w'hich was the price put
upon his head.
Mepicis, Cofmo de, grapd duke of Tufcany, joined
Charles V. againft the French, after trying in vain
to continue neutral. As a reward for Ids fervices, the
emperor added to the duchy of Tufcany Piombino, the
ifle of Elba, and othgr ftates. Cofiuo foon after re¬
ceived from Pope Pius IV. the title of grand duke;
and had it not been eppofed by all the princes of Italy,
this pontiff, who was entirely devoted to Coftno, be-
caufe he had thought proper to acknowledge him to be
of his houfe, would have conferred on him the title of
king. There never was a more zealous patron of learn¬
ing. Ambitious of imitating the fecond Cartar, he like
him, wa* fond of learned men, kept them near his
perfojo, and founded for them the uniyerfity of Fifa.
He died in I574> al: ^ie age °f 55» .aftt:t governing
with equal wifdom and glory. In 1^62 he inftituted
the military order of St Stephen. His fon, Francis
Mary whp died in 13 87, was the father of Mary of
Medicis, the w ife of Henry the Great and of Ferdinand I.
who died in 1608.
MEDTEI AS LlNOUig, in Laiv, fignifies a jury, or #
inqueft impanelled, of which the one half are natives
of this land and the other foreigners.. This jury is
never uit d except where one of the parties in a plea is
a ftranger and th,e other a denizen. In petit treafon,
murder.
M E D
[ 489 ]
MED
McJietas murder, and felony, foreigners are allowed this privi-
II lege; but not in high treafon, becaufe an alien in that
Medina. |pa]| tried according to the rules of the eom-
v " mon law, and not by a medietas lingua. A grand
jury ought not in any cafe to be of a medietas lingua ;
and the perfon that would have the advantage of a
trial in this way, is to pray the fame, otherwife it will
not be permitted on a challenge of the jurors.
MEDIMNUS, in Grecian antiquity, a meafure
of capacity. See Measure.
MEDINA talnari, a famous town of Arabia
Petraea, between Arabia Deferta and Arabia the Hap¬
py ; celebrated for being the burial-place of Maho¬
met. It Hands at a day’s journey from the port of
lambo. It is of moderate fize, furrounded by wretch¬
ed walls, andfituated in the midft of a fandy plain. It
belongs to the fcherif of Mecca, although it had of
late times a particular fovereign of the family of Da-
cii Barkad. At prefent the government is confided
by the fcherif to a vizir, who muft be taken from the
family of the fovereign. Before Mahomet, this city
was called lathreb; but it got the name of Medinet
en Ncbbi, “ the City of the Prophet,” after Maho¬
met, being driven from Mecca by the Koreifchites,
had taken refuge there, and paffed in it the reft of
his days. The tomb of Mahomet at Medina is re-
Ipe&ed by Muffulmans, but they are under no obli¬
gation to vifit it for the purpofes of devotion. The
caravans of Syria and Egypt alone, which on their
return from Mecca pafs near Medina, go a little out
of their way to fee the tomb. It Hands in a corner
of the great fquare, whereas the Kaba is fituated in
the middle of that at Mecca. That the people may
not perform fome fuperftitious worfiiip to the relics of
the prophet, they are prevented from approaching the
tomb by grates, through which they may look at it.
It confifts of a piece of plain mafon work in the form
of a cheft, without any other monument. The tomb
is placed between two others, where the alhes of the
two firft caliphs repofe. Although it is not more mag¬
nificent than the tombs of the greater part of the
founders of mofques, the building that covers it is de¬
corated with a piece of green filk Huff embroidered
with gold, which the pacha of Damafcus renews every
feven years. It is guarded by 40 eunuchs, who watch
the treafure faid to be depofited there. It is feated in
a plain abounding with palm trees, in E. Long. 57. xo.
N. Lat. 25. See {Hijlory of} Arabia.
MEDINA Celi, an ancient town of Spain, in Old
Caflile, and capital of a confiderable duchy of the fame
name ; feated near the river Xalon, in W. Long. 2. 9.
N. Lat. 41. x 5.
MEDINA de-las-Torres, a very ancienttownof Spain,
in Eftremadura, 'with an old caftle, and the title of a
duchy. It is feated on the confines of Andalufia, at
the foot of a mountain near Bajadoz.
MEDINA-del-Campo, a large, rich, and ancient town
of Spain, in the kingdom of Leon. The great fquare
is very fine, and adorned with a fuperb fountain. It
, is a trading place, enjoys great privileges, and is feated
in a country abounding with corn and wine. W. Long.
4. 20. N. Lat. 41. 22.
MEDINA-del-rio-Secco, an ancient and rich town of
Spain, in the kingdom of Leon, xvith the title of a
Vol. XIII. Part II.
duchy: feated on a plain, remarkable for its fine paftures.
E. Long. 4. 33. N. Lat. 42. 8.
MEDINA, Sir John, an eminent painter, was fon
of Medina de 1’Afturias, a Spaniih captain who fet-1
tied at Bruffels, where the fon was born in 1660. He
was inftructed in painting by Du Chatel ; under whole,
direction he made great progrefs ; and applying himfelf
to the ftudy of Rubens, made that eminent mailer his
principal model. He painted both hillory and por¬
trait ; and wras held in extraordinary efteem by molt of
the princes of Germany, who diftinguilhed his merit by
feveral marks of honour. He married young, and
came into England in 1686, where he drew portraits
for feveral years with great reputation; as he painted
thofe fubjeels with remarkable freedom of touch, a de¬
licate management of tints, and Hrong refemblance of
the perfons. The earl of Leven encouraged...him to go
to Scotland, and procured him a fubfeription of 500I.
worth of bufinefs. He wrent, carrying a large number
of bodies and poftures, to which he painted heads. He
returned to England for a Ihort time; but went* back
to Scotland, where he died, and was buried in the
churchyard of the Grayfriars at Edinburgh in 1711,
aged 52. He painted moil of the Scotch nobility.
Two fmall hillory pieces, and the portraits of the pro-
felfors, in the Surgeons Hall at Edinburgh, were alfo
painted by him. At Wentworth callle is a large piece
containing the firft duke of Argyll and his fons, the
two late dukes John and Archibald, in Roman habits ;
the llyle Italian, and fuperior to moll modern perform¬
ers. The duke of Gordon prefented Sir John Medina’s
head to the great duke of Tufcany for his colleclion of
portraits done by the painters themfelves ; the duke of
Gordon too was drawn by him, with his fon the mar¬
quis of Huntley and his daughter Lady Jane, in one
piece. Medina was knighted by the duke of Queenf-
berry, lord high commiffioner; and xvas the lall knight
made in Scotland before the union. The prints in the
odlavo edition of Milton were defigned by him ; and
he compofed another fet for Ovid’s Metamorphofes*
but they were never engraved.
MEDINE, an Egyptian piece of money of iron
filvered over, and about the fize of a filver threepence.
MEDIOLANUM, an ancient city, the capital of
the Infubres, built by the Gauls on their fettlement in
that part of Italy ; a municipium, and a place of great
llrength ; and a feat of the liberal arts ; whence it had
the name of Nova Athena. Now Milan, capital of
the Milanefe, fituated on the rivers Olana and Lombro.
E. Long. 9. 30. N. Lat. 45. 25.
MEDIOLANUM Aulercorum, in Ancient Geography, a
town of Gallia Celtica, which afterwards took the name
of the Eburovicum Civitas (Antonine) ; corrupted to
Civita t Ebroicorum, and this lall to Ebroica; whence
the modern appellation Evreux, a city of Normandy.
E. Long. 1. 12. N. Lat. 49. 21.
MEDIOLANUM Gugernorum, m. Ancient Geography, a
town of Gallia Belgica ; now the village Moyland, not
far from Cologne.
MEDIOLANUM Ordovicum, in Ancient Geography, a
town of Britain, now Llan Vethlin, a market town of
Montgomeryfhire in Wales.
MEDIOLANUM Santonum, in Ancient Geography,
which afterwards taking the name of the people, was
3 Q called
Medina
II
Mediola-
.Mediola
Medium
MED [
called Santonica Urbs; alfo Santones and Santoni:
town of Aquitaine. Now Sawtes, capital of Saintonge
in Guienne, on the river Charente.
— MEDiOMAl RICI, anciently a territory of Bcl-
gica. Now the diocc-fe of Metz.
MEDIT A I ION, an a61 by which Ave confider any
thing clofely, or wherein the foul is employed in the
fearch or confideration of any truth. In our religion,
it is ufed to fignify a confideration of the objedls and
grand truths, of the Chriftian faith.
My (lie divines make a great difference between me¬
ditation and contemplation ; the former confifts in dif-
curfive a£ts of the foul, confidering methodically and
with attention the myfteries of faith and the precepts
of morality •, and is performed by refleftions and rea-
fonings, which leave behind them manifeft impreflions
on the brain. 1 he pure contemplative have no need
of meditation, as feeing all things in God at a glance,
and without any refleftion. When a man, therefore,
has once quitted meditation, and is arrived at con¬
templation, he returns no more •, and, according to Al¬
varez, never refumes the oar of meditation, except rvlien
the wind of contemplation is too weak to fill his fails.
MEDITERRANEAN, fomething enclofed Avithin
land 5 or that is remote from the ocean.
Mediterranean is more particularly ufed to fignify
that large fea which flows between the continents of
Europe and Africa, entering by the ftraits of Gibraltar,
and reaching into Afia, as far as the Euxine fea and the’
Palus Mseotis.
The Mediterranean was anciently called the Grecian
fea and the Great fea. It is now cantoned out into fe-
veral divifions, which bear fevcral names. To the weft
of Italy it is called the Ligufic or Tufcan fea ; near
Venice, the Adriatic; towards Greece, the Ionic and
JEgean ; between the Hellefpont and the Bofphorus,
the White fea, as being very fafe ; and beyond, the
Black fea, its navigation being dangerous.
ihe Britiih trade carried on by means of the Me¬
diterranean fea is of the lafi: confequence to Great
Britain ; and the permanent prefervation thereof de¬
pends on the poffeflion of the tOAvn and fortification of
Gibraltar.
Ihe counterfeiting of Mediterranean paffes for (hips
to the coafl; of BaAarv, &c or the fcal of the admiral¬
ty office to fueh paffes, is felony without benefit of
clergy. Stat .4. Geo. II. c. 18.
MEDI ERIN ALIA, a Roman feflival in honour
of the goddefs Meditrina, kept on the 30th of Sep¬
tember. Both the deity and the feftival \vere fo called
a medendo, becaufe on this day they began to drink new
wine mixed with old by way of medicine. The mix¬
ture of wines, on this feffival, Avas drank svith much
form and folemn ceremony.
MEDI 1 ULLIUM, is ufed bv anatomifts for that
fpongv fibflance between the tAvo plates of the cranium,
and in the interflices of all laminated bones. See Ana¬
tomy, N° 1. 11.
MEDIUM, in Lo^ic, the mean or middle term of
o fvllogifm, being an argument, reafon, or confideration,
for which we affirm or deny any thing ; or, it is the
caufe why the greater extreme is affirmed or denied of
the lefs in the conclufion.
Medium, in Arithmetic, or arithmetical medium or
mean, called in the fchools medium rei} that Avhich is
49° 1 MED
A equally didant from each extreme, or which exceeds the
lellcr extreme as much as it is exceeded by the greater
m refpedt of quantity, not of proportion j thus o is a
medium betAvixt 6 and 12. y 1
Geometrical MEDIUM, called in the fchools medium
perfonat, is that Avhere the fame ratio is preferved be¬
tween the firlt and ftcond as between the fecond and
third terms, or that which exceeds in the fame ratio
or quota ol itfelf, as it is exceeded : thus 6 is a geome¬
trical medium between 4 and 9.
Medium, in Philofop/uj, that fpace or region through
which a body in motion palies to any point : thus
aether is fuppofed to be the medium through which
the heavenly bodies move 5 air, the medium wherein
bodies move near our earth ; water, the medium where¬
in fiffies live and move •, and glafs is alfo a medium of
light, as it affords it a free palfage. That denlity or
confittency in the parts of the medium, whereby the
motion of bodies in it is retarded, is called the ref fi¬
ance of the medium ; which, together with the force of
giayity, is the caufe of the ceiiation of the motion of
projedtiles.
Subtle or /Ethereal MEDIUM. Sir Ifaac Newton
confiders it probable, that, belide the particular aerial
medium, wherein we live and breathe, there is another
more umverfal one, which he calls an eetherealmedium ;
vaflly more rare, fubtle, Gallic, and aftive, than air,
and by that means freely permeating the pores and
interflices of all other mediums, and diffufing itfelf
through the Avhole creation ; and by the intervention
hereof he thinks it is that mod of the great phenomena
of nature are effefted. See ALiher, Electricity
Fire, &c. *
. Medium, in optics, any fubftance through which
light is tranfmitted.
MEDLAR, fee Mespilus, Botany Index.
MEDULLA ossium, or Marrow of the bones. See
Anatomy, N° 5.
Medulla cerebri and cerebelli, denotes the white foft
part of the brain and cerebellum, covered on the outfide
Avith the cortical fubftance, which is of a more dark or
affiv colour. See Anatomy, N° 131 133.
Medulla oblongata, is the medullary part of the
brain and cerebellum, joined in one •, the fore part of it
coming from the brain, and the hind part from the ce¬
rebellum. See Anatomy, N° i34.
It lies on the bafis of the fkull, and is continued
through the great perforation thereof into the hollow of
the veitebrae of the neck, back, and loins 5 though only
fo much oi it retains the name oblongata as is included
AVI thin the fkull. After its exit thence it is diitinguilh-
ed by the name of medulla fpinalis. Ibid. N° 1 35.
MEDUSA, in fabulous hiftory, one of the three
Gorgons, daughter of Phorcys and Ceto. She was the
only one of the Gorgons Avho Avas fubjedt to mortality.
She is celebrated for her perfonal charms and the beau¬
ty of her locks. Neptune became enamoured of her,
^d obtained her favours in the temple of Minerva.
1 nis violation of the fandfity of the temple provok¬
ed Minerva ; and ffie changed the beautiful locks of
Meduia, Avhich had infpired Neptune,s love, into ferpents,
the fight of which turned the beholders into ftones : hut
Perfeus, armed with Mercury’s axe, with which he killed
Argus, cut off Medufa’s head, from Avhofe blood fprang
Pegafus and Chryfaor, together Avith the innumerable
ferpents
Medium
Medufa.
M E E [ 49i ] MEG
Medufa ferpents that infeft Africa. The conqueror placed Me¬
lt dufa’s head on the aegis of Minerva, which he had ufed
1 Mceren jn eXpedition j and the head flill retained the fame
" v 1 petrifying powers as before.
Medusa, a genus of vermes, belonging to the order
of mollufca. See Helminthology Index.
MED WAY, a river of England, rifes in the Weald
of Suffex, and entering Kent near Aihurft, runs by
Tunbridge, and thence continues its courfe towards
Maidftone. It is navigable for large Ihips to Roeheiter
bridge, and thence for veflels and barges to Maidftone,
the tide flowing up to that town. The diftance between
the mouth of this river, where the fort at Siieernefs is
erected, and Rochefter bridge, is between 16 and 18
miles. In this part of the river, the channel is fo deep,
the banks fo foft, and the reaches fo ftiort, that it
R one of the beft and fafeft harbours in the world ; and
drips of 80 guns ride afloat at low water, within muf-
ket (hot of Rocheftcr bridge. Nor is there a Angle in-
ftance upon record, that any of the royal navy ever
fuffered here by ftorms, except in the dreadful tempeft
which happened in November 1703, when the Royal
Catherine was funk and loft. On the (bore of this river
are two caftles, one at Upnor, which guards two reaches
of the river, and is fuppofed to defend all the Ihips
which ride above, between that and the bridge; on the
other fide of the river is Gillingham caftle, built for
the fame purpofe, and well furnithed with cannon,
which commands the river. Befides thefe, there is a
platform of guns at a place called the Swam, and an¬
other at Cockhamwood. But the principal fortifica¬
tion on tills river is the caftle at Siieernefs.
MEEREN, or Meer, John Vander, called the
Old, an eftcemed painter, was born in 1627- c^°^e
for his fubjedls fea-pieces, landfcapes, and views of the
fea and its fliores; which he painted with great truth,
as he had accuftomed himfelf to Iketch every fecne af¬
ter nature. The fituations of his landfcapes are agree¬
ably chofen, frequently they are folemn, and generally
pleafing. The forms of his trees are eafy and natural,
his diftances well obferved, and the whole feenery has
a linking effedl, bv a happy oppofition of his lights and
fhadows. He alfo painted battles in an agreeable
ftvle, as they fliowed good eompofition, were touched
with fpirit, and had a great deal of tranfparence in the
colouring. He died in 1690.
M EE REN, or Meer, John Vander, called De Jong he,
an eminent landfcape painter, is fuppofed to have been
the fon of the old John Vander Meer, and of whom
he learned the firft rudiments of the art ; but being
in his youth deprived of his inftruftor before he had
made anv great progrefs, he became a difciple of Ni¬
cholas Berghem, and was accounted the beft of tbofe
who were educated in the fchool of that admired maf-
ter. In the manner of his mafter, he painted land¬
fcapes and cattle ; and his ufual fubjefts are cottages,
with peafants at their rural occupations and diverfions.
It is obferved of him, that he very rarely introduced
cows, horfes, or any other fpecies of animals, except
goats and fheep •, the latter of which are fo highly fi-
nilhed, that one would imagine the wool might be felt
by the foftnefs of its appearance. Elis touch is fcarce
perceptible, and yet the colours are admirably united.
He died in 1688. The genuine works of this Vander
Mcer bear a very high price, and are efteemed even in
Italy, where they are admitted into the beft colle£Hons ; Meeren
but the fcarcity of them has occafioned many moderate H
copies after his works to be palled on the undifeerning
for real originals.
MEG ALE polis, in Ancient Geography, dividedly
(Ptolemy, Paufanias) , or conjuntftly Megalopolis, (Stra¬
bo) : A town of Arcadia, built under the aufpices of
Epaminondas, after the battle of Leuclra ; many in-
conliderable towns being joined together in one great
city, the better to withftand the Spartans. It was the
greateft city of Arcadia, according to Strabo.
MEG ALESI A, and Meg alenses Ludi, feaftsand
games in honour of Cybele or Rhea the mother of the
gods, kept on the 1 2th of April by the Romans, and
famous for great rejoicings and diverftons of various
forts. The Galii carried the image of the goddefs along
the city, with found of drums and oilier mufic, in imi¬
tation of the noife they made to prevent Saturn from
hearing the cries of his infant fon Jupiter, -when he was
difpofed to devour him.
MEGARA, in Ancient Geography, a noble city,
and the capital of the territory of Megaris, which for
many years carried on war with the Corinthians and
Athenians. It had for fome time a fchool of philo-
fophers, called the Megarici, fucceffors of Euclid the
Socratic, a native of Megara. Their dialed! was the
Doric ; changed from the Attic, which it formerly
had been, becaufe of Peloponnefian colonifts who fettled
there.
Megara was fituated at a diftance from the fea. Its
port was called Nifeca, from Nifus fon of Pandion
the fecond, who obtained Megaris for his portion,
when the kingdom of Athens was divided into four
lots by his father. He founded the town, which was
eighteen ftadia or two miles and a quarter from the
city, but united with it, as the Pineus with Athens,
by long walls. It had a temple of Ceres. “ The roof
(fays Paufanias) may be fuppofed to have fallen
through age.” The fite (as Dr Chandler informs us*) * Travels
is now covered with rubbifti, among which are Handing z' ^ieece>
fome ruinous churches. The place has been named ^ ^
from them D aIc Ecclejiais, “ The Twelve Churches
but the number is reduced to feven. The acropolis or
citadel, called alfo Nifeea, was on a rock by the fea
fide. Some pieces of the wall remain, and a modem
fortrefs has been eredied on it, and alfo on a leffer rock
near it.
The village Megara (continues the dodlor) confifts
of low mean cottages pleafantly fituated on the flope
of a brow or eminence indented in the middle. On
each fide of this vale was an acropolis or citadel ; one
named Cana ; the other from Alcathous, the builder
of the wall. They related, that he was aflifted by A-
pollo, who laid his harp afide on a ftone, which,
as Paufanias teftifies, if ftruck with a pebble returned a
mufical found. An angle of ihe wall of one citadel is
feen by a windmill. The mafonry is of the fpecies
called Incertum. In 1676 the city wall was not en¬
tirely demoliftied, but comprehended the two fum-
mits, on which are fome churches, with a portion of
the plain toward the fouth. The whole fite, except
the hills, was now green with corn, and marked by
many heaps of ftones, the collefted rubtifh of build¬
ings. A few inferiptions arc found, with pedeftals fix¬
ed in the walls and inverted ; and alfo.. fome maimed or
3 Q 2 mutilated
MEG
Megara,
Megaris.
mutij-ated ftatues. One of the former relates to Atti-
cus Herodes, and is on a pedellal which fupported a
llatue erefted to him when conful, A. X). by the
council and people of Megara, in return for his bene-
faftions and good will toward the city. In the plain
behind the fummits, on one of which was a temple of
Minerva, is a large bafin of water, with fcattered frag¬
ments of marble, the remains of a bath or of a fountain,
which is recorded as in the city, and remarkable for
its fize and ornaments, and for the number of its co¬
lumns. . The fpring was named from the local nymphs
called Sithnides.
The ft one of Megara was of a kind not difcovered
any where elfe in Hellas j very white, uncommonly
foft, and confifting entirely of cockle fticlls. This was
chiefly ufed j and, not being durable, may be reckoned
among the caufes of the defolation at Megara, which
is fo complete,^ that one fearches in vain for veftiges of
the many public edifices, temples, and fepulchres, which
once adorned the city.
Megara was engaged in various wars with Athens
and Corinth, and experienced many viciflitudes of for¬
tune. It was the only one of the Greek cities which
did not reflourifh under their common benefadlor Ha¬
drian ; and the reafon afligned is, that the avenging
anger of the gods purfued the people for their impiety
in killing Anthemocritus, a herald, ivho had been fent
to them in the time of Pericles. The Athenian ge¬
nerals were fworn on his account to invade them twice
a-year. . Hadrian and Atticus were followed by an¬
other friend, whofe memory is preferved by an infcrip-
tion on a ftone lying near a church in the village : 
“ / his to° ^ the work of the moft magnificent count
Diogenes fon of Archelaus, who regarding the Gre¬
cian cities as his own family, has beftowed on that of
the Megarenfians one hundred pieces of gold towards
the building of their towers, and alfo one hundred
and fifty more, with two thoufand two hundred feet of
marble toward re-edifying the bath ^ deeming nothing
more honourable than to do good to the Greeks, and
to reftore their cities.” I his perfon is not quite unno-
liced in hiftory. He was one of the generals employ¬
ed by the emperor Anaftafius on a rebellion in Ifauria.
He furpufed the capital Claudiopolis, and fuftained a
fiege with great bravery, A. D. 494.
Megara retains its original name. It has been much
infefted by corfairs 5 and in 1676 the inhabitants were
accuftomed, on feeing a boat approach in the day time
or hearing their dogs bark at night, immediately to fe-
t rete their eite£ls and run away. I he vaiwode or
Turkifh governor, who refided in a forfaken tower
above the village, was once carried off. It is no won¬
der, therefore, that Nifcea has been long abandoned.
The place was burned by the Venetians in 1687.
Megara, in Ancient Geography, formerly called
Hybla, a town towards the eaft coaft of Sicily 5 extimft
in Strabo s time, though the name Hybla remained on
account of the excellence of its honey. It was a colo¬
ny of Mcgareans from Greece. Rif us Megaricus de¬
notes a horfe laugh.
PvIEGARIS, in Ancient Geography, the country of
the Megareans, is deferibed as a rough region, like At¬
tica j the mountain called Oneian or the Afinine, now
Macrip/ayior “ the long Mountain,” extending throuo-h
it towards Eceotia and Mount Cithaeron. It belonged
3
[ 492 1
MEL
to Ionia or Attica, until it was taken by the Pelopon-
nefians in the reign of Codrus, when a colony of Do¬
rians fettled in it. This territory had Attica to the
eaft, Bceotia to the north and weft, and the ifthmus of'
Corinth to the fouth.
Megaris, a fmall ifiand in the Tufcan fca, joined
to Naples by a bridge, now called Cujlello dell'Ovo
M EGAS PHENES, a Greek hiftorian in the age
of Seleucus Nicanor, about 300 years before Chrift.
He wrote about the oriental nations, and particularly
the Indians. His hiftory is often quoted by the an¬
cients. W hat now paflts as his compofition is fpu-
rious. r
MEGIDDO, in Ancient Geography, a town of Ga¬
lilee, recited (Jolhua xvii. 11.) among the cities of Ma-
naffeh, in the tribe of Iffachar or After, on the weft fide
of Jordan 5 famous for the defeat of Ahaziah and Jofiah
who periftied there (2 Kings xxiii. 29.) : near it was
an open plain, fit for drawing up an army in battle ar-
ray. It was fituated to the north, contrary to its po-
fition in the common maps, i he Canaanites, being
tributary to the Ifraelites, dwelt in it, Jolhua xvii.~
It was rebuilt by Solomon, 1 Kings ix.
MEIBOMIUS, the name of feveral learned Ger¬
mans.—John Henry Meibomius was profeffor of phyfic
at Helm ft ad t, where he was born, and at Lubec : he
wrote the Life of Maecenas, publilhed at Leyden in 410,
1653, with feveral other learned works. Henry, his
fon, wras born at Lubec in 1638 } became profeffor of
phyfic at Helmftadt j and, befides works in his own
profeffion, publilhed Scriptores rerum Germanicarum
3 vols folio, 1688 J a very ufeful colle&ion, firft be¬
gun by his father—Marcus Meibomius, of the fame fa-
mily, publilhed a collection of feven Greek authors who
had written upon ancient mufic, with a Latin verfion
by himfelf, dedicated to Queen Chriftina of Sweden,
who invited him to her court. But Ihe engaging him
one day to ling an air of ancient mufic, while fomebody
was ordered to dance to it, the immoderate mirth
which this occafioned in the fpe&ators fo difgufted him
that he immediately left the court of Sweden. His edi¬
tion of the Greek mythologifts, and notes upon Dioge¬
nes Laertius in Menage’s edition, Ihow him to have
been a man of learning ; but he fuffered no little rail¬
lery for his attempt to correft the Hebrew text of the
Bible,^ by a. kind of metre he fancied he had found out
in thofe ancient writings.
MEISSEN, a confiderable town of Germany, in the
ele&orate of Saxony, and in the margravate of Mifnia,
with a caftle. It formerly belonged to the bilhop, but
is now fecularized, and the inhabitants are Lutherans.
In this place is a famous manufactory of porcelain.
E. Long. 13. 27. N. Lat. 51. 19.
MEL, Honey, in the Materia Medica. See Ho¬
ney.
MELA, Pomponius, an ancient Latin writer, was
born in the province of Bcetica in Spain, and flourilh-
ed in the reign of the emperor Claudius. His three
books of Cofmography, or Defitu orbis, are written in
a concife, perfpicuous, and elegant manner ; and have
been thought worthy of the attention and labours of
the ableft critics. Ifaac Volfius gave an edition of
them in 4X0, with very large and copious notes.
To this edition is added, Juln Honorn oratoris excerp-
tum cofmograpfiicc, firft publilhed from the manufeript,
and
Megar*
Mela.
M EL E 493 ] MEL
Mela and JEtfuci cofmographia. Gronovius afterwards pub-
11 lifhed another edition with iliuftrations by medals. In
"Melampy- laft edition are added five books, De Geographia,
rum‘ , written by fome later author j by Jornandes, as Fabri-
cius conjedtures.
MELiFiNE, or Black Flux, in Medicine. See
Medicine, N° 409.
MELALEUCA, a genus of plants belonging to the
polydelphia clafs. See Botany Index.
MEL AM PODIUM, a name given to black helle¬
bore. See Helleborus, Botany Index.
Melampodium, a genus of plants belonging to the
fyngenefia clafs ; and in the natural method ranking
under the 49th order, Compojitce. See Botany Index.
MELAMPUS, in fabulous hiftory, a celebrated
foothfayer and phyfician of Argos, fon of Amythaon
and Idomenea or Dorippe. He lived at Pylos in Pelo-
ponnefus. Elis fervants once killed two large ferpents
who had made their nefts at the bottom of a large oak ;
and Melampus paid fo much regard to their remains,
that he railed a burning pile and burned them upon it.
He alfo took particular care of their young ones, and
fed them with milk. Some time after this, the young
ferpents crept to Melampus as he flept on the grafs near
the oak j and, as if fenfible of the favours of their be-
nefadlor, they wantonly played around him, and foftly
licked his ears. This awoke Melampus, who was
aftonilhed at the iudden change which his fcnfes had
undergone. He found himfelf acquainted with the
chirping of the birds, and with all their rude notes, as
they flew around him. He took advantage of this
fupernatural gift, and foon made himfelf perfedl in the
knowledge of futurity, and Apollo alfo inftructed him
in the art of medicine. He had foon after the hap-
pinefs of curing the daughters of Proetus, by giving
them hellebore, which from that circumftance has been
called melampodium ; and, as a reward for his trouble,
he married the eldeft of thefe princefles. The tyranny
of his uncle Neleus, king of Pylos, obliged him to
leave his native country 5 and Proetus, to (how himfelf
more fenfible of his fervices, gave him part of his king¬
dom. About this time the perfonal charms of Pero,
the daughter of Neleus, had gained many admirers ;
but the father promifed his daughter only to him who
brought into his hands the oxen of Iphiclus. This con¬
dition difpleafed many 5 but Bias, who was alfo one of
her admirers, engaged his brother Melampus to fteal
the oxen and deliver them to him. Melampus was
caught in the attempt, and imprifoned ; and nothing
but his fervices as a foothfayer and phyfician to Iphiclus
would have faved him from death. All this pleaded
in the favour of Melampus ; but when he had taught
the cliildlefs Iphiclus how to become a father, he not
only obtained his liberty, but alfo the oxen ; and with
them he compelled Neleus to give Pero in marriage to
Bias. A fevere diftemper, which had rendered the
women of Argos infane, was totally removed by Me¬
lampus j and Anaxagoras, who then fat on the throne,
rewarded his merit by giving him part of his kingdom,
where he eftabliflied himfelf, and where his pofterity
reigned during fix fucceflive generations. He received
divine honours after death, and temples were raifed to
his memory.
MEL AMPYRUM, Cow-wheat, a genus of plants
belonging to the didynamia clafs j and in the natural
method ranking under the 40th order, Perfonata. See Meiam-
Botany Index. Py™111
MELANCHOLY, a Kind of delirium attended Melanc-
with gloomy thoughts, heavinefs, and forrow. See thon.
Medicine, N° 327. y—.
MELANCTHON, Philip, born at Bretten in
the Palatinate in 1495, was one of the wifefl and moll
able men of his age among the reformers, though of a
mild temper, and difpofed to accommodate rather than
to inflame difputes. In his youth he made an admirable
progrefs in learning, and was made Greek profeilbr at
Wittenberg in 1509. Here his lectures upon Homer,
and the Greek text of St Paul’s Epiltle to Titus, drew
to him a great number of auditors, and entirely effaced
the contempt to which his low ftature and mean ap¬
pearance had expoled him. Melanfthon reduced the
fciences to fyftems ; and acquired fuch reputation, that
he had fometimes 2500 auditors. He foon entered in¬
to an intimate friendfhip with Luther, who taught di¬
vinity in the fame univerfity •, and in 1519 they went
together to Leipfic, to difpute with Eccius. The fol¬
lowing years he was continually engaged in various
employments j he compofed feveral books j he taught
divinity j took feveral journeys, in order to found col¬
leges and vifit churches ; and in 1530 drew up a con-
feflion of faith, which goes by the name of the Confef-
Jion of Augsburg, becaufe it was prefented to the empe¬
ror at the diet held in that city. All Europe was con¬
vinced that he wras not, like Luther, backward to ac¬
commodate the differences between the various fe£!s of
Chriftians. He hated religious difputes, and was drawn
into them only through the neceflity of the part he Avas
called to a6! in the world 5 and therefore would have
facrificed many things to have produced an union among
the Proteftants. For this reafon, Francis I. the French
king, wrote to defire him to come and confer with the
doftors of the Sorbonne, in order to agree with them
about putting an end to all controverfies ; but though
Luther endeavoured to perfuade the eleftor of Saxony
to confent to that journey, and though Melan&hon
himfelf defired it, that prince, Avhether he diftrufled
Melancfhon’s moderation, or was afraid of quarrelling
with the emperor Charles V. would never grant his
permiflion. The king of England alfo in vain de¬
fired to fee him. Melandlhon, in 1529, aflifted at
the conferences of Spires. In 1541, he was at the fa¬
mous conferences at Ratifbon. In 1543, he went to
meet the archbifliop of Cologne to afiift him in introdu¬
cing the reformation into his diocefe ; but that projedt
came to nothing : and in 1 548, he aflifted at feven
conferences on the fubject of the interim of Charles V.
and wrote a cenfure on that interim, and all the wait¬
ings prefented at thefe conferences. He was extremely
affedted at the diflenfions raifed by Flaccus Illyricus.
His laft conference with thofe of the Roman commu¬
nion was at Worms, in 1557. He died at Wittenberg
in 1560, and was interred near Luther. Some days
before he died, he wrote upon a piece of paper the rea-
fons which made him look upon death as a happinefs j
and the chief of them was, that it “ delivered him from
theological perfeculions.” Nature had given Melanc-
thon a peaceable temper, which wras but ill fuited to the
time he was to live in. His moderation ferved only to
be his crofs. He was like a lamb in the midft of
wulves. Nobody liked his mildnefj j it looked as if he
was
MEL [ 494 ] MEL
Melanc- was lukewarm ; and even Luther himfelf was fometimes
t^°n angry at it.
Melci.ifc- Melanfthon was a man in whom many good as well
dec. as great qualities were wonderfully united. He had
l^""' »-*■ ■■ great parts, great learning, gro at fweetnefs of temper,
moderation, contentednefs, and the like, which would
have made him very happy in any other times but
thofe in which he lived. He never affefted dignities,
or honours, or riches, but was rather negligent of all
thele things j too much fo in the opinion of fome, con-
fidering he had a family ; and his fon-in-law Sabinus,
who was of a more ambitious temper, was actually at
variance with him upon this very account. Learning
was infinitely obliged to him on many accounts •, on
none more than this, that, as already obferved, he re¬
duced almolt all the fciences which had been taught be¬
fore in a vague irregular manner into fytlems. Con-
fiuering the dinraflions of his life, and the infinity of
difputes and tumults in which he was engaged, it is
afionilhing how he could find leifure to write fo many
books. Their number is prodigious, infomuch that it
was thought necefiary to publiih a chronological cata¬
log ie of them in the year 1582. His works indeed arc
not correft, and he himfelf owned it: but as he found
them ufeful, he chofe rather to print a great number,
than to finish only a few : “ which however (as Bayle
fays), was poftponing his own glory to the advantage
of others.” His conflitution was very Aveak, and re¬
quired great tendernefs and management ; Avhieh made
Luther, as hot and zealous as he was, blame him for
labt uring too earneftly in the vineyard.
MEL ANIPPIDES, in fabulous hitfory, a Greek
poet about 520 years before Chrill. His grandfon of
the fame name, flourilhed about 60 years after at the
court of Perdiccas the Second, of Macedonia. Some
fragments of their poetry are Hill extant.
MEL ANTER1A, an old term in NaturalHiJlonj,
which feems to have been applied to copper pyrites.
The Greeks ufed it externally as a gentle efcharotic
and a ilyptic, as an ingredient in their ointments for
old ulcers, and alfo to fprinkle in the form of powder
on frelh wounds, in order to Hop the haemorrhage.
MEL ASSES. See Molasses.
MELASTOMA, the American Gooseberry-
tree, a genus of plants belonging to the decandria
clafs 5 and in the natural method ranking under the
17th order. Caljcanthcmce. See Botany Index.
MELCHA, a fmall village of Barbary, fituated
abut io miles from the city of Tunis, built on the ruins
of Carthage, fome of which are Hill cdfible.
MELCHITES, in church hiftory, the name given
to the Syriac, Egyptian, and other Chriftians of the
Levant. The Melchites, excepting fome few points
of little or no importance, which relate only to ceremo¬
nies and ecelefiaftical difcipline, are in e\'ery refpedl
profelfed Greeks $ but they are governed by a parti¬
cular patriarch, who refides at Damas, and affumes the
title of patriarch of Antioch. They celebrate mafs in
the Arabian language. The religious among the Mel¬
chites follow the rule of St Bafil, the common rule of
all the Greek monks. They have four fine convents
diftant about a day’s journey from Damas, and never
go out of the cloifler.
MELCHISEDEC, or Meechizedek, king of
Salem, and prieft of the Moft High. The feripture tells
4
us nothing either of his father, or of his mother, or of
his genealogy, or of his birth, or of his death. And
in this fenfe he Avas a figure of Jefus Chrift, as St Paul
affirms, Avho is a prieit for ever, according to the order
of Melchifedec, and not according to the order of
Aaron, Avbofe original, life, and death, are known.
When Abraham returned from purfuing the four con¬
federate kings, Avho had defeated the kings of Sodom
and Gomorrah, and had taken array Lot, Abraham’s
nephew, along with them (Gen. xiv. 17, 18, 19, &c.)
Melchifedec came to meet Abraham as far as the val¬
ley of Shaveh, which rvas afterwards named the Kino’s
valley, prefen ted him rvith the refreffiment of bread
and wine (or he offered bread and wine in facrifice to
the Lord, for he Avas a prieft of the moft high God),
and bleii’ed him. Abraham, being defirous to aeknoAV-
ledge in him the quality of prieft of the Lord, oftered
him the tythes of all he had taken from the enemy.
After this time, there is no mention made of the perfon
of Melchifedec \ only the Pfalmift (cx. 4.) fpeaking of
the Meffiah, fays, “ Thou art a prieft for ever after
the order of Melchifedec.” St Paul, in his epiftle to
the Hebrews, unfolds the myftery which is concealed
in Avhat is faid of Melchifedec in the Old Teftament.
See Heb. v. 6—io. An infinite number of difficulties
and fcruples have been ftarted upon the fubjedl of Mel¬
chifedec.—St Jerome thought that Salem, of Avhich
Melchifedec Avas king, Avas not Jerufalem, but the city
of Sal cm near Scytbopolis, Avhere they ftill pretended
to flioAV the ruins of the palace of this prince. The
greatnefs and extent of thefe ruins are a fufficient proof
of the magnificence of this ancient building. He thinks
it Avas at this city of Salem or Shalem, that Jacob ar¬
rived after his palfage over Jordan, at his return from
Mefopotamia (Gen. xxxiii. 18.). Some believe that
Salem, Avhere Melchifedec reigned, is the fame as Sa¬
lim fpoken of in the gofpel of St John, chap. iii. 23.
From the time of Epiphanes, there were names in¬
vented for the father and mother of Melchifedec. To
his father was given the name of Heraclas or Hera¬
cles, and to his mother that of Aftitaroth or Afiaria.
It is generally agreed on by the learned, that Avhen
the apoftle fays, he aaus “ Avithout father and Avithout
mother,” no more is meant, than that he is introdu¬
ced into the hiftory of Abraham Avithout acquainting
us who he Avas, or whence he came, wftere he lived or
when he died. Neverthelefs, fome have taken St
Paul’s words literally, and contended that he Avas not
of human but divine nature. Origen and Didymus
took him to be an angel; and the author of the Quef-
tions upon the Old and Ncav Teftaments pretends, that
he was the Holy Ghoft, who appeared to Abraham in
a human form. The Arabic Catena upon the ninth
chapter of Genefis, makes Melchifedec to be defeend-
ed from Shem by his father, and from Japheth by his
mother. Heraclas or Heraclim his father, Avas, they
fay, fon or grandfon of Phaleg, and fon of Heber •, and
his mother, named Salathiel, Avas daughter of Gomer
fon of Japheth. Cedrenus and others derive Melchi¬
fedec from an Egyptian ftock. They fay his father
Avas called Sidon or Sida, and Avas the founder of the
city of Sidon, the capital of Phoenicia. Suidas fays
he Avas of the curfed race of Canaan 5 for Avhich reafon
the feripture does not mention his genealogy. The
Jews and Samaritans believed Melchifedec to be the
feme
MEL [ 495 ] MEL
Melchife- fame with the patriarch Shem j which opinion has been
dec. followed by a great number of modern writers. M.
 ' Jurieu has undertaken to |)rove that he is the fame as
Cham or Ham. It would be endlefg to let down all
the opinions upon this matter : therefore wxe 11 rail only
add, that Peter Cunseus and Peter du Moulin have af-
ferted, that Melchifedec who appeared to Abraham was
the Son of God, and that the patriarch worlhipped him
and acknowledged him for the Mefliah.
About the beginning of the third century arofe
the herefy of the Melchifedecians, who affirmed that
Melchifedec was not a man, but a heavenly power,
fuperior to Jefus Chrift : for Melchifcdec, they faid,
was the interceffor and mediator of the angels, but Je¬
fus Chrift was fo only for men, and his pnefthood on¬
ly a copy of that of Melchifedec, who was the Holy
Ghoft.
We (hall only beg leave to add here one opinion
more concerning Melchifedec, which is that ot the
learned Heidegger, who, as the author of the Hijl.
Patriar. thinks, has taken the right method of ex¬
plaining the accounts of Mofes and the apoftle Paul
relating to this extraordinary perfon. He fuppofes a
twofold Melchifedec ■, the one hiftorieal, whereof Mofes
gives an account in the 14th chapter of Genefis, as that
he was king as wrell as high prieft of Jerufalem ; the
other allegorical, whom St Paul defcribes, and this alle¬
gorical perfon is Jefus Chrift.
As the hiftory of this prince and prieft is fo little
known, it is no wonder, a^ Selden obferves, that many
fabulous accounts have been invented of him ; of which
the following may fuffice as a fpecimen. Eutychus
patriarch of Alexandria relates, that the body of
Adam having been embalmed according to his order,
was depoftted in a cave under a mountain of the chil¬
dren of Seth ; but that Adam before his death had
commanded that they fliould take away his remains
from that place, and tranfport them to the middle of
the earth : that Noah, to follow the orders of his an-
ceftors, had preferved the bodies of Adam and all the
patriarchs with him in the ark : that finding himfelf
near his death, he ordered his fon Shem to take the
body of Adam, to furniftr himfelf with bread and vfinc
for his journey, to take with him Melchifedec the fon
of Phaleg, and to go to the place in which an angel
would (how them where to bury the firft man : that
Noah added this order, “ Command Melchifedec to
fix his refidence in that place, and to live unmarried all,
his lifetime, becaufe God has chofen him to do fervice
in his prefence •, command him, that he build no tem¬
ple, nor fhed the blood of birds, nor four-footed
beafts, or any other animal ; and that he offer no
other oblations to God but bread and wine.” This is
the reafon, according to this author, why Melchifedec,
when he met Abraham, brought forth only bread and
wine.
A Greek author, under the name of Athanafius,
relates, that Melchifedec was the fon of an idolatrous
king called Melchi and of a queen called Salem.—
Melchi, having refolved to offer a facrifice to the gods,
fent his fon Melchifedec to fetch him feven calves. In
the w'ay the young prince w’as enlightened by God,
and immediately returned to his father, to demonftrate
to him the vanity of his idols. Melchi, in tvrath, fent
him back to fetch the victims. While he was abfent,
the king facrificed his eldeft fon, and a great many Melchifs-
other children, to his gods. Melchifedec returning,
and conceiving great horror at this butchery, retired A
to Mount 'labor, where he lived feven years, without - '
clothes, and fed only on wild fruits.. At the end of
feven years, God appeared to Abraham, bid him go
up to Mount Tabor, where he fliould find Melchiiedec.
He ordered him to clothe him, and to aik his blefling j
which Abraham having done, Melchifedec anointed
him with oil, and they came down together from the
mountain.
MELCOMB-regis, a town of Dorfetfhire, in Eng¬
land, 130 miles from London, is fituated at the mouth
ot the river Wey, by which it is parted from W ey¬
mouth. It appears from the name to have been an¬
ciently the king’s demefne, and from the records to
have paid quit-rent to the crown all along after King
Edward I. till it was bought off by the inhabitants
before they were united to Weymouth. It lies on the
north fide of the haven, on a peninfula lurrounded by
the fea on all fides exc pt on the north. 'Ihe ftreets
are broad and well paved, and many of the houfei
large and high. It fent members to parliament in the
reign of King Edward I. before Weymouth had that,
privilege. It was by parliament appointed a ftaple in.
the reign of Edward III. In the next reign the
French burnt it ; and it was thereby rendered fo de¬
folate, that the remaining inhabitants prayed and ob¬
tained a difeharge from cuftoms. On account of its
quarrels with Weymouth, in the reign ot Henry VI.
its privileges as a port Avere removed to Pool : but in
that of C^ueen Elizabeth they were reftored to it by adt
of parliament, which was confirmed in the next reign,
on condition that Melcomb and Weymouth fhould
make but one corporation, and enjoy their privileges
in common ; and to this was owing the ftourilhing
ftate of both. In the two reigns laft mentioned, a
Avooden bridge Avith feventeen arches was built from
hence to Weymouth } to which, as well as its church,
the chief contributors Avere certain citizens oi Lon¬
don *, and upon its decay it Avas rebuilt in 177". Here
is a good market place and town-hall, to which the
members of the corporation of Weymouth come to
attend public bufinefs, as the inhabitants do to its
church for public Avorfliip. For feveral years paft the
fea has retired from it on the eatt, the priory former¬
ly being bounded by the fca j but there is notv a ttreet
beyond it, from Avhich it is feveral paces to the high
Avater mark. The priory Avas fituated in the eaft part
of the toAvn, in Maiden ftreet, whofe fite occupied a-,
bout an acre, now covered with tenements. On the
fouth fide are the remains of the chapel, noAV convert¬
ed into a malt houfe. Near it are the remains of an
ancient building, formerly a nunnery. Here are three
meeting houfes, and a Avorkhoufe for the poor. The
church, Avbich is in the middle of the toAvn, has a
Avooden turret for a bell, and had been an old chapel.
It was rebuilt in 1605, and made parochial, and is a
handfome fabric, Avith a beautiful altarpiece painted
and given by Sir James Thornhill. The port, which
generally goes by the name of Weymouth, is faid to
be the beft frequented in the county, and is defended
by Sandford and Portland callles. The markets for
both towns are Tuefdays and Fridays, but there are no
fairs. Melcomb-regis is reckoned larger, more thriving,
and
MEL [ 496 ] MEL
I.le>T,n,b- and populous than Weymouth. They are now one ed Calydon. and Althaea went to the temple of the M.!.?',...
rt|jls corporation and borough, confiding of a mayor, re- gods to return thanks for the vidory which her fon ||
Meleager. cortIer, two bailiffs, an uncertain number of aldermen, had gained : But being informed that her brothers MeIiceres.
t—-y-—/ and twenty-four capital burgefles. Whoever has been had been killed by Meleager, die in a moment of re-
a mayor is ever after an alderman. They fend fom* fentment threw into the fire the fatal dick on which
burgefles to parliament, who are ele&ed by fuch as her fon’s life depended, and Meleager died as loon as
have freeholds, whether they are inhabitants or not-, it was confumed. Homer does not mention the fire-
the number of voters is near 700. Every eledor, as in brand $ whence fome have imagined that this fable is
London, has the privilege of voting for four perfons, poderior to that poet’s age. But he fays, that the
who when chofen are returned, in two diftind inden- death of Toxeus and Plexippus lb irritated Althcea,
tures, as the burgefles of Weymouth and the burgefles that die uttered the moil horrible curfes and impreea-
of Melcomb-regis. tions upon her fon’s head.
MELD/E, in Ancient Geography, a town of Gallia Meleager, a Greek poet, the fon of Euerates,
Celtica, (called Meldorutn Civitas in the Notitia), on was born at Seleucia in Syria, and flourilhed under
the Matrona. Now Meaux, a city of Champagne, on the reign of Seleucus VI. the lad king of Syria. He
the Marne, in France. was educated at Tyre 5 and died in the ifland of Coos,
MELEAGER, in fabulous hidory, a celebrated he- anciently called Merope. He there compofed the
ro, fon of Oeneus king of Calydonia, by Althaea daugh- Greek epigrams called by us X\\q Antho/ogia. Thedif-
ter of Thedius. The Parcae were prefent at the mo- polition of the epigrams in this colleddion was often
ment of his birth, and predicted his future greatnefs. changed afterwards, and many additions have been made
Clotho faid that he w-ould be brave and courageous 5 to them. The monk Planudes put them into the order
Lachelis foretold his uncommon drength and valour : they are in at prefent, in the year 1380.
and Atropos faid that he diould live as long as that fire- MELEAGRIS, the Turkey; a genus of birds
brand, which was on the fire, remained entire and un- belonging to the order of gallinse. See Ornithology
confumed. Althaea no looner heard this, than die Index.
fnatched the dick from the fire, and kept it with the MELES, the Badger. See Ursus, Mammalia
mod jealous care, as the life of her fon totally depend- Index.
ed upon its prefervation. I he fame of Meleager in- Meles, in Ancient Geography, a fine river running
creafed with his years ; he fignalized himfelf in the by the walls of Smyrna in Ionia, with a cave at its head,
Argonautic expedition, and afterwards delivered his where Homer is faid to have written his poems. And
country from the neighbouring inhabitants, who made from it Homer takes his original name Melejigenes,
war againd his father at the indigation of Diana, given him by his mother Critheis, as being born on its
whofe altars Oeneus had neglefted. But Diana pu- banks. (Herodotus).
nidied the negligence of Oeneus by a greater calamity. MELETIANS, in ecclefiadical hidory, the name.
She fent a huge wild boar, which laid wade all the of a confiderable party who adhered to the caufe of
country, and feemed invincible on account of its im- Meletius bidiop of Lycopolis, in Upper Egypt, after
menfe fize. It became foon a public concern : all he wras depofed, about the year 306, by Peter bilhop
the neighbouring princes aflfembled to dedroy this of Alexandria, under the charge of his having facri-
terrible animal: and nothing is more famous in my- ficed to the gods, and having been guilty of other
thological hidory, than the hunting of the Calydonian heinous crimes ; though Epiphanius makes his only
boar. Fhe princes and chiefs that aflfembled, and failing to have been an excefifive feverity againd the
which are mentioned by mythologids, were Meleager lapfed. This difpute, which was at fird a perfonai
fon of Oeneus, Idas and Lynceus Tons of Apharcus, difference between Meletius and Peter, became a reli-
Dryas fon of Mars, Cador and Pollux fons of Jupi- gious controverfy ; and the Meletian party confided
ter and Leda, Pirithous fon of Ixion, Thefeus fon of in the fifth century, but Avas condemned by the fird
./Egeus, Anceus and Cepheus fons of Lycurgus, Ad- council of Nice.
metus fon of Pheres, Jafon fon of TEfon, Peleus and MELIA, Azaderach, or the Bead Tree, a genus
Telamon fons of iEcus, Iphicles fon of Amphitryon, of plants, belonging to the deeandria clafs; and in the
Eurytrion fon of A£!or, Atalanta daughter of Schoe- natural method ranking under the 23d order, Trihilatce.
neus, lolas tire friend of Hercules, the fons of Thef- See Botany Index.
tius, Amphiaraus fon of Oileus, Protheus, Cometes, MELIANTHUS, Honey-flower, a genus of
the brothers of Althaea, Hippothous fon of Cercyon, plants belonging to the didynamia clafs; and in the na-
Leucippus, Adradus, Ceneus, Phileus, Echion, Lelex, tural method ranking under the 24th order, Coryda/cs.
Phoenix fon of Amyntor, Panopeus, Hyleus, Hippa- See Botany Index.
fus, Nedor, Menoetius the father of Patroclus, Am- MELIBOEA, in Ancient Geography, an ifland of
phicides, Laertes the father of Ulyfles, and the four Syria, at the mouth of the Orontes; which before it
ions of Hippocoon. This troop of armed men attack- falls into the fea, forms a fpreading lake round it. This
ed the boar, and it rvas at lad killed by Meleager.— ifland was famous for its purple dye. Thought to be a
1 he conqueror gave the fkin and the head to Atalanta, colony of Thefl'alians; and hence Lucretius’s epithet,
who had fird wounded the animal. This irritated the Theffalicus.
red, and particularly Toxeus and Plexippus the bro- MELICA, Ropegrass, a genus of the digynia or-
thers of Althaea, and they endeavoured to rob Ata- der, belonging to the triandria clafs of plants ; and in
lanta of the honourable prefent. Meleager defended the natural method ranking under the 4th order, Grami-
her, and killed his uncles in the attempt. Meantime na. See Botany Index.
"he news of this celebrated conqued had already reach- MELICERES, in Surgery, a kind of eneyfled tu¬
mour,
MEL [ 497 ] MEL
jylelicerej mnur, fo called when their contents arc of the conlift-
II. ence of honey. See Tumour, Surgery Index.
jyieute. ^ MELICER F A, Melicertes, or Mehcertus, in fa¬
bulous hidory, a fon of Athamas and Ino. He was
faved by his mother from the furv of his father, who
prepared to dafh him againft a wall as he had done his
brother Learchus. The mother was fo terrified that lire
threw herfelf into the fea with Melicerta in her arms.
Neptune had compaffion on the misfortunes of Ino and
her fon. He changed them both into fea deities.
Ino was called Leucothoe or Matuta ; and Melicerta was
known among the Greeks by the name of Palcemon,
and among the Latins by that of Portumnus. Some
fuppofe that the Iflhmian games were inilituted in ho¬
nour of Melicerta.
MELIL L A, an ancient town of Africa, in the king¬
dom of Fez, and in the province of Garet. It was ta¬
ken by the Spaniards in 1469, but returned back to
the Moors. W. Long. 2. 9. N. Lat. 20.
MELILOT. See Trifolium, Botany and Agri¬
culture Index,
MELINDA, a kingdom on the eaft coaft of Africa,
fituated according to fome, between the third and
fourth degree of fouth latitude j though there is great
difagreement among geographers as to its extent. It
is allowed by all, however, that the coafts are very
dangerous •, being full of rocks and (helves, and the
fea at fome feafons very liable to tempefts. The king¬
dom of Melinda is for the mod part rich and fertile •,
producing almoft all the necelfaries of life except wheat
and rice, both which are brought thither from Cam-
baya and other parts ; and thofe who cannot purchafe
them make ufe of potatoes in their dead, which are
here fine, large, and in great plenty. They likevvife
abound with great variety of fruit trees, roots, plants,
and other efculents, and ivith melons of exquifite fade.
They have alfo great plenty of venifon, game, oxen,
(beep, hens, geefe, and other poultry, &c. and one breed
of (beep whofe tails weigh between 30 and 40 pounds.
The capital city is alfo called Melinda,
MELINUM, in Natural Hiflory, the name of an
earth famous in the earlied ages of painting, being
the only white of the great painters of antiquity j and,
according to Pliny’s account, one of the three colours
with which alone they performed all their works. From
the defeription given of this earth it feems to be alu¬
minous, tolerably pure, and in a date of minute di-
vifion.
MELISSA, in fabulous hidory, a daughter of Me-
liffus king of Crete, who with her fider Amalthaea fed
Jupiter with the milk of goats. She fird found out the
means of collefting honey •, whence it has been fabled
that (be was changed into a bee, as her name is the
Greek word for that infeed.
Melissa, Baum, a genus of plants, belonging to the
didynamia clafs ; and in the natural method ranking
under the 42d order, Verticillat*. See Botany Index.
MELISSUS of Samos, a Greek philofopher, was
the fon of Rhagines and the difciple of Parmenides ;
and lived about 440 B. C. He pretended that the
univerfe is infinite, immoveable, and without a vacuum.
Themidocles was among his pupils.
MELITE, in Ancient Geography, an idand refer¬
red to Africa by Scylax and Ptolemy •, but nearer Si¬
cily, and allotted to it by the Romans: commended
Vol. XIII. Part II. '
for its commodious harbours ; for a city well built, MeUe
with artificers of every kind, efpecially weavers of fine
linen •, all owing to the Phoenicians, the firlt colonifts. ,
Now Malta ; remarkable for St Paul’s (hipwreck. See
Malta.
Melite, Melita, or Mel it in a Inful a ; an ifiand on
the coait of Illyricum in the Adriatic. The Catuli
Melitcei (Pliny) w'ere famous. Now Melede, the name
of the ifland Samos. See Samos.
Melite, in Ancient Geography, a town of Ionia,
(truck out of the number of Ionian towns on account of
the arrogance of the people, and Smyrna admitted in
lieu of it. The (ituation is not fpecified.
MELITENSIS terra, the Earth of Malta : an
earth of which there are two very different kinds , the
one of which is a bole, the other a marl. The latter
is that known by medical authors under this name;
the former is the Malta earth now in ufe j but both
being brought from the fame place, are confufedly cal¬
led by the fame name. The Maltefe marl, which is
the terra Melitenjis of medical authors, is a loofe,
crumbly, and light earth, of an unequal and irregular
texture *, and, when expol’ed to the weather, foon falls
into fine foft powder : but when preferved and dried,
it becomes a loofe, light mafs, of a dirty white colour,
with a grayifh call : it is rough to the touch, adheres
firmly to the tongue, is very eafily crumbled to pow¬
der between the fingers, and (fains the hands. Thrown
into the water, it (wells, and afterwards moulders a-
way into a fine powder. It ferments very violently
Avith acids. Both kinds are found in great abundance
in the ifland of Malta, and the latter has been much
efteemed as a remedy againfl: the bites of venomous
animals. The other has fupplied its place in the Ger¬
man (hops •, and is ufed there as a cordial, fudorific,
and aftringent.
MELITO (canonized), bifliop of Sardis in Lydia,
in the fecond century j remarkable for the apology he
prefented to the emperor Aurelius, in favour of the
Chriftians •, on which Eufebius and the other ancient
ecclefiaftical writers bellow great praifes : but that apo¬
logy and all Melito’s other wmrks are loft.
MEL ITUS, a Greek orator and poet, the. accufer
of Socrates. The Athenians, after the death of So¬
crates, difeovering the iniquity of the fentence they
had paffed againft that great philofopher, put Melitus
to death, 400 B. C.
MELLER, a lake of SAveden, 80 miles long, and
30 broad •, on which ftands the city of Stockholm.
MEL LI, with the country of the Mundingoes, in
Africa. The country formerly called Mel/i, now chief¬
ly inhabited by the Mundingoes, Avho (fill retain pretty
much of the chara6ler aferibed to the people of Melli,
lies to the fouth of the river Gambia ; on the weft it
borders on the kingdom of Kabo 5 on the fouth it hag
Melli, properly fo called, and the mountains that part
it from Guinea •, and on the eaft it extends to the king¬
dom of Gago. With a great part of this country we
are little acquainted, as is the cafe Avith regard t«
moft of the inland territories of Africa ; but toAvards
the fea coaft this country is a little better known.
The firft place of note we meet with is Kachao, a
Portuguefe colony, fituated on the river of St Do¬
mingo, which falls info the fea about 26 leagues below
this town.—About 26 leagues above Kachao, on the
3 R fame
M E L
MclH
Melmoth.
[ 49S ]
MEL
fame fide of the river, is another trading town called
Farini, where, in the months of October and November,
there is fome trade in wax and ivory.—Bot is a village
near the mouth of the river Gefves, where moft of the tra¬
ders buy rice; which is in great plenty there, and very
good.—Gefves is a village on a river of the fame name,
on which the Portuguefe have a factory. At Gefves
one may trade yearly for 250 Haves, 80 or 100 quin¬
tals of wax, and as many of ivory. Near the mouth
of the river of Gefves is a village called Kurbuh,
where there is a confiderable trade for fait ; here are
alfo fume Haves and ivory. Rio Grande, or the Great
River, runs about 10 or 12 leagues to the fouth of
the river of Gefves. About 80 leagues from the mouth
of it is a-nation of negroes, who are confiderable traders
in ivory, rice-, millet, and fome Haves. They are called
Auctions. Over a gain ft the mouth of Rio Grande is
a duller of ifiands called Bi/Jago IJles ; the moft con-
liderable of which is Caffaguc, being about fix leagues
long and two broad j its foil is very good, and produ¬
ces millet, rice, and all kinds of pulfe, befides orange
and palm trees, and many others. This ifland, with
thofe of Carache, Canabac, and La Gallina, are the
only ones where the Europeans may trade with fome
fecurity. They trade, howrever, fometimes at the other
ifiands, but they mult be extremely cautious 5 and yet
after all their precautions, they will be robbed and
murdered if they venture to go afhore. The river
Nunho runs 16 leagues to the fouth of Rio Grande j
it is very confiderable, and comes from a vaft diftance
inland. One may buy here 300 quintals of ivory and
ico Haves a-year. Rice grows here admirably well,
and is very cheap. There are everywhere fugar canes
which grow naturally; and plants of indigo, which
might turn to good account. The trade is carried on
here from March till Auguft. In the river of Sierra
Leone, the late Royal African Company of England
had, in the year 1728, two ifiands; the one, called
TaJpj, a large Hat ifland, near three leagues in circum¬
ference, in which the company^ Haves had a good
plantation ; the reft of the ifland is covered with wood,
among which are filk cotton trees of an unaccountable
fize. The other ifland is Benfe, whereon flood a re¬
gular fort. It was formerly the refidence of one of
the Englifli chiefs.
MEL LITE, or Honey-stone, a mineral fub-
ftance, compofed of a peculiar acid and alumina. See
Mellite, Mineralogy Index.
MELMOTH, William, Esq. a learned member
of Lincoln’s Inn, was born in 1666. In conjunftion
with Mr Peere Williams, Mr Melmoth was the publifher
of Vernon’s Reports, under an order of the court of
chancery. He had once an intention of printing his
own Reports; and a fliort time before his death adver-
tifed them at the end of thole of his coadjutor Peere
Will lams, as then actually preparing for the prefs.
They have, however, not yet made their appearance.
But the performance for which he juftly defei ves to be
held in perpetual remembrance is, “ The Great Im¬
portance of a Religious Life 5” concerning which it
may be mentioned to the credit of the age, that not-
withftanding many large editions had before been circu¬
lated, 42,000 copies of this ufeful treatife have been
fold in the laft 18 years. It is a fomewhat Angular
circumftance, that the real author of this moft admirable
2
treatife fliould never before have been publicly known
(it having been commonly attributed to the firft earl of
Egmont, and particularly by Mr Walpole in his,
Catalogue) ; which is the more furprifing, as the author
is plainly pointed out in the following Ihort charadler
prefixed to the book itfelf: It may add weight, per¬
haps, to the refle ftions contained in the following pages,
to inform the reader, that the author’s life was one
uniform exemplar of thofe precepts which, with fo
generous a zeal, and fueh an elegant and affe&ing
fimplicity of ityle, he endeavours to recommend to
general praftice. He left others to contend for modes
of faith, and inflame themfelves and the world with
endlefs controverfy : it was the wifer purpofe of his more
ennobled aim, to a£l up to thofe clear rules of conduft
which revelation hath gracioufly preferibed. He poffeff-
cd by temper every moral virtue j by religion every
Chriftian grace. He had a humanity that melted at
every diftrefs; a charity which not only thought no evil-,
but i’ufpeCled none. He exercifed his profeflion with a
Hull and integrity which nothing could equal but the
difinterefted motive that animated his labours, or the
amiable modefty which accompanied all his virtues. He
employed his induftry, not to gratify his own defires;
no man indulged himfelf lefs : not to accumulate ufelefs
wealth ; no man more difdained fo unworthy a purfuit:
it was for the decent advancement of his family, for the
generous afliftance of his friends, for the ready relief of
the indigent. How often did he exert his diftinguiflied
abilities, yet refufe the reward of them, in defence of the
widow, the fathcrlefs, and him that had none to help
him ! In a word, few have ever palled a more ufeful,
not one a more blamelefs life; and his whole time was
employed either in doing good, or in meditating it. He
died on the 6th day of April 1743, and lies buried under
the cloifter of Lincoln’s Inn Chapel, mem. pat. opt.
mer. fil. Die.” The fon, by whom this character is
drawn, is William Melmoth, Efq. the celebrated tranfla-
tor of Pliny and of Cicero’s Letters; and author of thofe
which pafs under the name of Sir Thomas Fitz-rjborne.
MELOCHIA, Jews Mall ow, a genus of plants
belonging to the monadelphia clafs ; and in the natural
method ranking under the 37th order, Columniferce.
See Botany Index.
MELODUNUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of
the Cenones in Gallia Celtica, above Lutetia ; now
Me/un, in the Ifle of France, on the Seine.
MELODY, in mufic, a fucceflion of founds ranged
in fuch a manner, according to the laws of rhythmus
and modulation, that it may form a fentiment agreeable
to the ear. Vocal melody is called finging ; and that
which is performed upon inflruments may be termed
fymphonic melody.
The idea of rhythmus neceflaril'y enters into that of
melody. An air is not an air but in proportion as the
laws of meafure and quantity are obferved. The fame
fucceffion of founds is fufceptible of as many different
charadlers, as many different kinds of melody, as the
various ways by which its emphatic notes, and the
quantities of thofe which intervene, may be diverfified;
and the change in duration of the notes alone, may
difguife that very fucceffion in fuch a manner that it
cannot be known. Thus, melody in itfelf is nothing;
it is the rhythmus or meafure which determines it, and
there can be no air without time. If then we abftracl
msafure-
Melmoti
II
M elody,
M E I
MeWy. meafure from both, we cannot compare melody with
harmony } for to the former it is effential, but not at
all to the latter.
Melody, according to the manner in which it is
conhdered, has a relation to two different principles.
When regarded only as agreeable to the proportions of
found and the rules of modulation, it has its principle
in harmony \ frnce it is a harmonical analyfis, which
exhibits the different gradations of the foale, the chords
peculiar to each mode, and the laws of modulation,
which are the foie elements that compofe an air. Ac¬
cording to this principle, the whole power of melody
is limited to that of pleafing the ear by agreeable
founds, as the eye may be pleafed with an agreeable
affemblage of fuitable colours. But when confidered as
an imitative art, by which we may affedl the mind
with various images, excite different emotions in the
heart, inflame or foothe the paffionsj by which, in a
word, we produce different effefts upon our moral fa¬
culties, which are not to be effectuated by the influ¬
ence of external fenfe alone, wre muff explore another
principle for melody : for in our whole internal frame
there appears to be no power upon which either har¬
mony alone, or its neceffary refults, can feize, to affedl
us in fuch a manner.
What then is the feeond principle ? It is as much
founded on nature as the firft •, but, in order to difeover
its foundation in nature, it will require a more accurate
though fimpler obfervation, and a more exquifite degree
of fenfibility in the obferver. This principle is the
fame which varies the tone of the voice, when Ave
fpeak, according as we are interefled in what avc fay,
and according to the different emotions Avhich avc feel
in expreffmg it. It is the accent of languages which
determines the melody of every nation ; it is the accent
Avhich determines us to employ the emphafis of fpeaking
while we ling, and to fpeak Avith more or lefs energy
according as the language which Ave ufe is more or
lefs accented. That language Avhofe accents are the
molt fenfible, ought to produce a more pafiionate and
more lively melody j that Avhich has little accentuation,
or none at all, can only produce a cold and languid
melody, Avithout charadler and without expreflion.
Thefe are the true principles : in proportion as Ave de¬
part from them, when Ave fpeak of the poA\mr of mufic
upon the human heart, Ave fhall become unintelligible
to ourfelves and others : our Avords avIH be Avithout
meaning.
If muiic does not imprefs the foul Avith images but
by melody, if from thence it obtains its whole poAver,
it mull folloAV, thdt all mufical founds Avhich are not
pleafing by themfelves alone, hoAvever agreeable to
harmony they may be, is not an imitative mufic ; and,
being incapable, even with its molt beautiful chords,
either to prefent the images of things, or to excite the
finer feelings, Arery foon cloys the ear, and leaves al-
Avays the heart in cold indifference. It folloAvs like-
wife, that notwithftanding the parts Avhich harmony
has introduced, and Avhich the prefent tafte of mufic
fo wantonly abufes, wherever two different melodies
are heard at the fame time, they counteract: each other,
and deftroy the effects of both, hoAvever beautiful
each may be when performed alone : from Avhence it
may be judged with what degree of tafte the French
«ompofers have introduced in their operas the mifer-
M E L
able pratice of accompanying one air Avith another, as Melody
Avell in hinging, which is the native expreflion of pa- M(los
thos and fentiment, as in inftrumental performances : .  
Avhich is the fame thing as if Avhimfical orators fhould
take it in their heads to recite tAvo orations at the fame
time, that the elegance of each might derive more
force from the other.
So much for Roufleau. The tranflator, hoAvever, has
reafon to fear, that the caufes by which national me¬
lody is dAerflfied and charadlerized, are more pro¬
found and permanent than the mere accentuation of
language. This indeed may have great influence in
determining the nature of the rhythmus, and the place
of emphatic notes 5 but very little in regulating the
nature of the emphafis and expreflion themfelves. If
Roufteau’s principle be true in its full extent, he muft
of neeeflity acknoAvlcdge, that an air which Avas never
fet or intended for Avords, however melodious, cannot
be imitative ; he muft likewife confefs, that Avhat is
imitative in one nation cannot be fuch in another : nor
can it be denied, upon his hypothefts, that the recita¬
tive, Avhich is formed upon the mode of fpeaking, is
the moft forcible of all melodies 5 which is abfurd.
His other obfervations are at once judicious and pro¬
found. Though it is impoflxble to exhibit the beauty
and variety of harmony by playing the fame melody
at the fame time upon different keys, admitting thofe
keys to form among themfelves a perfedf chord, Avhich
Avill of confequence preferve all the fubfequent notes in
the fame intervals 5 yet this perfect harmony Avould by
no means be uniformly pleafing to the ear. We muft:
therefore of neceflity introduce lefs perfect chords to
vary and increafe the pleafure, and thefe chords in any
complex fyftem of mufic muft of neceflity produce
diffonances. It then becomes the bufinefs of the com-
pofer to be careful that thefe difeords may arife as na¬
turally from, and return as naturally to perfeft har¬
mony as poflible. All thefe caufes muft inevitably va¬
ry the melody of the different parts ; but ftill, amidft
all tbefe difficulties, the artift ought to be zealous in
preferving the melody of each as homogeneous with
the others as poflible, that the refult of the Avhole may
be in fome meafure uniform. Otherwife, by counter-
acling each other, the parts Avill reciprocally deftroy
the effeffs one of another.
MELOE, a genus of infedis of the order of coleop-
tera. See Entomology Index.
MELON, a fpecies of Cucumis, in the Linncean
fyftem. See Botany and Gardening Index.
Water Melon. See Anguria, Botany Index.
MELOS, in /Indent Geography, an ifland between
Crete and Peloponnefus, about 24 miles from Scyllseum.
It is about 60 miles in circumference, and of an oblong
figure. It enjoyed its independence for about 700
years before the time of the Peloponnefian war. This
ifland was originally peopled by a Lacedaemonian colo¬
ny, 1116 years before the Chriftian era. For this rea¬
fon the inhabitants refufed to join the reft of the
ifland and the Athenians againft the Peloponnefians.
This refufal was feverely punifhed. The Athenians
took Melos, and put to the fword all fuch as Avere able
to bear arms. The women and children wrere made
flaA^es, and the ifland left defolate. An Athenian co¬
lony repeopled it, till Lyfander reconquered it and re-
eftablifhed the original inhabitants in their poflefiions.
3 R 3 MELOTHRIA.
[ 499 1
Melothria
MEL
Melton
MELOTHRI A, a genus of plants belonging to the
triandria clafsj and in the natural method ranking under
—J the 34th order, Cucurbitacece. See Botany Index.
MELPOMENE, in Fabulous Hi/lory, one of the
xnufes, daughter of Jupiter and Mnemofyne. She pre-
fided over tragedy. Horace has addrefled the finelt of
his odes to her, as to the patronefs of lyric poetry.
She was generally reprefented as a young woman with
a ferious countenance. Her garments were fplendid ;
ftie wore a bulkin, and held a dagger in one hand and
in the other a fceptre and crown.
MELROSE, a town of Scotland, in the county
of Selkirk, and on the confines of Tweedale, feated on
the fouth fide of the river Tweed ; with an ancient
abbey, now in ruins. W. Long. 2. 32. N. Lat. 55.
32;, .
This abbey was founded by King David I. in
1136. He peopled it with Ciftertians brought from
Rivale abbey in Yorkfhire, and dedicated it to the
Virgin Mary. At the reformation James Douglas was
appointed commendator, who took down much of the
building, in order to furnifh materials for a large houfe
to himfelf, which Hill remains, and is dated 1590.
Nothing is left of the abbey excepting a part of the
cloifter walls elegantly carved; but the ruins of the
church are of moft uncommon beauty. Part is at
prefent uled for divine fervice, the reft uncovered 5
but every part does great honour to the architect. 
Alexander II. was buried beneath the great altar, and
it is alfo the place of interment of the Douglales and
other potent families.—Its fituation is extremely plea-
fant. J r
MELT of fishes. In the melt of a living cod
there are fuch numbers of thofe animalcules faid to be
found in the femen of all male animals, that in a drop
of its. juice no larger than a grain of fand, there are
contained more than 10,000 of them 5 and confidering
how many fuch quantities there are in the whole melt
of one fuch fifh, it is not incredible, that there are
more animals in one melt of it than there are
living men at one time upon the face of the earth.
However ftrange and romantic fuch a conjeaure
muft appear, a ferious confideration and calculation
v ill make it very evident. An hundred fuch grains
of fand as thofe juft mentioned will make about an
inch in length ; therefore in a cubic inch there will
be. a million of fuch fands j and if there be 10,000
animals in each of thofe quantities, there muft be in
the whole 130,000 millions, which is a number vaftly
exceeding that of mankind, even fuppofing the whole as
populous as Holland.
MELTING cone, in eflaying, an hollow cone of
brafs or call iron, into which melted metalline fub-
ftances are thrown, in order to free them from their
fconae. When, a fmall quantity of' matter is melted,
it will be fufficient to rub the infide of the cone with
greafej but when the quantity is large, efpecially if
it contains any thing fulphureous, this caution of tal¬
lowing the moulds is not fufficient. In this cafe the
eflayer has recourfe to a lute reduced to thin pap
witn water, which effe&ually prevents any injury to the
cone.
MELTON Moubray, a town of Leicefterffiire,
10S miles from London. It is a large wrell-built place,
111 3 fertile foil j with a market on Tuefday, the moft
[ 5°o 1
MEM
Melton
confiderable tor cattle of any in this part of the ifland.
It is almoft encompafled with a little river called the
Lye, over winch it has two fine bridges j and has a Memrin
large handfome church, with a free fchool. Here are ' ^
frequent horfe races, and three fairs in the year.
MELVIL, Sir James, defcended from an honour¬
able Scots family, being the third fon of the laird of
Kaeth, was born about the middle of the 16th centqry.
He went to France very young, in the capacity of
page to Queen Mary, then married to the dauphin :
and on the death of her hufband, followed her to
Scotland, where he was made gentleman of her cham¬
ber, and admitted a privy counfellor. She employed
him in her moft important concerns, till her unhappy
confinement in Lochleven, all which he difcharged
with the utmoft fidelity ; and, from his own accounts,
there is reafon to conclude, that, had (be taken his
advice, fhe might have avoided many of her misfor¬
tunes. When. ftie was prifoner in England, Hie re¬
commended him ftrongly to her Ion James j with
whom he continued in favour and employment until
the death of Queen Elizabeth : James would then have
taken him to England } but Melvil, now grown old,
was defirous of retiring from bufinefs, and in his re¬
tirement he drew up the memoirs of his paft life for
the ufe of his fon. Thefe Memoirs were accidentally
found in Edinburgh caftle in the year 1660, though
nobody knew bow they came to be depolited there ;
and were publilhed in folio in 1683.
MEMBERS, in Anatomy, the exterior parts, arifing
from the trunk or body of an animal, like the boughs
from the trunk of a tree.
Member, in ArchiteBure, denotes any part of a
building ; as a frieze, cornice, or the like.
Member is fometimes alfo ufed for moulding.
Member, in Grammar, is applied to the parts of a
period or fentence.
Member, is alfo ufed to denote fome particular or¬
der or rank in a ftate or government : thus we fay,
“ member of a corporation, member of parliament,
member of the council,” &c.
MEMBRANE, Membrana, in Anatomy, afimilar
part of an animal body j being a thin, white, flexible,
expanded fldn, formed of feveral forts of fibres inter¬
woven together, and ferving to cover or wrap up cer¬
tain parts of the body. See Anatomy pajjim.
MEMEL, or Memmel ; a town of Pruffia, fituat-
ed on the northern extremity of the Curifche Haf,
an inlet of the fea about 70 miles in length, which
is here joined to the Baltic by a narrow ftrait.—It is
an ill built toivn, with narrow dirty ftreets ; but re¬
markable for its extenfive commerce, being provided
with the fineft harbour in the Baltic. In 1784, 996
fhips, amongft which were 300 Engliih, arrived here.
The imports chiefly are, fait, iron, and falted herrings ;
the exports, which greatly exceed the imports, are am¬
ber, corn, hemp, flax, and particularly timber. An Eng-
lilh conful refides here. The trade increafed greatly on
account of the high duties laid on the imports of Riga.
E. Long. 21. 23. N. Lat. 33. i;o.
MEMNON, in fabulous hiftory, a king of Ethiopia,
fon of 1 ithonus and Aurora. He came wdtb a body
of 10,000 men to affift his uncle Priam, during the
Trojan war. He behaved with great courage, and
killed Antilochus, Neftor’s fon. The aged father chal¬
lenged
MEM [50
ftfemnon lenged the Ethiopian monarch ; but Memnon refufed
|| it on account of the venerable age of Ntflor, and ac-
'Memory- ^ cepted that of Achilles. He was killed in the com-
T bat, in the fight of the Grecian and Trojan armies.
Aurora prayed to Jupiter to grant her fon fuch honours
as might diftinguiih him from other mortals. The
god confented j and immediately a numerous flight of
birds ifliied from the burning pile on which the body
was laid, and dividing themfelves into two feparate bo¬
dies, fought with fuch fury, that above half of them fell
down in the fire as victims to appeafe the manes of Mem-
non. Thefe birds were called Memnonides ; and it has
been obferved by fome of the ancients, that they never
failed to return yearly to the tomb of Memnon in
Troas, and repeat the fame bloody engagement in ho¬
nour of the hero from whom they received their name.
The Ethiopians or Egyptians, over whom Memnon
reigned, credited a celebrated ftatue to the honour of
their monarch. This ftatue had the wonderful pro¬
perty of uttering a melodious found every day at fun-
rifing, like that which is heard at the breaking of
the firing of a harp when it is wound up. This was
effected by the rays of the fun when they fell upon
it. At the fetting of the fun, and in the night, the
found was lugubrious. This is fupported by the tefti-
mony of the geographer Strabo, who confefles him-
felf ignorant whether it proceeded from the bafis of
the ftatue, or the people that were then around it.
This celebrated ftatue was difmantled by order of
Cambyfes when he conquered Egypt ; and its ruins
ftill aftonifli modern travellers by their grandeur and
beauty.
MEMNON of Rhodes, one of the generals of Darius
king of Perfia, advifed the prince to lay wafte the
country, in order to deprive Alexander the Great’s
army of fupport, and afterwards to attack Macedon •,
but this counfel was difapproved by Darius’s other ge¬
nerals. Memnon behaved at the paflage of the Grani-
cus like an experienced general. He afterwards de¬
fended the city of Miletum with great courage; feized
* the iflands of Chio and Lefbos j fpread terror through¬
out all Greece ; and would have put a flop to the con-
quefts of Alexander, if he had not been prevented by
death. Barfina, Memnon’s widow, was taken prifoner
with Darius’s wife, and Alexander had a fon by her
named Hercules.
MEMOIRS, in matters of literature, a fpecies of
hiftory, written by perfons who had fome (hare in the
tranfaflions they relate j anfwering to what the Ro¬
mans called Commentarii.—The journals of the proceed¬
ings of a literary fociety, or a colleflion of matters
tranfafted therein, are likewife called .Memoirs.
MEMORY, a faculty of the mind, which prefents
to us ideas or notions of what is pad, accompanied
with a perfuafion that the things themfelves were for¬
merly real and prefent. What we diftimftly remember
to have perceived, we as firmly believe to have happen¬
ed, as what is now prefent to our fenfes.
The opinions of philofophers concerning the means
by which the mind retains the ideas of paft obie£ls,
and how thofe ideas carry with them evidence of their
objedfs having been adlually perceived, (hall be laid be¬
fore our readers in another place : (fee Metaphysics,
Part I. chap. ii.). At prefent we (hall throw together
fome obferyations on the memory, which, being of a
I
i ] MEM
practical rather than of a fpeculative nature, cannot be Memory,
admitted into the article where the nature of the facul-
ty itfelf is difcuffed.
“ When we remember with little or no effort, it is
called remembrance (imply, or memory, and fometimes
pa five memory %. When we endeavour to remember * Beattie’s
what does not immediately (and as it were) of itfelf
occur, it is called active memory, or recollection. A
of Moral
Science.
ready recolledlion of our knowledge, at the moment
w’hen we have occafion for it, is a talent of the great-
eft importance. The man poffeffed of it feldom fails to
diftinguifti himfelf in whatever fort of bufinefs he may
be engaged.” It is indeed evident, that when the
power of retention is weak, all attempts at eminence
of knowledge muft be vain 5 for “ memory is the pri¬
mary and fundamental power f, without which there f Idler.
could be no other intellectual operation. Judgment and
ratiocination fuppofe fomething already known, and
draw their decifions only from experience. Imagina¬
tion feledts ideas from the treafures of remembrance,
and produces novelty only by varied combinations. We
do not even form conjedtures of diftant, or anticipations
of future events, but by concluding what is poflible from
what is paft.”
Of a faculty fo important, many rules have been
given for the regulation and improvement ; of which
the firft is, that he who withes to have a clear and dif-
tindl remembrance, (hould be temperate with refpeft
to eating, drinking, and (leep. The memory depends
very much upon the (late of the brain ; and therefore
whatever is hurtful to the latter, muft be prejudicial
to the former. Too much deep clouds the brain, and
too little overheats it; therefore either of thefe ex¬
tremes muft of courfe hurt the memory, and ought
carefully to be avoided. Intemperance of all kinds,
and excefs of pafiion, have the fame ill effects 5 fo that
we rarely meet with an intemperate perfon whofe me¬
mory is at once clear and tenacious.
“ The livelieft remembrance is not fo vivid as the
fenfation that produced it J 5 and ideas of memory do j Beattie's
often, but not always, decay more and more, as the ori- Elements,
ginal fenfation becomes more and more remote in time. &c- an^
Thofe fenfations and thofe thoughts have a chance to ^Icr.
be long remembered which are lively at firft $ and
thofe are likely to be mod lively which are moft at¬
tended to, or which are accompanied with pleafure or
pain, with wonder, furprife, curiofity, merriment, and
other lively paflions. The art of memory, therefore, is
little more than the art of attention. What we wi(h
to remember we (hould attend to, fo as to underftand it
perfectly, fixing our view particularly upon its import¬
ance or lingular nature, that it may raife within us
fome of the paflions above mentioned. We (hould alfo
difengage our minds from all other things, that we may
attend more effedtually to the objedft which we wi(h to
remember. No man will read with much advantage
who is not able at pleafure to evacuate his mind, or
who brings not to his author an intellect defecated and
pure, neither turbid with care, nor agitated with plea¬
fure. If the repofitories of thought are already full,
what can they receive ? If the mind is employed on
the paft or the future, the book will be held before the
eyes in vain. .
“ It is the praftice of many readers, to note in the G S
margin of their books the ipoft important paffages §, Science.
th«
MEM [ 502 ] MEM
' Memory, tlie ftrongeft arguments, or the brigliteft fentiments.
v -I hus they load their minds with fuperffuous atten¬
tion, reprefs the vehemence of curiofity by ufelefs deli¬
beration, and by frequent interruption break the cur¬
rent of narration or the chain of reafon, and at laft
clofe the volume and forget the paffag'es and the
marks together. Others are firmly perfuaded, that
nothing is certainly remembered but what is tran-
feribed ; and they, therefore, pafs weeks and months
in transferring large quotations to a common-place-
book. Yet, why any part of a book which can be
confulted at pleafure fliould be copied, we are not
able to difcover. The hand has no clofer correfpond-
ence with the memory than the eye. The aft of writ¬
ing itfelf diftrafts the thoughts; and what is read
twice, is commonly better remembered than what is
tranfcribed. This method, therefore, confumes time,
without afliiling the memory. But to write an a-
bridgment of a good book may fometimes be a very
profitable exercife. In general, when we wrould pre-
ierve the doftrines, fentiments, or fafts, that occur in
reading, it will be prudent to lay the book afide, and
put them in writing in our own words. This prac¬
tice will give accuracy to our knowledge, accuftom us
to recolleftion, improve us in the ufe of language, and
enable us fo thoroughly to comprehend the thoughts
of other men, as to make them in fome meafure our
©wn.”
u Our thoughts have for the moft part a connec-
& Idler. tion * ; fo that the thought which is juft now in the
mind, depends partly upon that which went before,
and partly ferves to introduce that which follows.—
Hence we remember beft thofe things of which the
parts are methodically difpofed and mutually con-
nefted. A regular difcourfe makes a more lafting im-
preffion upon the hearer than a parcel of detached
fentences, and gives to his rational powers a more fa-
lutary exercife : and this may ftiow us the propriety
of conduft'ing our ftudies, and all our affairs, according
to a regular plan or method. When this is not done,
our thoughts and our bufinefs, efpecially if in any de¬
gree complex, foon run into confufion.”
As the mind is not at all times equally difpofed for
the exercife of this faculty, fuch feafons fliould be
Inade choice of as are moft proper for it. The mind
is feldom fit for attention prefently after meals and
to call off the fpirits at fuch times from their pro¬
per employment in digeftion, is apt to cloud the
brain, and prejudice the health. Both the mind and
body ftiould be eafy and undifturbed when we engage
in this exercifej and therefore retirement is moft fit
for it : and the evening, juft before we go to reft, is
generally recommended as a very Convenient feafon,
both from the ftillnefs of the night, and becaufe the
impreflions will then have a longer time to fettle be¬
fore they come to be difturbed by the acceffion of
others proceeding from external objefts and to call
over in the morning what has been committed to the
memory overnight, muft, for the fame reafon, be
very ferviceable. For, to review thofe ideas while
they continue frefii upon the mind, and unmixed
with any others, muft neceffarily imprint them more
deeply.
Some ancient writers fpeak of an artificial me¬
mory, and lay down rules for attaining iL Simonides
the poet is faid firft to have difcovered this, or at leafi Memory
to have given the occafion for it. The ftory they"V—
tell of him is this : Being once at a feaft, he recited
a poem which he had made in honour of the perfon
who gave the entertainment. But having (as is ufual
in poetry) made a large digreflion in praife of Caftor
and Pollux j when he had repeated the whole poem,
his patron would give him but half the fum he had
promifed,. telling him he muft get the other part from
thofe deities who had an equal fhare in the honour of
his performance. Immediately after, Simonides was
told that two young men were without, and muft
needs Ipeak with him. He had fcarcely got out of tha
houie, when the room where the company was fell
down, killed all the perfons in it, and fo mafhed the
bodies, that, when the rubbifh was thrown oft', they
could not be known one from another : upon which
Simonides recollefting the place where every one had
fat, by that means diftinguiftied them. Hence it
came to be obferved, that to fix a number of places
in the mind in a certain order, was a help to th®
memory : As we find by experience, that, upon re¬
turning to places once familiar to us, we not only re¬
member them, but likewife many things we both faid
and did in them. This aftion therefore of Simonides
was afterwards improved into an art; and the nature
of it is this : 1 hey bid you form in your mind the
idea of fome large place or building, which you may
divide into a great number of diftinft parts, ranged
and difpofed in a certain order. Thefe you are fre¬
quently to revolve in your thoughts, till you are able
to run. them over one after another without hefitation,
beginning at. any part. Then you are to imprefs
upon your mind as many images of living creatures,
or any other infenfible objefts which are moft likely to
affeft you, and be fooneft revived in your memory.
Thefe, like charafters in ftiorthand, or hieroglyphics,
muft ftand to denote an equal number of other words,
which cannot fo eafily be remembered. When there¬
fore you have a number of things to commit to me¬
mory in a certain order, all that you have to do is, to
place thefe images regularly in the feveral parts of
your building. And thus they tell you, that, by go¬
ing over feveral parts of the building, the images
placed in them will be revived in the mind 5 which of
courfe will give you the things or words themfelve#'
in the order you defire to remember them. The ad¬
vantage of the images feems to be this 5 that, as they
are more like to affeft the imagination than the w'ords
for which they ftand, they will for that reafon be more
eafily remembered. Thus, for inftance, if the image
of a lion be made to fignify Jlrength, and this word
Jlrength be one of thofe I am to remember, and is
placed in the porch 5 when, in going over the feveral
parts of the building, I come to the porch, I fliall foon-
er be reminded of that image than of the w'ord Jlrength.
Of this artificial memory, both Cicero and Quintilian
fpeak } but w’e know not of any modern orator that
has ever made ufe of it. It feems indeed to have been
a laborious way of improving the memory, if it ferves
that end at all, and fitter for affifting us to remember
any number of unconnefted words than a continual
difcourfe, unlefs fo far as the remembrance of one word
may enable us to recolleft more. It is, however, in
allufion to it, that we ftill call the parts of a difcourfe
places
Memory,
Mnemoni-
M N E [ 503 ]
places or topics, and fay, in the fir/} place, in the fecond pupil of his,
# Idler.
f Elements
of Moral
Science.
place, &c.
, But, doubtlefs, the moll effectual way to gain a
good memory, is by conftant and moderate exercife of
it; for the memory, like other habits, is flrengthened
and improved by daily ufe. It is indeed hardly cre¬
dible, to what a degree both aflive and paffive remem¬
brance may be improved by long practice. Scaliger re¬
ports of himfelf, that in his youth he could repeat
above too verfes, having once read them ; and Berthe-
eus declares, that he wrote his Comment upon Clau-
dian without confulting the text. To hope, however,
for fuch degrees of memory as thefe, would be equally
vain as to hope for the ftrength of Hercules, or the
fwiftnefs of Achilles. “ But there are clergymen who
can get a fermon by heart * ‘n two hours, though their
memory, when they began to exercife it, was rather
weak than ftrong : And pleaders, -with other orators
who fpeak in public and extempore, often difeover, in
calling inftantly to mind all the knowledge neceffary
on the prefent occalion, and every thing of importance
that may have been advanced in the courfe of a long
debate, fuch powers of retention and recollection as,
to the man who has never been obliged to exert, him¬
felf in the fame manner, are altogether aftonithing.
As habits, in order to be ftrong, muft be formed in ear¬
ly life, the memories of children thould, therefore, be
conftantly exercifed ; but to oblige them to commit to
memory what they do not underftand, perverts their
faculties, and gives them a diflike to learning.” In a
word, thofe who have moft occafion for memory, as
orators and public fpeakers, fhould not fuffer it to lie
idle, but conftantly employ it in treafuring up and fre¬
quently reviving fuch things as may be of moft import¬
ance to them; for by thefe means it will be more at
their command, and they may place greater confidence
in it upon any emergency.”
“ Men complain of nothing more frequently than
of deficient memory f : and indeed every one finds,
that after all his efforts, many of the ideas which he
defired to retain have flipped irretrievably away ; that
acquifitions of the mind are fometimes equally fugi¬
tive with the gifts of fortune ; and that a fhort inter-
miffion of attention more certainly leffens knowledge
than impairs an eftate. To affift this weaknefs of our
nature, many methods befides thofe which we have
mentioned have been propofed ; all of which may be
juftly fufpeCted of being incffeClual : for no art of me¬
mory, however its effeCls may have been boafted or
admired, has been ever adopted into general ufe ; nor
have thofe who poffeffed it appeared to excel others in
readinefs of recolleCIion or multiplicity of attainments.”
The reader who is defirous to try the effeft of thofe
helps, may have recourfe to a treatife entitled A new
Method of Artificial Memory; but the true method of
memory is attention and exercife.
MNEMONICA, or the art of memory, as it was
called by the ancients, has been lately revived and
ftudied in Germany and France. In fome notices con¬
cerning this fubjeci which we have feen, it is obferved
that this fcience is more intimately connedled with the
Egyptian hieroglyphics than is generally thought, and
that this connexion may help to explain them. In Ger¬
many this art has been revived by M. Aretin; and a
M N E'
M. Kaeftner has been permitted to teach MnemonM-
the new dodbrine at Leipfic, but on the exprefs condi-. ca-
tion of not allowing his hearers to write down his lec- *
tures. This feems to be a lingular, and we may add
a filly prohibition. The following account is given of
this art in a letter from Paris in the beginning of 1807.
“ During my refidence, fays the writer, in this metro¬
polis I heard a great deal of a new method of mnemo-
nique, or of a method to aftift and fix our memory, in¬
vented by Gregor de Feinaigle. Notwithftanding the
limplicity with which he announced his ledtures in the
papers, I could not determine myfelf to become a pupil
of his, as I thought to find a quack or mountebank,
and to be laughed at by my friends for having thrown
away my cafh in fuch a foolifh manner. Perhaps I
fhould hefitate to this moment about the utility of this
newly invented method to aflift our natural memory, had
I not had the pleafure of dining at his excellency’s the
count of Metternich, the Auftrian ambaffador, who
followed, with all his fecretaries, the whole courfe of
ledtures : they all fpoke very advantageoufly of it, .
like wife fever al other perfons of the firft rank I met
there : in confequence of this I was inferted into the
lift of pupils, and I follow, at this moment, the lec¬
tures. All I can tell you about this method is, it is a
very fimple one, and eafy to be learned, adapted to all
ages and fexes : all difficulties in fuch fciences as re¬
quire an extraordinary good memory, for inftance, the
names and epochs in hiftory, are at once overcome and
obviated. There is not one branch of fcience to which
this method cannot be applied. It is eafy to be per¬
ceived that fuch an invention cannot pafs without fome
critique, and even farcafms, in the public prints : fome
of them were very injurious, and plaufible enough to
miflead the public, who, knowing nothing of the me¬
thod, are always more ready to condemn than to affift.
Mr Feinaigle, to anfwer all thefe critics at once, adopt¬
ed a method not lefs public for Paris than the public
papers, but lefs public for the reft of Europe : he gave,
the 22d of laft month, a public exhibition to about
2000 fpeftators, in which he did not appear at all, only
about 12 or 15 of his pupils : each of them made fuch
an application of the method as his fituation in life re¬
quired. The principal parts were the following : hif¬
tory, about names and years ; geography, with refpedl
to longitude, latitude, number of inhabitants, fquare
miles, &c. &c. ; grammar in various languages, about
different editions of the fame work ; pandefts, their di-
vifion, and title of each book, title, &c. ; different fyf-
tems of botany, poetry, arithmetic, &c. &c. At laft:
one defired the company to give him one thoufand
words, without any connexion whatfoever, and with¬
out numeric order; for inftance, the vrord of rammer,
for N° 62 ; wood, for N° 188 ; loveh/, for N° 370 ;
dynafy, for N° 23 ; David, for N° 90, &c. &c. till
all the numbers were filled ; and he repeated the whole
(notwithftanding he heard thefe words without order,
and but once), in the numerical order; or he told you
what word was given againft any one number, or what
number any one rvord bore. It is ftill more ftriking, but
certainly, likewife, more difficult, to retain as many
numbers however great they may be. For -words and
numbers I could venture myfelf, with the greateft fafe-
t.y, as far as one hundred of each ; and I am fure, after
having;
’ Mnemoru-
JMug. 28.
93-
MEM [ 504 1 MEM
Iravlng fixed them once, which is done in lefs than ten
minute , I could repeat them to you at any period,
witnout ever thinking any more of them
f einaigte afterwards delivered lectures on the fame
fubject to crowded audiences in London, Edinburgh,
Glafgow, &e.; but we do not find that any of his
pupils received improvement from his imirudions, and
very few oi them could give anv account of his method.
MEMPHIS, an ancient city, and the royal reiidence
of the kings in the Higher Egypt; dhtant from the
Delta to the fouth 15 miles, according to Pliny. Called
alfo \loph, and Noph, in fcripture.
Though this city is now fo completely ruined, that
authors greatly difagree concerning its fituation *, yet
Strabo informs us that in his time it was the moll mag¬
nificent in Egypt, next to Alexandria, and called the
capital ot the country j and there was an entire temple
of Oliris, where the Apis or facred ox was kept and
worthipped. In the fame place was an apartment of
the mother of the ox j a very magnificent temple of
Vulcan 5 a large circus or fpace for fighting bulls ; and
a great cololfus in the middle of the city, which was
thrown down. There was likewife a temple of Venus,
and a Serapium in a very fandy place, where the wind
heaps up hills of fand very dangerous to travellers j
together with a number of fphinxes, the heads of fome
of them only being vifible. In the front of the city
there were many lakes; and it contained a number of
palaces, at that time in ruins. I hefe buildings formerly
flood upon an eminence : they lay along the fide of the
hill, ftretching down to the lakes and groves, 40 ftadia
from the city. On a mountain in the neighbourhood,
there was a great number of pyramids, with the fepul-
chres of the kings. From this defcription, Mr Bruce
concludes that the celebrated capital of Egypt flood in
the place where the villages of Metrahenny are now
fituated; in oppofition to Dr Shaw’s opinion, who
thinks it was fituated at Geeza or Gifa.
M. Savary has alfo fhown, that Gifa was not the
fituation of the ancient Memphis, which flood, he fays,
on the fpot where the village of Memph now Hands.
Large heaps of rubbifh are flill to be feen there 5 but
the Arabs have tranfported to Cairo the columns and
remarkable flones, which they have difpofed, without
tafle and without order, in their mofques and public
buildings. I his city extended as far as Saccara 5 and
was almofl wholly encompaffed by lakes, part of which
are flill fubfifling. It was neceflarv to crofs them to
convey the dead to the fepulchre of their fathers. The
tombs, hewn out of the rock, Avere clofed up with flones
of a proportionable fize, and covered with fand. Thefe
bodies embalmed with fo much care, preferved with fo
much > efpedf, are torn from the monuments they repofe
in, and fold without decency to flrangers by the inha¬
bitants of Saccara. This place is called the plain of
mummies. There too we find the well of the birds, into
which one defcends by means of a rope. It leads to
fubterraneous galleries, filled Avith earthen vafes con¬
taining the facred birds. They are rarely met with
entire, becaufe the Arabs break them m hopes of find¬
ing idols of gold. They do not condufl travellers in¬
to the places where they have found more precious ar¬
ticles. They even elofe them up carefully, referving
t® themfelves fome fecret paffages by which they de-
fcend. In a journey into Egypt made by the duke
de Chaulnes, he advanced very tar into thefe windino-
labyrinth*, fometimes crawling, and fometimes fcramb-
ling on his knees. Informed by Mr EdAvard Wortley
Montague, who has carefully vilited Egypt, he arrived
at one of thole paffages which had an opening Ihut up
from Avithout by branches of the date tree interwoven
and covered Avith fand. He remarked there fome
hieroglyphics in relievo, executed in the highefl perfec¬
tion. But the Arabs refilled every offer he made them
to permit him to take drawings of them, or to mould
them, in order to preferve their form. The duke de
Chaulnes is of opinion that thefe hieroglyphics, fculp-
tured with fo much art that the objects they reprefent
may be difcovered at the firfl fight, might poflibly furnifh
the key of the others, Avhofe contours are limply ex-
preffed, and form a fort of alphabet of this unintelligible
language. . Several pyramids are diflinguifhable along
the mountains Avhich bound Saccara on the weft, the
greateft part of Avhich appear as lofty as thofe of Gifa.
See Pyramids.
MENAGE (Fr.), denotes a colledlion of animals j
whence avc have derived the Avoid tnenagery.
MENANDER, an ancient Greek poet, Avas born
at Athens in the fame year with Epicurus, which Ava*
the third of the 109th Olympiad. His happinels in
introducing the new comedy, and refining an art which
had been fo grofs and licentious in former times, quick¬
ly fpread his name over the Avorld. Pliny informs us,
that the kings of Egypt and Macedon gave a noble
teftimony of his merit, by fending ambafiadors to in¬
vite him to their courts, and even fleets to bring him
over; but that Menander Avas fo much of a philofo-
pher, as to prefer the free enjoyment of his ftudies to
the promifed favours of the great. Of his Avorks,
which amounted to above 100 comedies, we have had
a double lofs, the originals being not only vanifhed,
but the greateft part of them, A\hen copied by Terence,
having unfortunately perifhed by fhipAvreck before they
faw Rome. Yet the four plays Avhich Terence bor¬
rowed from him before that accident happened, are
ftill preferved in the Roman habit; and it is chiefly
from Terence that moft people form their judgment
of Menander, the fragments that remain of him not
being fufficient to enable them to do it. The ancients
have faid high things of Menander ; and we find the
old mailers of rhetoric recr.mmending his works as
the true patterns of every beauty and every grace of
public fpeaking. Quintilian declares, that a careful
imitation of Menander only, will fatisfy all the rules he
has laid down in his inftitutions. It is in Menander
that he would have his orator fearch for a copioulnefs
of invention, for a happy elegance of expreffion, and
especially for that univerfal genius which is able to ac¬
commodate itfelf to perfons, things, and aftedlions.—
But Julius Caefar has left the loftieft as well as the
jufteft praife of Menander’s works, when he calls Te¬
rence only a Half Menander. For while the virtues of
the Latin poet are fo defervedly admired, it is impof-
fible we fhould raife a higher notion of excellency than
to conceive the great original ftill fhining with half its
luftre unrefledled, and preferving an equal part of its
graces, above the power of the beft copier in the
world. Menander died in the 3d year of the 122d
Olympiad,
Men-ptik
n, 11 5
MenarderJ
MEN [5
jlcnandor Olympiad, as we are taught by the fame old infcription
i! from which we learn the time of his birth. His tomb,
Menatfeh- paufan;as’s age, was to be feen at Athens, in the
way from the Firtcus to the city, clofe by the hono¬
rary monument of Euripides. Quintilian, in his judge¬
ment of Afranius the Roman comedian, who imitated
him, cenfures Menander’s morals as much as he com¬
mends his writings j and his character, according to
Saidas, is, that he was a very “ mad fellow after wo¬
men.” Phaedrus has given him the gait and drefs of
a molt affcdted fop :
“ Unguento delibutus, veftitu adfluens,
“ Veniebat grelfu delicatulo et languido.”
Lib. v. fab. 2.
MEN ANDRIANS, the molt ancient branch of
Gnoftics j thus called from Menander their chief, faid
by fome, without fufficient foundation, to have been
a difciple of Simon Magus, and himfelf a reputed ma¬
gician.
He taught, that no perfon could be faved, unlefs he
were bapfcifed in his name } and he conferred a peculiar
fort of baptifm, which would render thofe who received
it immortal in the next world : exhibiting himfelf to the
world, with the phrenfy of a lunatic more than the
founder of a feet, as a promifed faviour. For it appears
by the teftimonies of Irenreus, Juftin, and Tertullian,
that he pretended to be one of the aeons fent from the
pleroma, or ecclefiaitical regions, to fuccour the fouls
that lay groaning under bodily oppreflion and fervitude j
and to maintain them againft the violence and ftrata-
gems of the daemons that hold the reins of empire in
this fublunary world. As this do&rine was built upon
the fame foundation with that of Simon Magus, the an¬
cient writers looked upon him as the inftruclor of Me¬
nander. See Simonians.
MENASSEH Ben Israel, a celebrated rabbi,
born in Portugal about the year 1604, was the fon
of Jofeph Ben Ifrael, and followed his father into PIol-
land. Here lie was educated by Rabbi Ifaac Uziel,
under whom he in a fliort time made fuch progrefs in
the Hebrew tongue, that at 18 years of age he fuc-
ceeded him in the fynagogue of Amfterdam. In this
poft he continued feveral years, and married Rachel of
the family of the Abarbanels, whom the Jews imagine
to be descended from King David. He afterwards
went to his brother Ephraim, a rich merchant, who
had fettled at Eafil; by whofe advice he entered into
trade. Some time after, the hopes of a more agree¬
able fettlement induced him to come into England,
under the protefforlhip of Cromwell; who gave him a
very favourable reception, and one day entertained him
at his table with feveral other learned divines. How¬
ever, he foon after palled into Zealand; and died at
Middleburg about the year 1657. T^e Jews at Am-
fterdam obtained his body, and interred it at their ex¬
pence. He was of the fed of the Pharifees j had a
lively wit, a folid judgment, great learning, and all
the virtues that can adorn private life. He wrote
many works in Hebrew, Latin, Spanilh, and Eng-
lilh. The principal of thofe publilhed in Latin, are,
T. Mis Conciliator i a learned and curious work, in
which he reconciles thofe palfages of Scripture which
feem to contradict each other, 2. De refurre&ione mor-
tuorum. 3, De tcvmino viice, 4. Dijfertaiio defragi-
VOL. XIII, Part II.
05 ] M E N
tide humana, ex lapfu Adami, deque Divino in bona opere McraiTeh
auxilio. 5. Spes Ifrael. Dr Thomas Pococke has writ-
ten his life in Englilh. , -----
MENDELSHON, Moses, that is, Mofes the fon
of Mendel, a Jew of Berlin, and one of the molt cele¬
brated writers in Germany, died there in the year 1785
at the age of 57. His fourth attempt as an author-was
foon after 1767, by a work entitled Jerufalem ; in which,
befides other bold and unjuitifiable opinions, he main¬
tains, that the Jews have a revealed law but not a re¬
vealed religion \ that opinions are not fubjeds of re¬
velation \ and that the only religion of the Jewilh na¬
tion is that of nature. He acquired great honour by
his Phccdon, or “ Difcourfes on the Immateriality and
Immortality of the Soul,” tranflated into the French
1773, 8vo ; in which he unfolds this important truth,
the great foundation of all morality, with the wifdom
of an enlightened philofopher and the charms of an ele¬
gant writer. In confequence of this excellent work,
he was ftyled the Jewijh Socrates by fome of the pe¬
riodical writers j but he wanted the firmnefs and cou¬
rage of the Grecian philofopher. His timidity, and
even pulillanimity, defeds too common in fpeculative
men, prevented him from being of aiiy effential fervice
to his nation ; of which he might have become the
benefador by being the reformer. The pliancy of his
character, his foft, modeft, and obliging difpofition,
gained him the efteem alike of the iuperftitious and
of the incredulous. After all, he could never procure
admiffion to the Berlin fociety, or to the converfation
of the king of Pruffia. At his death he received from
his nation thofe honours which are commonly paid to
their firft rabbins. Contrary to an imprudent cuilom
prevalent among the Jews of burying their dead before
funfet, his interment was delayed till 24 hours after he
expired. Though Mendelihon was defeended from a
refpedable family, he was very poor. In early life he
entered into a counting-houfe of his own nation, where¬
in he greatly recommended himfelf by his capacity and
integrity in bufinefs: But philofophy and literature foon
became his principal occupation ; and to the famous
Lefling he was indebted for counfels which, without
diverting his attention from thofe purfuits that were
neceffary to his fubliftence, accelerated his progrefs in
his literary career. Even after the death of his bene-
faftor, Mendclfhon retained for him the fincerelt regard
and the moft lively gratitude. Notwithftanding the
very ftrict regimen which he obferved, he furvived him
only a few years 5 for his feeble frame and weak confti-
tution were gradually and infenfibly undermined by in-
tenfe application to fludy.
MENDEZ Pinto, Ferdinand, was born at Monte-
mor-o-velho in Portugal, and was at firft fervant to a
Portuguefe gentleman. In expectation of making a
fortune, he embarked for India in 1537. His veffel
being taken by the Turks on his paflage, he was car¬
ried to Mocka, and fold to a Greek renegado, and
afterwards to a Jew, in whofe poffeflion he continued
till he was redeemed by the governor of Ormus, a Por¬
tuguefe fort. The governor procured him an oppor¬
tunity of going out to India, agreeable to his firft de-
fign. During a refidence of twenty-one years in that
country, he was witnefs to very important tranfcclicns,
and experienced many fingular adventures. He re¬
turned to Portugal in 1558, where he enjoyed the re-
3 S vtard
MEN [ 506 ] MEN
Memloz, ward of his labours, after having been thirteen times
canV" a ^ave anc^ fifteen times fold. A very curious ac-
——t 1 count of his travels was Avritten by himfelf, and pub-
lifhed at Lifbon, A. D. 1614, in folio. This Avork
Avas tranflated into French by Bernard Figuier, a Por-
tuguefe gentleman, and printed at Paris 1645, 111 4to*
It is Avritten in a very interefting manner, and in a
llyle more elegant than might have been expended
from a man wliofe Avhole life Avas fpent in the camp
and in flavery. It elucidates a great variety of parti¬
culars relating to the geography, hiftory, and man¬
ners of the inhabitants of China, Japan, Pegu, Siam,
Achem, Java, &c. Many of his faffs appeared
fabulous, but their truth has been fince afcertained.
M. de Surgi compiled an interefting hiftory from the
molt lingular faffs in Mendez Pinto’s relation, which
he publilhed in the ViciJJitudes de la Fortune, Paris, 2
vols. 8ArO.
MENDICANTS, or Begging Friars, feveral
orders of religious in Popifti countries, Avho having no
fettled revenues, are fupported by the charitable con¬
tributions they receive from others.
This fort of fociety began in the 13th century ; and
the members of it, by the tenor of their inftitution,
were to remain entirely deftitute of all fixed revenues
and poiTeflions ; though in procefs of time their num¬
ber became a heavy tax upon the people. Innocent
HI* was the firft of the popes Avho perceived the ne-
ceffity of inftituting fuch an order ; and accordingly
he gave fuch monaftic focieties, as made a profeflion
of poverty, the moft diftinguilhing marks of his pro-
teftion and favour. They Avere alfo encouraged and
patronized by the fucceeding pontiffs, Arhen experi¬
ence had demonftrated their public and extenfive ufe-
fulnefs. But when it became generally knoAvn, that
they had fuch a peculiar place in the efteem and pro-
teffion of the rulers of the church, their number greAV
to fuch an enormous and umvieldy multitude, and
Inarmed fo prodigioufiy in all the European provinces,
that they became a burden, not only to the people,
but to the church itfelf. The great inconvenience
that arofe from the exceftive multiplication of the
mendicant orders Avas remedied by Gregory X. in a
general council, Avhich he affembled at Lyons in 1272.
For here all the religious orders that had fprung up
after, the council held at Rome in 1215, under the
pontificate of Innocent III. Avere fuppreffed ; and the
extravagant multitude of mendicants, as Gregory call¬
ed them, Avere reduced to a fmaller number, and con¬
fined to the four folloAving focieties or denominations,
viz. the Dominicans, the Franciscans, the Carme¬
lites, and the Augustins or hermits of St Au-
guftin.
As the pontiffs alloAved thefe four mendicant orders
the liberty of travelling AvhereATr they thought proper,
of converfing Avith perfons of every rank, of inftruft-
ing the youth and multitude Avherever they Avent 5 and
as thofe monks exhibited, in their outAvard appearance
and manner of life, more ftriking marks of gravity and
holinefs than Avere obfervable in the other monaftic
focieties, they arole all at once to the very fummit of
fame, and Avere regarded Avith the utmoft efteem and
veneration through all the countries of Europe. The
enthufiaftic attachment to thefe fanftimonious beggars
\Arent fo far, that, as avc learn from the moft authentic
records, feveral cities Avere divided or cantoned out Mendi.
into four parts, Avith a vie ay to thefe four orders 5 the cants."
firft part being alfigned to the Dominicans, the fecond 'T'-
to the Francileans, the third to the Carmelites, and
the fourth to the Auguftins. The people Avere un-
widling to receive the i'acraments from any other hands
than thofe of the mendicants, to Avhofe churches they
croAvdcd to perform their devotions, Avhile living, and
Avere extremely defirous to depofit there alfo their re¬
mains after death: nor did the influence and credit
of the mendicants end here j for avc find in the hiftory
of this and of the fucceeding ages, that they Avere em¬
ployed not only in fpiritual matters, but alfo in tem¬
poral and political affairs of the greateft confequence,
in compofing the differences of princes, concluding
treaties of peace, concerting alliances, prefiding in ca¬
binet councils, governing courts, levying taxes, and
other occupations, not only remote from, but ablolutely
inconfiftent Avith, the monaftic character and profeflicn.
HoAvever, the power of the Dominicans and Francif-
cans greatly furpaffed that of the other tAvo orders : in-
fomuch that thefe two orders Avere, before the Reforma¬
tion, Avhat the Jeluits have been fince that happy and
glorious period, the very foul of the hierarchy, the en¬
gines of the ftate, the fecret fprings of all the motions
of the one and the other, and the authors and di-
redlors of every great and important event, both in the
religious and political Avorld. By very quick progref-
fion their pride and confidence arrived at fuch a pitch,
that they had the prefumption to declare publicly, that
they had a divine impulfe and commiflion to illuftrate
and maintain the religion of Jefus 5 they treated Avith
the utmoft infolence and contempt all the different or¬
ders of the priefthood ; they affirmed, Avithout a blulh,
that the true method of obtaining falvation ay as reveal¬
ed to them alone ; proclaimed, Avith oftentation, the
fuperior efficacy and virtue of their indulgencies 5 and
vaunted beyond meafure their intereft at the court of
heaven, and their familiar connexions Avith the Su¬
preme Being, the Virgin Mary, and the faints in glory.
By thefe impious Aviles, they fo deluded and captivated
the miferable, and blinded the multitude, that they
Avould not intruft any other but the mendicants with
the care of their fouls. They retained their credit and
influence to fuch a degree, towards the clofe of the 14th
century, that great numbers of both fexes, fome in
health, others in a ftate of infirmity, and others at the
point of death, earneftly defired to be admitted into
the mendicant order, Avhich they looked upon as a fure
and infallible method of rendering heaven propitious.
Many made it an effential part of their laft wills, that
their bodies after death fhould be Avrapped in old rag¬
ged Dominican or Francifcan habits, and interred
among the mendicants. For fuch Avas the barbarous
fuperftition and Ainetched ignorance of this age, that
people univerfally believed they fhould readily obtain
mercy from Chrift, at the day of judgment, if they
appeared before his tribunal affociated with the mendi¬
cant friars.
About this time, however, they fell under an uni-
verfal odium ; but being refolutely prote&ed againft
all oppofition, Avhether open or fecret, by the popes,
Avho regarded them as their beft friends and moft ef¬
fectual fupports, they fuffered little or nothing from
the efforts of their numerous adverfaries. In the 15th
century,
MEN [ 507 ] MEN
Mendi¬
cants
Menede-
nuis.
century, befides their arrogance, which was exceffive,
a quarrelfome and litigious fpirit prevailed among
them, and drew upon them juftly the difpleafure and
indignation of many. By affording refuge at this
time to the Beguins in their order, they became of-
fenfive to the bilhops, and were hereby involved in
difficulties and perplexities of various kinds. They
loft their credit in the 16th century by their ruitic
impudence, their ridiculous fuperftitions, their igno¬
rance, cruelty, and brutifh manners. They difeover-
ed the moft barbarous averfton to the arts and fciences,
and exprelfed a like abhorrence of certain eminent and
learned men, who endeavoured to open the paths of
fcience to the purfuits of the ftudious youth, recom¬
mended the culture of the mind, and attacked the
barbarifm of the age in their writings and difeourfe.
Their general charafter, together with other circum-
ftances, concurred to render a reformation defirable,
and to accomplilh this happy event.
Among the number of mendicants are alfo ranked
the Capuchins, Recollefts, Minims, and others, who
are branches or derivations from the former.
Buchanan tells us, the mendicants in Scotland, un¬
der an appearance of beggary, lived a very luxurious
life ; whence one wittily called them, not Mendicant
but Manducant friars.
MENE, a Chaldean word, which fignifies “ he has
numbered or counted j” being one of the three words
that were written upon the wall by the hand that ap¬
peared to Belffiazzar, the laft king of Babylon, the
night that he was put to death. See Belshazzar.
MENECRATES, a phyfician of Syracufe, who
flourilhed about 360 B. C. is famous for his Ikill in
his profeffion, but much more for his vanity. He
would always be followed by fome of the patients he
had cured, and with whom he previoufly ftipulated
that they ffiould follow him wherever he went. One
appeared with the attributes of Hercules, another with
thofe of Apollo, and others again with thofe of Mer¬
cury or fEfculapius ■, while he, clad in a purple robe,
with a golden crown on his head, and a feeptre in his
hand, prefented himfelf, to the admiration of the pub¬
lic, under the name of Jupiter, and travelled through
different countries efcorted by thefe counterfeit dei¬
ties. He once wrote the following letter to the king
of Macedon : Menecrates Jupiter to Philip, greeting.
Thou reigneft in Macedonia, and I in medicine } thou
giveft death to thofe Avho are in good health, I reftore
life to the ftek ; thy guard is compofed of Macedo¬
nians ; the gods themfelves conftitute mine.” Philip
anfwered him in a word, that he wiffied him reftored
to reafon. Learning fome time after that he was in
Macedon, Philip font for him, and invited him to an
entertainment. Menecrates and his companions were
placed on rich and lofty couches; before which was
an altar, covered with the firft fruits of the harveft •,
and, whilft an excellent repaft was ferved up to the
other guefts, perfumes and libations only were offered
to thefe new gods, who, unable to endure the affront,
haftily left the palace, in which they never more made
their appearance.
MENEDEMUS, a Greek philofopher, born at
Erythreum, was the fon of Califthenes, and one of
Phedo’s followers. He was in the greateft efteem, and
enjoyed feveral important polls, in his own country.
He feveral times defended Erythreum with great bra- Menedc-
very, and died of grief when Antigonus became mailer n:|u
of it. A perfon one day faying to him, “ It is a great
happinefs to have what we delire,” he replied, “ It is u—
a much greater to defire nothing but what we have.”
He flourilhed about 300 B. C.
MENELAUS, the fon of Atreus, and the brother
of Agamemnon, reigned at Sparta, when Paris de¬
prived him of his wife Helen. This rape occafioned
the famous Avar of Troy. See Helen.
Menelaus, a mathematician in the reign of the
emperor Trajan, Avrote three books on the Sphere,
Avhich have been publilhed by Father Marfenne.
MENES, born at This, a toAvn of Thebais in Up¬
per Egypt, was the founder of the Egyptian empire.
He had three fons, viz. Athotis, avIio ruled after him,
at This and Thebes ; Curudes, Avho in LoAver Egypt
founded the kingdom of Heliopoli, Avhich afterward
was the kingdom of Diofpoli *, and Necherophes, who
reigned at Memphis. It is thought this Menes reign--
ed 117 years after the birth of Phaleg, fon of Heber,
wffiich was the Arery year of the difperiion of the people
throughout the Avliole earth. In building Memphis,
he Hopped the Nile near it, by the invention of a
caufeAvay 100 furlongs broad, and caufed it to run
through the mountains.
MENIALS, domellic or houfehold fervants, Avho
live under their lord or mailer’s roof.
MENINGES, or Menynges, in Anatomy, a name
given to the dura and pia mater of the brain. See A-
NATOMY, NP 129.
MENINX, an illand in the Mediterranean, to the
AA'eft of the Syrtis Minor. 'Suppofed by Strabo and
Polybius to be Homer’s country of the Lotophagi j
and hence Ptolemy and Eratofthenes denominate the
illand Lotophagitis, Avith a cognominal town Meninx.
It Avas the country of Vibius Gallus the emperor, and
of Volufianus. Noav called Gerbi and 'Zarbu
MENIPPUS, a cynic philofopher of Phoenicia.
He Avas originally a Have, but obtained his liberty
Avith a fum of money, and became one of the greateft
ufurers at Thebes. He greAV fo defperate from the
continual reproaches and infults to Avhich he Avas daily
expofed on account of his meannefs, that he deftroyed
himfelf. He Avrute 13 books of fatires, Avhich ha\Te been
loft.
MENIPPEAN (fatira MeniPPEA), a kind of fa-
tire confifting of profe and verfe intermixed. It is
thus called from Menippus a cynic plnlofopher Avho
delighted in compofing fatirical letters, &c. In imi¬
tation of him, Varro alfo wrrote fatires under the title
of Satires Menippece: whence this fort of compofition
is alfo denominated Varroman fatirc.
Among the moderns there is a famous piece under
this title firil publilhod in 1594, againft the chiefs of
the league, called alfo the Catholicon of Spain. It is
efteemed a mafterpiece for the time.
MENISCUS, in Optics, a glafs or lens, concave on
one fide and convex on the other } fometimes aifo call¬
ed lunula. See Optics.
MENISPERMUM, Moonseed, a genus of plants
belonging to the dioecia clafs, and in the natural me¬
thod ranking under the nth order, Sarmentacecs. See
Botany Index.
MENNITH, or Minnith, Judges xi. 33. a toAvn
3 S 2 near
Mennith,
ivlcnno-
nites.
MEN [
tiear Heflibon (Jerome), in Arabia Petrgea ; in a di-
ibift named Ecojtpolis, or twenty-towns, (Cellarius).
' Phere is alfo a Minnith mentioned Ezekiel xxvii. as
being in a good wheat country : but whether the
fame with the foregoing is uncertain ; though fome
think that the fir ft Minnith lay in the country of Am¬
mon, (Wells).
MEN
MENNONITES, a fcft in the United Provinces,
in moft refpedts the fame with thofe in other places
called Anabaptijls.
They had their rife in 1536, when Menno Simon,
a native of Friefland, who had been a Romiih prieft,
and a notorious profligate, refigned his rank and office
in the Romiffi church, and publicly embraced tlie com¬
munion of the Anabaptifts.
Menno was born at Witmarfum, a village in the
neighbourhood of Bolfwert in Friefland, in the year
1505, and died in 1361 in the duchy of Holftein, at
the country feat of a certain nobleman not far from
the city of Oldefloe, who, moved with compaffion by
a view of the perils to which Menno was expofed, and
the fnares that were daily laid for his ruin, took him
with certain of his aflbciates into his protection, and
gave him an afylum. The writings of Menno, which
are almoft all compoled in the Dutch language, were
publifhed in folio at Amfterdam in the year t6$i.
About the year 1637, Menno was earneftly folicited
by many of the feCt with which he connected himfelf,
to aflume among them the rank and functions of a
public teacher ; and as he looked upon the perfons
who made this propofal to be exempt from the fana¬
tical phrenfy of their brethren at Munfter, (though
according to other accounts they were originally of
the fame ftamp, only rendered fomewhat wifer by their
fufferings), he yielded to their entreaties. From this
period to the end of his life, he travelled from one
country to another with his wife and children, exer-
cifing hh miniftry, under preflures and calamities of
various kinds, that fucceeded each other without in¬
terruption, and conftantly expofed to the danger of
falling a viftim to the feverity of the laws. Eaft and
Weft Friefland, together with the province of Gro¬
ningen, were firft vifited by this zealous apoftle of the
Anabaptifts ; from whence he direCted his courfe into
Holland, Guelderland, Brabant, and Weftphalia, con¬
tinued it through the German provinces that lie on
the coafts of the Baltic fea, and penetrated as far as
Livonia. In all thefe places liis minifterial labours
were attended with remarkable fuccefs, and added to
his fed a prodigious number of followers. Hence he
is defervedly confidered as the common chief of almoft
all the Anabaptijls, and the parent of the fed that ftill
iubfifts under that denomination. Menno was a man
of genius, undireded by a very found judgment ; he
pofleffed a natural and perfuafive eloquence, and fuch
a degree of learning as made him pafs for an oracle in
the eftimation of the multitude. He appears, more¬
over, to have been a man of probity, of a meek and
tradable fpirit, gentle in his manners, pliable and ob-
fequious in his commerce with perfons of all ranks and
charaders, and extremely zealous in promoting prac¬
tical religion and virtue, which he recommended by
his example as well as by bis precepts. The plan of
dodrine and difcipline drawn up by Menno was of a
much more mild and moderate nature than that of the
4
5°8. ]
furious and fanatical Anabaptists, whofe tumultuous
proceedings have been recited under that article, but
fomewhat more fcvere, though more clear and con-
fiftent than the dodrine of the wifer branches of that
fed, who aimed at nothing more than the reftoration
of the Chritiian church to its primitive purity. Ac¬
cordingly he condemned the plan of ecclefiaftical dif¬
cipline that was founded on the profped of a new
kingdom, to be miraculoufly eftabliihed by Jefus Chrift
on the ruins of civil government and the deltrudion
of human rulers, and which had been the fatal and
peftilential fource of fuch dreadful commotions, fuch
execrable rebellions, and fuch enormous crimes. He
declared publicly his dillike of that dodrine, which
pointed out the approach of a marvellous reformation
in the church by the means of a new and extraordi¬
nary effufion of the Holy Spirit. He expreffed his
abhorrence of the licentious tenets, which feveral of
the Anabaptifts had maintained, with refped to the
lawfulnefs of polygamy and divorce ; and finally, con¬
fidered as unworthy of toleration thofe fanatics who
were of. opinion that the Holy Ghoft continued to
defeend into the minds of many chofen believers, in
as.extraordinary a manner as he did at the firft efta-
bliffiment of the Chriftian church, and that he teftified
this peculiar prefence to feveral of the faithful by mi¬
racles, predidions, dreams, and vifions of various kinds.
He retained indeed the dodrines commonly received
among the Anabaptifts, in relation to the baptifm of
infants, the millennium, or 1000 years reign of Chrift
upon earth, the exclufion of magiftrates from the
Chriftian church, the abolition of war, and the pro¬
hibition of oaths enjoined by our Saviour, and the
vanity as well as the pernicious effeds of human feience.
But while Menno retained thefe dodrines in a gene¬
ral fenfe, he explained and modified them in fuch a
manner as made them refemble the religious tenets that
were univerfally received in the Proteftant churches 5
and this rendered them agreeable to many, and made
them appear inoffenfive even to numbers who had no
inclination to embrace them. It however fo happened,
that the nature of the dodrines confidered in them-
felves, the eloquence of Menno which fet them off to
fuch advantage, and the circumftances of the times,
gave a high degree of credit to the religious fyftem of
this famous teacher among the Anabaptifts, fo that
it made a rapid progrefs in that fed. And thus it
was in confequence of the miniftry of Menno, that the
different forts of Anabaptifts agreed together in ex¬
cluding from their communion the fanatics that dif-
honoured it, and in renouncing all tenets that were
detrimental to the authority of civil government, and
by an unexpeded coalition formed themfelves into one
community.
Though the Mennonites ufually pafs for a fed of
A.nabaptifts, yet M. Herman Schyn, a Mennonite
minifter, who has publiflied their hiftory and apology,
maintains, that they are not Anabaptifts either' in
principle or by origin. However, nothing can be
more certain than this fad, viz. that the "firft Men¬
nonite congregations were compofed of the different
forts of Anabaptifts, of thofe who had been always
inoffenfive and upright, and of thofe who, before their
converfion by the miniftry of Menno, had been fedi-
tious fanatics : befides, it is alleged, that the Menno-
tiites
MeniHj.
nites,
M E N [ 509 ] M K N
jkfenr.o- nites do actually retain, at this day, fome of thofe
nkes. opinions and doctrines, which led the feditious and
turbulent Anabaptifts of old to the com mi fh on of fo
many and fuch enormous crimes : fuch particularly is
the doctrine concerning the nature of Chrift’s king¬
dom, or of the church of the New Teftament, though
modified in fuch a manner as to have loft its noxious
qualities, and to be no longer pernicious in its influ¬
ence.
The Mennonites are fubdivided into feveral feels ;
whereof the two principal are the Flanclrians or
Flemingians, and the Waterlandians. The opi¬
nions, fays Moflheim, that are held in common by the
Mennonites, feem to be all derived from this fundamen¬
tal principle, that the kingdom which Chrift eftablilh-
ed upon earth is a vifible church or community, into
which the holy and juft alone are to be admitted, and
which is confequently exempt from all thofe inftitu-
tions and rules of difeipline that have been invented
by human wifdom, for the correction and reformation
of the wicked. This principle, indeed, was avowed
by the ancient Mennonites, but it is now almoft whol¬
ly renounced : neverthelefs, from this ancient doftrine,
many of the religious opinions that diftinguifh the
Mennonites from all other Chriftian communities,
feem to be derived : in confequence of this doClrine,
they admit none to the facrament of baptifm but
perfons that are come to the full ufe of their reafon 5
they neither admit civil rulers into their communion,
nor allow any of their members to perform the func¬
tions of magiftraev ; they deny the lawfulnefs of re¬
pelling force by force, and confider war, in all its
ftiapes, as unchriftian and unjuft } they entertain the
utmoft averfion to the execution of juftice, and more
efpecially to capital punifhments ; and they alfo refufe
to confirm their teftimony by an oath. The particu¬
lar fentiments that divided the more confiderable fo-
cieties of the Mennonites are the following : The rigid
Mennonites, called the Flemingicais, maintain with va¬
rious degrees of rigour, the opinions of their founder
Menno, as to the human nature of Chrift, alleging
that it was produced in the womb of the Virgin by
the creating power of the Holy Ghoft ; the obligation
that binds us to wadi the feet of ftrangers, in confe¬
quence of our Saviour’s command 5 the neceflity of
excommunicating and avoiding, as one would do the
plague, not only avowed finners, but alfo all thofe who
depart, even in fome light inftances pertaining to drefs,
&c. from the fimplicity of their anceftors 5 the con¬
tempt due to human learning, and other matters of lefs
moment. However this auftere fyftem declines, and
the rigid Mennonites are gradually approaching towards
the opinions and difeipline of the more moderate or
IVt-terlanilians.
The firft fettlement of the Mennonites, in the Unit- Menao-
ed Provinces, was granted them by William prince of nijcs
Orange, towards the clofe of the 16th century ; but it Menfores
was not before the following century that their liberty ■
and tranquillity were fixed upon folid foundations,
when, by a confeflion of faith publiftied in the year
1626, they cleared themfelves from the imputations of
thofe pernicious and deteftable errors that had been
laid to their charge. In order to appeafe their intef-
tine difeords, a confiderable part of the Anabaptifts of
Flanders, Germany, and Friefland, concluded their de¬
bates in a conference held at Amfterdam, in the year
1630, and entered into the bonds of fraternal commu¬
nion, each referving to themfelves a liberty of retain¬
ing certain opinions. This afl'oeiation was renewed
and confirmed by new refolutions, in the year 1649 j
in confequence of which, the rigorous laws of Menno
and his fucceflbrs were, in various refpedts, mitigated
and corre£ted.
MENOLOGY, Menologium, (from month,
and Xoycs, difcourfe), is much the fame as martyrology,
or calendar, in the Latin.
The Greek menologium is divided into the feveral
months in the year •, and contains an abridgment of
the lives of the faints, with a bare enumeration of the
names of fuch whofe lives were never written. The
Greeks have various menologies *, and the Romans tax
them with inferting, divers heretics in their menologies
as faints.—Baillet treats of them at large.
MENS A, in law books, a term that includes in it
all patrimony, and neceflaries for livelihood.
MENSALS, Mensalia, in church hiftory, fuch
livings as were formerly united to the tables of religi¬
ous houfes, and hence called ?nenfal benefices. See the
article Benefice.
MENSES, Catamenia, in Medicine, the monthly
evacuations from the uterus of women not with child
or not giving fuck. They are fo called from menjis
“ month,” the period wherein they return. They are
alfo called flowers, courfes, &c. By the Jewilh law a
woman was unclean while the menftrual blood flowed ;
and the man who touched her, and the moveables fhe
had touched, were declared unclean.—Lev. xv. See
Midwiffery and Medicine.
MENSORES, among the Romans, were harbingers,
whofe bufinefs it was to go before the emperor, and fix
upon lodgings for him when he travelled into any of the
provinces. They alfo marked out encampments,, and
afligned every regiment its poll.
Mcnfores were alfo land-furveyors, architefls, or ap-
praifers of houfes and public buildings. The diftribu-
tors of provifions in the army were called menfores fru-
mentarii. And menfores was alfo an appellation given
to fervants who w aited at table..
MENSURATION.
T^VERY branch of the mathematics which has for its
‘ object the comparifon of geometrical quantities, and
the determination of their proportions to each other,
may be comprehended under the general name Menfu-
ration. So that, taking the term in its moft extenfive
fenfe, whatever is delivered in this work under the titles
Geometry, Trigonometry, Conic Sections, part
of Algebra, and a very confiderable portion of Flux¬
ions, may. be confidered as eonftituting particular
branches of this general theory.
Hhe>
1
5io
Tables of
Meafures.
MENSURATION.
The term menfuration, however, is alfo frequently
ufed in a lefs extenfive fenfe, and is applied to a fyftem
of rules and methods by which numerical meafures of
geometrical quantities are obtained. And it is to this
limited view of the fubjeft that we propofe to confine
our attention in the prefent treadle. In general,
it will only be necefiary to give the practical rules, as
we have already explained their foundation -when treat¬
ing of Geometry, Conic Sections, and Fluxions ;
but, in addition to the rules, m a few inilancv.s, ive lhall
give their demonftrations.
In all practical applications of mathematics it is ne-
ceffary to exprefs magnitudes of every kind by num¬
bers. For this purpofe a line of fome determinate
length, as one inch, one foot, &c. is affamed as the
meafuring unit of lines, and the number exprefling how
often this unit is contained in any line, is the numerical
value or meafure of that line.
A fnrface of fome determinate figure and magnitude
is aflumed as the meafuring unit of furfaces, and the
number of units contained in any furface is the nume¬
rical meafure of that furface, and is called its area. It
is ufual to aflume, as the meafuring unit of furfaees, a
fquare, whofe fide is the meafuring unit of lines.
A folid of a determinate figure and magnitude is in
like manner aflumed as the meafuring unit of folids, and
the number of units contained in any folid is its folidity
or content. The unit of folids is a cube, each of whofe
edges is the meafuring unit of lines, and confequently
each of its faces the meafuring unit of furfaces.
A right angle is conceived to be divided into 90
equal angles 4 and one of thefe, called an angle of one
degree, is aflumed as the meafuring unit of angles.
The meafures generally employed in the application
of menfuration to the common affairs of life, and their
proportions to each other, are exprefled in the following
tables.
Table of Lineal Meafures.
iT2 Inches
3 Feet
6 Feet
5-J Yards
40 Poles
8 Furlongs
3 Miles
69^ Miles nearly
360 Degrees
1 Foot.
1 Yard.
1 Fathom.
1 Pole, Rod, or Perch,
j Furlong.
1
rr 1 Mile.
1 League.
1 Degree.
The earth’s circumference.
Note. An inch is fuppofed equal to three barley-
morns in length.
4 Inches =r 1 Hand, or handsbreadth.
5 Feet — 1 Geometrical Pace.
4 Poles or 66 Feet 1
100 Links each Inches
74 Feet = 1 Scots chain.
Englilh chain.
Table of Square Meafures.
144 Square Inches
9 Square Feet
30-J Square Yards
40 Square Poles
4 Roods or 160 Square Poles
Foot fquare.
Yard.
Pole.
Rood.
Acre.
10 Square Chains ”5
or 100,000 Square Links J
640 Square Acres = 1 Square Mile.
1 Acre.
Note. The Scots acre is to the Englifh acre as
100,000 to 78,694.
Table of Solid Meafures.
1728 Cubic Inches = 1 Cubic Foot.
27 Cubic Feet = 1 Cubic Yard.
Note,
282 Cubic inches make 1 Ale Gallon.
231 1 Wine Gallon.
2150.42 a Winchefter Buffiel.
105 Cubic inches 1 Scots Pint.
The Wheat Firlot contains 21^ Scots Pints.
The Barley Firlot 31 Scots Pints.
SECTION I.
OF THE MENSURATION OF RIGHT LINES
AND ANGLES.
The rules by which certain of the fides or angles of
a triangle are to be found, when other fides and angles
are given, might be confidered as belonging to this
part of menfuration. But as thefe are fully invefti-
gated and explained in the article Plane Trigono¬
metry, it is not neceflary to deliver them alfo here.
Referring therefore to that article, rve fliall employ the
remainder of this fedtion in the application of trigono¬
metry to the menfuration of heights and diftances.
Menfuration of Heights and Di/lances.
By the application of geometry the meafurement of
lines, which, on account of their pofition or other cir-
cumftances, are inacceflible, is reduced to the determi¬
nation of angles, and of other lines which are accef-
fible, and admit of being meafured by methods fuffi-
ciently obvious.
A line confidered as traced on the ground may be
meafured with rods or a Gunter’s chain of 66 feet; but
more expeditioufly with meafuring tapes of 50 or 100
feet. By thefe, if the ground be tolerably even, and
the diredlion of the line be traced pretty corredtly, a
diftance may, by ufing proper care, be meafured with¬
in about 3 inches of the truth in every 50 feet, fo that
the error may not exceed the 200th part-of the whole
line.
Vertical angles may be meafured with a quadrant
furniftied with a plummet and fights in the manner isi- CccxxXIIj
dicated by fig. 1. and fig. 2. If an angle of elevation is
to be meafured, as the angle contained by a horizontal
line AC, and a line drawn from A to B the top of a
tow’er, hill, or other eminence; or to a celeftial body,
as a ftar, &c.; the centre of the quadrant muft be fixed
at A, and the inftrument moved about A, in the ver¬
tical plane, till to an eye placed at G the objeft B
be feen through the two fights D, d. Then will the
arch EF, cut off by the plumb-line AF, be the meafure
of the angle CAB.
An angle of depreflion CAB (fig. 2.) is to be mea¬
fured exactly in the fame manner, except that here the
eye
Plate
Of' Ri;
Xincs i
Ang!
M E N S U
eye is to be placed at A the centre of the inftrament,
and the meafure of the angle is the arch EF.
But the moft convenient inftrument of any for ob-
ferving angles, whether vertical or horizontal, is the
Theodolite. This inftrument is varioufiy conllructed, fo
as to admit of being fold at a higher or lower price, ac¬
cording to the degree of accuracy the purehafer may
wi(h to attain in his obfervations with it. An inilru-
merit of this kind is reprefented in fig. 3. Its principal
parts are, x. A telefcope and its level CC, D. 2. The
vertical arc BB. 3. The horizontal limb and compafs
A A. The limb is generally about 7 inches in diame¬
ter. 4. The ftaff with its parallel plates E.
The telefcope CC in the bell inllrumentts is general¬
ly of the achromatic kind, in order to obtain a larger
field and greater magnifying power. In the focus of
the eye glafs are two very fine hairs or wires, at right
angles to each other, whofe intcrfeclion is in the plane
of the vertical arc. The object glafs may be moved
to different diltances from the eye glafs by turning the
milled nut a, and thus may be accommodated to the
eye of the obferver and diltance of the objedh The
fcrews for moving and adjulting the crofs hairs, are
funk a little within the eye tube. On the outfide of
the telefcope are two metal rings which are ground per-
fectly true. Thefe are to lie on the fupporters e, <?, call¬
ed Y’s, which are fixed to the vertical arc. The ver¬
tical arc BB is firmly fixed to a long axis which is at
right angles to the plane of the arc. This axis is fuf-
tained by, and moveable on, the two fupporters, which
are fixed firmly to the horizontal plate. On the upper
part of the vertical arc are the two Y’s for holding the
telefcope } the inner fides of thefe are fo framed as to
be tangents to the cylindric rings of the telcfcope, and
therefore bear only on one part. The telefcope is con¬
fined to the Y’s by two loops which turn on a joint,
and may therefore be readily opened and turned back
when the two pins are taken out.
One fide of the vertical arc is graduated to half de¬
grees, which are fubdivided to every minute of a de¬
gree by a nonius. It is numbered each xvay •, from o
to 90° towards the eye end for angles of altitude, and
from o to 50° towards the objefl end for angles of de-
preflion. On the other fide of the vertical arc are two
ranges of divifions, one for taking the upright height
of timber in 100th parts of the diftance between the in¬
ftrument and tree whofe height is to be meafured j and
the other for reducing hypothenufal lines to fuch as are
horizontal.
The vertical arc is cut with teeth or a rack, and
may be moved regularly, and with eafe, by turning the
milled nut b.
The compafs is fixed to the upper horizontal plate,
its ring is divided into 360°, and the bottom of the box
is divided into four parts or quadrants, each of which is
fubdivided to every 10®. The magnetic needle is fup-
ported in the middle of the box upon a fteel pin finely
pointed, and there is a wire trigger for throwing the
needle off the point when not in ufe.
The horizontal limb A A confifts of two plates, one
moveable on the other, the outermoft edge of the up¬
per plate is chamfered to ferve as an index to the de¬
grees on the lower. The upper plate, together with
the compafs, vertical arc, and telefcope, are eafily
turned round by a pinion fixed to the ferew c; d is a
RATION.
nut for fixing the index to any part of the limb, and
thereby rendering it fecure, while the inftrument is
moved from one ftation to another. The horizontal
limb is divided into half degrees, and numbered from
the right hand towards the left 5 the divifions are fub¬
divided by the nonius fcale to every minute of a de¬
gree.
On the upper plate, towards the nonius, are a few
divifions fimilar to thofe on the vertical arc, giving the
1 ooth parts, for meafuring the diameter of trees, buikU
ings, &c.
The whole inftrument fits on the conical ferril of a
ftrong brafs-headed ftaff, with three fubftantial wooden
legs. The top or head of the ftaff confifts of two brafs
plates E, parallel to each other : four fcrews pafs through
the upper plate and reft on the lower plate 5 by the
adtion of thefe the horizontal limb may be fet truly le¬
vel, and for this purpofe a ftrong pin is fixed to the out¬
fide of the plate, and connedled with a ball that fits in¬
to a focket in the lower plate ; the axis of the pin and
ball are fo framed as to be perpendicular to the plate,
and confequently to the horizontal limb.
There are three adjuftments neceffary before the in¬
ftrument is applied to the menfuration of angles. In
the firft place, care muft be taken that the line of colli-
mation (that is, the line of vifion palling through the
crofs hairs) be exadtly in the centre of the cylindric
rings round the telefcope ; in the next place, that the
level be parallel to this line 5 and, laftly, the horizon¬
tal limb muft be fo fet, that when the vertical arc is at
‘zero, and the upper part moved round, the bubble
of the level will remain in the middle of the open
fpace.
When thefe adjuftments are made, and the inftru¬
ment is to be applied to pradlice, the lower plate of the
horizontal limb A A being fuppofed to remain unmoved
and parallel to the horizon, the telefcope is to be di¬
rected fuccefiively to the different objedls, whofe angu¬
lar pofitions are to be determined, by means of the pi¬
nions at c and b ; (the former of which turns the upper
part of the inftrument round in a horizontal plane, and
the latter turns the arc BB in a vertical plane). Then,
the angle which a line pafting through the axis of the
telefcope and any objedt makes with the horizon, will
be indicated by the arc of the vertical circle between o°
and the index engraved on the nonius fcale H fixed to
the upper plate of the horizontal limb of the inftru¬
ment. Alfo, the horizontal angle contained by two
vertical planes conceived to pafs through any two ob-
jedts and the centre of the inftrument, will be fhewn by
the arc of the lower plate of the horizontal limb over
which the index engraved on the upper plate has paffed
by the diredtion of the telefcope being changed from
the one objedt to the other.
Having thus explained fhortly the nature of the in-
ftruments by which acceflible lines and angles are to
be meafured, and the manner of applying them, we
fliall now fliew, by a few examples, how to find from
thefe other lines which cannot be determined by a di-
redt meafurement.
Example 1. Having meafured AE, a diftance of Fig- 4*
200 feet in a direct horizontal line from the bottom of
a tower, the angle BCD, contained by the horizontal
line CD ; and a line drawn from C to the top of the
tower,
511
Of Right
Lines and
Angles.
512
Of Right
Lines and
A ngles.
MENSURATION.
to wet, was meafured by a quadrant, or theodolite pla¬
ced at C, and found to be q'y0 30*. The centre C of
the inftrument Avas five feet above the line AE at its
extremity E. It is required hence to determine AE
the height of the tower.
In the right-angled triangle CBD avc have given
the fide CD—200 feet, and the angle Cr=47° 30'.
And fince by the rules of Plane Trigonometry,
rad. : tan. BCD :: DC : DB ;
By employing the logarithmic tables (fee Loga¬
rithms), and proceeding as is taught in Plane
Trigonometry, avc fliall find D B rr 218.3 feet.
To Avhich add DArrEC—5 feet, the height of the in¬
ftrument, and avc have AB=223-3 feet, the heieht
of the toAver.
Ex. 4. At B the top of a toAver Avhich flood on
a hill near the fea ftiore, tlie angle of depreflion of a k*nes and
lhip at anchor (viz. the angle HBS), Avas 40 32' 5 and AnSles
at R, the bottom of the tower, its depreflion (namely, j-;ir 'r'"
the angle NRS) Avas 40 2'. Rcquired^S the horizon- 7’
tal diftance of the veffelj and alfo RA, the height of the
bottom of the toAver above the level of the fea, fuppofing
RB the height of the toAver itfelf to be 54 feet.
From the angle BSAzrHBS=40 52', fubtraft the
angle RS A—N R S=40 2', and there remains the angle
BSR=5o'. Alfo, from the angle HBAnrqo0 fubtra6l
HBS=4° 52', and there remains SBR=:8508/.
In the triangle SBR,
Sin. BSR : fin. SBR :: BR : SR ;
Hence SR is found. Again, in the triangle SRA,
5- Ex. 2. Suppofe a cloud, or balloon C, is feen at the
fame time by tAvo obfervers at A and B, and that thefe
ftations are in the fame vertical plane Avith the object
C, and on the fame fide of it. Alfo fuppofe that its
angles of elevation, viz. the angles A and B are 350
and 64°, and that AB, the diftance betAveen the ob¬
fervers, is 880 feet. It is required hence to determine
CD the height of the objedl, alfo AC,BC its diftances
from the tAvo obfervers.
In the triangle CAB there are given the outward
angle CBDrrbq0, and one of the inAvard angles Ar=
35° 5 bence the other inward angle ACB, Avhich is
their difference, is given, and ~6i\°—350rr29°.
Noav in the triangle CAB
Sin. ACB : fin. A :: AB : BC,
and fin. ACB : fin. B :: AB : AC.
From thefe proportions, by attual calculation, BC Avill
be found = 1041 feet, and AC = 1631 feet.
Again, in the right-angled triangle BCD
rad. : fin. B :: BC : CD,
Hence CD will be found = 936 feet.
rad. : fin. RSA :: SR : AR,
and rad. : cof. RSA :: SR : AS.
From the firft of thefe proportions avc find AR=r26o
feet and from the fecond, AS—3690 feet.
Ex. 5. To meafure the height of an obelilk CD, Fig. 3,
{landing on the top of a declmty, tAvo ftations at A
and B Avere taken, one at the diitance of 40, and the
other at the diftance of 100 feet from the centre of its
bafe, Avhich Avas in a ftraight line Avith the ftations.
At the nearer ftation A, a line draAvn from it to the
top of the obelilk was found to make an angle of 410
Avith the plane of the declivity ; and at B, the more
remote ftation, the like angle Avas found to be 230 45'.
Hence it is required to find the height of the obe¬
lilk.
From the angle CAD = 41°, fubtraft the angle
B = 230 45', and there remains the angle BCA
I7° I5'-
In the triangle BCA,
Sin.BCA: fin.B:: AB: AC. Hence AC=:8i.49 feet.
And in the triangle A CD,
6. Ex. 3. Wanting to knoiv the breadth CD of a river,
and alfo the diftance of an objeft A clofe by its fide
from another object C on its oppofite fide, a bafe AB
of 400 yards was meafured along the bank. Then, by
means of a theodolite, the angles CBA and CAB
were meafured, and found to be 370 40' and 590 15'
refpeftively. It is required thence to determine the
breadth CD, and the diftance AC between the obiefts
A and C.
This example differs from the laft only by the given
angles, and diftances required, lying in a horizontal
inftead of a vertical plane.
In the triangle ABC Ave have the bafe AB, alfo the
angles A and B, and confequently the angle C given.
And by Plane Trigonometry,
Sin. ACB : fin. B :: AB : AC.
Hence AC is found to be 246.2 yards.
Alfo, in the right-angled triangle ACD,
rad, ; fin. A :: AC : CD.
Hence CD is found to be 211.6 yards.
AC-}-AD: AC—AD:: tan. |(D -f- C): tan.| (D—C).
Hence 4 (D—C):=42e 24'4, which, fubtra&ed from
4 (D + C), gives the angle ACD=:270 3'^.
Laftly, in the triangle ACD,
Sin. ACD : fin. A :: AD : DC.
Hence DC, the height required, Avill be found to be
37.62 feet.
Ex. 6. Wanting to knorv the diftance between twopG
inacceflible objects H and M, a bafe AB of 670 yards
wras meafured in the fame plane Avith the objedb, and
the following angles Avere taken at its extremities.
At A^
BAM-400 16'
MAHzzyy 40
ABH-420
HBM-71
22'
1
Hence it is required to determine HM, the diftance bc-
tAveen the objects.
In the triangle HAB Ave have the angle LIR A —
420 22', the angle HAB ( — HAM MAB) ^
9f
MENSURATION.
Of
Ltnei and
Angles.
0 56', and therefore the remaining angle AHB ~
42'. We have alfo the fide AB rr 670 yards.
I
Hence, by this proportion,
Sin. AHB : fin. HBA
AB : AH.
we find AH—706.8 yards.
Again, in the triangle MAB we have the angle
MAB=40° 16', the angle ABM ( = ABH-f-HBM)
= 113° 29', and therefore the angle AMB —26° 15'.
Hence from the proportion,
Sin. AMB : fin. ABM :: AB : AM
we get AM—1389.4.
In the triangle HAM, befides the angle HAM=
570 40' we have now the fides AH — 706.8, and
AMr=i389.4 yards, to find the remaining fide HM.
Therefore, proceeding according to the rules of trigo¬
nometry, we Hate this proportion,
AM +AH : AM— \H :: tan. 4(AHM-f AMH) :
tan. ^(AHM—AMH.)
Hence we find half the difference of the angles AHM
and AMH to be 30° 36', which taken from 6i° 10',
half the fum, leaves 300 34' for AMH the leafi: of the
two angles. Laftly, from the proportion
Sin. HMA : fin. HAM :: HA : HM,
we get HM = 1174 yards, the anfwer to the quef-
tion.
Fig. te. Ex. 7. There are three objects A, B, C, whofe dif-
tances afunder are known to be as follows ; namely,
from A to B 1064-, from A to C 202, and from B to
C 131 fathoms. Now to determine the diftance of D
a fourth objeft, or ftation, from each of the other three,
the angle ADB was meafured with a theodolite, or
other fuitable inftrument j and found to be 130 30', and
the angle CDB wras found 290 50'. Hence it is re¬
quired to determine the diftances DA, DB, and DC,
fuppofing DB the leaf! of the three.
Let a circle be defcribed about the points A, D and
C •, and let DB be produced to meet the circle again
in E, and draw AE, CE.
In the triangle AEC there are given the fide AC=
202 fathoms, the angle ACE (irADE. Geom. Se£I.
II. Theor. I5.)=:i30 30', and the angle CAE (—
CDE) = 29° 50'. Hence (by Tricon.) we fhall have
AE=z68.7i6 fathoms.
In the triangle ABC, all its fides are given, and
hence the angle BAC will be found =35° 35' 54" •,
to this, add the angle CAE, and the fum is the angle
EAB=6t° 25' 54".
In the triangle ABE, we have given AB=r 106.5
AE=68.7i6, the angle BAE—63° 25' ^4" 5 hence
we fhall have the angle ABE—38° 43' 41", and the
angle AEB=7q° 51' 25".
In the triangle ADE we have the fide AE=r68 716,
the angle ADE=i3° 33', and the angle AED-=r7 30
51' 25". Hence we have AD=r 285.43 fathoms, which
is one of the difiances required.
In the triangle ABD w'e have ABrr 106.5, the angle
ADBr=i3° 3oh the angle DAB (=r ABE—ADB)
250 13' 43". Hence BD, another of the diftances
fought, will be found =194.45 fathoms.
Laftlv, In the triangle ADC, there is given AC=
Vol. XIII. Part II.
202, the angle ADC (=ADB + BDC) =43° 20', Of Ri -ht
the angle DCA (rrDEA) —750 *5' 25''. Hence we ^nes an<^
get DCzr256.97 fathoms, which is the remaining dif- . r |lS'es' .
tance fought.
Ex. 8. From a (hip at fea a point of land was ob-Fig n*
ferved to bear E. by S. and alter tailing N. E. 12
miles, the fame point was iound to bear S. E. by E.
How far was the lafi oblervation made irum the point
of land ?
Let A be the firft pofition ol the Ihip, B the ftcond,
and C the point of land. In the triangle ABC we
have given the angle A=r 5 points or 56° 15', the angle
B=9 points, or 101° 15', and the angle C= 2 points
or 2?0 30'. Alfo the fide Alim 2 miles. Hence (by
Tricon.) the fide BC is readily found to be 26.073
miles.
There are various other inftruments and methods by
which the heights or diltances of objects may be found.
One of the moft timple inftruments, both in reipedt of
its conftruction and application, is a fquare, A BCD,
made of fome folid material, and furnilhed with two Fig. i i,
fights on AB, one of its edges, and a plummet faf-
tened to A, one of its angles, and having the two fides
BC, CD, which contain the oppofite angle divided into
10, or 100, or 1000 equal parts.
To meafure any altitude HK with this inftrument.Fig. 13.
Let it be held in fuch a pofition that K, the top of the
objedl may be feen through the fights on its edge AB,
while its plane is perpendicular to the horizon •, then
the plummet will cut olf from the fquare a triangle
fimilar to that formed by the horizontal line A I, the
vertical line IK, and the line AK drawn from the eye
to the top of the objedl.
If the line of the plummet pafs through D the oppo¬
fite angle of the fquare, then the height KI will be
equal to A I, the diftance of the eye from the vertical
line to be meafured. If it meet AD, the fide of the
fquare next the eye, in fome point E between A and
D, then the triangles ABE, AIK, being fimilar, and
the angle ABE equal to the angle AKI, we have
AE : AB :: AI : IK. Let us now fuppofe AD=
AB to be divided into 1000 equal parts; then the
length of AE will be exprefied by a certain number
of thefe parts ; thus the proportion of AE to AB, and
confequently that of AI to IK will be given ; there¬
fore if AI be determined by a£tual meafurement, we
may from the above proportion immediately find IK.
if again the line of the plummet meet DC the fide of
the fquare oppofite to the fights in F, then, in the fimilar
triangles AIK, BCE, the angle AKI is equal to BFC j
thus we have BC : CF :: AI : IK. Hence IK is de¬
termined as before, and in each cafe by adding HI the
height of the eye, we ftiall have HK the whole height
required.
SECTION II.
MENSURATION OF PLANE FIGURES.
Problem I.
To find the area of a parallelogram, whether it be
a fquare, a rectangle, a rhombus, or a rhom¬
boid.
3T
Rule
5T4
MENSURATION.
Of Ptarre
Figures. RULE I.
* * I'.fnllrply the length by the perpendicular breadth,
;and the product will be the area.
This rule is dcmonftrated in Geometry, S,e£l. IV.
Theor. 5.
Tig. 14. Ex. 1. Required the area of a fquare ABCD, whofe
fide AB is 10 J inches.
Here io^-X lo^or x o. 5 X 10.5—110.25 fquare inches
is the area required.
15* Ex. 2. Required the area of a reflangle EFGH,
whofe length EF is 13.75 chains, and breadth FG is
9.5 chains.
Flere 15.75 X 9.5= 130.625 fquare chains is the
area, which, when reduced to acres, &c. is 12 uc. o ro,
10 po.
Fig. 15. Ex. 3. Required the area of a parallelogram KLMN,
whofe length KL is 37 feet, and perpendicular breadth
NO is 5^ or 5.25 feet.
In this example the area is 37 X 5.25=194.25 fquare
feet, or 21.583 fquare yards.
Add together the fquares of the fides about the right Of Plar;J
angle, and the fquare root of the fum will be the hypo- figures,
thenufe. '
2. V hen the hypothenufe and one of the fides about
the right angle is given, to find the other fide.
From the fquare of the hypothenufe fubtradl the
fquare of the given fide, and the fquare root of the re¬
mainder will be the other fide.
This rule is deduced from Theor. 13. Se£t. IV.
Geometry.
iitxumpie j . in a n
fides AB and AC, about the right angle, are 33 feet
and 56 feet 5 what is the length of the hypothenufe
BC ?
Here 33J+562=3I36+1 o89=4225,
and v/,(4225)~65 feet, z=the hypothenufe BC.
, — i7.
Ex. 2. Suppole the hypothenufe BC to be 6? feet,
and AB one of the fides about the right angle to be 33
feet j what is the length ot AC the other fide ?
Here by3—333=4225—1089=3136 j
and •v/(33i6)=56 feet=the fide AC.
Problem III.
Rule II..
As radius,
To the fine of any angle of the parallelogram,
So is the product of the fides including the angle,
To the area of the parallelogram.
To fee the reafon of this rule it is only necefiary to
obferve, that in the parallelogram KLMN, the per¬
pendicular breadth NO is a fourth proportional to ra-
dius, fine of the angle K, and the oblique line KN,
(Trigonometry), and is therefore equal to
rad.
X KN ; therefore the area of the figure is
rad.
X KN X KL, which expreflion is the fame as the refult
obtained by the above rule.
Ex. Suppofe the fides K'L and KN are 36 feet, and
25.5 feet, and the angle K is 58°, required the area.
Here it will be convenient to employ the table of lo¬
garithms given at the end of the article Logarithms.
The operation may Hand thus,
log. rad.
10.00000
log. fin. 58° 9.92842
log- (3^X 25.5)=log. 36-flog. 25.5 2.96284
log. of area 2.89126
arearr 778.5 fquare feeL
Problem II.
Having given any two fides of a right-angled tri-
angle, to find the remaining fide.
Rule.
1. When the fides about the right angle are given,
to find the hypothenufe.
5
To find the area of a triangle.
Rule I.
Mult "Ay any one of its fides by the perpendicular,
let fall upon it from the oppofite angle, and half the
product will be the area.
The truth of this rule is proved in Geometry. Sedh
IV. Theor. 6.
Example. Wrhat is the area of a triangle ABC,
whofe bafe AC is 40, and perpendicular BD is 14.52
chains.
1 he produft of the bafe by the perpendicular, or Fig. 18.
4°X I4-52, is 580.8 fquare chains, the half of which,
or 290.47^. ch.'zz29 ac. o r. 6.4 po. xs the area of the
triangle.
Rule II.
As radius,
To the fine of any angle of a triangle,
So is the produft of the fides including the angle
To twice the area of the triangle.
This rule follows immediately from the fecond rule
of Prob. I. by confidering that the triangle KNL
(%. 16.) is half the parallelogram KNML.
Example. What is the area of a triangle ABC,Fig. xS.
whofe two fides AB and AC are 30 and 40, and the
included angle A is 28° 57' ?
Operation by Logarithms.
log. rad. 10.00000
log- (3°X4o)=log. 3°+%- 40.
log. fin. 28° 57'
log. of twice area
twice area = 580.85'
area 290.42
3.07918
9.68489
2.76407
Rule
MENSURATION.
Of Plar.e
Figures.
Rule III.
Fig. ip-
When the three fides are given, add together the
three fides, and take half the fum. Next, fubtraft
each fide feverally from the laid half fum, thus obtain¬
ing three remainders. Lailly, multiply the laid half
fum, and thofe three remainders all together, and ex-
traft the fquare root of the lalt product for the area of
the triangle.
This pra&ical rule is deduced from the following
geometrical theorem. The area of a triangle is a
mean proportional between two rellang/cs, one cf which
is contained by half tM perinLter of the triangle, and
the exefs of half the perimeter above any one of its
fdes ; and the other is contained by the exceffes of half
the perimeter above each of the other two fides. As this
theorem is not only remarkable, but alfo of great utili¬
ty in menfuration, we tliall here give its demonftra-
tion.
Let ARC then be any triangle ; produce AB, any
one of its fides, and take BD, and B d, each equal to
BC ; join CD and C d, and through A draw a line pa¬
rallel to BC, meeting CD and C d produced in E and
e ; thus the angle AED will be equal to the angle
BCD, (Geometry, Sedl. I. Theor. 21.), that is, to
the angle BDC or ADC, (Seft. I. Theor. 11.) 5 and
hence AErrAD (Se£L I. Theor. 12.) •, and in like
manner, becaufe the angle A e r/ is equal to the angle
BC d, that is, to the angle B r/ C, or A r/ e, therefore
A e~A d.
On A as a centre, at the diftance AD or AE, de-
feribe a circle meeting AC in F and G ; and on the
fame centre, with the diftance A r/ or A e, deferibe an¬
other circle meeting AC in f and £•, and draw BH
and B h perpendicular to CD and C d. Then, becaufe
BD, BC, B d are equal, the point C is in the circum¬
ference of a circle, of which D r/ is the diameter, there¬
fore CD and C d are bifebted at FI and h (Sedft. II.
Theor. 6.) and the angle DC d is a right angle, (Se£E
II. Theor. 17.), and hence the figure CHB h is a reft-
angle, fo that B/z :r: CH CD, and BFI—C/zz=
^Cd.
Join BE, and B e, then the triangle BAG is equal
to each of the triangles EEC, B e C (Seft. IV. Theor.
2. Cor. 2.) •, but the triangle BEC is equal to -§• EC X
BH (Se6t. IV. Theor. 2.), that is to ^ EC d ; and
in like manner the triangle B e C is equal to ^ C x
B //, that is to ^ e C X CD, therefore the triangle ABC
is equal to EC X C z/, and alfo to ^ e C X CD.
Now fince CD : C</:: CE X CD : CEX Cz/y Se<ft. IV.
and alfo CD : Cz/:: C e X CD : C e X Cz/ £ Theor. 3.
ThereforeCE X CD : CE X C z/:: C X CD : Cz=X Cd;
that is, becaufe CE x CD—EC x CG, and C e x C d—
fC xC g (Seft. IV. Corollaries to Theor. 28. and 29.).
FCxCG : CExCz/: CexCD ^CxC^;
which laft proportion (by taking one-fourth of each of its
terms, and fubftituting the triangle ABC for its equi¬
valent values ^ CE X C z/ and C e X CD) gives us
4 FC x^CG : trian. ABC :: trian. ABC : |/C x4Cg.
Now, if it be confidered that the radius of the circle
DGE is AB-|-BC, and that the radius of the circle
g d e is AB—BC, it will readily appear that, putting
2 r for the perimeter of the triangle ABC, we have
FC(=AB+ BC+AC)=2r
CG(=AB-f BC — AC ) — is—2 AC,
/C (=AC-f-^ AB—BC j- j —2x—2 BC,
gC{x=.AC—AB—BC^ ) — 2s—2AB.
Put now a, b, c for the fides AC, BC, and ABrcfpec-
tively, then FCzrr, 4 GC—j—a,\fC—s—b, ^ Cg
—s—c • thus the laft proportion becomes
r X (•i—-«) : trian. ABC :: ZrA/?. ABC: (j—X (r—c),
which conclufion, when exprefled in words at length, is.
evidently the proportion to be demonttrat d.
And as a mean proportional between two quantities
is found by taking the fquare root of the product, it
follows that the area of the triangle ABC, which is a
mean between s x (•!—a) and (r—£) X (r—c), is
equal to
*/^sX 0—a) x (r—b) x (s—c) "|-
which formula, when expreffed in words at length, gives
the preceding rule.
Example. Required the area of a triangle whofe
three fides are 24, 36, and 48 chains refpedlively.
Here 24-{-36-1-48—108 — the fum of the three fides.
And — — rqzr half that fum.
2
Alfo 54—24 = 30, the firft remainder 5 54—36=
18, the fecond remainder j and 54—48=6, the third
remainder.
The produdft of the half fum and remainders is
54 X 3° X 18 X 6= 174960.
And the fquare root of this product is
\/(I7496o):=4i8.28 fiq. ch. the area required.
Problem IV.
To find the area of a trapezoid.
Rule.
Add together the two parallel fides, then multiply
their fum by the perpendicular breadth, or diftance be¬
tween them, and half the product will be the area.
This rule is demonltrated in Geometry, Sect. IV.
Theor. 7.
Example. Required the area of the trapezoid AB
CD, whofe parallel fides AB and DC are 7.5. and
I 2.25 chains, and perpendicular breadth DE is 1 c.4
chains.
The fum of the parallel fides is 7.5-1-12.23 = 19.755
which multiplied by the breadth is
• 9-7 i X 15.4=304.15 5
and half this produdt is
304.1c
—:— = i52-°75/?* c}l'— *Sac- 33-2T°*
the area required.
3 T 2
Problem
5>6
MENSURATION.
Of Plane
Figures.
Problem V.
To find the area of any trapezium.
Rule.
Divide the trapezium into two triangles by a diago¬
nal, then find the areas of thefe triangles, and add them
together.
Note. If two perpendiculars be let fall on the diago¬
nal from the other two oppofite angles, the fum of thefe
perpendiculars being multiplied by the diagonal, half
the product will be the area of the trapezium. The
reafon of this rule is fufficiently obvious.
Fig. 2t. Example. In the trapezium ABCD the diagonal
AC is 42, and the two perpendiculars BE, DF are 16
and 18 : What is its area ?
Here the fum of the perp. is i6-{-18=34, which
multiplied by 42, and divided by 2 gives
^^i=7i4 the area.
Problem VI.
To find the area of an irregular polygon.
Jides, which is demonftrated in Theor. 25. Se&. I. Ofp>an«
Geometry. Figure.
Problem VIII.
To find the diameter and circumference of a cir¬
cle, the one from the other.
Rule I.
As 7 is to 22, fo is the diameter to the circumfer¬
ence, nearly.
As 22 is to 7, fo is the circumference to the diame¬
ter, nearly.
Rule II.
As 113 is to 355’ the diameter to the circum¬
ference, nearly.
.A* 355 to IJ3’ the circumference to the
diameter, nearly.
Rule III.
As 1 is to 3.1416, fo is the diameter to the circum¬
ference, nearly.
. As 3.1416 is to 1, fo is the circumference to the
diameter, nearly.
Rule.
Drarv diagonals dividing the propofed polygon into
trapeziums and triangles ; then find the areas of all thefe
feparately, and add them together for the content of
the whole polygon. The reafon of this rule, and the
manner of applying it, are fufficiently obvious.
Problem VII.
To find the area of a regular polygon.
Rule.
Multiply the perimeter of the polygon, or fum of
its fides, by the perpendicular drawn from its centre
on one of its fides, and take half the produft for the
area.
This rule is only in effeft refolving the polygon into
as many triangles as it has fides, by drawing lines from
its centre to all its angles, then taking the fum of their
areas for the area of the figure.
Pig. aa. Example. Required the area of a regular pentagon
ABODE, whofe fide AB, or BC, &c. is 25 feet, and
perpendicular HK is 17.2 feet.
Here 25 X 5= 125=the perimeter,
And 125=17.2=2150,
And its half I075=the area required.
Note. If only the fide of the polygon be given, its
perpendicular may be found by the following proportion.
As radius,
To the tan. of half the angle of the polygon,
So is half the fide of the polygon,
To the perpendicular.
And here, as well as in all other trigonometrical cal¬
culations, we may employ the table of logarithmic fines
and tangents given in the article Logarithms.
The angle of the polygon, that is, the angle contain¬
ed by any two of its adjacent fides, will be found from
this theorem, The fum of all its interior angles is equal
to twice as many right angles, wanting four, as it has
Note. The refult obtained by the fir ft rule, which is
the leaft accurate of the three, will not differ from the
true anfwer by fo much as its 2400th part. But that
obtained by the fecond rule, which is the moft accurate,
will not differ by fo much as its Ioooooooth part.
The proportion of the diameter of a circle to its cir¬
cumference is inveftigated in Geometry, Se<ft. VI.
Prop. 6. Alfo in Fluxions, § 137 and § 140. The
manner of finding the firft and fecond rules, and others
of the fame kind, is explained in Algebra, Se61. XXI.
But it is impoffible to exprefs exa<ftly, by finite num¬
bers, the proportion of the diameter of the circle to its
circumference.
Example. 1. To find the circumference of a circle
whofe diameter is 20.
By the firft rule,
20 X 22
7 : 22 :: 20 :  =62® the anfwer.
7
Or by the third rule 3.1416 X 20=62.832 the anfwer.
Ex. 2. The circumference of a circle is 10 feet, what
is its diameter ?
By the fecond rule
355 : 113 :: 10 : 3-1831 the anfwer.
Problem IX.
To find the length of any arch of a circle.
Rule I.
As 180 is to the number of degrees in the arch, fo
is 3.1416 times the radius to its length.
To fee the reafon of this rule it is only neceffary to
confider, that 3.1416 times the radius is (by laft rule)
equal to half the circumference, or to an arch of 180°,
and that the length of an arch is proportional to the
number of degrees it contains.
Example.
MENSURATION.
rig. *3
Of Plane Example. Required the length of the arch AEB,
Figures.! whofe chord AB is 6, the radius AC or CB being 9.
Draw CD perpendicular to the chord, then CD will
bifeft the chord in D, and the arch in E. Now in
the right-angled triangle ACD, there is given the hy-
pothenufe A.C~g, and the fide AD~^ j hence, by tri¬
gonometry, the angle ACE will be found to contain
190 28' A—I9,47I degrees. The double of this, or
38.942, is the number of degrees in the whole arch
AEB. Then by the rule
180 : 38.942 :: 9 X 3-1416 : ** 3^_-942 _
180
=6.11701 the anfwer.
Rule II.
From 8 times the chord of half the arch fubtraft the
chord of the whole arch, and y of the remainder will be
the length of the arch nearly.
This rule may be demonftrated briefly thus. Let a
denote an arch of a circle •, then from the feries expref-
fing the fine of an arch in terms of the arch, (fee
Fluxions, § 70. Ear. 3. alfo Trigonometry) we have,
putting rad. = 1,
Sin. ya — ya-
&c.
48^3840
Therefore, if the arch a be fmall, fo that a5 is a very
fmall quantity, then
a3
Sin. 4-« = 4ff~-sneariy*
48
In like manner we have
Rule II.
517
Of Plane
Figures.
Multiply the fquare of the diameter by .7854, and
the produdt will be the area.
The firfi of thefe rules has been demonftrated in
Geometry, Sea. VI. Prop. 3. And the fecond rule
is deduced from the firft, as follows. It appears from
Prop. 6. Sea. VI. Geometry, that the diameter of a
circle being unity, its circumference is 3.1416 nearly,
therefore, by the firft rule, its area is 1x3-1416-1-4
=--7^54' -Rut circles are to one another as the fquares
of their diameters, (Prop. 4.) therefore, putting d for
the diameter of any circle, 1 : d* :: .7854 : .7854 dz
— the area of the circle whofe diameter is d.
Example. What is the area of a circle whofe dia¬
meter is 7.
By the fecond rule 7 X 7 X .7854=38.4846 the area.
By the firft rule 7x3-1416= the circumference.
r™ 7X3.1416x7
I hen   = 7 x 7 X -7^54 the area, the
fame as before.
Problem XI.
To find the area of any fedlor of a circle.
Rule I.
F'g- *3-
Sin. 4flr = 4a-
By means of the two laft equations exterminate the
quantity a3, and the refulting equation is
16 fin. \a — 2 fin. £ « = 3
But 16 fin. « = 8 chord \ a, and 2 fin. -§-« = chord a.
Therefore 8 chord \ a — chord a — 3 a.
Here we have fuppofed the radius of the circle to be
unity $ but the fame muft evidently be true, whatever
be the radius of the circle.
Example. Suppofe as before, that the chord AB is
6, and the radius AC is 9. Then CD= ^/(CA1—AD*)
== ^72= 8.4852814, and DE = 9 — 8.4852814=
0.5147186,
Multiply the radius by half the arch of the fe&or,
and the produdt will be the area, as in the whole circle.
Rule II.
As 360 is to the degrees in the arc of the feftor, fo
is the area of the whole circle to the area of the fedtor.
The firft of thefe rules follows eafily from the rule for
the whole area, by confidering that the whole circum¬
ference is to the arch of the fedlor, as the whole area to
the area of the fedlor, that is,
circum.: arch of fed!. :: rad. X 4 circum. : area of fe<ft.
Hence area of fed!. = rad. X t arch of fedt.
The fecond rule is too obvious to need any formal
proof.
and hence AE= .y/(AD*-j-DE*)=3.043836.
Then by the rule
L24383«X8=_6=6.1I6896
is the length of the arch, nearly the fame as before.
Problem X.
To find the area of a circle.
Rule I.
Multiply half the circumference by half the diame¬
ter, and the produdt will be the area.
Example. To find the area of a circular fedtor ACB F-
whofe arch AEB contains 18 degrees, the diameter lg'2*v
being 3 feet.
I. By the firft rule.
Firft 3.1416x3=9-4248 the circum.
And 360 : 18 :: 9.4248 : .47124 the arch of fedh
Then .47124 X 3-7-4=.3 S343 the area.
2. By the fecond rule.
Firft .7854 X 3*=7-o686 the area of the circle.
Then 360 : 18 7.9686 : .35343 the area.
Problem
MENSURATION.
Problem XII.
To find the area of a fegment of a circle.
Rule I.
Find the area of the feflor having the fame arch
with the fegment by the laft problem. Find alfo the
area contained by the chord of the fegment and the
two radii of the lector. Then take the fum of thefe
two for the anfwer when the fegment is greater than a
femieircle, or take their difference when it is lefs than
a fend circle. As is evident by infnection of the figure
of a fegment.
Example. To find the area of the fegment AEBD A,
its chord AB being 12, and the radius AC or BC 10.
Firft, as AC : AD :: rad. : fin. 36° 52T—36.87 de¬
grees, the degrees in the angle ACE or arch AE.
And their double, or 73.74 = the degrees in the whole
arch AEB.
Now .7854 X 400=314.16 the area of the whole circle.
Therefore 360° : 73.74 :: 314.16 : 64.3504 = area of
the fedfor CAEB.
Again v/(CAl—AD*) — */(ioo—36) = \/64=a8
= DC.
Therefore ADxEC=6x8or48 = area of the tri¬
angle.
Hence feed or ACB A — triangle ACB — 16.3504 the
area of feg. AEBD A.
Problem XIII.
To find the area of any fegment of a parabola,
that is the fpace included by any arch of a pa¬
rabola, and the flraight line joining its extre¬
mities.
Rule.
Multiply the bafe of the fegment by its height, and
take of the produft for the area.
This rule is demonftrated in Prop. 12. Part I. Ci>-
nic Sections.
Example. The bafe AB of a parabolic fegment
ACB is 10, and its altitude CD, (that is, the greateft
line that can be drawn in the fegmert perpendicular to
the bafe AB) is 4 : What is its area ?
80
Here 10 X 4 X -f—— 26-f the area.
Problem XIV.
To find the area of an ellipfe.
Rule.
Multiply the product of the two axes by the number
.7854 for the area of the ellipfe.
For the area of an ellipfe is equal to the area of a
circle whofe diameter is a mean proportional between
the axes of the ellipfe, (CONIC SECTIONS, Part II. Of
Prop. 22.) that is, to the area of a circle, the fquare of
whole diameter is equal to the product of the axes.
But by Prob. X. the area of a circle is equal to the
fquare of the diameter multiplied by .7854 ; therefore
the area of an ellipfe is equal to the produd of the axes
multiplied by the fame number .7854.
Example. If the axes of an ellipfe, ABCD, be 35?^.
and 25. What is the area ?
35 X 25 X-78 .-4=687.225 the area.
Note. As to hyperbolic areas, the mathematical read¬
er will find formulas for their exact menfuration in
Fluxions, § 152. Ex, 4. and 5.
Problem XV.
To find nearly the area of a figure bounded by
any curve line A a a" a'\ &c. P, and a ftraight
line BQ and AB, PQ two other ftraight lines
drawn from the extremities of the curve per¬
pendicular to BQ.
Rule".
Let BQ, the bafe of the figure, he divided into any Fig.
even number of equal parts by the perpendiculars b a,
I' a', b" a", &c. which meet the curve in the points a,
a', a", &c.
Let F and L denote the firll and laft perpendiculars
AB and PQ.
Let E denote the Turn of all the remaining even per¬
pendiculars, viz. a b, a" b'\ a"" b '", the fecond, fourth,
fixth, &c.
Let R denote the futn of the remaining perpendicu¬
lars, viz. a' b', a'" b"\ &e.
And put D for B£, or bb\ See. the common diftance
between the perpendiculars.
Then the area of the figure will be nearly equal to
y-D x (FL -{-4 E-f-2 R) 5
and the approximation will be fo much the more accu¬
rate according as the number of perpendiculars is the
greater.
Demonjlration. Join the tops of the firft and third
perpendiculars by the line A a! meeting the fecond per¬
pendicular in E, and draw CD through a fo as to form
the parallelogram A a'DC; then the fpace bounded
by the curve line Aoa' and the three ftraight lines
AB, B b’, b' a' will be made up of the trapezoid
AB b' a', and the fpace bounded by the arch A a a'
and its chord A a'. Now if the arch A a a' be fmall,
this laft fpace will be nearly two-thirds of the parallelo¬
gram AD, for it will be nearly equal to the area con¬
tained by the ftraight line A a\ and an arch of a para¬
bola palling through the points A, a, and having
ab for a diameter, which area is of its circumfcribing
parallelogram. (Conic Sections, Parti. Prop. 12.).
Therefore the fpace Ana' b'EA. will be nearly equal
to the fitm of the trapezoid AB b' a' and y of the pa¬
rallelogram AD, which fum is evidently equal to \ of
the trapezoid AB b' a'r together with \ of the trapt zoid
CB b' D.
I
M E N S U
)f plane CB^'D. Now the area of the trapezoid AB £'a' is
f^IL AB + W'' x ^b, Sea. IV# Xheor. 7 )
^ ^ 2B b; and in like manner the area of the
2
trapezoid CB is X B Z' = o Z» X 2 B Z> ;
therefore the area of the figure A a a' b' B is nearly
t-X X2BZ>-f|X«Z,x2B3
—y( AB-h4« b-\-a' Z>')B b.
In the very fame way it may be {hewn that the area
of the figure a! a" a'" b'" b' is nearly
10' Z*'+4«" b" +a"' b,n) x B Z-,
and that the area of the figure a"' a1'1 PQb'" is nearly
|(rt'" Z<"' + 4ftiv Z-iv+PQ^) x B
Therefore, the area of the whole figure bounded by
the curve line AP, and the ftraight lines AB, B£), Q^P,
is nearly equal to the fum of thefe three expreflions,
namely to
r AB+pg t
yBZ»x -i -{-4(« Z'-j-a"Z1V) >
L+zO'Z.'+a'" b'") J
as was to be demonftrated.
ig. 27. Example 1. Let it be required to find the area of the
quadrant ABC, whereof the radius AC—1.
Let AC be bifefted by the perpendicular DE, and
let CD be divided into four equal parts by the perpen¬
diculars mn, p q, r s. Now becaufe CA=i, therefore
CD=J, Cr=r|-, C79—g-, Cm—^. Hence DE —
^/(EC*—CD*)zr\/(I—i) —is/ 3 i and inlike manner
rs=?\/Ts,Ef=i*yI5> w»=W/63- Therefore
F+L=i-f-4\/3 — i-866o
4E=ix/55+4^/63 — 7.6767
2R=4s/i5 = 1.9365
The fum 11.4792
Multiply by y D = ^
The product: is *4783
Subtract the triangle CDE rr .2165
There remains the feftor CBE rr .2618
The triple of which is the quadrant ABC=: .7854
g. 2S. Ex. 2. To find the area of the hyperbola FDM, of
which the abfeifs FMrrrio, the femiordinate MD—12,
and femitranfverfe CF—15.
Let FM be divided into five equal parts by the femi-
ordinates pq, rs. ThusCH=ri7, C vj— 19,
Cjerrli, Cr—23, CMrrzj. Now, fince from the
nature of the curve, —CF*) : MD :: v'CH*
—CF*) : HI (Conic Sections, Part III. Prop. 19.
RATION. 519
and Geometry, Sedb IV. Theor. 12.), that is, in num- PIane
bers, 20 : 12 :: 8 : HI, therefore Hlrz1^. In like , Ftgurc5. .
manner we find m n~^^J 34, p q—'-f 6, and rs
— V1 V^ip* Therefore
F+L(=rHI+MD) =z 16.8
4E(—.4vz/i-f-4r r) — 68.8399
2ll(=r2yi^) = 17-6363
The figure HIDM — 103.2762Xf—68.8508
to which adding FIH, conlidered as a portion of a |ra-
rabola, we have 75.245 for the area of the hyperbola.
Of LAND SURVEYING.
The inftruments moll commonly employed in land
furveying are the Chain, the Plane Table, and Crofs.
A ftatute acre of land being 160 fquare poles, the
chain is made 4 poles, or 66 feet in length, that 10
fquare chains, (or 100,000 fquare links) may be equal
to an acre. Hence each link is 7.92 inches in length.
The plane table is ufed for drawing a plan of a field,
and taking fuch angles as are neceffary to calculate its
area. It is of a rectangular form, and is furrounded
by a moveable frame, by means of which a fheet of
paper may be fixed to its furface. It is furnidied with
an index by which a line may be draw-n on the paper
in the direction of any objeCt in the field, and with
feales of equal parts by which fuch lines may be made
proportional to the diftances of the objeCts from the
pdane table when meafured by the chain, and its frame
is divided into degrees for obferving angles.
The crofs confiits of two pair of fights fet at right
angles to each other upon a ftaff having a pike at tho
bottom to {tick into the ground. Its ufe is to deter¬
mine the points where a perpendicular drawn from any-
objeCt to a line will meet that line 5 and this is efifeCted-
by finding by trials a point in the line, fuch that the
crofs being fixed over it fo that one pair of the fights
may be in the direction of the line, the objeCt from
which the perpendicular is to be drawn may be feen
through the other pair ; then the point thus found will
be the bottom of the perpendicular, as is evident.
A theodolite may alfo be applied with great ad¬
vantage to land-furveying, more. efpecially when, tha
ground to be meafured is of great extent.
In addition to thefe, there are other inltruments- em¬
ployed in furveying, as the perambulator, which is ufed
for meafuring roads and other great difiances. Levels,
with telefcopic or other fights, which are ufed to de¬
termine how much one place is higher or lower than
another. An ofsett-ftaff for meafuring the ofsetts and
other fhort di fiances. Ten fmall arrows, or rods of iron
or wood, which are ufed to mark the end of every
chain length. Pickets or ftaves with flags to be fet up
as marks or objeCts of direction; and laftly, feales,
compafles, &c. for protraCting and meafuring the plan
upon paper.
The obfervations and meafurements are to be regu¬
larly entered as they are taken, in a book which is call¬
ed the Field-book, and which ferves as a regifter of
all that is done or occurs in the courfe of the furvey.
To
5 2-0
Of lane
Figures.
Fig. 29.
Fig. 30.
Fig. 31-
MENSURATION.
To Meafure a Yield by the Chain.
Let A mh&Cijq reprefent a field to be meafured.
Let it be refolved into the triangles A/«B, ABD,
BCD, A/7D. Let all the fides of the large triangles
ABD, BCD, and the perpendiculars of the fmall
ones Am B, A^D from their vertices m,q be meafur-
ed by the.chain, and the areas calculated by the rules
delivered in this iedlion, and their amount is the area
of the whole. But if, on account of the curvature
of its fides the field cannot be wholly refolved into tri¬
angles, then, either a llraight line may be drawn over
the curve fide, fo that the parts cut off from the field,
and thofe added to it, may be nearly equal. Or, with¬
out going beyond the bounds of the field, the curvi-
lineal fpaces may be meafured by the rule given in
Prob. XV. of this feftion.
To Meafure a Yield with the Plane Table.
Let the plane table be fixed at F, about the middle
of the field ABCDE, and its diftances FA,FB,FC,
&c« from the feveral corners of the field meafured by
the chain. Let the index be diredled from any point
affumed on the paper to the points A, B, C, D, &c.
fucceffively^ and the lines F«, F F c, drawn in
thefe diredlions. Let the angles contained by thefe
lines be obferved, and the lines themfelves made pro¬
portional to the diftances meafured. Then their ex¬
tremities being joined, there will be formed a figure
abode fimilar to that of the field 5 and the area of
the field may be found by calculating the areas of the
feveral triangles of which it confifts.
To Plan a Yield from a given Bafe Line.
Let two ftations A, B be taken within the field, but
not in the fame rtraight line with any of its corners j
and let their diftance be meafured. Then the plane
table being fixed at A, and the point a anumed on its
furface direflly above A, let its index be dire6ted to
B, and the ftraight line ab drawn along the fide of it
to reprefent A B. Alfo, let the index be direfted from
a to an objeft at the corner C, and an indefinite
ftraight line drawn in that direftion, and fo of every
other corner fucceflively. Next, let the plane table be
fet at B, fo that b may be dire&ly over B, and b a\n
the fame direftion with BA, and let a ftraight line be
drawn from b in the direftion BC. The interfeftion
of this line with the former, it is evident, will determine
the point C, and the triangle a b c on the paper will
be fimilar to ABC in the field. In this manner all the
other points are to be determined, and thefe being
joined there will be an exafl reprefentation of the field.
If the angles at both ftations were obferved, as the
diftance between them is given, the area of the field
might be calculated from thefe data, but the operation
is too tedious for practice. It is ufual therefore to
meafure fuch lines in the figure that has been conftrudl-
ed as will render the calculation eafy.
SECTION III.
MENSURATION OF SOLIDS.
Problem I.
To find the furface of a right prifm, or cylinder.
Rule.
Of Solid
Multiply the perimeter of the end by the length or
height of the folid, and the product will be the furface
of all its fides ; to which add alfo the area of the two
ends of the prifm when required.
The truth of this rule will be evident, if it be con-
fidered that the fides of a right prifm are re&angles,
whofe common length is the fame as the length of the
folid, and their breadths taken all together make up
the perimeter of the ends of the prifm. And as a cy¬
linder may be confidered as the limit of all the prifms
which can be infcribed in or circumfcribed about its
bafe j fo the furface of the cylinder will be the limit of
the furfaces of thefe prifms, and the expreflion for that
limit is evidently the producft of the circular bafe by its
height. Or a cylinder may be confidered as a prifm
of an indefinitely great number of fides.
Ex. 1. What is the furface of a cube, the length ofp-
its fide AB being 20 feet ? ^
Here 4 X 20rr 80 the perim. of end.
And 80 X 20~ 1600 the four fides.
And 2 X 20 X 20zr 800 the top and bottom.
The fum 2400 =: the area or furface.
Ex. 2. What is the convex furface of a cylinder--
whofe length AB is 20 feet, and the circumference of ^
its bafe 3 feet ?
Here 3 X 20=060 feet, the anfvver.
Problem II.
To find the furface of a right pyramid or cone.
Rule.
Multiply the perimeter of the bafe by the flant
height or length of the fide, and half the produft will
evidently be the furface of the fides, or the fum of the
areas of all the triangles which form it. To which add
the area of the end or bafe, if required.
Note. Here a cone is confidered as a pyramid of an
indefinitely great number of fides.
Ex. 1. What is the upright furface of a triangular pig. 34,
pyramid, ABCD, the flant height, AE, being 20
feet, and each fide of the bafe 3 feet ?
Here =90 feet, the furface.
Ex. 2. Required the convex furface of a cone, the pig. 33,
flant height AB being 50 feet, and the diameter of its
bale 8| feet.
Here 8.5X3*1416= circum. of bafe.
And ^ * -5° =66y. the anfwer.
Problem
MENSURATION
Problem III.
To find the furface of the fruftum of a right py¬
ramid or cone, being the lower part, when the
top is cut off by a plane parallel to the bafe.
Rule.
Add together the perimeters of the two ends, and
Enultiply their fum by the flant height, and take half
the product for the anfwer.
The truth of this rule will be evident if it be con-
fidered that the fides of the fruftum are trapezoids,
whofe parallel fides bound its top and bafe, and whofe
common breadth is its flant height.
'Example. How many fquare feet are in the furface
of a fruftum AG of a fquare pyramid, whofe flant
height RE is 10 feet; alfo each fide of the greater
end A C is 3 feet 4 inches, and each fide of the lefler
end EG 2 feet 2 inches.
Here 3-|-X4=I3t Per* §r* en^*
And 2^ X 4=:84 the per. of lefs end.
And their fum is 22 feet.
Therefore m 10 feet, is the anfwer.
Problem IV.
To find the folid content of any prifm or cylin¬
der.
Rule.
Find the area of the bafe or end of the figure, and
multiply it by the height or length, and the produdt
will be the area.
This rule follows immediately from Theor. II. Seft.
VIII. and Theor 2. Sedt. IX. GEOMETRY.
\ 3*-
h 33'
N°a.
Ex. I. What Is the folid content of a cube AG, the
length of whofe fide is 24 inches ?
Here 24 X 24=576 fq. inches, the area of the end.
And 576X 24—i3824 cub» inches is the folidity.
Ex. 2. Required the content of a triangular prifm,
whofe length AD is 20 feet, and the fides of its trian¬
gular bafe ABC are 3, 4, and 5 feet.
Firft, the area of the triangular bafe is found by
Rule 3. of Prob. 3. Se£t. II. to be
-y/ (6 X 3 X 2 X 0 =6 fq. feet.
Therefore 6 X 20= 120 cub. feet the folidity.
Ex. 3. The Winchefter bulhel is a cylinder I Sc¬
inches in diameter, and eight inches deep. How many
cubic inches does it contain ?
By Prob. 10. of Scdl. II. the area of its bafe is
.7854 X i8>51 = 268.8o3 fq. inches 5
Therefore 268.803x8=2150.424 is the folid contents
Vol. XIII. Part II.
Problem V.
521
Of Solids.
To find the folid content of any pyramid or
cone.
Rule.
1 Find the area of the bafe, and multiply that area by
the height, and one-third of the produdt will be the
content of the folid.
This rule is demonftrated in Theor. 16. Se£t. VIII.
and Theor. 3. Se£l. IX. Geometry.
Ex. 1. What is the content of a triangular pyramid Fig- 34.
ABCD, whofe perpendicular height AF is 30 feet,
and each fide of its bafe BCD is three feet.
Firft, the area of the bale, as found by Rule 3. of
Prob. 3. Se£l. II. is
Therefore=38.9711 cub. feet is the fo-
lid content.
Ex. 2. What is the folid content of a cone, the ra-Fig. 35.
dius BC of its bafe being nine inches, and its height
AC 15 feet.
Here .7854X —is th® area °f th®
2
Iquare feet.
And * "=8.8357 cub. feet is the folid
tent.
Problem VI.
To find the folidity of the fruftum of a cone or
pyramid.
Rule.
Add into one fum the areas of the two ends, and the
mean proportional between them, that is, the fquare
root of their product, and one-third of that fum will be
a mean area, which being multiplied by the perpen¬
dicular height or length of the fruftum will give the
content.
Demonjlration. Let PABCD be any pyramid, and Fig. $6,
AG a fruftum of it contained between ABCD its bafe,
and EFGH, a plane parallel to the bafe. Put a for
the fide of a fquare equal to AC the bafe of the fruf¬
tum ; b for the fide of a fquare equal to EG its top }
^ for LM the height of the fruftum, and c for PL the
height of the part of the pyramid above the fruftum.
Then a* is the area of the bafe of the fruftum; bx is
the area of its top \ d" a* th® f°lid content of
the whole pyramid j (Geom. Se£t. VIII. Theor. 16.)
\ b* c\s the cron tent of its upper part; and therefore
is the folid content of the fruftum itfelf. Now the bafe
and top of the fruftum being fimilar figures, (Seel. VIII.
3 U Theor*
522 MENSURATION,
^t)f jol.ds. Tlicor. 15O their areas are to one another as the
fquares ot AB and EF their homologous tides, (Se6t.
I\. Theor. 27.). But AB : EF :: BP : PF (Seft.
VII. Theor. 7. and Se&. IV. Theor. 20.) :: PM :
P (Sect. VII. Iheor. 14.) j therefore the area of the
bafe of the fruitum is to the area of its top as PMZ :
PE , that is, a* : b* :: (^-{-£•)* : c1, and confequently
a : b . : h'\-c : c ; hence a c—b h-\-b c, and c= ^ ^
Rule. ,of Solid,
Multiply the circumference of the fphere by the
height of the part required, and the product will be
tne curve furface, whether it be a fegment, a zone, or
the whole fphere.
Note. The height of the whole fphere is its dia¬
meter.
a h
-b'
and Let thefe values of c and h-^-c be
now fubftituted in the preceding expreflion for the
content of the fruflum, and it will become, by proper
redudion,
Let the numerator of the fraftional part of this formula
be actually divided by its denominator, and we Ihall
obtain for the area of the fruitum this more fimple ex¬
preflion,
-j- ii («*-{-«
which formula, when exprefled in words, is the rule.
And as a cone may be confidcred as the limit of all
the pyramids that can be inferibed in it, when the
number of tides is conceived indefinitely increafed, it
is evident that the rule will apply alike to the cone and
pyramid.
Ex. r. Required the folidity of the fruftum of a
hexagonal pyramid, the fide of whofe greater end is
four feet, and that of its lefler end is three feet, and its
height nine feet.
Firft, by Prob. 7. Sett. II. the area of the bafe of
the fruftum is found to be 41.569, and the area of its
leffer end 23.383 fquare feet. And the mean propor¬
tional between thefe is
\/ (4E569X23.383)=3i.i77.
Hence the mean area is
t(23-383+4i-569+3i.i77)=:32.043.
And the folid content of the fruftum is
32.043 X9=288.387 cubic feet.
Ex. 2. V/ hat is the folidity of the fruftum of a cone,
the diameter of the greater end being five feet, that
of the lefler end three feet, and the altitude nine feet.
Here the area of the greater end is (by Prob. 10.
Se£l. II.) 5* x -7854, and the area of the lefler end is
3* X-7854, and the mean proportional between them
is V (i1 X ,3* X •7854,)~ J X 3 X *7854 > therefore the
mean area is
•7854
X (5*+32+5 X 3)= 12.828 2.
And the content of the fruftum
12.8282x9—ii5-4538 cub. feet.
Problem VII.
To find the furface of a fphere, or of any feg-
ment or zone of it.
Fhe truth of this rule has been already fhown fit
the article Fluxions, § 165. It may however be
deduced from principles more elementary, by reafoning
as follows. Let PCbe afemicircle, and ABCDE fe- Fig.
veral fucceflive fides of a regular polygon inferibed in it.
Conceive the femicircle to revolve about the diameter
PQ. as an axis, then the arcli ABCDE will generate a
portion of the furface of a fphere, and the chords AB.
BC, CD, &c. will generate the furfaces of frultums of
cones *, and it is eafy to fee that the number of chords
may be fo great that the furface which they generate
fhall differ from the furface generated by the arch ACE
by a quantity which is lefs than any afligned quantity.
Bifeft AB in L, and draw AF, LM, BG, CH, &c.
perpendicular to P£). For the fake of brevity, let
circ. AF denote the circumference of a circle whofe
radius is AF. Then becaufe AF, BG, LM, are to
each other refpeftively as circ. AF, circ. BG, circ.
LM (Geom. Se£i. VI. Prop. 4.), and becaufe (AF
-f-BG) = LM, therefore 4- {circ. AF-\-circ. BG)=r
circ. LM. Now the area of the furface generated by
the chord AB is 4 {circ. AF-fc/rc. BG) x AB,
(Prob. 3.) therefore the fame area is alfo equal to
{circ. LM) x AB. Draw AO parallel to FG, and
draw LN to the centre of the circle. Then the tri¬
angles AOB, LMN are manifeftly fimilar 5 therefore
AB : AO :: NL : LM :: circ. NL : circ. LM ; and
hence AO x circ. NL—AB x circ. LM. But this laft
quantity has been proved equal to the furface genera¬
ted by AB, therefore the fame furface is equal to AO X
circ. NL, or to FG xc/rc. NL, that is, to the re&an-
gle contained by FG and the circumference of a circle
inferibed in the polygon. In the fame way it may be
Ihown that the furfaces generated by BC, CD, DE, are
refpetftively equal to GH X circ. LN, \U xcirc. LN,
IK X circ. LN. I herefore the whole furface generat¬
ed by the chords AB, BC, CD, DE, &c. is equal to
(FG-f GH + HI + IK) X circ. LNrrFK X circ. LN.
Conceive now the number of chords between A and E
to be indefinitely increafed ; then, obferving that the
limit of the furface generated by the chords is the fur¬
face generated by the arch ABCDE, and that the li¬
mit of NL is NP, the radius of the generating circle,
it follows that the fpherical furface or zone generat¬
ed by the arch ACE is equal to the product of the
circumference of the fphere by FK the height of the
zone.
Ex. 1. What is the fuperficies of a globe whofe dia¬
meter is 17 inches ?
Firft 17x3-1416=53.4072 incheszrthe circum.
Then 53.4072 X 17—907*9224^1*^ncfies::i::6.305 fquare
feet the anfwer.
Ex. 2. What is the convex furface of a fegment 8
inches in height cut off from the fame globe ?
Here
MENS U
Solids. Here 53.4072 X 8=427.2576 fq. inclies= 2.967 fq.
—-v—^ feet the anfwer.
Problem VIII.
To find the folidity of a fphere.
Rule I. ,
Multiply the area of a great circle of the fphere by its
diameter, and take ^ of the product for the content.
Rule II.
Multiply the cube of the diameter by the decimal
.5236 for the content.
The firft of thefe rules is demonftrated in Geometry,
Se£t. IX. Theor. 6. And the fecond is deduced from
the firft, thus : put d for the diameter of the fphere, then
X .7854 is th® area °f a great circle of the fphere,
and by the firft rule X •7854=^* is its
content.
Examp/e. What is the content of a fphere 'vvhofe
diameter is 6 feet ?
Anfwer 6J X .5236=113-0976 cub. feet.
Problem IX.
To find the folid content of a fpherical fegment.
Rule.
From 3 times the diameter of the fphere take double
the height of the fegment, then multiply the remainder
by the fquare of the height, and the product by the de¬
cimal .5236 for the content.
This rule has been inveftigated in Fluxions, § 163.
But it may be proved in a more elementary manner by
means of the following axiom. If two foluls be con¬
tained between two parallel planes ; and if the feShons
of thefe folids by a third plane parallel to the other two,
at any altitude, be always equal to one another, then the
folids themfelves are equal. Or more generally thus. If
two folids between two parallel planes beftch, that any
feBions of them by a third plane parallel to the other
two have always to each other the fame given ratio, then
the folids themfelves arc to one another in that ratio.
We have given this propofttion in the form of an axiom
for the fake of brevity, but its truth may be ftriftly de¬
monftrated, as has been done when treating of pyramids
and the fphercj in Geometry, Se£t. 8. and 9.
-jg Let us now fuppofe ABE to be a quadrant •, C the
centre of the circle ; AFEC a fquare defcribed about
the quadrant; and CF the diagonal of the fquare. Sup-
pofe the figures to revolve about AC as an axis, then
the quadrant will generate a hemifphere, the triangle
ACF will generate a cone, and the fquare AE a cy¬
linder. Let thefe three folids be cut by a plane per¬
pendicular to the axis, and meeting the plane of the
fquare, in the line DHBG ; and join CB. Then, be-
caufe CDB is a right-angled triangle, a circle defcribed
with CB as a radius is equal to two circles defcribcd
with CD and DB as radii (Geometry, Se£t. VI.
Prop. 4. Cor. 2.). But CBrrDG, and fince CA=AF,
•therefore CL =DH 3 therefore the circle defcribed with
RATION. 523
the radius DG, is equal to the fum of the circles de- < 01 Solids.
feribed with the radii DH, DB 3 that is, the feftion of v
the cylinder at any altitude, is equal to the correlpond-
ing fe&ions of the fphere and cone taken together.
Confequently, by the foregoing axiom, the cylinder is
equal to the hemifphere and cone taken together, and
alfo the fegment of the cylinder between the planes
AF, DG is equal to the fum of the fegments of the
hemifphere and cone contained between the fame planes.
Put 2CE, or 2 AF, the diameter of the circle, zzd, and
AD, the height of the fpherical fegment, —h. Then
AC=4^and 2CA—2 AD=2CDzz,/—ih. Let n de¬
note the number .7854. Then the area of the bafe com¬
mon to the conic fruftum AH, and cylinder AG, is
n c/% (Se£t. II. Prob. 10.), and the area of the top of
the fruftum is n {d—2/2)% and the mean proportional
between thefe areas is n {d—2/2) d. Therefore the fo¬
lid content of the fruftum is (by Prob. 6. of this fed.)
y{yl—2 /$)*-{-« d [d—2 li) X
~n d1 h—'l n didn //5.
Now the folid content of the cylinder is 11 d* lr. ( Prob. 1.)
Therefore the folid content of the fpherical fegment,
(which is equal to the difference between the cylinder -
AG and conic fruftum AH) is equal to
n d* h—{n d* h—2 « A1 -j- f ^5),
that is, to in dId—* n Id, or to
2 n
(3 d—2 hi) Id,
in 2 X .7854
which expreflion, if it be confidered that or   
is equal to .5236, is evidently the fame as that given by
the rule.
Example. In a fphere whofe diameter is 21, what is
the folidity of a fegment whofe height xs 4.5 inches ?
Firft 3 x 21—2 X 4-5=54<
Then 54x4.5 X 4-5 X •5236=572-5i66 inches, the fo¬
lidity required.
Problem X.
To find the folid content of a paraboloid, or iolid,
produced by the rotation of a parabola about its
axis.
Rule.
Multiply the area of the bafe by the height, and take
half the produd for the content.
To demonftrate this rule, let AGC and RHD be two Fig. 39.
equal femi-parabolas lying in contrary diredions, and
having their vertices at the extremity of the line AB.
Let AD, BC be ordinates to the curves. Complete
the redangle ABCD, and conceive it to revolve about
AB as an axis 3 then the redangle will generate a cy¬
linder, the radius of whofe bafe will be AD, and the
two femi-parabolas will generate two equal paraboloids
having the fame bafe and altitude as the cylinder. Let
a plane be drawn perpendicular to the axis, and let
FHGE be the common fedion of this plane and the
3 U 2 generating
524
^Of Solids, generating figure.
" v axis., Thea fince
MENSURATION.
Let P denote the parameter of the
Problem XL
, Solids
EG*zrP x AE,
and ElP-PxEB,
EG*-f.EH,= P x AB=CB*.
Hence it appears, as in the demonftration of the pre¬
ceding rule, that of the folids defcribed by ADCB,
ACB, ADB between the fame parallel planes, the fec-
tion of the cylinder at any altitude is equal to the cor-
refponding fedlions of the paraboloids taken together.
Confequently (by the Axiom) the cylinder is equal to
both the paraboloids taken together j hence each is half
a cylinder of the fame bafe and altitude agreeing with
the rule.
I he fame thing is alfo proved in Fluxions, § 163.
Exarfip/e. If the diameter of the bafe of a para¬
boloid be 10 and its height 12 feet; what is its con¬
tent ?
Here 10 X .7854—7-^54 the area of the bafe.
And 4 X 7-854 X 12=47.124 cub. feet is the folidity.
Problem X.
To find the folid content of a fruflum of a para¬
boloid.
Rule.
Add together the areas of the circular ends, then
multiply that fum by the height of the fruftum, and
take half the produfl for its folid content.
To prove this rule put A and a for the greater and
lefler ends of the fruftum, and h for its height ; alfo let
c denote the height of the portion cut off from the com¬
plete paraboloid, fo as to form the fruftum. Then, by
the laft problem, the content of the complete parabo¬
loid is 4 A (^-|_c), and the content of the part cut off
is 4 0 c, therefore the content of the fruftum is
4|A(//-pc)—a c)=4| A^-fc(A—a)^-
But from the nature of the parabola,. c\ h+c«: A;
hence A. c ~ a h -\-a c and c~ —- .
A—a
Let this value of c be fubftituted inftead of it in the
above expreflion for the content of the fruftum, and it
becomes
■j-( A /? -j- a ^)=4//(A-f«),
and hence is derived the rule.
Example. Required the folidity of the fruftum of a
paraboloid, the diameter of the greater end being 58
and that of the leffer end 30, and the height 18. ’
Fir ft, (by Prob. 10. Seft. II.) we find the areas of
the ends, to be 58*X.7854, and 30*X.7854; there¬
fore their fum is (5S27854=4264X.78C4.
And the content of the figure is 4 X4264X-78?4X
18=30140.5104, the anfwer.
To find the folid content of a parabolic fpindle Fig-40.
or folid generated by the rotation of AEB an
arc of a parabola, about AB an ordinate to the
axis.
Rule.
Multiply the area of the middle fe&ion by the length,
and take of the product for the content of the
folid.
For the inveftigation of this rule we muft refer the
reader to Fluxions, § 163. Ex. 2.
Example. T he length of the parabolic fpindle
AEB e A is 60, and the middle diameter E e 34;
what is the folidity ?
Here 34* X-7854 is area of the middle feftion.
Therefore 34* X .7854 X 60 X xV= 29053.5168 is the
iolidity required.
Problem XII.
To find the folid content of the fruftum of a pa¬
rabolic fpindle, one of the ends of the fruflum
palling through the centre of the fpindle.
Rule.
Add into one fum eight times the fquare of the dia¬
meter of the greater end, and three times the fquare of
the leffer end, and four times the product of the diame¬
ters ; multiply the fum by the length, and the produft
multiplied by .05236, or TrT of .7854, will be the con¬
tent.
For, referring the reader to Fluxions, § 163. Ex. 2.
as before, and fubftituting h for AC=4 b, but, in other
refpe£ts, retaining the figure and notation, we have this
general expreflion for the fegment AP p,
r x* ( h* x*\
8 7T &
for the value of the fe~
which, when x—h gives —
mi-fpindle. From this quantity let the former be fub.
trailed, and there will remain
8 7T llS h* x* v
15 «* «* v 3 y/
for the content of the fruftum. In this expreflion let %
be put inftead of h—x or CD, and, denoting CE the
radius of the greater end of the fpindle by d, let —
d
be fubftituted inftead of its value a. Then we ftiall
have the content of the fruftum otherwife expreffed
•xd1 1a 2/i*«4 .
h*
,/i4 
L 3
,d~y
7}
which value, by putting in its two laft terms
inftead
MENSURATION.
of Solids, inftead of z, is changed to
7TZX — 5
J5
and hence is derived the preceding rule.
Example. Suppofe the diameter of the greater end
to be 8, and the diameter of the lelfer end 6, and the
length io, required the content ?
Firft 8x8J+3x6*4-4X8x6=812.
Then, 812X I0X»05236=425.i632, the content.
Problem XIII.
To find the folid content of a fpheroid, or folid
generated by the rotation of an ellipfe about
either axis.
Rule.
Multiply continually together the fixed axis, and the
fquare of the revolving axis, and the number .5236 or
of 3.1416, and the lait product will be the folidity.
Fig. 4L For, let the femiellipfe ADB, and femicircle AEB,
revolve about the fame fixed axis AB, and thus gene¬
rate a fpheroid and fphere. Let CD the revolving fe-
miaxis of the ellipfe meet the circle in E, and draw
O P any ordinate to the fixed axis meeting the circle in
R. Then, from the nature of the ellipfe Pv,P : PR* ::
CD*: CE* or CA* (Conic Sections, Part II. Prop.
11. Cor. 3.). Hence it follows, (Geometry, Se£t. VI.
Prop. 4.), that every fe£tion of the fpheroid is to the
correfponding fe&ion of the fphere in the fame given
ratio, namely, that of the fquare of the revolving axis
to the fquare of the fixed axis •, therefore (Axiom in
the dem. of Prob. 9.) the whole fpheroid is to the
whole fphere in the fame ratio. That is, (becaufe the
content of the fphere is AB5 X-5236) AB2: (2CD)* ::
ABJ X .52.36 : (the cont. of fpheroid). Hence the
content of the fpheroid is ABx(2CD)*X-5236.
Ex. 1. What is the folid content of an oblong fphe¬
roid, or folid generated by the rotation of an ellipfe
about its greater axis, the axes being 50, and 30 ?
Here 30 X 3o1 X •5236=23562, the content.
Ex. What is the folid content of an oblate fpheroid,
or folid generated by the rotation of an ellipfe about
its leffer axis, the two axes being as before.
Here 30X 50* X .5236=39270 the anfwer.
Problem XIV.
To find the folid content of the frullum of a fphe¬
roid, its ends being perpendicular to the fixed
axis, and one of them palling through the centre.
Rule.
To the area of the lefs end add twice that of the
greater, multiply the fum by the altitude of the fru-
Itum, and 4 °f the produft will be the content.
Note. This rule will alfo apply to the fphere.
525
Demofijlration. Let ABE be a quadrant of an el- Of Solids,
lipfe, C its centre, CAFE its circumfcribed reftangle, v f
and CF its diagonal. Draw any ftraight line DG pa- 1^"
rallel to CE, meeting AC, CF, ABE and EF in D,
H, B, and G. Then by Conic Sections, Part II.
Prop. 11.
CE* or AF*: DB* :: CA* : CA«—CD*,
and by fim. tr. AF* : DH* :: CA* : CD*.
Therefore (Geometry, Se£L III. Theor. 8.),
AF*: DB* + DH*:: CA*: CA* j
Hence DB* + DH* = AF* = DG*.
Conceive now the figure to revolve about AC as an
axis, fo that the elliptic quadrant may generate the
half of a fpheroid, the rectangle AE a cylinder, and
the triangle ACF a cone 5 then it is evident (as was
fhown in the cafe of the fphere in Prob. 9.) that every
feftion of the firlt of thefe folids by a plane perpendicu¬
lar to the axis is equal to the difference of the fecticns
of the other two, and confequently that the fmftum
of the fpheroid between CE and DG is equal io the
difference between the cylinder having DG or CE for
the radius of its bafe, and CD for its altitude, and the
cone having DK for the radius of its bafe, and DC
for its altitude.
Put n for the number 3.1416, then (Prob. 4.) the
content of the cylinder is 4 »X DG* X CD, and
(Prob. 5.) the content of the cone is 4 ;z x DH* x CD,
and therefore the content of the fruftum of the fphe¬
roid is
4 « X CD (DG*—4DH*).
But it was (hewn that DH*=DG*—DB* j there¬
fore the content of the fruftum is alfo equal to
4 « x CD (2 CE*+DB*),
and hence is derived the rule.
Ex. Suppofe the greater end of the fruftum to be
15, the lefs end 9, and the length 10 inches, required
the content ?
The area of the greater end is 15* X .7854, and the
area of the lefs p*X .7854, therefore the content is
.7854 (9* + 2X 151) XX39=i39aI58 cubic inches.
Problem XV.
To find the folid content of a hyperboloid, or folid
generated by the rotation of a hyperbola about
its tranfverfe axis.
Rule.
As the fum of the tranfverfe axis and the height of
the folid is to the fum of the faid tranfverfe axis and 4
of the height, fo is half the cylinder of the fame bafe
and altitude to the folidity of the hyperboloid.
Eemonjlration. Let BAZ> be a hyperbola, A a its Fig. 43.
tranfverfe axis, C its centre, CF, C/ its afymptotes,
FA/ a tangent at its vertex. Draw FE parallel t©
C A, and draw any ftraight line parallel to F/, meeting
the afymptotes in f! and //, the curve in B and Z», the
axis in D, and the line FE in G. Then, becaufe AF*
=BHx^B (Conic Sections, Part III. Prop, ii.)
MENS U
• and HB X h. BrrDH*—DB1 (Geometry, Seft. IV.
Theor. 12.), therefore APzzDH2—DB1, and DB*
—HI)1—DG*. Hence it appears, that if the figure
be conceived to revolve about CA as an axis, fo that
the hyperbolic arc AB may generate a hyperboloid,
the. triangle i)CH a eone, and the re&angle HAFG a
cylinder, any fection of the firft of thefe folids by a
plane H perpendicular to the axis, will be equal to
the difterence of the feftions of the other two by the
fame plane. Therefore the hyperboloid B A b is equal
to the difference between the conic fruftutn FH h f and
the cylinder FG gj. Let A a the tranfverfe axis be
denoted by p, F/hr its conjugate axis by AD the
height of the folid by h,l&> b its bafe by b. Then,
becaufe by fimilar triangles, &c.
CA : CD :: Yf: H h :: F'f* : F/xH/z,
therefore F/xH^ = 3?xF/2= (j P+h) ? , ,
CA J ip ~/ t-
2J1?
Now Yand H Ji (zrB b' + Yf1)—^ -j-y1, there¬
fore putting n for .7854, we have (by Prob. 6.) the
content of the conic fruflum FH h f equal to
from this fubtraft n k q*, the expreffion for the content
of the cylinder FG ^y', and there will remain
3 V T /
for the content of the hyperboloid. But from the na¬
ture of the hyperbola
A a* : F/2 AD x D a : BD1,
that is,/.* : qx :: (p+h)h : j
2 h q* __ p bl
therefore
P. 2(i0+^),
the hyperboloid is alfo equal to
n h(pb1 \ n hb
2(p+/i)J
and hence the content of
y-+
= — X
p-\-\h
3 \ ,2(T+/0/ 2 ~ p+/i ‘
Now if it be confidered that the quantity » b b* is the
expreflion for the content of a cylinder whofe bafe is b
and height fi, it will appear evident, that this laft for¬
mula is the fame as would refult from the foregoing
rule.
Ex. Suppofe the height of the hyperboloid to be 10,
the radius of its bafe 12, and its tranfverfe axis 30.
What is its content ?
1. Becaufe a cylinder of the fame bafe and altitude
24* X-7854 X !0> therefore, we have the proportion,
40 : — 24*X.7854X 10,
^ 3 " ^
24*X.7854x10xr 10 „
“o x 3 x 2 —2073.456, the content
of the folid as required.
Of GAUGING.
Gauging treats of the meafuring of calks, and other
things falling under the cognizance of the officers of
3
RATION,
the excife, and it has received its name from a gauge
or rod ufed by the praftitioners of the art.
From the way in which calks are conitrufled, they
are evidently folids of no determinate geometrical fi¬
gure. It is, however, ufual to conlider them as having
one or other of the four following forms :
1. The middle frultum of a fpheroid.
2. d he middle frultum of a parabolic fpindle.
3. The two equal frultums of a paraboloid.
4. The two equal frultums of a cone.
We have already given rules by w hich the content of
each of thefe folids may be found in cubit feet, inches,
&c. But as it is ufual to exprefs the contents of calks
in gallons, we ffiall give the rules again in a form
fuited to that mode of eltimating capacity. Obferving
that in each cafe the lineal dimenfions of the calk ■ ar*
fuppofed to be taken in inches.
Problem I,
To find the content of a calk of the firft, or fphe-
roidal variety.
Rule.
To the fquare of the head diameter add double the
fquare of the bung diameter, and multiply the fum by
the length of the calk. Then let the produift be mul¬
tiplied by..0009:3;, or divided by 1077 for ale gallons,
or multiplied by .001 ly or divided by 882 for wine
gallons.
The truth of this rule may be proved thus. Put B j
for FG, the bung diameter, H for AH the head dia¬
meter, and L for i\.D, the length of the calk, then
(by Prob. 14.) the content of the calk is (2B24-H*)L
X which being divided by 282 (the cubic inches
in an ale gallon) gives (2 B1-]-H*)L X-000928371,
or (2 B*-J-H*) X X k.) for the content in ale
. 1077.157
gallons. And being divided by 231, (the cubic inches
in a wine gallon) gives (2B*-f-Hz) x -OOl 13333 k, or
(2B2-f-IT) Xett— Xk, for the content in wine
882.355
gallons. .
Ex. Suppofe the bung and head diameters to be 32
and 24, and the length 40 inches. Required the con¬
tent ?
Here (2 X 5 2s+ 24*) X 40 X .00093=97.44 ale gallons,
is the content required.
And (2X32Z-ffi24*) X40X -00113=118.95 wine gal¬
lons is the fame content.
Problem II.
To find the content of a calk of the fecond, or pa¬
rabolic fpindle form.
Rule.
To the fquare of the head diameter add double that
of the bung diameter, and from the fum take |, or T%-
of
MENSURATION.
Of of the fquare. of the difference of the faid diameters.
’Gauging. Then multiply the remainder by the length, and the
produft multiplied, or divided by the fame numbers as
in the rule to laft problem, will give the content.
For by Problem 12. the content in inches is
and this formula may be otherwife expreffed thus,
| a B’+H1-!- (B-H)» I X X L,
527
For by Problem 6. the content in inches is y (B2 Of
-f-BH-j-H31) X -7854 L, which expreflion is equivalent Gauging..
to
(B + H)=+(B_H).J XyyB.
Now divided by 282 gives .00023209
12
the multiplier for ale gallons, and divided
4308.628
by 231 gives .00028333 =
and hence is derived the rule, the multipliers or divifors wjne p.ai]ions
being evidently the fame as in laft problem. °
3529-42
the multiplier for
Ex. The dimenfions of a calk being the fame as in
laft problem ; required the contents.
Anfwer, (2 X 32* + 24s—f X 82) X 4° X .0009^
=96.49 the content in ale gallons.
And 10393.6X-OOtly—117'79 content in wine
gallons.
Problem III.
To find the content of a calk of the third or para¬
boloidal variety.
Rule.
To the fquare of the bung diameter add the fquare
of the head diameter, and multiply the fum by the
length-, then, if the produdt be multiplied by .0014,
or divided by 718, the refult will be the content in ale
gallons ; or if it be multiplied by .0017, or divided by
588, the refult will be the content in wine gallons.
For by Problem 10. the content in inches is 4 (B1
+ H*) X -7834 Lj and this expreffion being divided by
282 gives (B’-J-H*) X -00139255 L or (Bs-j-H2)
X —n X R for the content in ale gallons ; and
718.105 G
divided by 231 gives (B2-4-H*) X-0017 L or (B2
X H2) X -pg-—^ for the content in wine gallons.
Ex. Suppofe the dimenfions of a calk, as before j re¬
quired the content.
Anfwer, (3 22-f242) X40 X .0014=89.1 the content
in ale gallons.
And 64000 X-0017=108.8 the content in wine gal¬
lons.
Problem IV.
To find the content of a calk of the fourth or
conical variety.
Rule.
To three time* the fquare of the fum of the diameters
add the fquare of the difference of . ae diameters ; mul¬
tiply the fum by the length ; and multiply the refult
by .000234-, or divide it by 4308, for the content in ale
gallons; or multiply the refult by .0028-3-, or divide it
by 3529, for the content in wine gallons.
Ex. Suppofing the dimenfions of a calk as before,
What is its content ?
Anfwer, (3 X562-f-82) X 40 X-000234-= 8 7.93 the con¬
tent in ale gallons.
And 378880 X-000284=I07.35, is the content in
wine gallons.
As thefe four forms of calks are merely hypotheti¬
cal, it may reafonably be expected that fome degree of
uncertainty will attend the application of the rules to
aftual meafurement. The following rule, however,
given by Dr Hutton in his excellent treatife on men-
furation will apply equally to any calk whatever. And
as the ingenious author obferves, that its truth has been
proved by feveral calks which have been actually filled
with a true gallon-meafure after their contents were
computed by it, we prefume that it is more to be de¬
pended upon in practice than the others.
Rule.
Add into one fum 39 times the fquare of the bung
diameter, 25 times the fquare of the head diameter, and
26 times the product of the diameters 5 multiply the fum
by the length, and the product by .00034 5 then the
laft product divided by 9 will give the wine gallons,
and divided by 11 will give the ale gallons.
In inveftigating this rule the ingenious author af¬
firmed as a hypothefis, that one-third of a calk at each
end is nearly the fruftum of a cone, and that the mid¬
dle part may be taken as the middle fruftum of a para¬
bolic fpindle. This being fuppofed, let AB and CD Fig. 44.
be the two right-lined parts, and EC the parabolic
part j produce AB and DC to meet in E, and draw
lines as in the figure. Let L, B, and FI denote the
fame as before. Then, fince AB has the fame direc¬
tion as EB at B, ABE will be a tangent to a parabo¬
la BF, and therefore FI=4-EI. But BI=jAK, and
hence, by fim. triangles EI=4-EK 5 confequently FI
=4EI=4EK=4-FK=tV (B—H); fo that the com¬
mon diameter BL=FG—2FI=B——bI)=y(4B
-f-H), which call c. Now by the rules for parabolic fpin-
dles and conic fruftums we obtain (putting n for .78 54)
8B24-4BC-i-3C2w L« 328 B2 -f 44 BH + 3'Ha
x 3 “ 25x45
X L « for the parabolic or middle part j and
2 L 72 160B2 X 280BH4-3I0H2
C2 + CH+H*
X—T-=
25X45
X L « for the two
ends,
MENSURATION.
ends, and tlie futn of thefe two g'xves after proper re- .00034
dudtion + X L ”
9°
the content in inches. And the quantity or
90
nearly, for
•7854
will be the multiplier for ale gallons as in the Gau
Of
90
being divided by 231 gives -°?°34 the multiplier for
wine gallons 3 andfmce 231 is to 282 as 9 to 11 nearly-,
11
rule. 1
Ex. Suppofe a calk to have the fame dimenfions as in
the four former rules $ required the content.
Here (39X 32*+26X32X 24+25 X 24s) x 40 x
.00034__ici0.55 Avhich being divided by 9 and by
11 we obtain 112.3 wine gallons or 91.9 ale gallon#
for the content required.
MEN
Menftrual MENSTRUAL, or Menstruous, in Physiology, is
Mentz. applied to the blood which flows from women in their
' ordinary monthly purgations. See Midwifery and
Medicine Index.
MENSTRUUM, in Chemijlry, any body which in
a fluid or fubtilized Hate is capable of interpofing its
fmall parts betwixt the fmall parts of other bodies, fo
as to divide them fubtly, and form a new uniform
compound of the two.
MENTHA, Mint, a genus of plants belonging to
the didynamia clafs, and in the natural method rank¬
ing under the 42d order, Verticillatce. See Botany
Index.
MENTOR, in fabulous hiftory, a faithful friend of
Ulyfles ; a fon of Hercules 5 a king of Sidonia, who
revolted againfl: Artaxerxes Ochus, and afterwards was
reftored to favour by his treachery to his allies, &c.
Diod. 16. An excellent artift in polifhing cups and
engraving flowers on them. Plin. 33. c. 11 .-—-Mart.
9. ep. 60. v. 16.
MENTZ, an archbifliopric and electorate in Ger¬
many. It lies on the banks of the river Maine, between
the electorate of Triers on the weft, the Palatinate on
the fouth, Franconia on the eaft, and the Wetterau
on the north. .It is about 6o miles in length from
north-eaft to fouth-weft, and about 50 in breadth.
A confiderable part of the elector’s revenue arifes from
the toll on the Rhine and Maine, and from the
tax on the excellent wines produced in this country.
The chief towns of any trade are, 1. Mentz ; (fee
the next article). In its neighbourhood is Hock-
lieim, fo celebrated for good wines, that the bell
Rhenifn is from thence called old Hock. It is a pretty
village, containing about 300 families ; and belongs
to the chapter of Mentz, the dean of which enjoys
the revenue of it*, in a good year he makes from
twelve to fifteen thoufand guilders of his Avine. He
and the Auguftins of Mentz and Francfort hav'e the
exclufive enjoyment of the beft Hockheimer Avine, of
which, in good years, a piece, confiding of 100 mea-
fures, fells for from 900 to 1000 guilders from the
prefs. “ This (fays the Baron Riefbeck) is cer¬
tainly one of the deareft Avines in the world. Having
a defire to tafte it on the fpot, Ave Avere obliged to pay
a rixdollar *, it was, howfever, of the beft vintage in
this century, viz. that of 1766. Nor ftiould we have
had it, but for an advocate of Mentz, to Avhom the
hoftefs meant to {heiv favour. This Avas the firft Ger¬
man Avine I had met Avith Avhich Avas entirely Avkhout
MEN
any four tafte : it was quite a perfume to the tongue j M
av here as the other Avine of Hockheim, let it be as good
as it may, is not quite clear of vinegar $ though fof
this alfo, if it has any age, you are forced to pay a
guilder and a half.” 2. Bingen is a pleafant town,
Avhich Hands in the diftriCt called Rhinegau. This town
Avhich, together Avith the toll on the Rhine, is Avorth
about 30,000 guilders, belongs to the chapter of
Mentz, is extremely beautiful, and contains about
4500 inhabitants. A great part of the corn Avhich
is carried into the Rhinegau from the neighbouring
Palatinate, comes through this place, Avhich, on the
other hand, fupplies the Palatinate with drugs, and va¬
rious foreign commodities. This traffic alone would
make the place very lively ; but, befides this, it has
very fruitful vineyards. The hill, at the foot of which
it lies, and one fide of which is made by the gullet
through Avhich the Nahe runs into the Rhine, forms
another fteep rock behind this gullet parallel to the
Rhine and the golden Rudeffieimer mountain ; it there¬
fore enjoys the fame fun as this does, which makes the
Budeflieimer wine that grow's on it little inferior to the
Rudeffieimer. See Rudesheim. The rifing grounds
about it produce wines that are efteemed preferable to
thofe of Baccharac, fo much in vogue heretofore. 
3. Elfeld, five miles weft from Mentz, is a ftrong for¬
tified town, on the north fide of the Rhinej and the
chief of the Rhinegau.—Here is Rudeftieim, a place
noted for the growth of the beft wines in thefe parts.
4. Weiffiaden lies betw-een fix and feven leagues from
Francfort, and about five or fix miles north of Mentz j
it is the metropolis of a country belonging to the
branch of Naflau-Saarbrak, and is famous for its mi¬
neral waters.
According to Rieffieck, the fee of Mentz is indebted
for its increafe of riches to St Boniface, who may be
called, with great juftice, the apoftle of the Germans.
It was this man, an Engliffiman by birth, who in the
time of Charlemagne baptized Witikind and the other
brave Saxons who had fo long refifted baptifm Avith their
fwords, and fpread the empire of the vfcar of Jefus
Chrift as far as the northern and eaftern feas. He it
was Avho introduced the Roman liturgy into Germany,
and made the fav-age inhabitants abftain from eating
horfe’s fleffi. Pie railed the papal power to a higher
pitch than it had been raifed in any other country in
Chriftendom ; and, in recompence of his fervices, the
pope made all the new founded bifl’oprics in the north
of Germany fubjeft to the fee of Mentz, which Bonk
face
Mensuration
J'J. A'/f 7c/i r// /r?7 fit t
■
\ r
.
\
t
MEN [ 529 ] MEN
Mentz. face had chofen for his refidence. The provinces, the
■—^ ' moft conhderable in the whole papal dominions, all
Suabia, Franconia, Bohemia, and almoft all Saxony,
with a part of Switzerland, Bavaria, and the Upper
Rhine, belong to this diocefe. Though the reforma¬
tion, and revenge of the kings of Bohemia, have leffen-
ed it one-third, it flill contains the archbilhopric of
Sprengel, and eleven bifhoprics, moft of which are the
moft confiderable of Germany, as Wurtzburg, Pader-
born, Hildeftieim, Auglhurg, &c. When the build¬
ing of the papal monarchy was completed by Gregory
VI1. the archbilhops of Mentz became powerful enough
to be at tlie head of the empire. In the 13th and 14th
centuries, they were fo eminent as to be able to make
emperors without any foreign afliftance 5 and it was to
one of them that the houfe of Hapfburg was indebted
for its firft elevation. Since the boundaries of the two
powers have been more accurately afcertained, and the
temporal has fo much got the better of the fpiritual, the
power and influence of the archbithops of this place
have of courfe been much reduced ; ftill, however, they
are poffeffed of very important prerogatives, which they
might exert with much more efficacy than they do,
were it not that various circumftances have rendered
them too dependent on the emperors. They are ftill
the fpeakers in the elecloral college, have the appoint¬
ment of the diets under the emperors, and may order a
re-examination of the proceedings of the imperial courts.
Thefe high privileges are, however, too much fubjeft
to the controul of the houfe of Auftria ; nor are their
fpiritual powers any longer what they once were.
Their fuftragan bilhops have taken it into their heads
that all biffiops are alike as to power, and that the title,
of archbiihop only entitles its pofleffor to the firft place
amongft brothers who are equal. The temporals, how¬
ever, which are ftill annexed to this chair, make him
who fits in it rich amends for the diminution of his
Ipiritual and political fplendor. Though he does not
abfolutely poflefs the largeft, yet he certainly has the
richeft and moft peopled domain of any eeclefiaftical
potentate in Germany. The country, it is true, does
not contain more than 125 German miles fquare, whereas
the archbifhopric of Saltzburg contains 240 5 but then
Saltzburg has only 250,000 inhabitants, whereas Mentz
has 320,000. The natural riches of the territory of
Mentz, and its advantageous fituation, make a fubjecl
of Mentz much richer than one of Saltzburg, the greateft
part of which is only inhabited by herdfmen. In the
territory of Mentz there are 40 cities ; in that of Saltz¬
burg only feven. The tax on vcffels which go down
the Rhine of itfelf produces 60,000 guilders, or 6000I.
a-year, which is nearly as much as all the mines of
Saltzburg put together, excepting only the fait mine at
Halle. The tax on wine, here and in the country round,
produces the court above 100,000 guilders, or io,oool.
a-year, in which fum we do not reckon the cuftoms of
the countries which lie at a greater diftance. Upon the
whole, the income of the prefent archbiihop may be
valued at 1,700,000 guilders, or 170,000!.
If the lands of the eleftor lay all together, they would
produce a fufficiency of corn and all the prime necef-
faries of life; but as feveral parts of them lie wide
afunder, the people are compelled to purchafe a great
deal from foreigners. The capital itfelf, as well as
Vol. XIII. Part II.
the adjacent Rhincgau, depends on the Palatinate for Mentz.
its corn, notwithftanding the-great abundance of that' ‘ "'"'T'’”*
and every other fpceies of grain in its own pofleflions
in Wetterau. The nobleft production of the eleCIor’s
territory on the Rhine is the wine, which is almoft
the only true Rheniih. Connoifleurs, indeed, allow
the wines of Neirftein, Baccarach, and a very few
other places out of this country, to be true Rheniih :
but they do not give this name to the wines of the
Palatinate, of Bardon, and of Alfatia. There is a
great deal of wine made in the countries which lie on
the fouth and weft of the Rhine, at Laubenheim,
Bodenheim, Budeiheim, and Bingen j but the true
Rheniih, that which infpires fo many who are and fo
many who are not poets, comes only from the Rhine-
gau, which lies on the northern banks of the Rhine.
See Rhinegau.
The civil lift of the archbiihop (according to
Baron Riefbeck), is by much too immoderate and
expenfive. “ He has his minifters, his counfel-
lors of ftate, and eighty or ninety privy counfel-
lors of various denominations. The expence of this
eftabliffiment is very difproportionate to the revenue
of the ftate. This is owing to the large number of
poor nobility, who can only accept of employments
of this kind. Ignorance of the true principles of go¬
vernment are the caufes of this evil. The confequen-
ces are, that a great number of perfons, who might
be ufefully employed, live in idlenefs. Even the mi¬
litary eftablifhment of the country appears to me more
calculated for the purpofe of feeding a hungry nobi¬
lity than for real ufe. At the acceffion of the prefent
elector, though the tvhole army only confifted of 2200
men, there were fix generals. The regular eftablilh-
ment paid for and fupported by the country is 8000
men ; but though there are only 2000 men kept up,
the money expended for their fupport, particularly
that given to numberlefs ufelefs officers, might be
made ufe of more for the benefit of the country. The
army of the archbilhop confifts of a German guard of
50 men and 25 horfes, a Swifs guard, a fquadron of
hufiars of 130 men (the moft ufeful troops-, as they
purge the land of robbers and murderers), a corps of
artillery of 104 men, three regiments of infantry of
600 men each, and feme companies belonging to the
armies of Franconia and the Upper Palatinate. Of
the fortifications of the capital we may fay much the
fame as of the army. Were they, indeed, improved
and kept up as they ought to be, they would vie
■with Luxemburg, and be the moft powerful of all the
barriers againft France. It is true, that the nature of
the ground does not allow of a regular plan ; but for
Angle parts, I have feen no place of the fame capabi¬
lities, where greater advantages have been taken of
the ground for the eredtion of the feveral works. The
beauty, as well as fize of them, is indeed an object of
great wonder ; but though the circle of the Upper
Rhine, and even the empire in general, has laid out
great fums on the building thefe fortifications, parts
of them are not finiihed, and parts of them are ready
to fall to pieces. Their extent, indeed, would require
a great army to man them. But this, as -well as the
maintaining and keeping them up, is evidently beyond
the power of this court, or indeed of the whole circle
3 X ‘ of
Merttz.
MEN
of the Upper Rhine united. They are, therefore, alfo
to be looked upon as one of the things which ferve
more for magnificence than real ufe.”
Mentz, a confiderable town of Germany, in the
circle of the Lower Rhine, and capital of the eleddo-
rate of the fame name, is fituated on the Rhine near
its confluence with the Maine, 20 miles north-weft of
\\orms, 15 weft of Francfort, and 75 eaft of Triers,
in E. Long. 8. 20. N. Lat. 40. 51. This city claims
a right to the invention of the art of printing: (fee
HiJlonj of Printing). Here is a very beautiful quay
along the river, defended by feveral works well forti¬
fied with cannon, lhat part of the city which ex¬
tends towards the river is moft populous. The belt
vineyards for Rhenifh wine being in this neighbour¬
hood, Mentz has a flourilhing trade in that commodi¬
ty more particularly ; and its commerce is the brifker,
by reafon that all the merehandife which pafles up and
down the Rhine ftops in its harbour to change bot¬
toms.
_ 'Uhe northern part of the city, in which the arch-
biftiop refides, is full of very regular buildings. Here
are three regular ftreets, called the Blerc/ieti, which run
parallel to each other from the banks of the Rhine to
600 yards within the city, and arc cut almoft regularly
by very pretty crofs ftreets. The archbiftrop’s palace
has a moft commanding view of thefe ftreets, the Rhine,
and the Rhinegau. IT.ere are alfo fome good build¬
ings in the old part of the city. The market of beafts
is extremely well worth feeing ; and you here and
there meet with other agreeable fpots. Tire market
in the middle of the town, though not regular, is one
of the pretlieft places in Germany. The cathedral is
well worth notice. It is an immenfe large old Go¬
thic building, the fpire of which wras ftruck with light¬
ning about 20 years ago, and entirely laid in alhes.
As it was made of a foreft of wood, it burned 14
hours before it wras entirely confumed. To prevent
thefe accidents for the future, the chapter had the pre-
fent one built to the fame height in ftone, an under¬
taking which coft them 40,000 guilders or 4000I.
It is a great pity (Baron Riefheck obferves) that it is
overloaded with fmall ornaments: and a ftill greater,
that this wonderful edifice is fo choked up with {hops
and houfes as to be hardly more than half vifible. As,
however, houfes and (hops are very dear in this part
of the town, one cannot be very angry with the chap¬
ter for choofing rather to make the moft of its ground,
than to (how off the church to the beft advantage. The
rent of a fhop and a Angle room to live in is 150 guil¬
ders or 15I. per annum in this part of the town.
There is hardly another church in Germany of the
height and length of this cathedral ; and the infide of
it is decorated with feveral magnificent monuments of
princes and other great perfonages. Befides the ca¬
thedral, the city of Mentz contains feveral other
churches in the modern ftvle, very well worth feeing.
St Peter’s, and the Jefuit’s church, though both too
much loaded with ornament, are among this number.
The church of the Auguftins, of which the inhabi¬
tants of Mentz are fo proud, is a mafterpiece of bad
tafte y but that of Ignatius, though little is faid about
it, would be a model of the antique, if here likewife
there had not been too much ornament lavilhed. Upon
[ 53° 1
MEN
the whole, the palaces of the nobleffe want that noble
fimplicity which alone conititutes true beauty and mag-'
nificence. . In another century the externals of the city
will be quite changed. The late prince built a great
deal, and the prefent has a tafte for the fame fort of ex-
pence. The monks and governors of hofpitals alfo have
been forced to rebuild their houfes 5 fo that when a few
more ftreets are made broader and ftraighter, the whole
will have no bad appearance. The inhabitants, who
together with thegarrifonamount 1030,000, area o-00d
kind of people, and, like all the catholics of Germany,
make great account of a good tabic. Their faces are
interefting, and they are not deficient either in wit or
aclivity.
There are few cities in Germany befides Vienna
which contain fo rich and numerous a nobility as this
docs : there are feme houfes here which have eflates of
100,000 guilders, or io,oool. a-year. The counts of
Baffenheim, Schonborn, Stadion, Ingelheim, Elz, Of-
tein, and Walderdorf, and the lords of Dahlberg, Brei-
tenbach, with fome others, have incomes of from 30,000
to 100,000 guilders. Sixteen or eighteen houfes have
from 15,000 to 30,000 guilders annual revenue. The
nobility of this place are faid to be feme of the oldeft
and moft untainted 111 Germany. There are amongft
them many perfens of extraordinary merit, who join
uncommon knowledge to all the duties of a&ive life*
Upon the whole, they are far fuperior to the greater
part of the German nobility. Their education, how-
ever, is ftill too ftiff. The firft minifter of the court
was refufed admittance into their affemblies for not
being fufficiently noble 5 and they think they degrade
themftlves by keeping company with bourgeois.
The clergy of this place are the richeft in Germany.
A canonry brings in 3500 Rhenifli guilders in a mode¬
rate year, f he canonry of the provoft brings him in
40,000 guilders a-year ; and each of the deaneries is
worth 2600 guilders. The income of the chapter al¬
together amounts to 300,000 guilders. Though it is
forbidden by the canons of the church for any one to
have more than a Angle prebend, there is not an ec-
elefiaftic in this place who has not three or four j fo
that there is hardly a man amongft them who has not
at leaft 8oao guilders a-year. The laft provoft, a count
of Elz, had prebends enough to procure him an in¬
come of 75,000 guilders. Exclufive of the cathedral,
there are feveral other choirs in which the canonries
bring in from 1200 to 1500 guilders a-year. To give
an idea of the riches of the monafteries of this place,
Baron Riefbeck informs us, that at the deftru&ion of
the Jefuits, their wine, which was reckoned to fell
extremely cheap, produced 120,000 rixdollars. A
little while ago the ele&or abohlhed one Carthufian
convent and two nunneries, in the holy cellars of which
there was found wine for at leaft 500,000 rixdollars.
“ Notwithftanding this great wealth (continues our
author), there is not a more regular clergy in all
Germany. There is no diocefe, in which the regula¬
tions made by the council of Trent have been more
ftri&ly adhered to than they have here the archbi-
fliops having made a particular point of it both at the
time of the reformation and ever fince. One thing
which greatly contributes to keep up difeipline is
the not fuffering any prieft to remain in the country
who
Mentz
M E N [ 531 ] MEN
jrfer.tx wno has not fixed and dated duties, and a revenue an¬
il nexed to them. Mod of the irregularities in .Bavaria,
len h Audria, and other countries, arife from abbes who are
— V obliged to fubfilt by their daily induftry and any
malfes which they can pick up. Thefe creatures are
entirely unknown here. The theological tenets of this
court are alfo much purer than thofe of any other ec-
cleliadical prince in Germany. I was pleafed to ice the
Bible in the hands of fo many common people, efpe-
cially in the country, I was told that the reading of
it was not forbidden in any part of the diocefe j only
perfons were enjoined not to read it through, without
the advice of their confeiTors. For a long time fuper-
ftition has been hunted through its utmoft recefles 5
and though it is not quite poilxble to get entirely clear
of pilgrimages and wonder-working images, you will
meet with no pried bold enough toexorcife or to preach
fuch nonfenfe as we hear in the pulpits of other Ger¬
man churches.1’
Though the trade of this place has been conftantly
on the increafe for thefe 18 or 20 years pad, yet it is by
no means what it ought to be from the fituation and
other advantages. The perfons here who call themfelves
merchants, and who make any confiderable figure, are
in fadd only brokers, who procure their livelihood at
the expence of the country or territory round, or who
add for the merchants of Francfort. A few toy-ihops,
five or fix druggifts, and four or five manufacturers of
tobaeco, are all that can pofTibly be called traders.
There is not a banker in the whole town •, and yet this
country enjoys the ftaple privilege, and commands by
means of the Maine, Necker, and Rhine, all the ex¬
ports and imports of Alfatia, the Palatinate, b ranconia,
and a part of Suabia and HelTe, as far as the Nether¬
lands. The port too is conftantly filled with ftiips, but
few of them contain any merchandife belonging to the
inhabitants of the place. The French took it by lur-
prife in Oddober 1792; it furrendered to the king of
Pruflia in 1793 j the French made a fruitlefs attack
upon it in 1795 ", it was relieved from a blockade by
the Auftrians in 1796, and the French got poffeflkm of
it in Oddober 1797.
MENCZEL, Christian, born at Fruftenwall in
the Mittel-mark, is celebrated for his Ikill in medicine
and botany, in purfuit of which he travelled through
many countries. He had correfpondcnts in the moft
diftant parts of the world. Fie died A. D. 1701 about
the 79th year of his age. Fie was a member of the
academy ties Cuneux de la Nature. His works are,
1. Index nominumplantarum, printed at Berlin in folio,
1696-, and reprinted with additions in 1715, under
the title of Lexicon pi ant arum polyglot ton umverfale.
2. A Chronology of China, in German, printed at Beilin
1696, in qto. The following manufeviots of his com-
pofition are preferved in the royal library at Berlin.
1. Sur r Hijloire Nature lie du B rajil, in four volumes fo¬
lio. 2. Sur les Fleurs et les Plantes du Japan, with co¬
loured plates, two vols folio.
M EN US in Ancient Geography, a river of Germany;
now the Maine, riling in Franconia, and running from
call to weft into the Rhine at Mentz.
MENUTFIIAS, in Ancient Geography, an ifland
adjoining to the north-eaft of the promontory Prafum
of Ethiopia beyond Egypt. Some take it to be Mada-
gefcar, or the ifland St Laurence. Ifaac Vofiius will
have it to be 'Zanzibar; Madagafcar being at a greater Menuthias
diitance from the continent than the ancients ever failed VIer,!1i,;0ft-
to, whereas Menuthias was nearer: yet though Zan- . i
zibar be nearer the continent, it is however nearer the
equator than Ptolemy’s Menuthias, placed in fouth la¬
titude 1 2 ,r degrees.
MENYANF'HES, Marsh-trefoil, or Bogbean;
a genus of plants belonging to the pentandria clais j
and in the natural method ranking under the 21ft or¬
der, Precue. See Botany Index.
MENZIKOFF, Alexander, was originally an ap¬
prentice to a paftry-cook near the palace of Mofcow ;
but by a fortunate circumftance was drawn from that
fituation in early life, and placed in the houfehold of
Peter the Great. Having made himfelf mafter of fe-
veral languages, and being formed for war and for bu-
finefs, he firft rendered himfelf agreeable, and after¬
wards became neceffary to his mafter. He aftifted
Peter in all his projects ; and was rewarded for his fer-
vices with the government of Ingria, the rank of
prince, and the title of major-general. He fignalized
himfelf in Poland in 1728 and 1709; but in 1713 he
was accufed of embezzling the public money, and
fined in 300,000 crowns. The czar remitted the
fine ; and having reftored him to favour, gave him
the command of an army in the Ukraine in 1719,
and fent him as his ambalfador into Poland in 1722.
Conftantly employed about the means of preferving
his influence after the death of his mafter, who was
then evidently on the decline, Menzikoff difeovered
the perfon to whom the czar intended to leave the
fucceflion. The emperor was highly offended, and
his penetration coft him the principality of Plefcoff.
Under the czarina Catherine, however, he was higher
in favour than ever } becaufe, on the death of the
czar in 1725, he was aftive in bringing different par¬
ties in Ruflia to agree to her fucceflion. This prin-
cefs was not ungrateful. In appointing her fon-in-
law Peter II. to be her fuceeffor, flie commanded him
to marry the daughter of Menzikoff, and gave the
czar’s filler to his fon. The parties were aclually be¬
trothed : and Menzikoff was made duke of Cozel and
grand fteward to the czar. But this fummit of eleva¬
tion was the prelude to his fall. The Dolgoroukis,
favourites of the czar, had influence enough to pro¬
cure his baniftnnent, together with that of his family,
to one of his own eftates at the diftance of 250 leagues-
from Mofcow. He had the imprudence to leave the
capital with the fplendor and magnificence of a go¬
vernor going to take poffeflion of his province. His
enemies took advantage of this circumftance to in¬
flame the indignation of the czar. At feme diftance
from Mofcow he was overtaken by a detachment of
foldiers. The officer who commanded them made him
alight from his chariot, which he fent back to Mof¬
cow ; and placed him and his whole family in covered
waggons, to be condufted into Siberia, in the habit
of peafants. When he arrived at the place of his def-
tination, he was prefented with cows and ftieep big
with young, and poultry, without knowing from
whom he received the favour. His houfe was a fimple
cottage •, and his employment was to cultivate the
ground, or to fuperintend its cultivation. New caufes
of forrow were added to the feverities of exile. His
wife died in the journey •, he had the misfortune to lofe
3X2 one *
M £ Q [ 5
Manzikofr one of his daughters by the fm all pox ; and his other
Mequine/. two c^^^reT1 Were ^ized with the fame difeafe, but re-
v—• ■ v—— covered. He funk under his misfortunes, Novem¬
ber 2. 1729 •, and was buried befide his daughter, in a
little chapel which lie had built. His misfortunes had
infpired him with fentiments of devotion, which, amid
the fplendtfr of his former fituation, he had altogether
tfegktfed. His fWo furviving children enjoyed greater
liberty after the death of their father. The officer
permitted them to attend public worffiip on Sundays by
turns. One day when his daughter was returning from
the village, ffie heard herfelf accofted by a peafant
from the window of a cottage, and, to her great fur*
prife, recognifed in this peafant the perfecutOr of her
family, Dolgorouki ; who, in his turn, had fallen a
facrifce to the intrigues of the court. She communica¬
ted this intelligence to her brother, who could not be¬
hold, without emotion, this new inftance of the vanity
and inftability of honours and power. Young Menzi"-
koff and his fifter were foon after recalled to Mofcow
by the czarina Ann 5 and left Dolgorouki in poffeflion
of their cottage. He was made captain of the guards,
and received the fifth part of his father’s poffeffions.
His fifter was appointed maid of honour to the emprefs,
3nd afterwards married to great advantage.
MENZIN1, Benedict, a celebrated Italian poet,
born at Florence, Was profeffor of eloquence at the col¬
lege Della Sapienza at Rome, where he died in 1704.
He wrote, x. The art of poetry. 2. Satires, elegies,
hymns, and the Lamentations of Jeremiah. 3. Aca¬
demia Tifculana, a work in verfe and profe, which
paffes for his mafterpiece.
M EOT IS, or Palus Meotis, a fea of Turkey,
which^ divides Europe from Afia 5 extending from
Grim Tartary to the mouth of the river Don or Ta-
nais.
MEPHITIC, a name expreffing any kind of noxi¬
ous vapour; but generally applied to that fpecies of
vapour called fixed air. See Carbonic Acid, Chemi¬
stry Index.
MEPHITIS FANUM, a temple creeled to the god-
defs Mephitis, near Lacus Amfanfti ; who was wor-
ftiipped alfo at Cremona. Figuratively, Mephitis de¬
notes a noifome or peftilential exhalation, (Virgil).
MEQUINEZ, or Miquinez, the northern capital
of the Morocco empire, ftands at the extremity of the
province of Beni Haffen, 80 leagues north from the
city of Morocco (which is the fouthern imperial city),
and 20 to the eaft of Sallee and the ocean. Maknaffa,
its founder, built it firft at the bottom of a valley ; but
Muley Ifmael extended it confiderably over the plain
that lies to the weft of the valley. It is furrounded
with well cultivated fields and hills, adorned with gar¬
dens and olive plantations, and abundantly watered with
rivulets. Accordingly, fruits and kitchen fluffs thrive
here exceedingly, and even the fuperior urbanity of the
inhabitants announces the temperature of the climate.
The winter indeed is very inconvenient, on account of
the dirtinefs of the town, the ftreets not being paved,
and the foil being flimy.
Mequinez is furrounded with walls ; the palace itfelf
is fortified with two baftions, on which formerly feme
fmall guns were mounted. Muley Ifmael, and Muley
Abdallah, often in this city refilled the efforts of the
Brebes, the fwom enemies of their tyranny. To the
1 ME R
weft are feen feme walls of circumvallation, fix feet in Wciiuti,-
hesght, which were probably mere intrenchments for II '
the infantry ; the attacks of the Brebes beinc only />?erCilt0r-
fudden and momentary inroads, which did not require ' ^
a long defence. There is at Mequinez, as well as at
Morocco, a walled and guafded fuburb for the Jews.
I he houfes are neater here than at Morocco. The
Jews here are more numerous ; and they can turn their
induftry to greater account, becaufe the Moors in this
city are more poliffied, and (being nearer to Europe)
more vifited, than thofe in the fouthern parts. Near
the Jewry, there is another enclofed and feparate quar¬
ter, called the Negro town. It Was built by Muley If.
mael, for the accommodation of thofe black families
which compofed his foldiery. 1 his town is now unin¬
habited, as are all thofe deftined for the fame ufe
through the reft: of the empire.
At the fouth-eaft extremity of the city'ftands the
palace of the emperor, which was built by Muley If-
mael. The fpace dcciipied by this palace is very
great; it includes feveral gardens, elegantly difpofed,
and well watered. There is a large garden in the
centre, furrounded by a vaft and pretty regular gal¬
lery refting on columns, which communicates with
the apartments. I hofe of the women are very fpaci-
ous? and have a communication with a large chamber
which looks into the garden. As you pals from one
apartment to another, you find at intervals regular courts
paved with fquare pieces of black and white marble ; in
the middle of thefe courts is a marble bafin, from the
centre of which rifes a jet d'eau, and the water falls
down into this bafin. 1 hefe fountains are numerous in
the palace ; they are ufeful for domeftic purpofes, and
they ferve for the ablutions, which the fcruples of the
Mahometans have exceedingly multiplied. The palaces
of the Mooriffi kings are large, becaufe they are com¬
pofed only of one range of apartments ; thefe are long
and narrow, from 18 to 20 feet high ; they have few
ornaments, and receive the light by two large folding
doors, which are opened more or lefs as occafion re^
quires.. The rooms are always lighted from a fquare
court in the centre, which is generally encompafled
with a colonnade.
The Moors here are more courteous than thofe irt-
the fouthern parts ; they are civil to ftrangers, and in¬
vite them into their gardens, which are Very neat.
The women in this part of the empire are beautiful ;
they have a fair complexion, with fine black eyes, and
white teeth. I have fometimes feen Them taking the
air on the terraces ; they do not hide themfelves from
Europeans, but retire very quickly on the appearance
of a Moor.
MERA-DE-AsTa , formerly a large town of An-
dalufta, feated on the river Guadaleta, between Arcos
and Xeres de la Frontera ; but now only a large heap
of ruins. Here the Arabs conquered Roderick the lalt
king of the Goths, and by that vidtory became mafters
of Spain in 713.
MERCATOR, Gerard, one of the moft cele¬
brated geographers of his time, was born at Rurc-
monde in 1512. He applied himfclf with fuch in¬
duftry to geography and mathematics, that he is faid
to have frequently forgot to eat and drink. The em¬
peror Charles V. had a particular efteem for him, and
the duke of Juliets made him his cofmographer. He
compofed
M E U t 5
JVferra'for compofed a clironology, fome geograpldcal tables, an
II atlas, &c. engraving and colouring the maps him-
Merchart Jn i His method of laying down
^ ’ -charts is ftill ufed, and bears the name of Mercator"1 s
'charts.
Mercator, Nicholas, an eminent mathematician in
"‘the 17th century, was born at Holftein in Denmark •,
and came to England about the time of the reftoration,
-where he lived many years. He was fellow of the
"Royal Society *, and endeavoured to reduce altrology to
rational principles, as appeared from a MS. of his in
the pofleffion of William Jones, Efq. He publiihed fe-
veral works, particularly Cofmographia. He gave the
quadrature of the hyperbole by an infinite feries 5
which was the firft appearance in the learned wvorld of
a feries of this fort drawn from the particular nature of
the curve, and that in a manner very new and ab-
ftra&ed.
MERCATOR's Sailing, that performed by Mercator’s
chart. See Navigation.
MERCATORUM festum, was a feftival kept by
the Roman merchants on the 15th of May, in ho¬
nour of Mercury, who prefided over merehandife. A
fow was facrificed on the occafion, and the people
prefent fprinkled themfelves with water fetched from
the fountain called aqua Mercurii; the whole conclud¬
ing with prayers to the god for the profperity of
trade.
MERCHANT, a perfon wrho buys and fells com¬
modities in grofs, or deals in exchanges ; or that traf¬
fics in the way of commerce, either by importation or
exportation. Formerly every one who was a buyer or
feller in the retail way was called a merchant, as they
ftill are both in France and Holland 5 but here thop-
keepers, or thofe who attend fairs or markets, have
loft that appellation.
Previous to a perfon’s engaging in a general trade,
and becoming an univerfal dealer, he ought to treafure
up fuch a fund of ufeful knowledge as will enable him
to carry it on with eafe to himfelf, and without ri/k-
ing fuch Ioffes as great ill-concerted undertakings
would naturally expofe him to. A merchant fliould
therefore be acquainted with the following parts of
commercial learning : 1. He thould write properly and
corredtly. 2. Underftand all the rules of arithmetic
that have any relation to commerce. 3. Know how
to keep books of double and fingle entry, as journals,
a leger, &c. 4. Be expert in the forms of invoices,
accounts of fales, policies of infurances, charter-par¬
ties, bills of lading, and bills of exchange. 5. Know
the agreement between the money, weights, and mea-
fures of all parts. 6. If he deal in filk, woollen,
linen, or hair manufa&ures, he ought to know the
places where thefe different forts of merchandifes are
manufa&urcd, in what manner they are made, what are
the materials of which they are compofed, and from
whence they come, the preparations of thefe materials
before working up, and the places to which they are
fent after their fabrication. 7. Fie ought to know the
lengths and breadths which filk, woollen, or hair fluffs,
linen, cottons, fuftians, &c. ought to have according
to the feveraL ftatutes and regulations of the places
■where they are manufadhired, with their different prices,
according to the times and feafons *, and if he can add
to his knowledge the different dyes and ingredients
.13 1 M E R
which form the Various colours, it will not be ufelefs. Merchant.
8. If he confines his trade to that of oils, wines, &c. *
he ought to inform himfelf particularly of the appear¬
ances of the fucceeding crops, in order to regulate his
difpofing of w'hat he has on hand ; and to learn as ex¬
actly as he can what they have produced when got in,
for his direction in making the neceffary purchafes and
engagements. 9. He ought to be acquainted with the
forts of merchandife found more in one country than
another, thofe which are fcarce, their different fpeeies
and qualities, and the propereft method for bringing
them to a good market either by land or fea. 10. To
know which are the merchandifes permitted or prohi¬
bited, as wrell on entering as going out of the king¬
doms or ftates w'here they are made. 11. To be ac¬
quainted with the price of exchange, according to the
courfe of different places, and what is the caufc of its
rife and fall. 12. To know the cuftoms due on im¬
portation or exportation of merchandifes, according to
the ufage, the tariffs, and regulations, of the places to
which he trades. 13. To know the beft manner of
folding up, embaling, or tunning, the merchandifes for
their prefervation. 14. To underftand the price and
condition of freighting and inlliring Ihips and mer¬
chandife. 15. To be acquainted with the goodnefs
and value of all neceffaries for the conftrudtion and re¬
pairs of {hipping, the different manner of their build¬
ing ; what the wrood, the mafts, cordage, cannons,
fails, and all requifites, may coft. l6. To know the
wrages commonly given to the captains, officers, and
failors, and the manner of engaging with them.
17. He ought to underftand the foreign languages, or
at leaf! as many of them as he can attain to : thefe
may be reduced to four, viz. the Spanifti, which is-
ufed not only in Spain but on the coaft of Africa,
from the Canaries to the Cape of Good Hope : the
Italian, which is underftood on all the coafts of the
Mediterranean, and in many parts of the Levant: the
German, which is underftoed in almoft all the northern
countries *, and the French, which is now become al¬
moft univerfally current. 18. He ought to be ac¬
quainted with the confular iurifdidlion, with the laws,
cuftoms, and ufages of the different countries he does
or may trade to ; and in general all the ordinances
and regulations both at home and abroad that have
any relation to commerce. 19. Though it is not ne¬
ceffary for a merchant to be very learned, it is proper
that he fhould know fomething of hiftory, particularly
that of his own country geography, hydrography, or
the fcience of navigation *, and that he be acquainted
with the difeoveries of the countries in which trade is
eftabliftied, in wffat manner it is fettled, of the compa¬
nies formed to fupport thofe eftablilhments, and of the
colonies they have fent out.
All thefe. branches of knowledge are of great fer-
vice to a merchant who carries on an extenfive com¬
merce •, but if his trade and his views are more limited,
his learning and knowledge may be fo too : but a
material requifite for forming a merchant is, his having
on all occafions a ftridl regard to truth, and his avoid¬
ing fraud and deceit as corroding cankers that mult
inevitably deftroy his reputation and fortune.
Trade is a thing of fo univerfal a nature, that it is
impoffible for the laws of Britain, or of any other na¬
tion, to determine all the affairs relating to it 5 there¬
for©
Merchant
M E R [ 534 ]
fore ail nations, as well as Great Britain, (how a parti- dominions.
Mercia. ar re8ara to tlie law-merchant, which is a law made
-  y— ■ 1 uy ^ie merchants among themfelves : however, mer¬
chants and other llrangers are fubjeft to the laws of the
country in which they refide. Foreign merchants are
to fell their merchandife at the port where they land,
in grofs, and not by retail ; and they are allowed to be
pa’d in gold or filver bullion, in foreign coin or jewels,
uhich may be exported. If a difference arifes between
the king and any foreign bate, the merchants of that
ftate are allowed fix months time to fell their effects
and leave the kingdom j during which time they are
to remain free and unmolefted in their perfons and
goods. See the articles Commerce, and Mercantile
Law.
MERv. H E I (Merchetum), a fine or compofition
pan. y infe ior tenants to the lord, for liberty to dif-
pofe oi their daughte rs in marriage. No baron, or mi¬
litary tenant, could marry his foie daughter and heir,
with -ut fuch leave purchafed from the king, pro mari-
tanda Mia. And many of our fervile tenants could nei¬
ther fend their fons to fchool, nor give their daughters
in marriage, without exprefs leave from the fuptrior
loi'k See Kennet’s GlotTary in Maritaqwm. See alfo
Marchet, under which word it is Hated, and verv ge-
nerallv underilood, that this was a right claimed by the
lord of the manor in the time of the feudal fyftem of
palling the firii night after marriage with his female vi’-
lain. According to Mr Aftle, the mercheta was a com-
paff between the lord and his vaffal for the redemption
of an offence committed by the vaffal’s unmarried
daughter *, and alfo a fine paid by a fokeman or a vil¬
lain to his lord for permifiion to marry his daughter to a
free man ; and in cafes where the vaffal gave away his
daughter without having obtained this licenfe, he fub-
jefted himfelf to a heavier fine.
MERCIA, the name of one of the feven kingdoms
founded in England by the Saxons. Though the lateft
formed, it uas the largett of them all, and grew by de¬
grees to be by far the moff powerful. On the north it
was bounded by the Humber and the Merfey, which fe-
parated it from the kingdom of Northumberland ; on
the eaft by the fea, and the territories of the Eaft
Angles and Saxons; on thefouth by the river Thames;
and on the v7elf bv the rivers Seve rn and IDce. It
comprehended well nigh 17 of our modern counties,
being equal in fize to the province of Languedoc in
France ; very little, if at all, lefs than the kingdom of
Arragon in Spain ; and fuperior in fize to that of Bo¬
hemia in Germany.
. Penda is regarded as its firft monarch ; and the
kingdom is thought to derive its name from the Saxon
word mere, which fignifies “ a march, bound, or li¬
mit,” becaufe the other kingdoms bordered upon it
on every fide ; and not from the river Merfey, as fome
■would perfuade us. Penda affumed the regal title
A. D. 6?6, and was of the age of 50 at the time of
his acceffion ; after which he reigned near thirty years.
He was of a moll furious and turbulent temper, break-
in-at different times with almoft all his neighbours
calling in the Britons to his afliftance, and (bedding
more Saxon blood than had been hitherto fpilled in
all their mteftine quarrels. He killed two kings of
Northumberland, three of the Eaft Angles, and com¬
pelled Ken wall king of the Weft Saxons to quit his
HER
He was at length fiain, w*th moft of the
princes of his family, and a multitude of his fubjefts
m a battle fought not far from Leeds, by Ofwy king
of Northumberland. This battle, which the Saxon
chronicle tells us was fought at Winwidfield, A. D
655, made a great change in the Saxon affairs, which
the unbridled fury of Penda had thrown into great
confufion. He had the year before killed Anna king
of the Eaft Angles in battle, whofe brother Ethel-
red notwithftanding took part with Penda. On the
other hand, Penda, the eldeft fon of Penda, to whom
his father had given the ancient kingdom of the Mid
Angles, had two years before married the natural
daughter of King Oiwy, and had been baptized at
his court. At that time it fhould feem that Ofwy
and Penda were upon good terms ; but after the lat¬
ter had conquered the Eart Angles, he refolved to
turn his arms againft the kingdom of Northumberland.
Olvvy by no means had provoked this rupture : on the
contrary, Bede tells us that he offered large fums of
TreyVand jeU’el" of Sreal value, to purchafe peace :
thde offers being rejected, he was reduced to the ne-
ceftity of deciding the quarrel by the fword. The
river near which the battle was fought overflowing
there were more drowned than killed. Amongit thefe’
as the Saxon chronicle fays, there were thirty princes
of the royal line, fome of whom bore the title of
lings; and alfo Ethelred king of the Eaft Angles
who fought on the fide of Penda againft his family and
country. J
His fon Penda, who married the daughter of that
conqueror became a Chriftian, and was not long after
muidered, as is laid, by the malice of his mother. His
brother Wolf her becoming king of Mercia, embraced
in procefs of time the faith of the gofpel, and proved
a very vnftorious and potent monarch ; and is, with no
fewer than feven of his immediate fuccefi’ors, commonly
ftyled king of the Anglo-Saxons, though none of them
are owned in that quality by the Saxon chronicle. But
though poflibly no»e of them might enjoy this ho¬
nour, they were undoubtedly very puiffant princes,
maintaining great wars, and obtaining many advan¬
tages over the fovereigns of other Saxon ftates, and
efpecially the Eaft Angles, whom they reduced. ’ The
extent of the Mercian territories was fo ample as to
admit,, and fo fituated as to require, the conftituting
fubordmate rulers m feveral provinces; to whom, efpe-
ciaily if they were of the royal line, they gave the title
of kings; w hich occafions fome confufion in their hif-
tory. Befides the eftablifhing epifcopal fees and con¬
vents, the Saxon monarchs took other methods for
improving and adorning their dominions; and as Mer¬
cia was the largeft, fo thefe methods were moft con-
fpicuous therein. ^ Coventry, as being fituated in the
centre, was ufually, but not always, the royal refi-
dence. Penda, who w'as almoft continually in a ftate
of war, lived as his military operations directed, in
fome great town on the frontiers. Wolfher built a
caftle or fortified palace for his own refidtnee, which
bore his name.—Offa kept his court at Sutton Walls
near Hereford.
In each of the provinces there refided a chief magi-
ftrate ; and if he was of the royal blood, had ufually
the title of king. Penda, at the time he married Of-
wy’s daughter, had the title of king of Leicefer 
Ethelred
Mercia.
M E R [ 535 ] M E R
Mercia Ethelred made his brother Mennvald king of Here-
II ford 5 who, dying without iffue, bequeathed it to his
Mercury. y0Unger brother Mercelm. 'I'he like honours were
fometimes conferred upon the princelfes j and hence,
in Mercia efpecially, we occaiionally read of vice-
queens. By thefe means the laws were better executed,
the obedience of the fubjefts more effe&ually fecured,
and the fplendour of thefe refidences conftantly kept up
and augmented.
At length the crowTn devolving fometimes on mi¬
nors and fometimes on weak princes, inteftinc fac¬
tions alfo prevailing, the force of this hitherto mighty
kingdom began fenlibly to decline. This falling out
in the days of Egbert, the moll prudent as well as
the moft potent monarch of the Weft Saxons, he
took advantage of thefe circumftances ; and having
encouraged the Eaft Angles to make an attempt for
the recovery of their independence, he, in a conjunc¬
ture every way favourable to his defign, broke with
the Mercians, and after a Ihort wrar obliged them to
fubmit. But this was not an abfolute conqueft, the
kings of Mercia being allowed by him and his fuc-
celfors to retain their titles and dominions, till the
invafion of the Danes put an end to their rule, when
this kingdom had fubfifted above 250 years \ and
when the Danes were afterwards expelled by the Weft
Saxons, it funk into a province, or rather was divided
into many.
MERCURIAL, fomething confifting of, or relating
to, mercury.
MERCURIALIS, Dogs Mercury 5 a genus of
plants belonging to the dioecia clafs ; and in the natu¬
ral method ranking under the 38th order, Tricocccr.
See Botany Index.
MERCURIFICATION, in metallurgic chemiftry,
the obtaining the mercury from metallic minerals in
its fluid form. See Chemistry and Mineralogy
Index.
MERCURY, or Quicksilver. See Chemistry
and Mineralogy Index.
Mercury, in the heathen mythology. See Her¬
mes.
Moft of the aftions and inventions of the Egyptian
Mercury ha<re likewife been aferibed to the Grecian,
who was faid to be the fon of Jupiter and Maia, the
daughter of Atlas. No one of all the heathen divini¬
ties had fo many fumftions allotted to him as this god :
he had conftant employment both day and night, ha¬
ving been the common minifter and meflenger of the
whole Pantheon 5 particularly of his father Jupiter,
whom he ferved with indefatigable labour, and fome¬
times, indeed, in a capacity of no very honourable
kind. Lucian is very pleafant upon the multitude of
his avocations •, and, according to the confeflion of the
emperor Julian, Mercury was no hero, but rather one
who infpired mankind with wit, learning, and the or¬
namental arts of life, than with courage. The pious
emperor, however, omits fome of his attributes •, for
thk god was not only the patron of trade, but alfo of
theft and fraud.
Amphion is faid, by Paufanias, to have been the firft
that credled an altar to this god ; who, in return, in¬
verted him with fuch extraordinary powers of mufic
(and mafonry), as to enable him to fortify the city of
Thebes in Eoeotia, by the mere found of Ids lyre.
4
Horace gives us the beft part of his chara&er : Mercury.
Thou god of wit, from Atlas fprung,
Who by perfuafive pow’r of tongue,
And graceful exercife, refin’d
The favage race of human kind,
Hail ! winged meffenger of Jove,
And all th’ immortal pow’rs above.
Sweet parent of the bending lyre,
Thy praife Ihall all its founds infpire.
Artful and cunning to conceal
Whate’er in fportive theft you fteal,
When from the god who gilds the pole,
E’en yet a boy, his herds you ftole j
With angry voice the threat’ning powrer
Bade thee thy fraudtul prey reftore $
But of his quiver too beguil’d,
Pleas’d with the theft, Apollo fmil’d.
You were the wealthy Priam’s guide,
When fate from Agamemnon’s pride,
Through hoftile camps, which round him fpread
Their watchful fires, his way he Ipcd.
Unfpotted fpirits you confign
To blifsful feats and joys divine j
And, pow’rful, with thy golden wand,
The light, unbodied crowd command ;
Thus grateful does thy office prove
To gods below, and gods above. Francis.
This ode contains the fubftance of a very long hvmn
to Mercury, attributed to Homer. Almoft all the an¬
cient poets relate the manner in which the Grecian
Mercury difeovered the lyre ; and tell us that it was
an inrtrument with feven ftrings ; a circumftance which
makes it effentially different from that faid to have
been invented by the Egyptian Mercury, which had
but three. However, there have been many claimants
befides Mercury to the feven-ftringed lyre. See
Lyre.
His moft magnificent temple was on Mount Cylene,
in Arcadia. He is deferibed by the poets as a fair
beardlefs youth, with flaxen hair, lively blue eyes, and
a fmiiing countenance. He has wings fixed to his cap
and fandals, and holds the caduceus (or ftaff furround-
ed with ferpents, with two wings on the top), in his
hand ; and is frequently reprefented with a purfe, to
ftiow that he was the god of gain. The animals fa-
cred to him, were the dog, the goat, and the cock.
In all the facrifices offered to him, the tongues of
the vidtims were burnt •, and thofe who efcaped im¬
minent danger facrificed to him a calf with milk and
honey.
Mercury, $ in AJlronomy. See Astronomy
Index.
This planet is brighteft between his elongations and
fuperior conjunftion, very near to which laft he can
generally be feen. He becomes invilible foon after he
has found his elongation, going towards his inferior
conjunction •, and becomes vifible again a few days be¬
fore his next elongation. The brightnefs of this planet
alters fometimes very eonfiderably in 24 hours. It has
been obferved when lets than three degrees diftant from
the fun, and may, perhaps, fometimes be feen even in
conjunction with it.
Mercury and Venus appear brighteft and moft beau¬
tiful in the oppofite parts of their orbits : the firft, be-*
tweea
Mercury
II
Mercy-
Seat.
M E R [
tween his elongations and fuperior conjunelion j and
the other, between her elongations and inferior con-
junclion. i herefore, Venus is feen in great perfeflion
—J as a crefcent, particularly in her inferior conjunction,
Uiiilft i dcrcury is feldom feen in fuch perfeCt phafes.
Mercury Ihould be always observed on .or near the me¬
ridian. When fartlreft from the fun, he always appears
wtm a very faint light 5 and when he lias a great
louth declination, or the atmofphere is not perfectly
clear, he feldom can be feen in thofe parts of his or-
oh , iviiere he only begins to recover his brightnefs, or
■where it is much diminifhed. He has frequently been
feen on the meridian even with a fmall telefcope and
Jmali power j and it appears from the above ftatement
tnat he iuay be oblcured in a clear day rather more
tnan half his orbit, or near one hundred and fourfcore
days in the year.
IVl lrcury, in Heraldry, a term ufed in blazoning
by planets, for the purple colour ufed in the arms of fo-
vereign princes.
i.iHtiCh , a virtue tliat infpires us with compafTion
for our brethren, and which inclines us to give them
aOiftance in their neeeffities. Mercy is alfo taken for
thoie favours and benefits that ive receive either from
God or man, particularly in the way of forgivenefs of
injuries or of debts. Nothing can be more beautiful
than the defcription of mercy given us by Shakcfpeare,
in the pleading between Portia and the Jew :
For. Then mull the Jew be merciful.
Shy. On what compullion muft I ?' tell me that.
For. The quality of mercy is not {fram’d ;
It droppeth as the gentle rain from heav’n
Upon the place beneath. It is twice blefs’d :
It blefleth him that gives, and him that takes.
’Tis mightieft in the mightieft j it becomes
he throned monarch better than his crown :
1 he fceptre fhows the force of temporal power,
The attribute to awe and majefty,
Wherein doth fit the dread and fear of kings ;
Eut mercy is above this fcepter’d fway,
It is enthroned in the hearts of kings ;
It is an attribute to God himfelf,
And earthly power doth then {how likeil God’s,
When mercy feafons ju{fice. Therefore, Jew,
Though juftice be thy plea, confider this,
I hat in the courfe of juftice none of us
Should fee falvation. We do pray for mercy j
And that fame prayer doth teach us all to render
The deeds of mercy. Merchant of Venice, aft iv.
MERCY-SEAT, or Propitiatory, in Jewifti an-
tiquity, the covering of the ark of the covenant.—The
Hebrew name of this cover, which we tranflate mercy-
feat, is Capporeth (Exod. xxv. 17. 22.), from Cappor,
which fignifies to cover, to [hut up, to expiate, to pay.
1 his cover ivas of gold, and at its two ends were fixed
the two cherubims of the fame metal, which by their
wings extended forwards, feemed to form a throne for
the majefty of God, who in fcripture is reprefented to
us as fitting between the cherubims, and the ark it-
felf was as it were his footftool. It was from hence
that God gave his oracles to Mofes, or to the high
prieft that conlulted him, (Exod. xxv. 22. Numb. vii.
89.).
536 1
M E R
MERER RIX, among the Romans, differed from
ihe projhbula. I he profibulce were common courte-
fans, with bills over their doors, fignifying their profef-
ft°n, and were ready at all times to entertain cuftorm
ers ; whereas the tncretnces entertained none but at
night.—ihe meretrices differed in their drefs from the
matrons; the former wore the toga and fliort tunics,
like thofe of the men : the latter wore the palla and the
Jiola of fuch a length as to reach to their feet.
MERGANSER. See Mergus.
MERGES, a genus of birds of the order of anferes*
See Ornithology Index.
ME hi AN, Maria Sibylla, a celebrated paint-
refs, bom at hrankfort in 1647, wras the daughter of
Matthias Merian, a noted engraver and geographer. 
As ftie {bowed a very early fondnefs for* painting, the
was inftrueled by Abraham Mignon ; from whom flie
learned great neatnefs of handling and delicacy of co^
lour. Her genius particularly led her to paint reptiles,
flowers, and infedfts, which the defigned after nature,
and ftudied every object with a moft curious and in-
quifitive oblervation j fo that her works role every dav
more and more into reputation. Frequently {he paint¬
ed hei fubje<Rs in water colours on vellum, and finilh-
ed an aftoniftiing number of defigns, as {he was equally
indefatigable in her ivork and in her inquiries into the
euriofities of nature. She drew the flies and caterpil¬
lars in all the variety of changes and forms' in which
they fucceflively appear from their quiefeent Itate till
they become butterflies ; and alfo drew frogs, toads, fer-
pents, ants, and fpiders, after nature, with extraordinary
exaflnefs and truth. She even undertook a voyage to
Surinam, to paint thofe infedls and reptiles which were
peculiar to that climate 5 and at her return to her own
country publifhed two volumes ©f engravings after her
defigns, which are well known to the curious. She died
in 1717. Her daughter Dorothea Henrietta Graff, who
painted in the fame ftyle, and had accompanied her mo¬
ther to Surinam, publiftied a third volume colle&ed from
the defigns of Sibylla j which complete work has been
always admired by the learned, as well as by the pro-
feffors of painting.
MERIDA, a ftrong town of Spain, in Eftremadura,
built by the Romans before the birth of Chrift. Plere
are fome fine remains of antiquity, particularly a trium¬
phal arch, but which is confiderably decayed. It is
feated in an extenfive and fertile plain, 47 miles eaft of
Elva, and 45 fouth by eaft of Alcantara. W. Long-.
6. 4. N. Lat. 38. 42.
Merida, a town of North America, in New Spain,
and capital of the province of Yucatan, where the
biftiop and the governor of the province refide. It is
inhabited by Spaniards and native Americans 5 is 30
miles fouth of the fea, and 120 north-eaft of Campeachy.
W. Long. 89. 25. N. Lat. 20. 15.
Merida, a town of South America, in the kingdom
of New Granada, feated in a country abounding wdth
all kinds of fruits, 130 miles north-eaft: of Pampeluna.
W. Long. 71.0. N. Lat. 8. 30.
MERIDEN, or Mireden, a town of Warwick¬
shire, 97 miles from London on the London road,
near Coventry. It is pleafantly fituated, though in a
wet clayey fituation, and is not ill built. The church
Hands on an elevated fpot, and contains fome good
monuments. There is an inn here, about half way
from
Mermen
Merlon.
M E R [ 537
from St Clement’s foreft to Coventry, one of the fineft
in this part of England, being built like a nobleman’s
j feat.
MERIDIAN, in Geography,-* great circlefuppofed
to be drawn through any part on the furface of the
earth, and the two poles j and to which the fun is always
perpendicular at noon. See Geography.
In aftronomy, this circle is fuppofed to be in the
heavens, and exactly perpendicular to the terreltrial one.
See Astronomy.
MERIDIANI, in antiquity, a name which the
Romans gave to a kind of gladiators who entered the
arena about noon after the beftiarii (who fought in
the morning againlt beafts) had finilhed. They were
thus called from meridles, i. e. noon, the time when they
exhibited their Ihows. The meridiani were a fort of
artlefs combatants, who fought man with man, fword
in hand. Hence Seneca takes occafion to obferve,
that the combats of the morning were full of humanity
compared with thofe which followed.
MERIDIONAL DISTANCE, in Navigation, the
fame with departure, or calling and welling •, being the
difference of longitude between the meridian under
which the fliip now is, and any other meridian which
Hie was under before.
MERIDIONAL parts, miles, or minutes, in Naviga¬
tion, are the parts by which the meridians in a Mer¬
cator’s chart do increafe, as the parallels of latitude
dccrctiiC •
MERIONETHSHIRE, a county of North Wales,
is bounded on the north by Cacrnarvonlhire and Den-
bighlhire *, on the call by Montgomery {hire j on the
well by St George’s channel, or the Iriih fea •, and on
the fouth by the river Dyffl, which parts it from Car-
diganlhirej extending 40 miles in length and 36 in
breadth. It is divided into fix hundreds, in which are
four market towns, 37 parilhes, about 5787 houfes, and
29,506 inhabitants in 1801. It lies in the diocefe of
Bangor, and fends one member to parliament. The
air is very (harp in winter, on account of its many high
barren mountains •, and the foil is as bad as any in
Wales, it being very rocky and mountainous. How¬
ever, this county feeds large flocks of Iheep, many goats,
and large herds of horned cattle, which find pretty good
palture in the valleys. Befides thefe, among their other
commodities may be reckoned Welch cotton, deer,
fowl, filh, and efpecially herrings, which are often taken
on this coalt in great plenty.
MERIT, fignifies defert. This term is more par¬
ticularly applied to fignify the moral goodnefs of the
aflions of men, and the rewards to which thofe aftions
entitle them.
MERLIN, Ambrose, a famous Englilh poet and
reputed prophet, flourilhed at the end of the 5th century.
Many furprifing and ridiculous things are related of
him. Several Englilh authors have reprefented him as
the fon of an incubus, and as tranfporting from Ireland
to England the great Hones which form Stonehenge
on Salilhury plain. Extravagant prophecies and other
works are alfo attributed to him, on which fome authors
have even written commentaries.
Merlin. See Falco, Ornithology Index.
MERLON, in Fortification, is that part of a para¬
pet which is terminated by two embrafures of a battery.
VOL. XIII. Part II.
] M E R
MERLUCIUS, the Hake. See Gadus, Ichthy¬
ology Index.
MERMAID, or Merman, a fea-creature fre¬
quently talked of, fuppofed half human and half a
filh.
However natural ills may doubt of the reality of mer¬
men or mermaids, we have tellimony enough to ellablilh
it j though, how far thefe tellimonies may be authen¬
tic, we cannot take upon us to fay. In the year 1187,
as Lary informs us, fueh a monfter was filhed up in the
county of Suffolk, and kept by the governor for fix
months. It bore fo near a conformity with man, that
nothing feemed wanting to it but fpeech. One day it
took the opportunity of making its efeape •, and plunging
into the fea, was never more heard of. Hift. de Angleterre,
P. I. p. 403.
In the year 1430, after a huge tempell, which broke
down the dikes in Holland, and made way for the fea
into the meadows, &c. fome girls of the town of Edam
in Welt Frielland, going in a boat to milk their cows,
perceived a mermaid embarraffed in the mud, with a
very little water. They took it into their boat, and
brought it with them to Edam, dreffed it in woman’s
apparel, and taught it to fpin. It fed like one of them,
but could never be brought to offer at fpeech. Some
time afterwards it was brought to Haerlem, where it
lived for fome years, though Hill fhowing an inclination
to the water. Parival relates, that they had given it
fome notion of a Deity, and that it made its reverences
very devoutly whenever it palled by a crucifix. De-
lices de Hollande.
In the year 1560, near the ifland of Mannar, on the
weflern coafl of the iiland of Ceylon, fome filhermen
brought up, at one draught of a net, feven mermen and
mermaids of which feveral Jefuits, and among the reff
F. Hen. Henriques and Dimas Bofquez, phyficians to
the viceroy of Goa, were witneffes. The phyfician,
who examined them with a great deal of care, and
made diffection thereof, afferts, that all the parts both
internal and external were found perfectly conformable
to thofe of men. See the Hiji. de la compagme de Je-
fus, P. II. T. iv. N° 276. where the relation is given
at length.
We have another account of a merman, feen near the
great rock called Diamond, on the eoaff of Martinico.
The perfons who faw it, gave in a precife deferip-
tion of it before a notary. They affirmed that they
faw it wipe its hand over its face, and even heard it
blow its nofe.
Another creature of the fame fpecies was caught in
the Baltic in the year 1531, and fent as a prefent to
Sigifmund king of Poland, with whom it lived three
days, and was feen by all the court. Another very
young one was taken near Rocca de Sintra, as related
by Damian Goes, The king of Portugal and the
grand maffer of the order of St James, are laid to have
had a fuit at law to determine which party thefe mon-
Hers belong to.
In Pontopidan’s Natural Hiffory of Norway, alfo,
we have accounts of mermaids ; but not more remark¬
able or any way better attefled than the above, to
which we have given a place, merely to Ihew how far
the folly and extravagance of credulity have been carried
by weak minds.
3 Y
Merlucius,
Mermaid.
MERNS,
jVferns
M E R [ 5
MERNS, Mearns, or Kincardineshire, a county
of Scotland. See Kincardineshire.
MERODACH was an ancient king of Babylon,
who was placed among the gods, and worfhipped by
the Babylonians. Jeremiah (chap. 1. 2.), (peaking of
the ruin of Babylon, fays, “ Babylon is taken, Bel is
confounded, Merodach is broken in pieces ; her idols
are confounded, her images are broken in pieces.”
We find certain kings of Babylon, in whofe names
that of Merodach is contained : for example, Evil-me-
rodach and Merodach-ba’adan. Evil-merodach was the
Ion of Nebuchadnezzar the Great, and had for his fuc-
cefibr the wicked Belfhazzar. Merodach-baladan, fon
of Baladan king of Babylon, having heard that Heze-
kiah had been cured miraculoufly (Ifa. xxxix.), and
that the fun had gone backwards to give him an aflfur-
ance of his recovery, fent him prefents, and made him
him compliments upon the recovery of his health.
Ptolemy calls him Mardoc-empadus ; and fays, that he
began to reign at Babylon 26 years after the beginning
of the era of Nabonafiar, that is, in the year of the
world 228^.
_ MERGE, in Ancient Geography, an ifland of Ethio¬
pia beyond Egypt, in ti e Nile j with a cognominal
town, the metropolis of Ae Ethiopians.
. The Jefuits have endeavoured to prove, that the pro¬
vince of Gojam in Abyflinia is the Meroe of the an¬
cients ; but this is ftrongly contefted by Mr Bruce,
who is of opinion, that it muft be looked for fomewhere
between the fource of the Nile and its union with the
Atbara. I he latter, he thinks, is very plainly the
Aftaboras of the ancients ; and Pliny fays, that this
ftream enclofes the left fide of Meroe as the Nile does
the right, in which cafe we muft fuppofe him looking
fouthward from Alexandria, otherwife the words would
not apply.
We are told by Diodorus Siculus, that Meroe had
its name from a fifter of Cambyfes king of Perfia, who
died there in the expedition undertaken by that prince
againft the Ethiopian1-. His army perifhed with hun¬
ger and third: in the deferts beyond Meroe, which
could not have happened if they had reached Gojam,
the latter being one of the moft plentiful countries in
the world. A further proof that Gojam cannot be
the ancient Men e is, that the latter was enclofed be¬
tween the rivers Nile and Aftaboras, while Gojam is
almoft entirely furrnunded by the Nile. If the an¬
cients were acquainted with Gojam, they muft alro
have been acquainted with the fountains of the Nile,
which we certainly know they were not. Pliny fays
that Meroe, the moft confiderable of all the iflands of
the Nile, was called A/laboras, from the name of its
left channel, which cannot be fuppofed any other than
the jundfion of the Nile and Atbara. He informs us
moreover, that the fun was vertical twice in the yea’-,
viz. when proceeding northward he entered the 18 h
degree of Taurus, and when returning he came to the
14th degree of Leo •, but this could never be the cafe
with Gojam, which lies in about 10 degrees north latitude.
Again, the noet Lucan deferibes Merce by two cir-
cumftances which cannot apply to any other than the
peninfula of Atba^a. One L, that the inhabitants
were black ; which was the cafe with the Gvmnofb-
phifts and firft inhabitants, and which has been the
cafe with-all the reft down to the Saracen conqueft :
4
38 ] M E R
but the inhabitants of Gojam, as wrell as the other Meme
Abytfmians, are fair, at leait greatly different in com- Merom.
plexion from the blacks ; they are alfo long-haired, ""“"“v-—
and nobody imagined that they ever had philofophers or
fcience among them, which was eminently the cafe with
the ancient inhabitants of Meroe. The other circum-
ffance is, that the ebony tree grew in the ifland of
Meroe, which at this day grows plentifully in the pen¬
infula of Atbara, and part of the province of Kuara
but not in Gojam, where the tree could not fublift on
account of the violent rains which take place during fix
months of the year. Mr Bruce mentions another eir-
cumftanee quoted from the poet Lucan, which like-
wife tends to prove the identity of Meroe and Atbara ;
viz. that though there are many trees in it, they afford
no lhade This our traveller found by experience, when
returning from Abyflinia through Atbara. “ The coun¬
try (fays he) is flat, and has very little water. The
forefts, though thick, afforded no fort of fhade, the
hunters for the fake of their fport, and the Arabs for de-
ftroying the flies, having fet fire to all the dry graf- and
fhrubs ; which pafling with great rapidity in the direc¬
tion of the wind from eaft to weft, though it had not
time to deftroy the trees, did yet wither, and occafion
every leaf that was upon them to fall, unlefs in thofe
fpaces where villages had been, and where water was.
In fuch fpots a number of large fpreading trees remain¬
ed full of foliage ; which, from their great height and
being cleared of underwood, c< n'inued in full verdure,
loaded with large, projeding, and exuberant branches.
But even here the pleafure that their fhade afforded was
very temporary, fo as to allow us no time for enjoyment,
d he fun fo near the zenith, changed his azimuth fo
rapidly, that every few minutes I was obliged to change
the carpet on which I lay, round the trunk of the tree
to which I had fled for fhelter; and though I lay down
to fleep perfectly fereened by the trunk or branches, I
was prefently awakened by the violent rays of a fcorth-
ing fun, the fhade having paffed beyond me. In all
other places, though we had travelled conftantly in a
foreft, we never met with a tree that could fhade us for
a moment, the fire having deprived them of all their
leaves.” The heat of Atbara is exceflive, the thermo¬
meter having been obferved at uq^-0: tivo of Mr
Bruce’s company died of thirft, or at leaf! of the confe-
quencesof drinking after extreme thirft. The inhabitants
live in the greatefx miferv, and are continually in danger
from the neighbouring Arabs, who, by deftroying and
burning their corn, are able to reduce them to a ftarving
condition. Notwithftandingall their difadvantages,how¬
ever, they have a manufacture of coarfe cotton towels,
of a fize juft fufficient to go round the waift, which pafs
^current as money throughout the whole country.
MEROM, in Ancient Geography. The waters of
Merom, at which place Jabin and the other confederate
kings met to fight (Jofhua xi. 5.), are generally fup¬
pofed by the learned to be the lake Semechon, which
lies between the head of the river Jordan and the lake
Gennefareth ; fince it is agreed on all hands, that the
city Hazor, where Jabin reigned, was fituated upon
tills lake. But others think that the waters of Merom
or Merome were fomewhere about the brook Kifhon,
fince there is a place of that name mentioned in the ac¬
count of the battle againft Sifera (Judg. v. 21.). And
it is more rational to think, that the confederate kings
« advanced
M E R [ S
Merom advanced as far as the brook Kiflion, and to a pafs
|| which led into the country, to hinder Jofhua from pe-
Merfa. netrating it, or even to attack him in the country
where he himfelf lay encamped, than to imagine that
they waited lor him in the midft of their own coun¬
try ; leaving all Galilee at his mercy, and the whole
trafl from the brook Kilhon to the lake Semechon.
MEROPE, in Fabulous Hij/ory. one of the Atlan-
tides. She married Sifyphus the fon of ALolus, and like
her filters was changed into a contlellation after death.
It is faid that in the conftellation ot the Pleiades the
liar of Merope appears more dim and obfeure than the
relt, becaufe the, as the poets obferve, married a mor¬
tal, while her filters married fome of the gods or their
defeendants.
MEROPS, in Fabulous HiJIonj, a king of the ifland
of Cos, who married Clymene, one of the Oceanides.
He was changed into an eagle, and placed among the
contlellations. Alfo a celebrated foothfayer of Percofus
in L'roas, who foretold the death of his fons Adraltus
and Amphius, who were engaged in the Trojan war.
They flighted their father’s advice, and were killed by
Diomedes.
Merops, a genus of birds belonging to the order of
pic;e. See Ornithology Index.
MEROVINGIAN character, derives its name
from Meroiiee, the firlt king of France of that race,
which reigned 333 years, from Pharamond to Charles
Martel. This race is faid by fome to have termina¬
ted in Childeric III. A. D. 751. There are many
MSS. in the French libraries ftill extant in this cha-
radlcr.
MEROZ, in /Indent Geography, a place in the
neighbourhood of the brook Kilhon, whofe inhabitants
refilling to come to the affifiance of their brethren evhen
they fought with Sifera, were put under an anathema
(Judges v. 23.) “ Curfe ye Meroz, fays the angel of
the Lord ; cu fe ye bitterly the inhabitants thereof : be¬
caufe,” &c. Some have thought that Meroz is the fame
as Merus or Merom ; and this F. Calmet thinks the molt
probable opinion in this matter. Others will have it,
that Meroz was a mighty man, who dwelt near the
Kiihon, and not caring to come to the afliftance of Ba¬
rak and Deborah, was excommunicated by the angel of
the Lord by the found of 400 t'-umpets. The angel
of the Lord, according to fome, was Barak, the gene¬
ral of the Lord’s army •, but according to others he
was the high pried for the time being, or a prophet.
MERSA, a town of Barbary, pleafantly fituated
about 11 miles from the city of Tunis, and two from
M Icha the fite of ancient Carthage. The bey has
here two country houfes, one of them verv coftly work,
built by Haffan Bey furnamed the Good. From
thefe are orange gardens reaching almoft to the fea-
fhore *, on the edge of which is a famous well of fweet
water, efttemed the bed and lighted in the kingdom.
Clofe to this is a coffeehoufe, whither numbers of peo¬
ple from the neighbouring places refort to drink coffee,
and a glafs of this natural luxury lo peculiarly enjoyed
in the eadern countries. In the middle of the court
is a large mulberrv tree, under the fhade of which they
fit and fmoke and play at chefs; inhalmg the com¬
fortable fea breeze that refrefhes this delightful fpet.
The water is drawn up by a camel with the Perfian
wheel.
39 ] M E R
There are the remains of an ancient port, or cothon,
(fuppofed to be an artificial one), built by the Carl ha
ginians after Scipio had blocked up (he old port, no- _
thing but the turret or lighthoufe being left.
MERS or Merse, a county of Scotland, called alfo
Berwick/hire. This lad name it dvrives from the town
of Berwk k, which was the head of the (hire before it
fell into the hands ot the Engliih, and obtained the
appellation of Mens or March, becaufe it was one of
the borders towards England. See Berwick, County
of.
MERSENNE, Marin, in Latin a learn¬
ed French author, born at Oyle, in the province of
Maine, anno 1388. He lludied at La Fleche ai the
fame time with Des Cartes ; with whom he contracted
a drift friendthip, which laded till death. He after¬
wards went to Paris, and Itudied at the Sorbenne ; and
in 161 1 entered himfelf among the Minims. He became
well {killed in Hebrew, philofophy, and mathematics.
He was of a tranquil, fincere, and engaging temper ;
and was univerfally edeemed by perfons illudrious for
their birth, their dignity, and their learning. He
taught philofophy and divinity in the convent of Nevers,
and at length became fuperior ot the convent ; but
being willing to apply himfelf to dudy with more f ree¬
dom, he refigned all the pods he enjoyed in his order,
and travelled into Germany, Italy, and the Netherlands.
He wrote a great number of excellent woiks ; the prin¬
cipal of which are, I. ^uejltones eeleberrimee in Gtnejim.
2. Harmonicorurn hbn. 3. De fonorum natura, caujis,
et effedibus. 4. Cogitata physico-mathematica. 5. La
vente des Sciences. 6. Les quejiions monies. Fie died
at Paris in 1648. He had the reputation of being one
of the bed men of his age. No perfon was more cmh us
in penetrating into the fecrets of nature, and carrying
all the arts and fciences to their utmod perfeftion. .He
was in a manner the centre of all the men of learning,
by the mutual correfpondence which he managed be¬
tween them. He omitted no means to engage them.to
publiih their works ; and the world is obliged to him
for feveral excellent difeoveries, which, had it not been
for him, would perhaps have been lod.
MERSY, a river of England, which runs through
the counties of Lancader, York, and Cheder, and
empties itfelf into the Irifii fea at Liverpool. By means
of inland navigation, it has communication with the
rivers Dee, Ribble, Oufe, I rent, Derwent, Severn,
Humber, Thames, Avon, &c.; which navigation, in¬
cluding its windings, extends above 500 miles, in the
counties of Lincoln, Nottingham, York, Lancader,
Wedmoreland, Cheder, Stafford, Warwick, Leiceder,
Oxford, Worceder, &c.
MERSEr IJland, an iffand of Effex, at the mouth of
the Coin, fouth of Colcheder. It was feized by the
Danes in the reign of King Alfred, for their winter
quarters. It had eight parifhes, now reduced to two,
viz. Ead and Wed Merfey. There was formerly a
blockhoufe on the ifland.
Merula, or Blackbird. See Turdus, Ornitho¬
logy Index.
MERUS, in Ancient Geography, a mountain of the
Hither India, hanging over the city Nyffa, built by
Bacchus, and fituated between the rivers Cophen and
Indus. The name, denoting the thigh, gave rife to the
fable of Bacchus being inferted into Jupiter’s thigh, and
3 Y 2 being:
Meri’a
I
Merus.
M E S
Meros
H
Mefopota-
mia.
being born twice; becaufe in this mountain be and his
army are laid to have been preferved, when difeafe and
peJlilence raged in the plains below.
* MESARAIC vessels, in the general fenfe, are
the fame with Mesenteric.
In common ufe, mcfaraic is more frequently applied
to the veins, and mefenteric to the arteries, of the me-
fentery. See Anatomy.
MESCHED, a confiderable town of Perfia, and in
the province of Chorafian ", fortified with feveral towers,
and famous for the magnificent fepulchre of Iman Rifa*
of the family of All, to whom the Perfians pay great
devotion. It is leated on a mountain near this town,
on which are fine turquoife Hones; in E. Long. 59. 25!
N. Eat. 37. o.
MESEMBRY ANTHEMUM, Fig-marigold, a
genus of plants belonging to the icofandria clafs; and
in the natural method ranking under the 13th order
Succulent#. See Botany Index.
MESENTERIC, or Mesaraic, an epithet given
to two arteries arifing from the defeending aorta, and
proceeding to the mefentery. See Mesentery.
MESEN.I ERI 1 IS, or Inflammation ofl the Me¬
sentery. See Medicine Index.
MESENTERY, Mesenterium, (formed of^es-of,
middle, and intefline), in anatomy, a fatty mem¬
branous body, thus called as being placed in the middle
of the inteftines, which it connects to one another.
See Anatomy, N° 94.
MESHES of Nets, the openings or interfaces be¬
tween the threads.
MESN, or Mesne, a term in lawr, fignifying him
who is lord of a manor, and fo hath tenants holding of
him ; yet he himfelf holds of a fuperior lord.
The word is properly derived from maiflne, quafl
minor natu; becaufe his tenure is derived from another
from whom he holds.
Mesn alfo denotes a writ, which lieth where there
is lord mefn and tenant; and the tenant is diftrained
for fervices due from the mefn to the fuperior lord.
This is in the nature of a writ of right; and in this
cafe the tenant {hall have judgment to be acquitted or
indemnified by the mefne lord ; and if he makes de-
lault therein, or does not appear originally to the te¬
nant’s writ, he {hall be forejudged of his mefnalty, and
the tenant {hall hold immediately of the lord paramount
himfelf.
MESOCHRI, were muficians among the ancients,
who prefided in concerts, and by beating a wooden
defk regularly with their feet, diredled the meafure of
the mufic. For the purpofe of beating time, they wore
wooden clogs, called by the ancients crupexia, which
occafioned the found to be better heard.
MESOCOLON, in Anatomy, that part of the me¬
fentery, which, having reached the extremity of the
ileum, contracts and changes its name. See Ana¬
tomy, N° 94.
MESOLOG ARITHMS, according to Kepler, are
the logarithms of the co-fines and co-tangents ; the for¬
mer of which were called by Baron Napier anti-loga¬
rithms, and the latter differentials.
# MESOPOTAMIA, the ancient name of the pro¬
vince of Diarbeck, in Turkey in Afia. It is fituated
between the rivers Euphrates and Tigris; having Af-
[ 54° 1
M E S
fyria on the eaft, Armenia on the north, Syria on the MeW,
Tveu, arid Arabia Deferta with Babylonia on the fouth.
1 he Hebrews called it Padan-ararn, (Gen. xxviii. 2.
&c.) and Aram Na liar aim (title of Plalm lx.) or Aram
of the two rivers, becaufe it was fiift peopled by Aram
fathei of the Syrians, and is fituated between the two
rivers already mentioned. This country is much cele¬
brated in Scripture, as being the firft dwelling of men
both before and after the deluge ; and becauie it gave
birth to Phaleg, Heber, Terah, Abraham, Nahor, Sa¬
rah, Rthekah, Rachel, Leah, and to the fons of Jacob.
Babylon was in the ancient Mefopotamia, till, by valt
labour and induftry, the two rivers of the Tigris and
Euphrates were united into one channel. The plains
of Shinar vrere in the fame country. Often they gave
it the name of Mefopotamia (Lent, xxiii. 4. &c.) and
fometimes that of Syria, (Hcfea xii. 12 ). Balaam
fon of Beor was of Mefopotamia, Deut. xxiii. 4. Chu-
fhan-rifhathaim king of Mefopotamia kept the He¬
brews in fubjeftion fume time after the death of Jofliua.
Judg. iii. 8.
MESOPIERYGIUS, a term applied tofuchfifhes
as have only one back-fin, which is fituated in the middle
of the back.
MESPILUS, the Medlar, a genus of plants be-
longing to. the icofandria clafs ; and in the natural me¬
thod ranking under the 36th order. Pomace#. See
Botany Index.
. MESS, in a military fenfe, implies a number of fol-
diers, who, by laying away a certain proportion of their
pay towards provifions, mefs together : fix or eight is
generally the number of each mefs. Experience proves,
that nothing contributes more to the health of a fol-
dier, than a regular and well chofen diet, and his be-
ing obliged every day to boil the pot: it corrects drun-
kennefs, and in a great meafure prevents gaming, and
thereby defertion.
MESSALINA, Valeria, a daughter of Meffala
Barbatus. She married the emperor Claudius, and
difgraced herfelf by her cruelties and incontinence.
Her hufband’s palace was not the only feat of her laf-
civioufnefs, but Ihe profatuted herfelf in the public
ftreets, and few men there were at Rome who could
not boaft of having enjoyed the favours of the impure
Meflalina. Her extravagancies at laft irritated her
hufband, who commanded her to appear and anfwer
all the accufations which were brought againft her :
upon which file attempted to deftroy herfelf; and when
her courage failed, one of the tribunes who had been
fent to her defpatched her with his fword. It is in
fpeaking of her debaucheries and lewdnefs that Juvenal
fays,
Et laffata viris, necdum flat lata, recefft.
Her name has become a common appellation to denote
a woman of fhamelefs and inordinate luft.
MESSANA, in Ancient Geography, the firft town
of Sicily on eroding over from Laly, fituated on the
ftra.it now called the Faro, (Italicus). Anciently call¬
ed Zancle, according to Diodorus Siculus, from King
Zanclus ; or, according to others, from the Sicilian
term Zanclon, denoting a fickle, alluding to the cur-
vity of the coaft ; a name appropriated by the poets ;
and hence Zancl#i, the people, (Herodotus, Paufanias).
The
M E S
[ 54i ]
M E S
]^el!ans.
The other name MeJJana is from the Mejfenii of Pelo-
ponnefus, (Strabo). Thucydides afcribes its origin to
Vleffenia. Anaxilas the Meffenian, tyrant of Ilhegium, who re-
—> 1 Ceived all comers, calling the town after the name of
his country. The Greeks always call it MeJJene; the
Homans Mejfena conftantly, to diftinguilh it from
Mejfene of Peloponnefus. Now Messina, lately ruin¬
ed by earthquakes.
MESSENA, or MESSENE, an inland town, and
the capital of Mefienia, a country of Peloponnefus ;
erroneoufly placed by Ptolemy on the coaft. It was
built by Epaminondas, who recalled all the Meffenian
exiles, and gave the town the name of MeJJene. A place
vying in point of ftrcngth and fituation wTith Corinth,
according to Strabo 5 and therefore Demetrius Phalereus
advifed Philip, father of Perfeus, that if he wanted to
have Peloponnefus in his power, he (liould make himfelf
mailer of thefe two towns, as thus he would have the
ox by both horns.
MESSENGERS, are certain officers chiefly em¬
ployed under the diredlion of the fecretaries of Hate,
and always in readmefs to be fent with all kinds of
defpatches foreign and domeftic. By virtue of the fe¬
cretaries warrants, they alfo take up perfons for high
treafon, or other offences again!! the Hate. The pri-
foners they apprehend are ufually kept at their own,
houfes, for each of which they are allowed 6s. 8d. pei
day by the government: and when they are fent
abroad, they have a Hated allowance for their journey,
viz. 30I. for going to Paris, Edinburgh, or Dublin j
jZ^l. for going to Holland ; and to other places in the
fame proportion; part of which money is advanced
for the expence of their journey. Their Handing
falary is 45I. per annum ; and their pofls, if purchafed,
are eileemed worth 300I. But thefe fums have nowr
probably been increafed. The meffengers wait 20 at
a time, monthly, and are dillributed as follows, viz.
four at court, five at one fecretary’s office, five at ano¬
ther, two at the third for North Britain, three at the
council office, and one at the lord chamberlain’s of the
houfehold.
Messengers, in Scotland. See Law, Part III.
MESSENGERS of the Exchequer, are four officers who
attend the exchequer, in the nature of purfuivants, and
carry the lord treafurer’s letters, precepts, &c.
Messenger of the Prefs, a perfon who, by order
of the court, fearches printing-houfes, bookfellers Ihops,
&c. in order to difeover the printers or publilhers of
feditieus books, pamphlets, &c.
MESSENI A, a country in the fouth of Peloponnefus,
moffly maritime, fituated between Elea to the weH,
and Laconia to the eaff. Anciently a part of Laconia
under Menelaus, and called MeJJene by Homer : inter¬
preted by the fcholiaft, MeJJencea Regio. MeJJenu, the
people, reduced to a Hate of flavery and fubje&ion by
the Spartans ; MeJJenms, the epithet.
This country is famous in hiftory, on account of
the refinance made by the Meffenians againfl the
Spartans, and the exploits of their hero Ariilomenes.
The firll hoffilities commenced about the^ year 652
B. C. on what occafion is uncertain. 1 hough the
Meflenians were inferior in the knowledge of the art
of war to the Spartans; yet, by keeping for feme
time on the defenfive, they improved fo much, that
in three years time they found themfelves in a capa¬
city of giving battle to their enemies in the open field }
nor did they appear to be in any degree inferior either
in courage or conduct: the war was therefore protracted,
with various fuccefs, on both fides. At laff. Doth
confulted the oracle at Delphi; and received tor
anfwer, “ that whoever ffiould firlt dedicate 100 tripods
in the temple of Jupiter at Ithome, a Hrong hold of
the Meilenians, ffiould be maflers of the country.”
The inhabitants of Meffenia, on hearing this, having
no money to make the tripods of brafs, tell to cutting
them out in wood ; but before this could be accomplilh-
ed, a Spartan having got into the city by Hratagem,
dedicated 100 little tripods of clay : which threw the
Meffenians into iuch defpair, that they at laff iubmitted
to the Spartans.
The new fubjeCls of Sparta were treated with the
utmoff barbarity by thefe cruel tyrants ; fo that a new
war commenced under Ariitomenes, a man of uncon¬
querable valour, and enthufiaffically fond cf liberty.
He perceived that the Argives and Arcadians, who
were called the allies of the Lacedaemonians, adhered
to them only through fear of their power; but that in
reality they hated them, and wiffied to revenge the in¬
juries they had done them. To thefe Ariflomenes ap¬
plied ; and receiving an anfwer conformable to his
wiffies, he engaged his countrymen unanimoufly to take
up arms. About a year after the revolt began, and
before either party had received any auxiliaries, the
Spartans and Meffenians met at a village called Derce,
where an obffinate engagement enfued. Ariflomenes
was conceived to have performed more than mortal
achievements: in gratitude therefore, refpedl being
alfo had to his royal defeent, his countrymen un¬
animoufly fainted him king; which title he modeffly
waved, alleging, that he took up arms to fet them
free, and not to make himfelf great: he eonfented,
however, to accept the title of general, with a power
of doing wdiatfoever he thought requiiite for . the
fervice of the public. Knowing well the fuperflition
of the age in which he lived, he refolved to intimidate
the Spartans, by ffiowing them ivhat he was Hire they
would take for an ill omen. Difguifing himfelf there¬
fore, he went privately to the city, where, in the night,
he hung up a ftiield on the wall of the temple of
Minerva, with this infeription: Ariflomenes dedicates
this, out of the fpoils of the Spartans, to the goddefs. It
was eafily perceived that this war would be both long
and bloody, the Lacedaemonians therefore fent deputies
to Delphi, to inquire of the oracle concerning its event:
the anfwer they received was, That it behoved the
Spartans to feek a leader from A/thens. I he Athenians
naturally envious of the Spartans, granted their requeff
indeed, but in fuch a manner as manifeffed their fpite ;
for they fent them for a general Tyrtmus, a fchoolmaffer
and poet, lame of one foot, and who was fufpeaed to
be a little out of his wits. But here their Ikill failed
them ; for this captain, notwithffanding his defpicable
appearance, proved of great conlequence to Sparta,
teaching them how to ufe good, and how to bear up
under ill fortune.
In the mean time, Afiftomenes had drawn together
a mighty army, the Eleans, Argives, Sicyonians, and
Arcadians, having fent troops to his affiftance ; the
Spartans in this, as in the former war, having no ally
but Corinth. The Spartan kings, according to the
cuiiom
Mefficnit.
M E S [ 542 ] M E S
^M'-iTena. cuftom of their city, no fooner took the field, than, they might defend themielves the bed they could: and
not with lianding' their inferiority in number, they of¬
fered the enemy battle, which Ariilomenes readily ac¬
cepted. It was long, obftinate, and bloody } but in
toe end the Meffenians were viiSiorious, and the Lace¬
daemonians put to flight with a great fiaughter. It
is icarce to be conceived how much the Spartans were
ftruck with this defeat : they grew weary of the war,
diiiatished with their kings, diffident of their own
power, and in a word funk into a flate of general
umalinels and want of fpirit. It was now that the
Athenian general convinced them, that he was ca¬
pable of tulhlling all the promifes of the oracle ; he
encouraged them by his poems, directed them by his
counfels, and recruited their broken armies with cho-
fen men from among the Helotes. Arillomenes, on
the other hand, adted with no lefs prudence and vi¬
gour. He thought it not enough to reftore the repu¬
tation of the Meffenians, if he did not alio reftore
their wealth and power : he therefore taught them to
act offenlively againft their enemies 5 and, entering
the territories of Sparta, he took and plundered Phaice,
a confiderable borough in Laconia, putting all inch as
made any refiftance to the fword, carrying off at the
fame time an immenfe booty. his, however, wras
an injury which the Spartans could not brook with
patience •, they therefore fent immediately a body of
forces to overtake the Meffenians, which accordingly
they did : but Ariftomenes routed tbefe puriuers, and
continued to make a mighty flaughter of them, till
fuch time as he was difabled by having a fpear thruft
m his fide, which occafioned his being carried cut of
the battle. His cure, which took up fome time, be¬
ing finilhed, he refolved to carry the war even to the
gates of Sparta ; and to that purpofe raifed a very
great army ; but, whether he found his defign im¬
practicable, or was really diverted by fome dream, he
gave out, that Caftor and Pollux, with their fifter
.Helena, had appeared to him, and commanded him to
defift. A fhort time after this retreat, going with a
fmail party to make an incurfion, and attempting to
take priloners fome women who wrere celebrating re¬
ligious rites near Egila, a village in Laconia, thofe
zealous matrons fell upon him and his foldiers with
mch fury, that they put them to flight, and took him
pri loner : however, he foon afterwards made his efcape,
and rejoined his forces. In the third year of the war,
the Spartans with a great force entered Meffenia,
whither Ariftocrates king of Arcadia was come, with
a great body of troops to the affiftance of his allies :
Ariftomenes therefore made no difficulty of fighting
when the Spartans approached 5 but they entering
privately into a negociation with Ariftocrates, engaged
him with bribes and promifes to betray his confederates.
V> hen the battle began, the deceitful Arcadian rt pre-
fern cd to the forces under his command the mighty
danger they were in, and the preat difficulty there
would be of retreating into their own country, in cafe
the battle ftiould be loft : he then pretended, that the
facrifices wrere ominous ; and, having terrified his Ar¬
cadians into the difpofition of mind fitteft to ferve his
purpofe, he not only drew them off from both wings,
but. in his flight, forced through the Meffenian ranks,
and put them too in confufion Ariftomenes and his
troops, however, drew themfelves into dole order, that
indeed they had need of all their valour and fkill ; for
the Lacedaemonians, who expected this event, immedi¬
ately attacked and furrounded them on all fides. For¬
tune was, on this occaiion, too powerful either for the
courage or the conduct of the Mefiemans; fo that, not-
withltanding their utmoft efforts, molt of their army
were cut to pieces, and amongft them the chief of their
nobility. Ariftomenes, with the poor remains of his
ffiattered forces, retired as well as he could ; and, per¬
ceiving that it was now impoffible to maintain the war
agamit the Lacedaemonians upon equal terms, he ex¬
horted his countrymen to fortify Mount Era, and to
make the belt difpofitions poffible for a long defence.
He likewife placed garrifons in Pylus and Methom*
on the fea coafts 5 . and to thefe three places he ga¬
thered all the inhabitants, leaving the reli of Mefienia
to the mercy of the Spartans. 'I hey, on the other
hand, looked on the war as now in a manner finithtd •
for which reafon they divided the lands among their
citizens, and eauied them to be carefully cultivated,
while they befiegtd Era. But Ariftomenes quickly
convinced them that the war was far from being over :
he chole out of all the Meficnians 300 men, with
w hum he ravaged all the adjacent country : carried off
a prodigious booty 5 and, when Mtffenia could no
longer lupply the wants of his garrifon, penetrated
into Laconia, and bore away corn, wine, cattle, and
whatever elfe was neceffary to the fubfiftence of his
countrymen ffiut up in Era : fo that at laft the Spar¬
tans were conftrained to ifiue a proclamation, foi bid¬
ding the cultivation, not only of the Meffenian terri¬
tory in their hands, but allu of Laconia in its vici¬
nity j whereby they diftreffed themfelves more than
their enemies, inducing at laft a famine in Sparta it-
felf, which brought with it its ulual attendant, fedi-
tion. Here again all things had gone wrong, if the
wifdom of the poet Tyrtseus had not fupported the
Spartan courage ; nor was it without much difficulty
that he influenced them to continue the blockade of
Era, and to maintain a flying camp for the fecurity of
the country.
Ariftomenes, in fpite of all thefe precautions, com¬
mitted terrible depredations with his fmall corps of
300 men. Amonglt other places which he plundered,
the city of Amyclse was one ; from whence he carried
not only a great quantity of riches, but alfo many
carriages laden with provifions. The kings of Sparta
lying with their troops in its neighbourhood, as foon
as they heard of this expedition, marched after Arifto¬
menes with the utmoft diligence ; and, as the Meffe¬
nians were encumbered with their booty, came up with
them before they could reach Era. In this fituation of
things, Ariftomenes, prompted rather by defpair than
prudence, difpofed his troops in order of battle and,
not wit lift anding they were fo few, made a long and
vigorous refiftance againft the whole Lacedemonian
army. At length, however, numbers prevailed : the
greatefl part of the Meffenians were flain on the fpot ;
and Ariftomenes, with about 50 of his men who fur-
vived the flaughter, were taken prifoners ; that chief
having received fo many wounds, that he was fenfelefs
when they carried him away. The Lacedaemonians
expreffed the loudeft jo- at the fight of this illuftrious
captive j who for fo many years, by his tingle abilities,
had
Mefli
ena
[ 543 ]
defend itfelf he married
M E S
Meffenia. had enabled his exhaufted country to
—-Y— againft the whole force ot Sparta. When he was
recovered of his w'ounds, they decreed him and all his
fellow prifoners to be thrown together into a deep ca¬
vern, which was the common punilhment of the low-
eft kind of offenders. This judgment was executed
with the utmoft feverity, excepting that Ariftomenes
had leave to put on his armour. Three days he con¬
tinued in this difmal place, lying upon and covered
over with dead bodies. The third day, he was al-
moit famithed through want of food, and almoft poi
foned with the flench of corrupted careafes, when he
heard a fox gnawing a body near him. Upon this he
uncovered his face, and perceiving the fox juft by him,
he with one hand feized one of its hind legs, and with
the other defended his face, by catching hold of its
jaw when it attempted to bite him. Following as well
as lie could bis ftruggling guide, the fox at laft thruft
his head into a little hole *, and Ariftomenes then let¬
ting go his leg, he foon forced his way through and
opened a paffage to the welcome rays of light, from
which the noble Meffenian had been fo long debarred.
Feeble as he was, Ariltomenes wrought himfelf an
outlet with his nails } and travelling by night with all
the expedition he could, at length arrived fate at Era,
to the great joy and amazement of his countrymen.
When this news was firlt blazed abroad, the Spartans
would have had it pafs for a fiction ; but Ariftomenes
foon put the truth of it out of doubt, by falling on
the polls of the Corinthians, who, as allies of the Spar¬
tans, had a confiderable body of troops before Era.
Moll of their officers, with a multitude of private men,
he flew •, pillaged their camp j and, in ffiort, did fo
much mifchief, that the Spartans under the pretence
of an approaching feftival, agreed to a ceffation of arms
for 40 days, that they might have time to bury their
dead. On this occafion, Ariftomenes for the fecond
time celebrated the hecatornphonia, or the facrifice ap¬
pointed for thofe who had killed 100 of the enemy
with their own hands. He had performed the fame
before and after his fecond battle ; and he lived to do
it a third time : which muft appear wonderful to the
reader, when he is informed, that, notwithflanding this
truce, certain Cretan archers in the fervice of the Spar¬
tans feized Ariftomenes as he was walking without
the walls, and carried him away a prifoner. There
were nine of them in all : two of them immediately
flew with the news to Sparta, and feven remained to
guard their prize, whom they bound, and conduced
to a lone cottage inhabited only by a widow and her
daughter. It fo fell out that the young woman dreamt
the night before that the faw a lion without claws,
bound, and dragged along by wolves *, and that fhe
having loofed his bonds, and given him claws, he im¬
mediately tore the wolves to pieces. As foon as Ari¬
ftomenes came into the cottage, and her mother who
knew him, had told her who he was, {he inllantly con¬
cluded that her dream was fulfilled ; and therefore ffiied
the Cretans with drink, and when thev were afleep,
took a poniard from one of them, cut the thongs with
which Ariftomenes was bound, and then put it into his
hands. He prefently verified her vifion, by putting
all his guards to death ; and then carried her and her
mother to Era, where, as a reward for her fervice,
M E S
the young woman to his fon Gorgus, then Meflema.
about 18 years of age. _
When Era had held out near eleven years, it ft 11
into the hands of Sparta by an accident: the fervant
of one Empiramus, a Spartan commander, driving
his mafter’s cattle to drink at the river Neda, met
frequently with the wife of a Mefienian whom he
engaged in an amour, d his woman gave him notice,
that her hufhand’s houfe was without the wall j fo
that he could come to it without danger, when the
good man was abroad \ and Ihe likewife gave him in¬
telligence when her hufband was upon duty in the
garrifon. The Spartan failed not to come at the time
appointed 5 but they had not been long in bed before
the hufband returned, which put the houfe into great
confufion 5 the woman, however, fecured her gallant j
and then let in her hufband, whom fhe received in
appearance with great joy, inquiring again and again
by what excefs of good fortune fhe was oleffed with
his return. The innocent Meffenian told her, that
Ariftomenes being detained in his bed by a wound,
the foldiers knowing that he could not walk the
rounds, had a grant to rttire to their houfes, to avoid
the inclemency of the feafon. The Spartan no fooner
hea'd this, than he crept foftly out of doors, and
haftened away to carry the news to his mafter. It fo
happened, that the kings were at this time abfent from
the camp, and Empiramus had the chief command
of the army. As foon as he received this information,
he ordered his army to begin its march, though it
rained exceffively, and there was nn moon light. J he
fellow guided them to the ford, and managed matters
fo well that they feized all the Meffenian polls : yet,
after all, they were afraid to engage •, darknefs, and
high wind, heavy rain, together with the dread of
Ariftomenes, keeping them quiet in the places they
had feized. As foon as it was light the attack be¬
gan ; and Era had been quickly taken, if only the
men had defended it; but the women fought with
fuch fury, and by their mingling in the frav, brought
fuch an acceffion of numbers, as made the event doubt¬
ful. Three days and two nights this defperate en¬
gagement lafted : at laft, all hopes of preferving the
city being loft, Ariftomenes^ drew off his wearied
troops. Earlv in the fourth morning, he difpofed the
women and children in the centre, the Meffenian youth
in the front and rear, the lefs able men in the main
body : himfelf commanded the van; the rear-guard
was brought up bv Gorgus and Manticlus, the for¬
mer the fon of Ariftomenes, the latter of J heocles, a
Meffenian of great, merit, who fell with much glory
in this attack, fighting valiantly in the caufe of his
country. When all things were ready, Ariftomenes
caufed the laft barrier to he thrown open ; and, bran-
difhing his fpear, marched directly towards the Spar¬
tan troops, in order to force a paffage. Empiramus,
perceiving his intent, ordered his men to open to the
right and left, and fairly gave them a paffage ; fo that
Ariftomenes marched off in triumph, as it were, to
Arcadia.
The Arcadians, -when they heard that Em was
taken, were very defirous of fuccouring their old con¬
federates in tlrs deep diftrefs: thev therefore en¬
treated their king Ariftocrates to lead them into
Meffenia.
Meffenia
MelTiah.
M E .s [ 54+ ]
£»ut he, corrupted by the Lacedaemonians, royal un£lion.
Meffenia
_ perluaded them that it was too'late j that the Meffe-
nians were all cut off; and that fuch a ftep would only
expofe them to the fury of the conquerors. When
the thing appeared to be otherwife, and it was known
that Ariftomenes was on the frontiers of Arcadia,
they went hi crowds to carry him provifions, and to
teility their readmels to afford him and thofc under
his command all the afiiftance in their power. Ari¬
ftomenes defired to be heard before a general affembly j
which being accordingly convoked, he there opened
one of the boldeft and belt laid fchemes recorded in
hiftory : he faid, that he had yet 500 undaunted
foldiers, who, at his command, would undertake any
thing 5 that it was very probable moft of the Spar¬
tans were employed in pillaging Era, and that there¬
fore he determined to march and furprife Sparta 5
which appeared fo fenfible, that all, the affembly loud¬
ly commended his great capacity and unfhaken cour¬
age. Ariftocrates, however, took care to betrav
him ; having, by various pretences, retarded the exe¬
cution of the projedt. The Arcadians, who began to
fufpedl him, waited for and furprifed the meffengers
as they came back. They took the letters from them,
and read them openly in the affembly. The purport
of them was, that they acknowledged his great kind-
nefs both now and in the battle 5 and promifed, that
the Lacedaemonians would be grateful. As foon as
the. letters were read, the Arcadians fell to Honing
their king, frequently calling upon the Meffenians to
affift them •, "which, however, they did not, waiting
for Ariftomenes’s order ; who, far from triumphing
in this fpe&acle, flood ftill, with his eyes fixed on
the ground, which he wet with his tears, his foul
pierced with forrow to fee a crowned head fo fhame-
fully and fo defervedly put to death. The Arcadians
afterwards eretted a monument over him, with an in-
feription to perpetuate his infamy. As for the Mef¬
fenians under the command of Gorgus and Manticlus,
they paffed over into Sicily 5 where they founded the
city of Meffene, one of the moft famous in the ifland.
Ariftomenes remained, however, in Greece ; where
he married all his daughters, except the youngeft, to
perfons of great rank. A prince of Rhodes, inquiring
of the oracle at Delphi whom he fliould efpoufe, that
his fubjedts might be happy under his pofterity, -was
diredted to marry the daughter of the moft worthy of
the Greeks 5 which anfwer was immediately under-
ftood to point at the virgin daughter of Ariftomenes.
Her therefore he demanded, and received ; Ariftome¬
nes accompanying him back to his dominions, where
lie formed a fcheme of uniting the Lydians and Medes
againft the Spartans, refolving with this view to go
into Media, and to the court of Sardis 5 but while he
meditated thefe great things, death furprifed him, and
thereby freed Lacedaemon from the moft formidable
enemy flic ever had.
MESSIAH, a word fignifying one anointed, or in-
ftalled into an office by undlion. It was ufual among
the Jews to anoint kings, high priefts, and fometimes
prophets, at the defignation or inftallment of them,
to fignify emblematically the mental qualifications ne-
ceffary for difeharging thefe offices. Saul, David,
Solomon, and Joafti, kings of Judah, received the
M E S
Aaron and his fons received the facer-
dotal, and Elitha the difciple of Elijah received the '
prophetic undlion.—The name Messiah, Anointed
or. C/inj? (Xg<c«0, was given to the kings and high
priefts of the Jews. The patriarchs and prophets
are alfo called by the name of MeJJiahs, or the Lord's
anointed. See 1 Sam. xii. 3, 5. 1 Chron. xvi. 22.
Pf. cv. 15.
But this name Messiah was principally and by
way of eminence given by the Jews to their expedf-
ed. great deliverer, whofe coming they ftill vainly
v ait ; and is a name the Chriftians apply to Jesvs
Chrijl, in whom the prophecies relating to the Mef-
ffall.were accompliflied. The fum of thefe prophecies
is, I hat there fliould be a glorious perfon named
MeJJiah, defeended from Abraham, Ifaac, and Jacob,
who fliould be born at Bethlehem, of a virgin of the
family of David, then in its decline, before the Jews
ceafcd to be a people, ivliile the fecond temple was
Handing, and about 500 years after Ezra’s time ;
who, though appearing in mean circumftances, fliould
be introduced by a remarkable forerunner, whofe bu-
finefs it fliould be to awaken the attention and ex¬
pectation of the people. That this illuftrious perfon
called MeJJiah fliould himfelf be eminent for the piety,
wifdom, and benevolence of his charadter, and the
miraculous works he fliould perform : yet that, not-
withftanding all this, he fliould be rejedted and put to
death by the Jews 5 but fliould afterwards be raifed
irom the dead, and exalted to a glorious throne, on
which he ihould through all generations continue to
rule, at the fame time making interccflion for finners.
That great calamities fliould for the prefent be brought
on the Jews for rejedling him 5 whereas the kingdom
of God fliould by his means be eredled among the
Gentiles, and difperfe itfelf even unto the ends of the
earth ; wherever it came, deftroying idolatry, and
eftablifiling true religion and righteoufnefs. In a
word, That this glorious perfon fliould be regarded
by all who believed in him as a divine teacher, an
atoning facnfice, and a royal governor ? by means of
whom God would make a covenant with his people,
very different from that made with Ifrael of old ; in
confequence. of which they fliould be reftored to, and
eftabliflied in, the divine favour, and fixed in a ftate
of perpetual happinefs. See Jesus Chriji, and Chris¬
tianity.
I.he Jews, as was already obferved, ftill wait for the*
coming of the MeJJiah, being impreffed with the no¬
tion of a temporal MeJJiah, who is to be a mighty
conqueror, and to fubdue all the world. Moft of the
modern rabbins, according to Buxtorf, believe that
the MeJJiah is already come, but that he keeps him¬
felf concealed, and will not manifeft himfelf becaufe of
the fins of the Jew’s. Some of the Jews, how'ever, in
order to reconcile thofe prophecies that feem to con-
tradidl each other as to the charadler and condition of
the MeJJiah, have had recourfe to the hypothefis of
two MeJJiahs, who are yet to fucceed each other 5 one
in a ftate of humiliation and fuffering •, the ether of
glory, fplendor, and power. The firft, they fay, is
to proceed from the tribe of Ephraim, who is to
fight againft Gog, and to be flain by Annillus, Zech.
xii. 10. The fecond is to be of the tribe of Judah,
and
Mefliab,
M E S
r 54-s 1
M E S
Meffiah, and lineage of David, avIio i? to conquer and kill An-
■jvieiTinv nillus, and reftore the kingdom of Ifrael, reigning over
—v ' it in the higheft glory and felicity.
Jefus Chrift afferts himfelf the MeJJiah. In St
John iv. 2$. the Samaritan woman fays to Jtfus, I
know that when Mefliah comes, who is called the Chrift,
he will tell us all things. Jefus anfwered her, / that
fpeak to thee am he.
There are feveral impoftors, who have endeavoured
to pafs for MeJJiahs, as Chrift himfelf preditled. J.
Lent, a Dutchman, has written a biftory De Pfeudo-
tnefjiis “ Of Falfe Mefliahs,” The firft he mentions
was one Barcochab, who appeared under the empire of
Adrian. The laft was Rabbi Mordccai, who began to
be talked of in 1682. A little before him, viz. in
1666, appeared Sabbethai Sebi, Avho was taken by
the Turks, and turned Mahometan.
MESSINA, an ancient, large, handfome, and ftrong
city of Sicily, and in the Val di Deniona, with a cita¬
del, feveral forts, a fine fpacious harbour, and an arch-
bifhop’s fee. It is feated on the fea fide, no miles
eaft of Palermo, 260 fouth by eaft of Rome, and 180
fouth-eaft of Naples. E. Long. 15. 50. N. Lat. 38. 10.
The public buildings and the monafteries were nume¬
rous and magnificent, and it contained about 60,000
inhabitants j the harbour is one of the fafeft in the
Mediterranean, and extremely deep 5 the viceroy of
Sicily refides here fix months in the year ; and it was a
place of great trade in filk, oil, fruit, corn, and excel¬
lent wine, efpecially fince it was declared a free port.
This city in the beginning of the year 1783 fuffered
moft dreadfully by the earthquakes which Ihook great
part of Calabria and Sicily to their foundations, over¬
turned many rich and populous towns, and buried
thoufands in their ruins: (fee Calabria, and Earth¬
quake, Geology Index).—The following account of
Meflina, as it ftood before the above period, is extradted
from Mr Swinburne's Travels in Sicily.
A large chain of mountains preffes upon the (hore,
and part of the city Hands upon elevated ground. The
Vol. XIII. Part II.
mountains are ftiany of them nobly wooded j the hills
before them finely chequered with groves and fields.
As the town runs in a fweep along the edge of a de¬
clivity, every building of confequence is feen to advan¬
tage, while the lefs noble parts are hidden by the Pa-
lazzata. This is a regular ornamental range of lofty
houfes, with 19 gates, anfwering to as many ftreets:
it follows the femieircular bend of the port for one
mile and five poles, and would have been the hand-
fomeft line of buildings in Europe had the defign been
completed j but a confiderable part of the extent is
not finiflied, except merely in the front wall, and that
feems to be in a very ruinous condition. Philibert
Emmanuel of Savoy, viceroy of Sicily, in 1622, began
this princely work. Before it is a broad quay, deco¬
rated with ftatues and fountains $ ftiips of any burden
can moor clofe to the parapet in great depth of w'ater.
At the weft extremity is a fmall fort and a gate j the
other end is clofed by the governor’s houfe and the
citadel, a modern pentagonal fortrefs, built on the
point where the ifthmus or braccio di San Raniero iffues
from the main land. On this flip of low ground,
which with the Palazzata forms the circular harbour
of Meflina, is placed the lighthoufe (lazaretto), and
on the point the old caftle of St Salvatore. The cir¬
cumference of the port is four miles : it probably owes
its formation to an earthquake, which opened an im-
menfe chafm, and then filled it with water. Near the
lighthoufe is a kind of whirlpool in the fea, fliown as
the Charybdis of the ancients.
The inner part of Meflina is dirty, though it con¬
tains a confiderable number of neat churches and large
fubftantial dwellings. The cathedral is Gothic, en¬
riched with Saracenic mofaics on the altars and Ihrines %y
the front of the high altar is particularly fplendid :
Gagini has embellithed the pulpit and fome tombs
with excellent fpecimens of his art.—In the treafury
of this church is preferved the palladium of Meflina,
a letter from the Virgin Mary to its citizens (a).
This is the title upon which the Meflinefe build their
3 Z pretenfions
Meffina.
(a) The ftory is as follows : After St Paul had made fome flay at Meflina (a circumftance of his travels
unnoticed by St Luke), the Meflinefe prevailed upon him to return to Jerufalem with an embafly of four
perfons fent by the city to the Virgin Mary. Their excellencies were gracioufly received by her, and brought
back a letter written with her own hand in the Hebrew tongue, which St Paul tranflated into Greek. y
the irruption of the Saracens this invaluable treafure was loft, and utterly forgotten till the year 1467, when
Conftantine Lafcaris, a refugee Greek, found a copy of it, and turning it into Latin made it known to the
citizens and then to all the Catholic world. Its authenticity is now fo well eftablithed at Meflina, that Regna
the hiftorian candidly acknowledges, that whoever was to confefs even a doubt on the iubjeft in that city would
beThk curiouTepiftle^is conceived in thefe terms :_Maria Virgo, Joachim filia, Dei humillima Chrifti Jefu
crucifix! mater, ex tribu Judrn, ftirpe David, Meffanenfibus omnibus falutem, et Dei Patns Ommpotentis bene-
diaionem. Vos omncs fide magna legates ac nuncios per publicum documentum ad nos mftifle conftat. bi-
lium noftrum Dei genitum Deum et hominem effe fatemini, et in ccelum poll fuam reWaionem afcendilfe,
Pauli aportoli eleai pnedicatione mediante viam veritatis agnofeentes. Ob quod vos et ipfam civitatem bene-
dieimus, cujus perpetuam protearicem 110s effe volumus. Anno filn noftn XLII. India. I. III. Nonas Junn,
luna XXVII. feria V. ex Hyerofolymis. „ , , . „ , , , a r /- j r r rn -n
Thus tranflated • “ The Virgin Marv, daughter of Joachim, moft humble mother or God, Jems Chriit
crucified, of the tribe of Juda and the family of David, health and the bleffmg of God the Father Almighty
to all the people of Meflina. Out of the abundance of your faith, you have, m confequence ot a public de¬
liberation, fent a deputation to me •> and fince you acknowledge that my Sen is bmh God and man and that
he afeended into heaven after his refurrreeftion, as you have learned irom the preaching 01 St f aul the apoftle,
Me Sina.
M E S
r S4« ]
M E S
over 'he whole world; to its virtues and natronaci
tliey attnoute every piece of good fortune, and to their
own unworthinefs all finifter events that have befallen
them. _ The authenticity of this epiftle has been fe-
riouay impugned, and of courfe vigoroully defended by
many Sicilian divines and difputators.
There is another church in this city that deferves
particular notice, not fo much on account of its archi-
teaure or ornaments, as for its being the laft refuge
bitants and ufurping their polfefllons. The city was
now called Mamertma ; and, in order to fupport them,
elves agamll the refentment of the Sicilian powers,
t ie Mamertmes implored the proteftion of the Ro¬
mans, who, eager to extend their dominion beyond
t rCiimi.ts Ita’y> and jealous of the growing power
of Carthage, made no fcruple to fuccour thefe affaf-
1ms with a confular army. This Hep brought on the
nrit Tunic war. The Mamertines reaped no other
. ^Iie ihand, but gradually abolilhed by
diilerent conquerors. It is dedicated to the Virgin
Mary de Grapheo, or of the Letter, which denomina¬
tion may perhaps have furniflied Lafcaris with the idea
of his letter. It is known at prefent by the name of
la 6 at take a. According to the Greek canons, the en¬
trance ol monadic churches was reciprocally forbidden
to each fex, and the cathedrals were the only places of
woiihip where a daily facrinee was offered up bv the
bilhop and clergy, and where both men and women
were prefent at the fame time, but in different parts of
the church. From this general admittance the build-
mg acquired the title of Catholic or univerfal.
Medina is all paved with lava, cut into large flags
ot two feet fquare : a material which the vicinity of
lavas renders it eafy to procure, and which being very
hard refids friftion better than any other.
During a fenes of ages, notwithdanding the various
revolutions and calamities to which it has been ex-
pofed, this city has dill maintained its original fitua-
tion ; while mod other cities have diifted their ground
more or lefs from the place where they were fird
founded. Rut its fituation enjoys advantages which
have ft ill tempted fuch of its inhabitants a°s efcaped
from the ravages of war and the deflation of earth¬
quakes to prefer it to every other fpot, however de¬
lightful or fecure. It is of very ancient origin • it has
been under many different races of monarchs j and its
name has been repeatedly changed : It has been at dif¬
ferent times called Zancle, Mamertin-a, Mejfana. Its
did name Zancle, which in the old language of Sicily
meant, ‘ a fickle j” alluding, as fome authors fuppofe,
to the form of the port; or, according to others, to
the fertility of die country. Allured by the advan¬
tages of its fituation, the Cuinaeans, a commercial and
enterprifing people, invaded the ifland and drove the
Siculi from this fettlement j they were in their turn
overpowered by a band of Samian adventurers, who
made way for a colony of citizens of Meflene, and under
thefe maders it changed its name to Me/Jana. Their
government was of fliort duration ; for in the 289th
year before Chrift it was dedroyed by the Mamertines
a warlike unprincipled nation inhabiting the fouth part
of Bruttium. Thefe foldiers being received into Mef-
fana on their return to Italy from Syracufe, where
they had ferved as mercenaries in the army of Aga-
of flavery •, for fuch was the real nature of their con¬
nexion with Rome, whatever name it might be dil-
gmled under.
. ^c^ma wfs> however, always didinguidied by par¬
ticular attentions and favours from the fenate ; and, ex¬
cepting a fliort period during the wars of the trinm-
vnaie, appears to have taded all the fweets of Roman
prolperity, without partaking of the bitter draughts
of adverdty. Its fate, in the ruin of the empire, was
fimuar to that of the red of Sicily. In 829 Medina
icil into the hands ol the Saracens, but obtained very
honourable terms of capitulation ; for half the city
was left to the Chridians, where they were to be go¬
verned by their own laws, and profefs their own reli¬
gion undidurbed. In the other redded the bey of
one of the live provinces into which the Arabian con¬
querors had divided the ifland. Notwithdanding this
indulgence, Medina was the fird to cad off the yoke
in. 1037, Mmn George Maniaces landed an army of
Greeks and Normans on the fliore of the Faro. It af-
terwards held out againft the whole Muffulman force,
till the feeble date of a didraeded empire fluit out all
hopes of aflidance from Condantinople. This unfor¬
tunate city then opened its gates to the army of the
caliph, and felt very fevercly the weight of his refent-
ment, but it did not long groan under the yoke ; for
in led than 20 years Roger the Norman took it by
furprLe and delivered it from Mahometan oppredion.
During the crufade our Richard Coeur de Lion and
Philip Augudus king of France wintered here in their
way to Paled;]ne ; a fojourn marked by continual quar¬
rels, conflagration, and bloodfhed. " The Medinefe
were particularly tardy in entering into the national
confpiracy of 128 2, but afterwards exceeded the red
of the infurgents in deeds of cruelty: This, and the
importance of their fituation, Angled them out for the
fftit objefts of Charles’s vengeance. He inveded their
city very clofely, and declared fo openly his determi¬
nation to refufe all terms whatever to* the befieged,
that they faw no hopes of fafety but in an obftinate
defence. Their courage, perfeverance, and fufferings,
were excedive ; at length their ftrength and refources
began to fail rapidly, .and every circumftauce feemed
to denounce their fpeedy deflruaion, when Roger
Lauria appeared off the harbour with the Arragonian
deet,. forced the king to retire with precipitation acrofs
the
1 give my blcffing to you and all your city, and agree to become your protec'trefs. In the 42d year of mv Son
the .ft of the Indraron, the 3d day of June, and the ayth of the moon, at Jerufalem.” 4 ? ? ’
to Denis fhe LMe o' qaftr.0nomiCif “u\del2 » let it fuffice to obferve, that Lafcaris was not aware
it omsZom's bHh’ ymn m0nk m ^ 6th CentU^!^, ',as the “ who madc the era tlmt commences
fvfeftina.
M E S [ 547 3 M E S
tlie ftrait^, and in his fight defeated and deftroyed his
naval armament. Robert, grandfon of Charles I. alfo
made a fruitlefs attack 5 but in the difturbed reign of
Frederic III. Medina was delivered up to Louis king
of Naples and his confort Queen Joan, who entered it
in triumph-. In a few years it returned to its former
poffefl'ors. The year 1672 was remarkable for the re¬
volt of the Meffinefe.—They threw off the Spanilh
yoke, and fwore allegiance to Louis XIV. king of
France. They were for fome time vigoroufly affifted
by the French 5 but before the Spaniards had gained
the leafl. advantage to excite any hopes of recovering
fo valuable a poffeffion, Louis found himfelf necefli-
tated from motives of political intereft to defert his
new fubjefts, and leave them to the mercy of their old
incenfed mafters. The horror of being thus abandon¬
ed, and the chaftifement inflifted by Spain, broke the
fierce fpirit of the Meffinefe j they were ftill ftunned
with the remembrance and effects of this blow, when
the plague in 1743 was introduced from the Levant,
and fwept away more than half the inhabitants. From
this chain of calamities, the opulence, trade, and po¬
pulation of Meffina, have been gradually finking 5 and
unlefs very favourable circumftances happen, will every
year fall lower. The number of its inhabitants does
not now exceed 30,000.
The following particulars are added from M. Houel,
who vifited this city fince the late earthquakes, which
completed its deftruftion.
On the front of the cathedral there is a fquare,
which, though not regular, is far from being mean.
This was not the largeft fquare in Meffina before its
overthrow j but it was the moft elegant, the moil
fplendidly adorned, and the beft frequented. There
Hands in this fquare an equeftrian ftatue of Charles II.
of Spain, in bronze, which has been fpared by the
earthquake. It Hands on a marble pedefial, in the
middle of the fquare. Oppofite to this flatue is an
elegant marble fountain, ornamented with a variety of
figures, reprefenting men and other animals, all of
them fpouting out water in great abundance ; which
ufed, in fummer, to fpread an agreeable and refreffi-
ing coolnefs over the fquare, that induced company to
affemble here. Seven flreets terminated here. The
cathedral forms a part of the fquare. It is dedicated
to the bleffed Virgin ; the occafion of which has been
already mentioned.
There is an anniverfary feaff celebrated in Meffina,
which is called the fea fl of the Letter. A lock of the
Virgin’s hair, which Hie fent to the Meffenians at the
fame time with the letter, is carried through the city-
in proceffion in a cryflal veffel. She made alfo a pre-
fent of her pifture to the Meffenian deputies. It is
placed over the tabernacle. None but the canons of
the cathedral are permitted to touch, or take up on
their fhoulders, the filver ffirine in which the cryffal
veffel with the Virgin’s hair is depofited. Eight of
thofe canons, with mitres on their heads, bear this
flnine in the proceffion. The canopy fufpended over
it is fupported by fix fenators in their robes. The
picture and the hair is fhown to flrangers. This pro¬
ceffion, and the other religious ceremonies of this feffi-
val, are followed by horfe races. The fpirits of the
people being already elevated by their religious exer-
eifes, they engage with amazing eagernefs in thefe and
the other diverfions with which they are accompanied:
a tumultuous joy reigns over the city •, and the evening
concludes with illuminations and fireworks. .The finips
in the harbour pay the citizens the compliment of en¬
tertaining them with a difcharge of their guns on the
cccafion.
Through a fquare called the Square of the Great
Hofp-ital, runs a large and impetuous torrent, the Porte
delle Legni. It is precipitated from thofe lofty moun¬
tains which overlook this city on the fouth fide, i he
channel which it has cut out for icfelf is at times en¬
tirely full. It would, on fuch occafions, overflow the
fquare and other parts of the city, were it not con¬
fined by walls which have been built on both fides to
prevent fuch accidents.—Another flream of a fimilar
origin, called the Torrent of La Bocetta, runs through
another part of the city, it is alfo confined within
walls to prevent it from overflowing.
The Square of St John of Malta is one of the largefi:
in Meffina. In the middle of this fquare is a fine
marble fountain, ornamented with a variety of fcul-
tured figures and jets d’eau. Befide the fountain there
ufed to Hand a large refervoir for horfes to drink
out of.
In the time of the annual feflivals, there ufed to be
exhibited on the water of the refervoir a galley, or ra¬
ther a fidtitious reprefentation of a galley, with gal-
ley-fiaves, foldiers, officers, and a commander on board,
all in arms, and the galley properly equipped as a fliip
of war. This ..galley was decorated with great art;
and by night the mafls, and every other fuitable part,
were hung with lamps, which illumined it in a very
fplendid manner. Every thing around was fo artifi¬
cially difpofed, that when the fireworks were played
off, the fpeftator was led to think, though he per¬
ceived only one galley, that the noife which he heard
was produced by a naval combat; and that the other
ffiips were concealed from his view by the fmoke oc-
cafioned by the guns and fireworks. This, when
properly condu&ed, was a noble fpedlacle. The fe-
nate repaired thither from the cathedral, attended with
a guard and a numerous company. In one carriage fat
fix fenators, the governor of the city, and fome time*
the archbiffiop. It was exceedingly large, and drawn
by fix white horfes very richly harneffed. Other car¬
riages followed, with the train who attended the go¬
vernor and the fenators.
Almoff all feflivals owe their origin to fome extra¬
ordinary event, or fome Angular Hory either true or
falfe. It is faid, that when the fplendor with which the
feaff of the Affumption de la Bara was celebrated at
Meffina, firff began to attradl foreigners to the city,
on that occafion fuch crowds repaired thither as to
alarm the inhabitants with the fears of a famine : But
one year, when the number of Hrangers was greater
than ufual at the time of this feflival, the magillrates
were very much at a lofs how to fupply them with
provifions ; and at length, every other refource failing,
no hopes of relief remained but from the kindnefs of
the Bleffed Virgin. Fervent prayers were addreffed to
their patronefs : and next morning by day-break three
brigantines appeared entering the harbour with full
fails. They proved to be loaded with corn. It was
eagerly purchafed : and the people of the city hafled
to appeafe their hunger. But when they came after
3 Z 2 xefrefhing-
Mcftirjt.
M E S [ 548 1 M E S
^ refrefliing themfelves to pay the corn merchants their
money, neither (hips nor merchants could be found.
After their firft emotions of furprife had fubfided,
they naturally concluded that fuch a feafonable fup-
ply muff undoubtedly be a prefent from the Virgin,
who, being pleafed with the zeal of her MefTenian vo¬
taries, and defirous to prevent the concourfe of ftran-
gers who attended the feltival from diminiibing, had
interpofed in this miraculous manner to fave them from
the diftrefles of famine. A new feftival was celebrated
in gratitude to their generous benefadtrefs. Three
fmall veffek of filver were made, and dedicated to the
Virgin in memory of the event; and thefe are at pre¬
fent ufed as lamps in the cathedral. The fenate like-
wife decreed, that the clergy fbould pay annually a
fmall tax, to be laid out in conftrudding a fmall gal¬
ley to fwim on the fountain, and in defraying the ex¬
pellees of the fireworks. The profits of the clergy are
fo confiderable on the occafion of the feftival, that they
may be fuppofed to pay the tax with great cheerful-
nefs.
In Meflina, as in the other cities of Sicily, the wo¬
men wrap themfelves in a large black mantle above the
reft of their drefs. The fluffs are richer or plainer ac¬
cording to rank and circumftances. People who are
not rich enough to have fine clothes of their own,
hire them at fo much an hour. There are women
who make a livelihood by lending out their clothes.
The mantle covers the wearer from head to foot. 
It reduces the old and the young, the ill-ftiaped and
the handfome, pretty much to an equality in point of
appearance. This muft naturally appear very unfa¬
vourable to the influence of beauty. But yet, on pro¬
per occafions, at church or in a public walk, the la¬
dies of Meflina find means to open and adjuft the man¬
tle fo as to difplay all their beauties of face and fhape,
and to attract the alfeftions of lovers, perhaps more
powerfully than if their drefs were fuited to difplay
their charms in a more oftentatious manner.
Between Meflina and the tower of Faro there ftands
a fmall church called the Mndona of the Grotto. It
was anciently a temple of a round ftrufture, and orna¬
mented with columns like the temple of the fun at
Rome. Modern columns now fupply the place that
was occupied by the ancient. There are large niches
in the rock adjoining to the temple, which are thought
to be of equal antiquity. Thefe contain no fculptur-
ed figures j but in Pagan times they might poffibly
contain fome.
Meflina being fituated between Mount Aitna and
the gulf of Charybdis, and being likewife at no great
diftance from the volcanoes of Lipari and Stromboli,
muft have been in all ages liable to fuffer by earth¬
quakes. Such terrible events, however, appear to
have been more unfrequent in ancient than in modern
times, and have actually alarmed the prefent age oftener
than any other. In the year 1693 a fourth part of the
cities of Scily was deftroyed by an earthquake. Mef-
fina merely felt the {hock ; all its buildings, however,
fullered. In the year 1742 it fuffered another equal¬
ly violent. A plague which followed in 1743 retard¬
ed the repairs neceflary after the earthquake. In the
year 1780 this city continued, for more than fix
months, to fuffer from new earthquakes.
Were the ftate of the elements, previous to thefe
dreadful events, carefully examined, it might perhaps
be found to undergo certain changes which might be
confidered as prognofticating them.
The. autumn of the year 1782 was unufually cold
and rainy. Fahrenheit’s thermometer was often as
low as 56 degrees. The fucceeding wunter was dry •,
and the mercury never fell under 25 degrees : And,
what is uncommon in that feaion, Itorms were nowr
and then obferved to arife from the u'eft. The pilots
in the channel obferved that the tides no longer rofe
at the ufual periods, and the gulf of Charybdis raged
with extraordinary fury.
On the 5th of February 1783, the air was heavy
and calm ; the Iky obfeured w ith thick clouds, and the
atmofphere feemingly all in a flame. About half af¬
ter twelve at noon, the earth began to Ihake with a
dreadful noife. The ftiocks continually increafed, and
became at length fo violent as to open the ground, and
to overturn in two or three minutes a confiderable
part of the buildings.
A long wdiite cloud appeared to the north-weft ;
and foon after another, very dark, in the fame quar¬
ter of the heavens. The latter in a moment fpread
over the whole horizon, and deluged the city Avith
rain and hail, accompanied Avith dreadful claps of thun¬
der. The inhabitants fled in the utmoft terror to the
fields and the {hips in the harbour.
From mid-day till five in the afternoon the earth¬
quake continued almoft Avithout interruption. The
{hocks then became fomewhat lefs frequent. The cries
of the dying 5 the fhrieks of *thofe Avho Avere half bu¬
ried under the ruins } the Avild terror with Avhich others,
Avho Avere ftill able, attempted to make their efcape;
the defpair of fathers, mothers, and hu {hands, bereft
of thofe who Avere deareft to them 5 then formed alto¬
gether a feene of horror, fuch as can but feldom oc¬
cur in the hiftory of the calamities of the human race.
Amid that awful feene, inftances of the moft heroic
courage and the moft generous affexftion were difplay-
ed. Mothers, regardlefs of their own fafety, ruftied
into every danger to {hatch their children from death.
Conjugal and filial affection prompted deeds not lefs
defperate and heroic. But no fooner did the earth¬
quake ceafe, than the poor wretches Avho had efcaped
began to feel the influence of very different paflions.
When they returned to vifit the ruins, to feek out the
fituation of their fallen dAvellings, to inquire into the
fate of their families, to procure food and colledt fome
remains of their former fortunes—fuch as found their
circumftances the moft Avretched became fuddenly ani¬
mated Avith rage, which nothing but Avild defpair could
infpire. The diftindlion of ranks, and the order of fo-
ciety Avere difregarded, and property eagerly violated.
Murder, rapine, and laAvlefs robbery, reigned among
the fmoking ruins.
About one in the morning another {hock of the
earthquake was felt, which overturned moft of the
houfes that were ftill {landing. Moft of thofe Avhom
want, or avarice, or humanity, ftill detained among the
ruins, noAV {hared the fame fate Avith their friends
whom the former {hocks had buried under them.
The fucceeding day fcarce alleviated the diftrefs of
this difmal night: the few Avretches Avho ftill furviv-
ed found themfelves deftitute of every neceffary. At
length order avos in fome degree re-eftablilhed j and in
two
M E S [ 549 J MET
Meffinn. two days after every perfon was fupplied at leaft with
-—'T~~J fome ftnall portion of the neceifaries i ■ fubfiftence.
None yet thougl.t of returning to take up their
abode among the ruins. The common people fixed
their refidence on the plain of Porto Salvo, near the
town of Salleo. The nobles, magiflrares, and mer¬
chants, took up their abode on another plain, on the
other fide of the dream Porto de Legno; the foldiers
at Terra Nuova.
Some violent {hocks which were again felt on the
^th of February and the 28th of March completed the
deftrudlion of the city. The corn magazines, how¬
ever, efcaped without damage 5 and the public ovens
and the aquedufts were but little injured. ' From thefe
faffs it may perhaps be inferred, that had not the houfes
of Medina been, in general, haftily built at the firll,
and afterwards carelefsly repaired, fewer of them would
have been overthrown by the earthquake.
The neighbouring villages having fuffored but little,
were the firif to relieve the remaining inhabitants of
Medina in their diftrefs. Maltefe gallies for fome days
fupplied neceifaries to the poor and the fick with a
generolity which merits the higheft praife. They
brought furgeons and whatever was needful for the
cure of the wounded. The fupplies fent by the king
of France were refufed, for what reafon we know not.
What money was needed for the fupport of the peo¬
ple was taken from the treafury of the city of Medina j
for what the king of Naples fent -was feized and fpent
by the garrifon.
It is faid that not more than 800 or 900 perfons
peridied by this earthquake. The fea during that
convulfion of the land was dightly agitated in the har¬
bour. Farther out the fea was more violently agitat¬
ed 5 but none of the drips in the harbour were dadied
to pieces. The waters rofe fo high as to be injurious
in a very confiderable degree to Pharo, as well as along
the coaft of Scylla and Bagnara.
This earthquake was not of a momentary duration,
like that by which Lilbon was deftroyed, and like
many others ; for more than fixty days, from the 5th
of February to the beginning of April, Medina con¬
tinued to be fhaken, and in that time felt more than
200 ihocks 5 and even after that period the alarm was
again and again renewed. Not only the magiftrates,
the foldiers, and the people, but the prieds likewife,
with their tabernacle and altar, retired to the barracks.
The nuns, too, deferted their cloiders, and fought a re¬
treat without the walls. Some of them confined them-
felves to the gardens of their convents j others mixed
indifcriminately with the people.
The chief damage which the public buildings with¬
in the city differed was the fall of the dome, of the
church of Purgatory. Only the walls were left hand¬
ing ; and even thefe had differed confiderably. One half
of the fteeple of the cathedral was beaten to the ground.
The magazines of Porto Franco were likewife very
much (hattered. The fort of St Salvator, being built
on an artificial foundation, the fide next the fea is there
fallen down ; but on the other fide, where it is founded
on a rock, it has flood unmoved by all the {hocks of the
earthquake.
On the 5th of February, when the earthquake was
more violent than at any time afterwards, a ffrong
fmell of fulphur was felt. The earth was affeded
fomewhat in the fame way as if it had been borne up- Medina
on a fluid j and feemed to reel with the {hocks much H .
like a fliip toffed with the waves. This tremulous ^ion'
motion ivas felt all over Sicily 5 but towards Pharo < .n—v—,
it became weaker. On the following days the Iky
was cloudy j the mountains of Sicily and the ihores of
Calabria continued covered with a thick fog like fmoke.
North and north-eaft winds raged with the moit violent
impetuofity.
The difaftrous year of this earthquake was fcarce
concluded, the chafms which it had opened in the
ground were ftill yawning, and the poor inhabitants
of the adjacent country {till trembled with terror, when
the elements again renewed their fury to ravage this
miferable land.
On Tuefday the 6th of January 1784, about funrife,
the wind began to blow' foftly from the north-eaft.
The fea gradually fweUed, rofe beyond its bed with
rapid impetuofity, overflow’ed the quay of Meflina, and
lalhed with its billows the ruins of the Palazzata. It
loofened and dilplaced many of the ftones of the mole,
fpread over the wdiole ftreet, and attacked the pedeftals
of the ftatues w'hich had been fpared by the earthquake,
and ftill flood firm among the ruins. The fame furious
wind which fwelled the fea in fo extraordinary a man¬
ner, ravaged the whole coaft from Mefiina all the way
to Syracufe.
MESSUAGE, Messuagium, in Law, a dweliing-
houfe, with fome land adjoining afligned ft.;; its ufe. By
the name of mejjuage may a garden, {hop, mill, cottage,
chamber, cellar, or the like, pafs.—In Scotland, mejjuage
denotes what is called in England the manor-houfe, viz.
the principal dw'elling-houfe within any barony .
MESOPORPHYRON, a name given by the
Greeks to the Roman laticlave ; becaufe that garment,
being edged on each fide, where it opened before, with
purple, appeared when clofed with twro purple ftripes
down the middle. The fame term -was alfo applied to
the angujlic/ave.
META, in the Roman circus, was a pile of ftones
of a pyramidical form, intended as a boundary of the
Jladium, or chariot courfe.—When the meta w'as palled
the ferenth time, the race wTas concluded.- The greateft
art and management were required in avoiding the
meta, and yet going as near it as poflible. If they
w'ent too near, they wTere in the greateft danger of
breaking the chariot to pieces ; and if they took too
large a circuit in the turn, they gave their rivals an
opportunity of getting within them, befides lofing a
great deal of ground. The boundary of the Grecian
Jladium, or courfe, was called rsyoj, and
ygappYi \ to which laft name Horace probably al¬
ludes, in calling death “ ultmia linea rerum.”
The metce at Rome were fir ft of wood, afterwards of
ftone *, but the emperor Claudius made them of gold,
or rather gilded them. In the Roman circus there
were two metce, one at the entrance of the courfe, and
and the other at the end of it. An egg was placed
upon the top of the metce.
METACARPUS, or Metacarpium, (from ^srae,
behind, and Ksigwu?, hand}, in Anatomy, that part of the
hand between the wrift and the fingers. See Anato¬
my, N° 55.
METAGITNION, the fecond month of the Athe¬
nian year, anfwering to the latter part of our July and
the-
MET [ 550 ] MET
T Kr rifcs,fT ,hr- ^ ^ p«*. •>/%-
dh “°“ed this munthand the “buu.^vsc^'Js^
, £«$*Z££ SsSS’T^c^
WetapliC
Metal, in Heraldry. There are two metals ufed in
heraldry, by way of colours, viz. gold and filver, in
blazon called or and argent.
In the common painting of arms thefe metals are re¬
presented by white and yellow, which are the natural
colours of thofe metals. In engraving, gold is exprefs-
ed by dotting the coat, &c. all over ; and filver, by
leaving it quite blank.
It is a general rule in heraldry, never to place metal
upon metal, or colour upon colour : fo that if the field
be of one of the metals, the bearing muft be of fome
colour ; and if the field be of any colour, the bearing
mull be one of the metals.
METALEPSIS. See Oratory, N° eg.
METALLISATION, is defined to be the natural
procefs by which metals are formed in the bowels of the
earth.
METALLURGY, in a more general fenfe, com¬
prehends the whole art of working metals, from the
Rate of ore to the utenfil j and in this fenfe, effaying,
fmelting, refning, parting, fmithery, gilding, &c. are
only branches of metallurgy. But in a more limited
fenfe it includes only the operations which are followed
in feparating metals from their ores. For an account
of thefe proceffes, fee Ores, ReduBion of; and for the
pradlical branches, fee Gilding, Parting, Purify¬
ing, Refining, Smithery.
METAMORPHOSIS, in general, denotes the
changing of fomething into a different form ; in which
fenfe it includes the transformation of infefts, as well
as the mythological changes related by the ancient
poets.
_ Mythological metamorphofes were held to be of two
kinds, apparent and real: thus, that of Jupiter into a
bull, was only apparent; whereas that of Lycaon into a
wolf, was fuppofed to be real.
Moll of the ancient metamorphofes include fome al¬
legorical meaning, relating either to phyfies or morali¬
ty ; fome authors are even of opinion that a great part
of the ancient philofophy is couched under them 5 and
Lord Bacon and Dr Hooke have attempted to unriddle
feveral of them.
ME TAPHOR, in Rhetoric. See Oratory, N° 54.
_ Metaphor and Allegory, in poetry.—A metaphor
differs from a fimile, in form only, not in fubilance : in
a fimile the two fubjedts are kept diffindl in the expref-
fion, as well as in the thought; in a metaphor, the
two fubjects are kept diftinft in the thought only, not
in the expreffion. A hero refembles a lion, and upon
that refemblance many finnlies have been raifed by Ho¬
mer and other poets. But inftead of refembling a lion,
let us take the aid of the imagination, and feign or fi¬
gure the hero to be a lion ; by that variation the firnile
is converted into a metaphor ; which is carried on by
deferibing all the qualities of a lion that referable thofe
of the hero. The fundamental pleafure here, that of
refemblance, belongs to the thought. An additional
with a common parent, refembles a tree, the trunk and
branches of which are connedled with a common root;
but let us fuppofe, that a family is figured, not barelr
to be like a tree, but to be a tree ; and then the fimile
will be converted into a metaphor, in the following
manner: *
Edward’s fev’n fons, whereof thyfelf art one,
V» ere fev’n fair branches, fpringing from one root j
oome of thefe branches by the deft’nies cut :
But Thomas, my dear lord, my life, my Glo’ffer,
One flourilhing branch of his moft royal root,
Is hack’d down, and his fummer leaves all faded,
By Envy’s hand and Murder’s bloody axe.
Richard ll. act i. fc. 3.
Figuring human life to be a voyage at fea.
R here is a tide in the affairs of men,
Which, taken at the flood, leads on to Fortune :
Omitted, all the voyage of their life
Is bound in fhallows and in miferies.
On fuch a full fea are we now afloat:
And we muff take the current when it ferves,
Or lofe our ventures. Julius Ccefar, ad iv. fc. 5.
Figuring glory and honour to be a garland of flowers :
Hotfpur.-  —  Wou’d to lieav’n,
Thy name in arms were now as great as mine !
Pr. Henry. I’ll make it greater ere I part from thee j
And all the budding honours on thy creft
I’ll crop, to make a garland for my head.
Firf Part of Henry IV. aft v. fc. 9.
Figuring a man who hath acquired great reputation
and honour to be a tree full of fruit:
-Oh, boys, this ftory
The world may read in me 5 my body’s mark’d
With Roman fwords 5 and my report was once
Firfl: with the belt of note. Cymbeline lov’d me $
And when a foldier was the theme, my name
Was not far off 5 then was I as a tree,
Whofe boughs did bend with fruit. But in one night,
A ftorm or robbery, call it what you will,
Shook down my mellow hangings, nay, my leaves j
And left me bare to wither.
Cymbeline, aft iii. fc. 3.
“ Blefl be thy foul, thou king of fhells, faid Swaran
of the dark-brown fliield. In peace, thou art the gala
of fpring ; in war, the mountain-ftorm. Take now my
hand in friendfhip, thou noble king of Morven.”
Fingal.
il 1 hou dwelled in the foul of Malvina, fon of mighty
Oflian. My fighs anfe with the beam of the eafl : my
tears dtfeend with the drops of night. I was a lovely
tree in thy prefence, Ofcar, with all my branches
round me : but thy death came like a blail from the
defert,
MET [ 551 ] MET
Metaphor, defert, and laid my green head low ; the fpring re-
i"— w ~ '■* turned with its ftiowers, but no leaf of mine arofe.”
Fitigal.
An allegory differs from a metaphor ; and a figure of
fpeech differs from both. A metaphor is defined above
to be an aft of the imagination, figuring one thing to
be another. An allegory requires no fuch operation,
nor is one thing figured to be another : it confifls in
choofing a fubjeft having properties or circumflances re-
fembling thofe of the principal fubjeft : and the former
is defcribed in fuch a manner as to reprefent the latter :
the fubjeft thus reprefented is kept out of view : we
are left to difcover it by refleftion j and we are pleafed
with the difeovery, becaufe it is our own work. (See
the word Allegory).
Quintilian gives the following inflance of an allegory.
O navis, referent in mare te novi
Fluftus. O quid agis ? fortiter occupa portum.
Horat. lib. i. ode 14.
and explains it elegantly in the following words: “ To-
tufque ille Horatii locus, quo navim pro republica, fluc-
tuura tempeftates pro bellis civilibus, portum pro pace
atque coneordia, dicit.”
In a figure of fpecch, there is no fiftirm of the ima¬
gination employed, as in a metaphor ; nor a reprefen-
tativc fubjeft introduced, as in an allegory. This fi¬
gure, as its name implies, regards the expreffion only,
not the thought ; and it may be defined, the ufing a
word in a fenfe different from what is proper to it.—
Thus youth, or the beginning of life, is expreffed figu¬
ratively by morning of life : morning is the beginning
of the day *, and in that view it is employed to fignify
the beginning of any other feries, life efpecially, the
progrefs of which is reckoned by days. See FIGURE
of Speech.
Metaphor and allegory are fo much connefted, that it
feemed proper to handle them together : the rules par¬
ticularly for diftinguifhing the good from the bad, are
common to both. We fhall therefore proceed to thefe
rules, after adding fome examples to illuflrate the nature
of an allegory, which, with a view to this article, w'as
but flightly illuftrated under its proper name.
Horace, fpeaking of his love to Pyrrha, which was
now extinguifhed, expreffed himfelf thus :
 Me tabula facer
Votiva paries indicat uvida
Sufpendiffe potenti
Veftimenta maris Deo. Carm. lib. i. ode 5.
Again :
Phoebus volentem prselia me loqui,
Viftas et urbes, increpuit, lyra
Ne parva Tyrrhenum per aequor
Vela darem. Carm. lib. iv. ode 15.
Queen. Great lords, wife men ne’er fit and wail their
lofs,
But cheerly feek how to redrefs their harms.
What though the maft be nowr blown overboard,
The cable broke, the holding anchor loft.
And half our failors fwallowed in the flood !
Yet lives our pilot ftill. Is’t meet that he
Should leave the helm, and, like a fearful lad.
With tearful eyes add water to the fea, Metaphor*
And give more ftrength to that which hath too much } ^
While in his moan the fliip fplits on the rock,
Which induftry and courage might have fav’d ?
Ah, what a fhame ! ah, what a fault were this !
Third Part of Fienry VI. aft v. fc. 5.
Oroonoho. Ha ! thou haft rous’d
The lion in his den ; he ftalks abroad,
And the wide foreft trembles at his roar.
I find the danger now. Oroonoho, aft iii. fc. 2.
“ My well beloved hath a vineyard in a very fruitful
hill. He fenced it, gathered out the ftones thereof,
planted it with the choiceft vine, built a tower in the
midft of it, and alfo made a wine prefs therein j he
looked that it Ihould bring forth grapes, and it brought
forth wild grapes. And now, O inhabitants of Jeru-
falem, and men of Judah, judge, I pray you, betwixt
me and my vineyard. What could have been done
more to my vineyard, that I have not done ? Where¬
fore, when I looked that it fhould bring forth grapes,
brought it forth wild grapes ? And now go to, I vTill
tell you what I will do to my vineyard : I will take
away the hedge thereof, and it {hall be eaten up *, and
break down the wall thereof, and it fliall be trodden
down. And I will lay it w'afte : it fliall not be pruned,
nor digged, but there fliall come up briars and thorns :
I will alfo command the clouds that they rain no rain
upon it. For the vineyard of the Lord of hofts is the
houfe of Ifrael, and the men of Judah his pleafant
plant.” Ifaiah v. 1.
The rules that govern metaphors and allegories are
of two kinds. The conftruftion of thefe figures comes
under the fh ft kind : the propriety or impropriety of in-
troduftion comes under the other.—To begin with rules
of the firft kind 5 fome of which coincide with thofe
already given for fimilies ; fome are peculiar to meta¬
phors and allegories.
In the firft place, It has been obferved, that a fimile
cannot be agreeable where the refemblance is either
too ftrong or too faint. This holds equally in meta¬
phor and allegory ; and the reafon is the fame in all-
in the followung inftances, the refemblance is too faint
to be agreeable.
Malcolm. ■ —— But there’s no bottom, none,
In my voluptuoufnefs : your wives, your daughters,
Your matrons, and your maids, could not fill up
The ciftern of my luft. Macbeth, aft iv. fc. 4.
The beft way to judge of this metaphor, is to convert
it into a fimile : which would be bad, becaufe there is-
fcarce any refemblance between luft and a ciftern, or
betwixt enormous luft and a large ciftern.
Again :
He cannot buckle his diftemper’d caufe
Within the belt of rule. Macbeth, aft v. fc. 2-
There is no refemblance between a diftempered caufe
and any body that can be confined within a belt.
Again :
Steep me in poverty to the very lips.
Othello, aft; iv. fc. 9=,.
Poverty
MET [
Metaphor. Poverty here muft be conceived a fluid, which it re-
v ~ fembles not in any manner.
Speaking to Bolingbroke banifhed for fix years :
The fallen paffage of thy weary fleps
Efteem a foil, wherein thou art to fet
The precious jewel of thy home return.
Richard 11. aft ii. fc. 6.
Again :
Here is a letter, lady,
And every word in it a gaping wound
Ilfuing life-blood.
Merchant of Venice, aftiii. fc. 3.
Tantee molis erat Romanam condere gentem.
JEneid. i. 37.
The following metaphor is ftrained beyond all endu¬
rance : Timur bee, known to us by the name of Ta¬
merlane the Great, writes to Bajazet emperor of the Ot¬
tomans in the following terms :
“ Where is the monarch who dares refill us ? where
is the potentate who doth not glory in being numbered
among our attendants ? As for thee, defeended from a
Turcoman failor, fince the velfel of thy unbounded
ambition hath been wreck’d in the gulf of thy felf-
love, it would be proper, that thou Ihouldft take in
the fails of thy temerity, and call the anchor of re¬
pentance in the port of fincerity and juftice, which is
the port of fafety ; left the tempeft of our vengeance
make thee perilh in the fea of the puniftunent thou
deferveft.”
Such ftrained figures, as obferved above, are not un¬
frequent in the firft dawn of refinement; the mind in
a new enjoyment knows no bounds, and is generally
carried to excefs, till tafte and experience difeover the
proper limits.
Secondly. Whatever refemblance fubjefts mav have,
it is wrong to put one for another, where they bear no
muiual proportion. Upon comparing a very high to a
verv low fubjeft, the fimile takes on an air of burlefque :
and the fame will be the effeft where the one is ima¬
gined to be the other, as in a metaphor; or made to
reprefent the other, as in an allegory.
Thirdly, Thefe figures, a metaphor efpecially, ought
not to be crowded with many minute circumftances ;
for in that cafe it is fcarcely poflible to avoid obfeu-
rity. A metaphor above all ought to be ftiort t it is
difficult, for any time, to fupport a lively image of a
thing being what we know it is not; and for that rea-
fon, a metaphor drawn out to any length, inftead of
illuftrating or enlivening the principal fubjeft, becomes
difagreeable by over draining the mind. Here Cow¬
ley is extremely licentious. Take the following in-
ftance.
Great and wife conqu’ror, who where’er
Thou corn’ll, doft fortify and fettle there !
Who can ft defend as well as get •,
And never hadtl one quarter beat up yet ;
Now thou art in, thou ne’er will part
With one inch of my vanquilh’d heart;
For fince thou took’ft it by affault from me
’Tis garrifon’s fo ftrong with thoughts of thee
It fears tio beauteous enemy.
552 ] MET
For the fame reafon, however agreeable long allegories Met
may at firft be by their novelty, they never afford any
lafting pleafure : witnefs the Faery ^ueen, which with
great power of exprefiion, variety of images, and me¬
lody of verfification, is fcarce ever read a fecond
time.
In the fourth place, The comparifon carried on in a
fimile, being in a metaphor funk by imagining the prin¬
cipal fubjeft: to be that very thing which it only re-
fembles •, an opportunity is furniihed to deferibe it in
terms taken ftriftly or literally with refpeft to its ima¬
gined nature. This fuggefts another rule, That in con-
ftrufting a metaphor, the writer ought to make ufe of
fuch words only as are applicable literally to the ima¬
gined nature of his fubjeft : figurative words ought care¬
fully to be avoided ; for fuch complicated figures, in¬
ftead of fetting the principal fubjeft: in a ftrong light,
involve it in a cloud, and it is well if the reader, with¬
out. rejefting by the lump, endeavour patiently to gather
the plain meaning, regardlefs of the figures :
A ftubborn and unconquerable flame
Creeps in his veins, and drinks the ftreams of life.
Lady Jane Gray, aft i. fc. I.
Copied from Ovid:
Sorbent avidae praecordia flammae.
Metamorph. lib. ix. 172.
Let us analyze this expreflion. That a fever may be
imagined a flame, we admit: though more than one
ftep is neceffary to come at the refemblance : a fever,
by heating the body, refembles fire 5 and it is no ftretch
to imagine a fever to be a fire: again, by a figure of
fpeech, flame may be put for fire, becaufe they are com¬
monly conjoined j and therefore a fever may be termed
a flame. But now admitting a fever to be a flame, its
effefts ought to be explained in words that agree lite¬
rally to a flame. This rule is not obferved here ; for a
flame drinks figuratively only, not properly.
King Henry to his fon Prince Henry:
Thou hid’ft a thoufand daggers in thy thoughts,
Which thou haft whetted on thy ftony heart
To flab at half an hour of my frail life.
Second Part Henry IV. aft iv. fc. 11.
Such faulty metaphors are pleafantly ridietded in the
Rehearfal:
Physician. Sir, to conclude, the place you fill has
more than amply exafted the talents of a wary pilot j
and all thefe threatening llorms, which, like impreg¬
nate clouds, hover o’er our heads, will, when they once
are grafp’d but by the eye of reafon, melt into fruitful
fhowers of bleflings on the people.
“ Bayes. Pray mark that allegory. Is not that
good ?
“ Johnfon. Yes, that grafping of a ftorm with the
eye is admirable. Aft ii. fc. I.
Fifthly, The jumbling different metaphors in the
fame fentence, beginning with one metaphor and end¬
ing with another, commonly called a mixt metaphor,
ought never to be indulged.
K. Henry.
MET
[ 553 1
MET
Metaphor.
K. Henry.
-Will you again unknit
This churlilh knot of all abhorred war,
And move in that obedient orb again,
Where you did give a fair and natural light ?
Firjl Part Henry VI. a£t v. fc. I.
Whether ’tis nobler in the mind, to fuffer
The flings and arrows of outrageous fortune $
Or to take arms againft a fea of troubles,
And by oppoling end them.
Hamlet, aft iii. fc. 2.
In the fixth place, It is unpleafant to join different
metaphors in the fame period, even where they are
preferved dillinft : for when the fubjeft is imagined to
be firfl one thing and then another in the fame period
without interval, the mind is diftrafted by the rapid
tranlition •, and when the imagination is put on fuch
hard duty, its images are too faint to produce any good
effeft :
At regina gravi jamdudum faucia cura,
Vulnus alit venis, et cseco carpitur igni.
JEneid. iv. I.
-Eft mollis flamma medullas
Interea, et taciturn vivit fub peftore vulnus.
JEneid. iv. 66.
Motum ex Metello confule civicum,
Bellique caufas, et vitia, et modos,
Ludumque fortunse, gravefque
Principum amicitias, et arma
Nondum expiatis unfta cruoribus,
Periculofae plenum opus alece,
Traftas, et incedis per ignes
Subpolitos cineri dolofo.
Horat. Carm. lib. ii. ode I.
In the laft place, It is ftill worfe to jumble together
metaphorical and natural expreflion, fo as that the period
muft be underftood in part metaphorically, in part lite¬
rally ; for the imagination cannot follow with fufficient
cafe changes fo fudden and unprepared : a metaphor
begun and not carried on, hath no beauty j and in-
ftead of light there is nothing but obfcurity and con-
fufion. Inftances of fuch incorreft compofition are
without number : we {hall, for a fpecimen, {elect a few
from different authors. Speaking of Britain,
  This precious ftone fet in the fea,
Which ferves it in the office of a wall,
Or as a moat defenfive to a hoiffe,
Againft the envy of lefs happier lands.
Richard 11. aft ii. fc. I.
In the firftline Britain i« figured to be a precious ftone :
in the following line, Britain, divefted of her metapho¬
rical drefs, is prefented to the reader in her natural ap¬
pearance.
Thefe growing feathers pluck’d from Caefar’s wing,
Will make him fly an ordinary pitch,
Who elfe would foar above the view of men,
And keep us all in fervile fearfulnefs.
Julius Cccfar, aft i. fc. I.
Vol. XIII. Part II.
Rebus anguftis animofus atque
Fortis adpare : fapienter idem
Contrahes vento nimium fecundo
Turgida vela. Hor. Carm. lib. ii. ode xo.
The following is a miferable jumble of expreffions,
arifing from an unfteady view of the fubjeft, betweea
its figurative and natural appearance :
But now from gatb’ring clouds deftruftion pours,
Which ruins with mad rage our halcyon hours :
Mifts from black jealoufies the tempeft form,
Whilft late divilions reinforce the florm.
Difpenfary, canto iii.
To thee the wrorld its prefent homage pays,
The harveft early, but mature the praife.
Pope's Imitation of Horace, book ii.
Oui, fa pudeur ne’ft que franche grimace,
Qw’une ombre de vertu qui garde mal la place,
Et qui s’evanouit, comme I’on peut favoir,
Aux rayons du foleil qu’une bourfe vait voir.
Moliere, L'Etourdi, aft iii. fc. 2.
Et fon feu, de pourvfi de fenfe et de lefture,
S’eteint & chaque pas, faut de nourriture.
Boileau, L'Art Poetique, chant, iii. 1. 319.
Dryden, in his dedication of the tranflation of Ju¬
venal, fays, “ When thus, as I may fay, before the
ufe of the loadftone, or knowledge of the compafs, I
was failing in a vaft ocean, without other help than the
pole-ftar of the ancients, and the rules of the French
ftage among the moderns,” &.c.
“ There is a time when faftions, by the vehemence
of their own fermentation, ftun and difable one ano¬
ther.” Bolingbroke.
This fault of jumbling the figure and plain expreflion
into one confufed mafs, is not lefs common in allegory
than in metaphor.
Take the following examples :
-Heu ! quoties fidem,
Metaphor,
Mutatofque Deos flebit, et afpera
Nigris aequora ventis
Emirabitur infolens,
Quri nunc te fruitur credulus aure& :
Qui femper vacuam, femptr amabilem
Sperat, nefcius aurse
Fallacis. Plorat. Carm. lib. i. ode 5.
Pour moi fur cette mer, qu’ici bas nous courons,
Je fonge & me pourvoir d’efquif et d’avirons,
A regler mes defires, & prevenir Forage,
Et fauver, s’il fe peut, ma Raifon du naufrage.
Boileau, epitre 5.
Lord Halifax, fpeaking of the ancient fabulifts :
“ They (favs he) wrote in figns, and fpoke in para¬
bles : all their fables carry a double meaning : the ftory
is one, and entire j the charafters the fame throughout j
not broken or changed, and always conformable to the
nature of the creature they introduce. They never tell
you, that the dog which fnapped at a (hadow, loft his
troop of horfe ; that would be unintelligible. This a
4 A his
MET [5
Metaphor, his (Dryden’s new way of telling a ftory, and con-
founding the moral and the fable together.” After
inftancing from tlie Hind and Panther, he goes on thus:
“ What relation has the hind to our Saviour ? or what
notion have we of a panther’s bible ? If you fay he
means the church, how does the church feed on lawns,
or range in the forefl: ? Let it be always a church, or
always a cloven-footed beaft; for we cannot bear his
fhifting the fcene every line.”
A few words more upon allegory. Nothing gives
greater pleafure than this figure, when the reprefenta-
tive fubjeft bears a ftrong analogy, in all its circum-
Itances, to that which is reprefented : but the choice is
feldora fo lucky ; the analogy being generally fo faint
and obfcure, as to puzzle and not pleafe. An allegory
is ftill more difficult in painting than in poetry : the
former can fliow no refemblanee but what appears to
the eye ; the latter hath many other refources for ffiow-
ing the refemblance. And therefore, with refpeft to
what the abbe du Los terms mixt allegorical compoji-
tions, thefe may do in poetry j becaufe, in writing, the
allegory can eafily be diftinguiffied from the hiftorical
part: no perfon, for example, miftakes Virgil’s Fame
for a real being. But fuch a mixture in a picture is in¬
tolerable ; becaufe in a picture the objects mult appear
all of the fame kind, wholly real or wholly emblema¬
tical. For this reafon, the hiftory of Mary de Medicis,
in the palace of Luxembourg, painted by Rubens, is
unpleafant by a perpetual jumble of real and allegori¬
cal perfonages, which produce a difcordance of parts,
and an obfcurity upon the whole : witnefs, in particu¬
lar, the tablature reprefenting the arrival of Mary de
Medicis at Marfeilles ; where, together with the real
perfonages, the Nereids and Tritons appear founding
their {hells : fuch a mixture of fittion and reality in the
fame group is ftrangely abfurd. The pi&ure of Alex¬
ander and Roxana, defcribed by Lucian, is gay and
fanciful •, but it fuffers by the allegorical figures. It is
not in the wit of man to invent an allegoricalreprefenta-
iion deviating farther from any fhadow of refemblance,
than one exhibited by Louis XIV. anno 1664 j in
which an enormous chariot, intended to reprefent that
of the fun, is dragged along, furrounded with men and
women, reprefenting the four ages of the world, the ce-
leftial figns, the feafons, the hours, &c. a monftrous
compofition, and yet fcarcely more abfurd than Guido’s
tablature of Aurora.
In an allegory, as well as in a metaphor, terms ought
to be chofen that properly and literally are applicable
to the reprefentative fubjedt: nor ought any circum-
ilance to be added that is not proper to the reprefenta¬
tive fubjedt, however juftly it may be applicable pro¬
perly or figuratively to the principal. The following
allegory is therefore faulty :
Ferus et Cupido,
Semper ardentes acuens fagittas
Cote cruenid. Horat. lib. ii. ode 8.
For though blood may fuggeft the cruelty of love, it
is an improper or immaterial circumftance in the re¬
prefentative fubjedt: water, not blood, is proper for a
whetftone.
\
We proceed to the next head, which is, to examine
in what circumftances thefe figures are proper, in what.
s
14 ] MET
improper.. This inquiry is not altogether fuperfeded by Metaphor
what is faid upon the fame fubjedt in the article Com-
pARISON 5 becaufe, upon trial, it will be found, that a
ffiort metaphor or allegory may be proper, where a fi-
mde, drawn out to a greater length, and in its nature
more folemn, would fcareely be reliffied.
And, in the firft place, A metaphor, like a fimile, is
excluded from common converfation, and from the de-
fcription of ordinary incidents. Secondly, In expreffing
any fevere pafiion that totally occupies the mind, me¬
taphor is unnatural.
The following example, of deep defpair, befide the
highly figurative Ryle, has more the air of raving than
of fenfe :
Calijla* Is it the voice of thunder, or my father?
Madnefs ! confufion ! let the ftorm come on,
Let the tumultuous roar drive all upon me,
Haffi my devoted bark } ye furges, break it:
’Tis for my ruin that the tern pelt rifes.
When I am loft, funk to the bottom low,
Peace ftiall return, and all be calm again.
Fair Penitent, adt v„
The following metaphor is fweet and lively ; but it
fuits not the fiery temper of Chamont, inflamed with
paffion : parables are not the language of wrath venting
kfelf without reftraint:
Chamont. You took her up a little tender flow’r,
Juft fprouted on a bank, which the next froft
Had nipp’d ; and with a careful loving hand,
Tranfplanted her into your own fair garden,
Where the fun always ftiines : there long ftie flouriffi’d,
Grew fweet to fenfe, and lovely to the eye 5
Till at the laft a cruel fpoiler came,
Cropt this fair rofe, and rifled all its fweetnefs,
Then caft it like a loathfome weed away.
Orphan, adl iv.
The following fpeech, full of imagery, is not natural
in grief and dejedtion of mind.
Gonfalez,. O my fon ! from the blind dotage
Of a father’s fondnefs thefe ills arofe.
I'or thee I’ve been ambitious, bafe, and bloody :
For thee I’ve plung’d into this fea of fin 5
Stemming the tide with only one weak hand,
While t’other bore the crown (to wreathe thy brow),
Whofe weight has funk me ere I reach’d the ftiore.
Mourning Bride, adl v. fc. 6.
There is an enchanting pidlure of deep diftrefs in
Macbeth, where Macduff is reprefented lamenting his
wife and children, inhumanly murdered by the tyrant.
Stung to the heart with the news, he queftions the
meffenger over and over : not that he doubted the fadl,
but that his heart revolted againft fo cruel a misfor¬
tune. After ftruggling fame time with his grief, he
turns from his wife and children to their favage but¬
cher : and then gives vent to his refentment, but ftill
with manlinefs and dignity :
O, I could play the woman with mine eyes,
And braggart with my tongue. But, gentle Heav’n !
Cut ihort all intermiftion j front to front
Bring thou this fiend of Scotland and myfelf j
Within
MET
MET [ 555 ]
Metaphor. Within my fword’s length fet him. If he ’fcape,
-— v—‘ Then Heav’n forgive him too.
Metaphorical expreffion, indeed, may fometimes be
ufed with grace where a regular fimile would be in¬
tolerable : but there are fituations fo fevere and difpi-
riting, as not to admit even the {lighted: metaphor.
It requires great delicacy of tafte to determine with
firmnefs, whether the prefent cafe be of that nature :
perhaps it is \ yet who could wifh a {ingle word of this
admirable fcene altered ?
But metaphorical language is proper when a man
druggies to bear with dignity or decency a misfor¬
tune however great j the druggie agitates and animates
the mind:
Wolfey. Farewell, a long farewell to all my great-
nefs y
This is the date of man : to day he puts forth
The tender leaves of hope ; to-morrow bloffoms,
And bears his bluihing honours thick upon him ^
The third day comes a frod, a killing frod.
And when he thinks, good eafy man, full furely
His greatnels is a-ripening, nips his root,
And then he falls as I do. Henry VIII. a cl iii. fc. 6.
METAPHRAST, a tranflator, or perfon who ren¬
ders an author into another form or another language,
word for word.
Metaphor,
Metaphraft.
METAPHYSICS.
Definition.
METAPHYSICS has been defined, by a writer
deeply read in the ancient philofophy, “ The fei-
ence of the principles and caufes of all things exiding.”
This definition, we think, extremely proper : and hence
it is, that mind or intelligence, and efpecially the fu-
preme intelligence) which is the caufe of the univerfe,
and of every thing which it contains, is the principal
fubjedb of this fcience ; and hence, _ too, the fcience it-
felf received its name. Aridotle, indeed, who, of all
the ancient metaphyficians whofe works have come
down to us, was unquedionably the greated, calls this
fcience the first philosoehy, as being not only fu-
perior, but alfo prior in the order of nature, to the
whole circle of the other arts and feiences. But, “ what
is fird to nature, is not fird to man.” Nature begins
with caufes, which produce effects. Man begins with
effe&s, and by them afeends to caufes. Thus all hu¬
man dudy and invedigalion proceed of neceflity in the
reverfe of the natural order of things, from fenftble to
intelligible, from body the effeft, to mind, which is both
the fird and the final caufe. Now physics being the
name given by the Stagy rite to the philofophy of body,
fome of his interpreters, from this neceflary courfe of
human dudies, called that of mind METAPHYSICS, im¬
plying by that term, not only that its fubjedl is more
fublime and difficult, but alfo that the dudy of it would
be mod properly and fuccefsfully entered upon AFTER
THAT OF PHYSICS. To this name, which, though it
has fometimes been treated with ridicule, is abundantly
fignificant, the followers of Aridotle were led by their
mader, who, to the books in which he pretends to ele¬
vate the mind above things corporeal to the contempla¬
tion of God and things fpiritual, prefixed the Greek
Words fjiiloe. ret tyvetKet (a).
Divilkm of ^'^c ^c’ence °f Metaphyfics has been divided, ac-
the fcience cording to the objects which it confiders, into fix prin-
into cipal parts, which are called, I. Ontology $ 2. Cofmo-
legy ; 3. Anthropofophy ; 4. Vfychology ; 5. Pneumato-
logy ; and, 6. Metaphyjical theology. 3
1. That part of the fcience which is named ontology j
logy, invedigates and explains the nature and effence
of all beings, as well as the qualities and attributes
that eflentially appertain to them. Hence it has been
faid that ontology fhould proceed in its operations
from the mod fimple ideas j fuch as do not admit of
any other qualities of which they may be compound¬
ed. Thefe fimple ideas are of being, of effence, of
fubjlance, of mode, of exijlence as well with regard to
time as place, of a neceffary caufe of unity ; the idea of
negation ; the difference between a being that is Jimplc
or compound, neceffary or accidental, finite or infinite;
the ideas of effential and abfiraEi properties, fuch as of
\\\o greatnefs, perfettion, and goodnefs of beings, &c.
The bufinefs therefore of ontology, is to make us ac¬
quainted with every kind of being in its nature and
effential qualities, which didinguilh it from all other
beings. This knowledge being once efiabliffied on
fimple principles, jud confequences may thence be drawn,
and thofe things proved after which the metaphyfician
inquires, and which is the bufinefs of his fcience to
prove.
It is eafy to conceive, that even a clear knowledge
of beings, and their effential properties, would be dill
defeftive and uftlefs to man, if he did not know how
to determine and fix his ideas by proper denomina¬
tions, and confequently to communicate his percep¬
tions to thofe whom he would indrufl, or againd
whom he is obliged to difpute. To render our ideas
therefore intelligible to others, we mud have deter¬
minate words or denominations for each being, and
the qualities of each being j and ontology teaches us
thofe terms which are fo neceffary to fix our ideas,
and to give them the requilite perfpicuity and preci-
fion, that when we endeavour to extend the fphere
4 A 2 of
(A) TJ2N META TA <I>YEIKA. Cujus inferiptionis hsec ratio ed, quod in hoc opere ea traftantur quorum
theoria j oderior eff doftrinae naturali faltem quoad nos, qui a corporum cognitione rerumque caducarum m
fubdantiarum immatemiium atque immortalium contemplationem provehimur. „ „ n • ,
1 Hu Val. Synopf. DoElr. Penpal
5.-6
5
Anthro-
pofophy;
Psychology;
the ’Sencf^ 0Ur knowled8'e» 've ma7 not wafte our time in dif-
^ putes about words.
4 MetaP!iyfics, having, in as folid a manner as
Cofmology; poliible, explained and eltablilhed the principles above
mentioned, continues its inquiries to the fecond part,
■which is called cofmology, and examines into the effencc
of the world and all that it contains ; its eternal laws ;
ot the nature of matter j of motion j of the nature
of tangible bodies, their attributes and adjuncts j and
Oi all that can be known by reafoning and experience,
ft is alfo in cofmology that the metaphyficians
or this fchool examine the Leibnitzian fvltem j that
is, whether God, in creating the world,’mult necef-
larily have created the belt world ; and if this world
be fo in fa£t. In this manner they purfue the argu¬
ment, from confequence to confequence, to its laft
refort,, frequently with very little advantage to truth
and fcience.
Anthropofophy, or the knowledge of man, forms
tne third branch of metaphyfies. It is fubdivided into
two parts. Ihe firft, which conlifts in the knowledge
of the exterior parts of the human frame, belongs not
to this fcience, but to Anatomy and Phyfiology. The
bufmefs of the metaphylician is here to afcertain the
nature of thofe powers by which all the motions effential
to life are produced 5 and to difcover, if poffible, whether
they be corporeal or fpiritual. This inquiry leads at
the fame time to
1 ^ Psychology; which conlifts in the knowledge of
the intellectual foul in particular ^ concerning which
the molt profound, the molt fubtle, and molt abltrad
refearches, have been made that human reafon is ca¬
pable of: and concerning the fubltance of which, in
fpite of all thefe efforts, it is yet extremely difficult to
fupport any pofitive opinion with conclufive or probable
arguments.
5. d he fifth part of metaphyfics is caWeApneumatology.
By this term, which has not been long in ufo, meta¬
phyficians. mean the knowledge of all fpirits, angels,
czc. It is eafy to conceive ivhat infinite art is necef-
fary to give an account of that, of which nothing po¬
fitive can ever be known in the prefent ftate of human
exiftence. But the metaphyfician of this fchool readily
offers, to ffiow us, “ what is the idea of a fpirit; the
effective exiftence of a fpirit; what are its general
qualities and properties; that there are rational fpirits,
and that thefe rational fpirits have qualities that are*
founded in the moral attributes of God for this is
in fo many words what is attempted to be taught in
pneumatology.
6. Metaphyjical theology, which Leibnitz and feme
fical theo- others call theodicy, is the fixth and laft branch of the
feience of metaphyfics. It teaches us the knowledge
of the exiftence of God 5 to make the moft rational
fuppofitions concerning his divine effence, and to form
a juft idea of his attributes and perfections, and to
demon ftrate them by abftraa reafoning. Theodicy
differs from natural theology, in as much as this laft
borrows, in faCt, from theodicy proofs and demon-
ftrations to confirm the exiftence of a fupreme Being:
but after having folidly eftablifhed that great truth,
by extending its confequences natural theology teaches
us what are the relations and connexions that fubfift
between the fupreme Being and men, and what are the
duties which refult from thefe relations.
metaphysics.
Pneuraa-
tology;
8
Metaphy
4,
W e have briefly mentioned thefe divifions of the Divif,om .
cience, becaufe they were once prevalent in thethe Science
ichools. I he greater part of them, however, appears  
to us to be not only fuperfluous, but fuch as can ferve T, • 9
no other purpofe than to perplex the mind. The only
beings m which we know any thing are mind and body: and impi^.
and we .have no reafon to think that there are any I)er*
other beings in the univerfe. Of bodies indeed there
are various kinds, endowed with different properties:
and it is extremely probable, that of minds endowed
with different powers, the variety may be equally great.
Our own minds we know to be united in one fyftem
with bodies by which they perform all their operations :
and. we can demonftrate that there is another Mind
which is independent of all body, and is the caufe of
all things. . Between thefe there may be numberlefs
orders ot minds; but their energies are wholly unknown
to us, and therefore they can never become the obiefls
of fcience. J
Mind and body therefore, 1. e. the minds and bodies
which we know to exift, together with their powers and
properties, effential and accidental, can alone be the
lubjeCls of rational inquiry. We may inquire into the
effence of mind and the effence of body, and endeavour
to afcertain in what refpeas they differ. We may ex¬
amine the nature of different bodies, in order to difcover
whether all bodies, however modified, have not fome-
thing in common; and we may confider the properties,
relations, and adjuntfs of bodies, and endeavour to
diftmguifh thofe which are accidental from fuch as ap¬
pear to be fo neceffary that without them body itfelf could
not exift. Of minds we cannot make the fame compari-
fon. In this part of the fcience we have not fufficient
data for an accurate and complete induction : we can
only examine the powers of our own mind 5 and by pro¬
bable. analogy make fome eftimate of the powers of
fuperior minds, as obfervation will help us to guefs at the
powers of thofe which are placed beneath us in the fcale
of exiftence.
It this be fo, Cofmology, as diftinguifhed from On-
tology, cannot properly be a branch of Metaphyfics.
For .if mind and body, with their feveral powers, pro¬
perties, and adjunfts, compofe the univerfe, it is ob¬
vious, that when ive have afeertained, as Avell as avc
aie able, the eflence of mind and the eflence of body,
together ivith the poAvers and properties of each, and
have traced them all to the firft caufo, we have done
every thing in the fcience of the univerfe, if Ave may ufe
the expreffion, which belongs to the province of the
metaphyfician. The particular laws of motion on the
earth and in the planetary fyftem belong to the natural
philofopher and aftronomer.
In like manner, Anthropofophy, Pfychology, or
Pneumatology, if they be not Avords expreffive of dif-
tindlions Avhere there is no difference, feem to be at
leaft very needlefsly disjoined from each other. Of the
nature of fpirits Ave can know nothing but from con¬
templating the poAvers of our oavu minds 5 and the body
of man is in the province, not of the metaphyfician,
but of the anatomift and phyfiologift. Anthropofophy,
pfychology, and pneumatology, if they be ufed to
denote our knowledge of all minds except the Supreme,
are wnrds of the fame import j for of no created minds
except our oAvn can Ave acquire fuch knoAvledge as de-
ferves the name of fcience.
Ontology
METAPHYSICS. 557
')ivifior-5 of Ontology has fometimcs been defined the fcience of
•heSdence. in the abjlraci; but in the courfe of our inquiries
■—~v " J it will be feen, that being in the abjlrubl is a phrafe with¬
out meaning. Confidered as the feienee of real beings
and their properties, Ontology is a very fignificant word,
of the fame import with Metaphyfics, comprehending
in itfelf the knowledge of the nature of all things
exifting. Or if it be thought proper to make a dif-
tin£Hon between ontology and theology, the former
branch of the fcience will teach the knowledge of bo¬
dy and created minds, whilit it is the province of the
latter to demonftrate the exiftcnce and attributes of
0 that mind which is uncreated.
Another Body and mind, therefore, with their properties,
iropofed. adjuncts, and powers, comprehend the whole fubjedt
of the fcience of metaphyfics : and as we are earlier
acquainted with body than with mind, the natural or¬
der of conducting our inquiries feems to be, to begin
with the former, and thence proceed to the latter. It
is obvious, however, that if we would purfue thefe in¬
quiries with any hopes of fuccefs, wre mult firft trace
human knowledge from its fourcc, afeertain the na¬
ture of truth, and (how what kind of evidence on each
topic to be treated ought to enforce convidtion. In
this view of the fcience, metaphyfics appears to be
divided into three parts j the firft treating of human
underfunding; the fecond, of body with its adjun&s;
and the third, of mind with its powers.
Idea”™! Previous to the entering upon fuch inquiries, fome
notion ex- philofophers of great merit have thought it expedient to
plained. explain the terms which they might have occafion to
ufe. Their condudl is judicious and rvorthy of imita¬
tion \ for the objedls of metaphyfics being, for the moft
part, fuch as fall not under the cognizance of the fenfes,
are liable to be differently apprehended by different
men, if the meanings of the words by which they are
expreffed be not afeertained with the utmoft precifion.
We intend, however, to ufe very ferv words but in the
common acceptation } and we therefore hope, that as
terms of fcience are explained under different rvords in Divifions of
the Didtionary, to which references are made, we have the Science.
little or no occafion for fwrelling the article by previous
definitions. There are indeed two words which have
given rife to much ufelefs deputation, which yet cannot
be banifhed from fpeculative philofophy, and which it
will therefore be proper here to define. I he words to
which we allude are idea and notion. T hefe are very
generally confidered as fynonymous 5 but we think that
much logomachy might have been avoided by afiigning
to each a determinate fignification. We know not any
philofopher who made much ufe of the word idea before
Plato} but with his myfterious dodtrine concerning ideas
we have here nothing to do : our prefent bufinels is to
afcertr.in the precife meaning of the word, ivhich is
evidently derived from to fee, as the word notion is
from “nofco, novi, notumf and that from yivacmu to know
or underfund. In the original fenfe of the two -words,
therefore, notion is more comprehenfive than idea,
becaufe we know many things which cannot be feen.
We have not a doubt, but that at firft the word idea
was employed to denote only thofe forms of external
objedts which men contemplate in their imaginations,
and which are originally received through the fenfe of
fght. Its fignification was afterwards extended to the
relidts of every fenfation, of touch, tafte, found, and
fmell, as well as of fight ; and at laft it was confounded
with notion, which denotes the mental apprehenfion of
whatever may be known. In our ufe of the word idea,
except when we quote from others, we {hall employ it
only to denote that appearance which abfent objedts of
fenfe make in the memory or imagination (b) ; and by
the word notion we {hall denote our apprehenfion or
knowledge of fpirits, and all fuch things as, though
they be the objedts of fcience, cannot be perceived by
the external fenfes. Having faid this, we proceed to
our inquiries, beginning Avith that into human under-
ftanding.
PART I. OF HUMAN UNDERSTANDING.
Preliminary Obfervations on the ORIGIN of our IDEAS
and Notions.
No innate THAT the mind of man has no innate ideas or
ideas or no notions, but comes into the world ignorant of every
tions in the thing, is a truth Avhich fince the .days of Locke has
^™an been very little difputed. In the firft book of his
Effay on the Human Underftanding, that acute philoso¬
pher has demonftrated, that the rudiments or firft prin¬
ciples of all our knoAvledge are communicated to us by
fenfation ; and he has compared the mind, previous to
the operation of external objedls upon the fenfes,. to a
tabula raft or Iheet of Avhite paper. To repeat his ar¬
guments would fwell the article to no purpofe. ’I here
is not a man capable of attending to his own ideas,
who
(b) In thus reftridting the meaning of the xvord idea, avc have the honour to agree Aritli the great Englifh
Lexicographer.-—•“ He Avas particularly indignant againft the almoft univerfal ufe of the word idea in the
fenfe of notion or opinion, Avhen it is clear that idea can only fignify fomething of which an image may be
formed in the mind. We may have an idea or image of a mountain, a tree, or a building ; but avc cannot
furely have an idea or image of an argument or propoftion. Yet we hear the fages of the law delivering their
ideas upon the queftion under confideration ; and the firft fpeakers in Parliament entirely coinciding in the
idea, which has been fo ably ftated by an honourable member •, or reprefenting an idea as uncon ft itutional, and
fraught Avith the moft dangerous confequences to a great and free country, ihis Johnfon called modem cant*
Bofwell''s Life of Johnfon.
55^ M E T A P
STjf JW"'*'«»«*» » in what manner he received
Notions. , ’ v 1^10Ut L^ie fenfe of fight, we could never
 y " ' -1 .have known colours j nor found, without hearing-5 nor
hardnefs, foftnefs, fmoothnefs, pain, or bodily pleafure,
without touch ; nor odours, without fmell, &e.
Self-evident as thefe fafts are, objeftions have been
fear ted to the inferences drawn from them ; and Locke
has been accufed of advancing principles fubverfive of
all diitinaion between truth and falfehood, and favour-
able of courfe to univerfal fcepticifm. “ The firft
- w ^ook .°f his E%, which with fubmiffion (fays Dr
thT??* Eeattie ) 1 think tke worft, tends to eftablifh this
^W-df^er.°US d<,aHnt> Ulat the human mind, previous to
tability 0] education and habit, is as fufceptible of one imprelfion
Crutb. as of another : a do&rine which, if true, would go
near to prove that truth and virtue are no better than
human contrivances \ or at leaft that they have nothin a-
permanent in their nature, but may be as changeable
as the inclinations and capacities of men j and that
there is no fuch thing as common fenfe in the world.
Surely this is not the doaHne which Mr Locke meant
to eftablifh.” We are fo thoroughly fatisfied that it
is not, that we cannot help wondering how fuch in¬
ferences could, by a man of learning, genius, and can¬
dour, be drawn from any thing which is to be found
m the Effay on the Human Underftanding.
But the Dodor thinks Mr Locke’s “ fimile of the
mmd to white paper one of the molt unlucky allufions
that could have been chofen ; becaufe the human foul,
when it begins to think, is not extended, nor of a
^J.Ufljer, white colour, nor incapable of energy, nor wholly
c£a0S^aUnfmnifhed with Ideas’ nor as fufceptible of one im-
<1)01. of Fu- °n °r ckaraaer as any other:” and it has been
gitive obierved by another objeftorf, that “ on a fheet of
pieces white paper you may write that fugar is bitter: worm-
pnntedf°r <\vood fweet •, fire and froft in every degree pleafino-
LondZ^' and iufFerable • tbat compaffion and gratitude are bafe^
1774. treachery, falfehood, and envy, noble j and that con-
13 -tempt is indifferent to us.”
Objedhons All this is true ; but we apprehend it is not to the
amwerecl. ;pUrpofe. Mr Locke has no where expreffed himfelf
in fuch a manner as to lead us to fuppofe that he be¬
lieved the foul to be extended or coloured ; or, when it
begins to think, incapable of energy, and wholly un-
furnifhed with ideas : but he certainly did believe, that
it begins not to think the firft inftant of its exiftence,
and that it acquires all the ideas of which it is ever
poffelfed. We may undoubtedly write upon a piece
of white paper that fugar is bitter, and that wormwood
is fwreet 5 but how the capacity of paper to receive
the fymbols of. falfe propofitions fhould make Mr
Locke s comparifon improper or dangerous, vTe Can¬
not comprehend. Mr Ufher indeed fays, that it is im¬
proper pn this account, “ that no human art or in-
duftiy is able to make thofe impreftions upon the
mind . in refpefl of them, the mind difeovers not a
paftive capacity, but refills them, with the force of
fate.” Does it indeed ? does the mind rejeft the idea
of fugar or of bitternefs, of contempt or of indiffer¬
ence ? May not any man have the idea of fug^ar and at
the fame time the idea of bitternefs, and compare the
one with the other in his mind, as well as the word
fugar may be written befide the word bitter, and con-
ne£ted with it on the fame piece of paper ? In all this
we perceive nothing that i£ impofiible or even difficult.
H Y S I C S.
Part ]
The mind cannot indeed be made to feel that fuo-ar n •
has the fame tafie with wormwood 5 but who efer
thought that it could ? Not Mr Locke, we fhaU be
bold to fay ; nor does his fimile give the fmalleft coun-  ^
tenance to fuch an abfurdity. The author of the
Eflay on the Human Underftanding underftood his
iubject too well to imagine that either truth or falfe
hood could be communicated to paper, or that paper
is capable of comparing ideas. Paper is capable 0f
receiving nothing but lines or figures ; and it paffive-
ly receives whatever lines or figures we' may choofe to
infcnbe on it: yet if a pen be carried over it in a cir¬
cular direction, the figure impreffed will not be a
quare; juft as, to the mind of one eating fugar, the
talte communicated is not that of wormwood.
On a piece of paper a circle may be deferibed, and
clofe belide it a fquare: in like manner an agreeable
ienfation may be communicated to the mind, and im¬
mediately afterwards a fenfation that is difagreeable.
Ihefe two fenfations, or the ideas which they leave
behind them, may be compared together ; and it is
certainly true that no art or induftry can make them
appear fimilar in the mind: but is it not equally true
that no art or induftry can make the circle and the
fquare fimilar on the paper ? The paper is fufceptible
of any fort of plain figures, and the mind is equally
luiceptible of any fort of ideas or fenfations: but fi¬
gures diffimilar^ cannot be made to coincide, neither
can dilcordant ideas be made to agree. Again one
may write upon paper, that “ a circle is a^fquare ”
and like wife that “ a circle is not a fquare j” and
both thefe propofitions may be communicated to the
mind by the organs of fight or of hearing. The paper
receives the words expreffive ©f the falfe as well as
thofe expreffive of the true propofition 5 and the mind
receives the ideas and relations fignified by the one cluf-
ter of words as well as thofe fignified by the other :
but m the mind the idea of a fquare is different from
that of a circle, and on the paper ^ figure of a fquare
is different from figure of a circle. The great differ¬
ence between the mind and the paper is, that the for¬
mer is confcious of its ideas, and perceives their agree¬
ment or difagreement 5 whereas the paper is con¬
fcious of the figures drawn upon it, nor perceives any
thing about them. But ftill thofe figures are what they
are ; they either agree or difagree on the paper, as
well as the ideas either agree or difagree in the mind.
It is not m the power of the mind to alter the ideas of
the fquare and the circle, not in the power of the paper
to alter the forms of thefe figures. * 1 1
It appears then, that the principles of Mr Locke, and
the comparifon by which he illuftrates them, have no
more tendency to fubvert the difference between truth
and falfehood, right and wrong, than the paffivenefs of
paper has to fubvert the difference between a ftraight
line and a crooked, a circle and a fquare : and with a
view to eftabliffi the do&rine of innate ideas and in-
ftmdhve principles of knowledge, we might with as
much propriety alk, Whether it be poffible to ima¬
gine that any mode of manufafture could make paper
of fuch a nattfre, as that a pen drawn over it in a cir-
cular direction would leave the figure of a fquare ? as
that, “ Whether it be poffible to imagine, that any
courfe. of education could ever bring a rational creature
to believe that two and two are equal to three.”
The
Jliap. I* M E T A P
Origin of The mind being thus, as we may fay, originally
,[deM and white paper, void of all chara&ers, without ideas or
notions of any kind, the firft queftion which we have
,4 to confider is, Whence and in what manner it derives
ut all de- the materials of all its knowledge ? To this quell ion the
ved from only anfwer which can be given is, That it derives them
nfatiOT from obfervation and experience; frem obfervation,
U. re ec- ejtjier crnpi0yed upon external objedls of fenfe, or turn¬
ed inwardly upon its own operations. Our fenfes, con-
verfant about particular external objefls, convey into
the mind feveral diflind perceptions 5 fuch as thofe of
colour, figure, heat, cold, bittennefs, fweetnefs, and all
thofe things which are ufually called fenfible qualities.
The notions, ideas, or whatever elfe they may be called
which are acquired in this manner, may be called fen-
fble knowledge ; and the fource of that knowledge is
termed fenfation.
The other fountain from which experience furnifhes
the underllanding with knowledge, is that attention
which we are capable of giving to the operations of
our own minds when employed about thofe ideas
which were originally fuggefted by objects of fenfe.
Thefe operations, when the foul comes to reflect on
them, furnilh us with a fet of notions entirely different
from the ideas of fenfe ; fuch as the notions of percep¬
tion, thinking, doubting, believing, reafoning, knowing,
willing, and all the different energies and paflions of our
own minds. Of thefe operations we are always con-
fcious when we are awake : but it requires, as lhall be
fliown afterwards, no inconfiderable effort to fet them,
as it were, at a dillance, to relied on them and con¬
fider what they are ; but when we have made this
effort, we acquire notions as diltind, and perhaps more
important, than thofe ideas which we receive through
the medium of the fenfes.
Senfation and refledion then furnilh mankind with
the firft materials of all their knowledge. The mind
feems not to have ideas or notions of any kind which
it did not receive by one or other of thefe ways. By
means of the fenfes it perceives external objeds ; and
by that power which it has of turning its attention upon
itfelf, it difcovers the nature and manner of its own
operations.
Although the knowledge which we acquire from re-
feElion be of equal importance, and perhaps of greater
cartainty than that which we receive through the me¬
dium of the fenfes, it comes into the mind at a much
later period j both becaufe it is impollible that the fa¬
culties of the mind Ihould operate Avithout materials,
and becaufe it is much more difficult to attend to thefe
operations even while they are going .on, than to the
objeds of fenfe which folicit our attention. It is for
this reafon pretty late before children have any no¬
tions whatever of the operations of their own minds;
and of the greater part of thefe operations the bulk of
mankind have no clear or accurate notions during their
whole lives. On the other hand, every human being
is fo furrounded with bodies, which perpetually and
varioufly affcd his fenfes, that a variety of fenfible ideas
force an entrance even into the minds of children. In
order therefore to trace the procedure of the under-
ftanding, and to afeertain the extent and limits of hu¬
man knowledge, it Ihould feem that we mud begin Avith
confidering the external fenfes, that avc may difeover
the manner in which we receive knoAvledge by means of
H Y S I C S . 55 9
them, the objeds of that knowledge, and its certainty. Of
It is to be obferved, howeA-er, that though we confider.Senfatlong
the mind as polfelfed of many powers or faculties, and
inquire nrlt into the nature of that faculty which we
concrive to be firft exerted, this is done merely for the
fake of proceeding in our fubjed with method and per-
fpicuity. The mind is one firnple and undivided be¬
ing ; and in every mental energy it is the Avhole mind,
and not any part or portion of it, that is energetic.
On this account, it is impoffible to explain even the na¬
ture of fenfation and perception to him Avho knoAVS not
Avhat is meant by will and underfunding ; but to every
one Avho is acquainted Avith the common import of
thefe Avords, and who has read the ffiort fyltem of
Logic inferted in this Work, avc hope that our theory
of perception Avill be intelligible and convincing.
Chap. I. O/'Sensation aw/Perception.
Sect. I. Of Senfation.
15
The Supreme Being, AA:ho made us and placed us Senfation
in this world, has given us fuch poAA'ers of mind as^ or’
he fatv to be fuited to our Hate and rank in his creation.
He has given us the porver of perceiving many objeds
around us ; but that potver is limited in various Avays ;
and particularly in this, that without the organs of the
feveral fenfes avc perceive no external objed. The
fenfes, as every one knows, are five in number, and each
communicates its proper fenfation. It is by the eyes
alone that avc fee, by the ears that Ave hear, by the nofe
that avc fmell, and by the tongue and palate that avc
tafte ; the fenfe of feeling or touch is fpread over the
Avhole body, for avc feel equally by our hands and by
our feet, &c. To the po Avers of perception by the fenfes
it is necelfary not only that we have ail the organs enu¬
merated, but that we have them alfo in a found and na¬
tural Hate. There are many diforders of the eye which
caufe total blindnefs, as Avell as others which impair
Avithout deftroying the power of vifion. The fame
thing is true of the organs of all the other fenfes.
All this is fo Avell knoAvn from experience, that it
needs no proof j but it may be Avorth while to obferve,
that it is known from experience only *. For any thing * pet-^s
that Ave know to the contrary, our Creator might have E/fays on
endoAved us Avith the poAver of perception by a thoufand the Intel-
organs of fenfe, all different from thofe which Ave pof- le&ual
fels ", and it is certain that he himfelf perceives every jyff* *
thing more perfedly than we do without bodily organs.
For it is to be obferved, that the organs of fenfe are y^eie^r
different from the being Avhich is featient.—It is not them_
the eye Avhich fees, nor the ear Avhich hears j thefe areielves not
only the organs by which Ave fee and hear. A man fvntient,
cannot fee the fatellites of Jupiter but by means ofbut
a telefcope, nor hear a low Amice but by means of an
ear trumpet. Does he from this conclude that it is
the telefcope which fees thofe fatellites, or the trumpet
which hears that voice ? Such a conclufion would be
evidently abfurd. It is no lefs abfurd to conclude
that it is the eye which fees, or the ear Avhich hears.
The telcfcope and the trumpet are artificial organs of
fight and of hearing, of which the eye and the ear are
natural organs j but the natural organs fee and hear as
little as the artificial. D
That this is the cafe with refpeft to the eye and the of fenfation*
56° M E T A P
Senfrtion u*11"* ^0.U^V^0U,» that, as far as We know, it has never
>■— ^ - ■ ‘:>een denied. But with refpeft to the fenfes of touch,
* Elements tade, and fmell, the truth at firft vIcav appears not fo
of Criti- evident. A celebrated writer lias obferved*, that “ af-
cifm. ter the utmoil efforts, we find it beyond our power to
conceive the flavour of a rofe to exifl in the mind : we
are neceflarily led to conceive that pleafure as exifting
in the noitrils, along with the impreflion made by the
rofe upon that organ (c) ; and the fame will be the re-
fult of experiments with refpeft to every feeling of
tafte, touch, and fmell. Touch (he fays), affords the
moft fatisfa&ory evidence, and philofophy detedls the
delufion.” To deteft this delufion requires, indeed,
no great depth in philofophy ; for it is fo far from be¬
ing true that we are neceffarily led otherwife than by
affociation, of which the laws fhall be explained af¬
terwards, to conceive the pleafure or pain of touch as
exifling at that part of our body upon which the im¬
preflion is made, that as every man muft have obferved,
children previous to experience cannot diflingnifh the
precife place of their bodies which is affeded by the
touch of any external object. Nay, we believe it will
be found upon trial, that if a fufl grown man, with
all the experience of age to guide him, be pricked
with a pin on any part of his body which he has fel-
dom handled, and never feen, he will not readily nor
at firA put his finger upon the wound, nor even come
very neat' to the wound. 1 his, however, he would
certainly and infallibly do were the fenfe of touch ne¬
ceflarily conceived as exifting at the organ. To thefc
obfervations objections may perhaps be made, which
v»c cannot ftay to obviate •, but the following, we think,
will admit of none. VvTe appeal to every man who has
experienced that particular fenfation of touch which
Scaliger dignified with the name of a fixth fenfe, whe¬
ther, whilft thofe fenfations were new to him, he was
neceflarily led to conceive them as exifting at any par¬
ticular organ. If he was not, it follows undeniably
that the organs of fenfation are diflerent from the be¬
ing which is fentient; that it is not the eye which fees,
the ear which hears, the noftrils which fmell, the tongue
which taftes, nor any part of the body which feels 5 and
that it is by experience that avc learn to aflociate our
feveral fenfations Avith thofe organs upon which the im-
preflions are made.
It is, however, certain that Ave receive no fenfation
from external objefts, unlefs Avhen fume impreflion is
made upon the organ of fenfe, either bv the immedi¬
ate application of the objeft itfelf, or by fome medium
•(- Reid's If- which pafles betAveen the objeft and the organ f. In
fays on the tAVo of our fenfes, viz. touch and tajle, there muft be
Intellectualan immediate application of the objeft to the organ.
Man^lnl /n tfie other tliree tiie ^nfa)ion is occafioned by the
h 11ley's impreflion of fome medium palling from the objeft to
Ohfer'va-
tions on
Man.  —  —  
HYSICS. part]
the organ. The effluvia of bodies drawn into the noftrils Of
Avith the breath are the medium of fmell j the undulations Senfatior
of the air are the medium of hearing 5 and the rays of''“"“‘Y
light palling from vifible objefts to the eye are the me¬
dium of fight. Thefe are fafts knoAvn from experience
to hold univerfally both in men and in brutes. It is ,•
likewife a laAV of our nature perfeftly known to all The brain
Avho knoAv any thing of anatomy, that in order to ac- ant* nerres
tual fenfation the impreflions made upon the external l-le efl?r>
organs muft be communicated to the nerves, and from enlatl0n'
them to the brain. Firft, The objeft, either immedi¬
ately, or by fome medium, makes an impreflion upon
the organ ; the organ ferves only as a medium, by which
the impreflion is communicated to the nerves ; and th«
nerves ferve as a medium to carry it on to the brain.
Here the corporeal part ends ; at leaft Ave-can trace it
no farther. The reft is all intelleftual.
1 he proof of thefe imprtflions upon the nerves and
brain in fenfation is this, that from many obfervations
and experiments it is found, that Avhen the organ of
any fenfe is perfeftly found, and has the impreflion
made upon it by the objeft ever fo ftrongly, yet if the
nerve which ferves that organ be cut or tied hard,
there is no fenfation ; and it is Avell known that difor-
ders in the brain deprive us of fenfation, while both the
organ and its nerve are found.
There is fufficient reafon, therefore, to conclude, pro,*fs of
that in fenfation the objeft produces fome change in nature in
the organ ; that from the organ the change proceeds
to the nerve, and from the nerve to the brain. Hence
it is that we have pofitive fenfations, from negative ob¬
jefts, or mere nonentities, fuch as darknefs, b/acknefs,
and vacuity. For, fenfation refulting from changes in
the brain, svhatever produces any change muft of courfe
occafion a nesv fenfation : but it is obvious, that the
mere abfence of any imprefflon, by the removal of the
objeft which produced it, muft as neceflarily caufe a
change in the organ, nerves, and brain, as the prefence
of a neAV„ impreffion from a new objeft. To thefe
changes, or that Avhich immediately produces them, avc
give the name of imprejfions ; becaufe Ave knoiv not
hoAV, in a general manner, to exprefs more properly any
change produced by an external caufe Avithout fpecify-
ing the nature of that caufe. Whether it be preflure,
or attraftion, or repulfion, or vibration, or fomething
unknown, for Avhich Ave have no name, ftill it may be
called an impreflion.
Sir Ifaac NeAvton Avas perhaps the firft: Avho fuppof-
ed that the rays of light falling upon the bottom of
the eye excite vibrations in the tunica retina ; and that
thofe vibrations being propagated along the folid fibres
of the optic nerves into the brain, caufe the aftual
fenfation of feeing. This hypothefis Avas adopted by
Dr Hartley, applied to the other fenfes, and flioAvn to
be
< Cf Another eminent Avriter thinks on this fubjeft very differently, and in our opinion much more juftly.-—
Appoie ( ays Dr Reid) a perfon Avho never had this fenfe (viz. fmell} before, to receive it all at once, and to
. f a r°te 5 can he perceive any fimilitude or agreement between the fmell and the rofe ? or indeed betAveen
it and any othei objeft Avhatever ? Certainly he cannot. He finds himfelf affefted in a neAV Avay, he knows not
aa .<), 01 from what caufe. He is confcious that he is not the caufe of it himfelf; but he cannot from the nature
ot s ie t-ung determine Avhether it be caufed by body or fpirit ; by fomething near, or by fomething at a diftance.
He cannot give it a place any more than he can give a place to melancholy or jey ; nor can he concewe it t©
rave any exiitence but when it is fmelled.” Inquiry into the liutnttn Mind, ch. 2. feft. 2*
(Chap. I- M E T A P
Of be at leaft as probable as any wliicb has yet been in¬
perception. vented to account for the perception of external ob:efb
^ ' by means of the organs of fenfe. Be this as it mav,
experience informs us, that whatever be the nature of
thofe impre(lions and changes which are made by ex¬
ternal objefls upon the fenfes, nerves, and brain, we
have without them no actual fenfation, and of courfe
In fenfatioa perCeive nothing ab extra. Hence it has been fuppof-
the mmci ecj> t]iat t]ie mind is wholly paflive in fenfation, and
jctive ^ t^at ^en^a^on 1S necejfanhj produced by thofe impref-
L ' fions. But this we believe to be a miftake. Every
man who has been attentive to his own thoughts and
aftions, muft know inftances of impreflions having
been certainly made upon his organs of fenfe without
producing any fenfation, or fuggefting to his mind the
perception of the particular objefts by which the im¬
preflions were caufed. He whofe mind is intenfely
employed in any particular purfuit, may have his eyes
open upon an objedf which he does not fee 5 or he may
not hear the found of a clock ftriking within two yards
of him : Nay, we will venture to affirm, that there is
hardly one reader of this article to whom fuch abfences
of fenfation have not often occurred. Now, as there
is no reafon to fuppofe, that in the one cafe the un¬
dulations of the air, caufed by the ftriking of the clock,
did not reach his ears, or that in the other the rays of
light, refle&ed from the objeift, did not fall upon his
eyes, which were open to receive them ; the only
reafon which can be afligne.d for his not having, in thefe
inftances. bad audible and viftble fenfations, is, that
his mind was fo engaged in fomething elfe as not to pay
to the vibrations in his brain that attention, if we may
fo fay, without which impreffions ab extra can produce
no fenfation. There are, indeed, fome impreflions on
the organs of fenfe fo violent and fo hidden, as to force
themfelves upon the mind however employed. Such
are thofe made on the ear by thunder, and on the eye
by ftrong light. In thefe cafes, fenfation is involun¬
tary and unavoidable j whence we conclude, not that
in fuch inftances the mind is paflive or deftitute of en¬
ergy, but that by the violent agitation given to the
brain, it is roufed from its reverie, and compelled to
give attention. It appears, therefore, that in fenfa¬
tion the mind exerts fome kind of energy 5 for in no¬
thing but in the fentient being itfelf can we feek for
the caufe why, when all external cireumftances are the
fame, organical impreflions fometimes produce fenfa¬
tions and fometimes not; and that caufe can only be
the energy of the mind ; what kind of energy we pre¬
tend not to fay.
Sect. II. Of Perception by the Senfes.
ifficult to How the correfpondence is carried on between the
count for thinking principle within us and the material world
epercep- without us, has always, as Dr Reid obferves, been
^5 ob* found a very difficult problem to thofe philofophers
who confider themfelves as obliged to account for
every phenomenon in nature. It is, indeed, a pro¬
blem of which we expert not to fee a complete folu-
tion. A few fteps beyond the vulgar we may certainly
go ; but the nature of that connexion by which the
mind and body are united, will probably remain for
ever unknown. One queftion, however, which has
employed much of the attention of philofonhers, both
Vol. XIII. Part II.
H Y S I C 3. 561
ancient and modern, appears to be not wholly unan- Of
fwerable. It is, Whether by means of our fenfes we fcrrePtl0n‘
perceive external objects mediately or immediately 5 or v ^
in other words, Whether fenfation and perception be
one and the fame thing, or two things fucceeding
each other ? On this fubjeft, till of late, there appears
to have been in the main a great uniformity in the fen-
timents of philofophers, notwithftan'ding their varia¬
tions rcfpecting particular points. Of fome of the moft
eminent of them, we (hall give the opinions as we find ^ ^
them collected by one * who is well acquainted with jn h;syp.y,j,f
their writings, who is thoroughly qualified to eftimate rte fh-
their refpe&ive merits, and who cannot be fufpedled of telleElual
partiality to that theory which we feel ourfelves com- Powers °f
pelled to adopt. Man^
“ Plato illuftrates our manner of perceiving exter- The hypo-
nal objedls thus: He fuppofes a dark fubterraneous thefis of
cave, in which men lie bound in fuch a manner as that j
they can direft their eyes only to one part of the cave.
Far behind there is a light, of which fome rays come
over a wall to that part of the cave which is before the
eyes of our prifoners. A number of men varioufly em¬
ployed pafs between them and the light, whofe ftiadow*
are feen by the prifoners, but not their perfons them¬
felves. In this manner did that philofopher conceive
' that by our fenfes we perceive not things themfelves,
but only the ftiadows of things j and he feems to have
borrowed his notions on this fubjeft from the difciples
of Pythagoras.
“ If we make due allowance for Plato’s allegorical Of Arifto-
genius, his fentiments with refpeft to fenfation and1!®}
‘perception correfpond very well Avith thofe of the Pe¬
ripatetics. Ariftotle, the founder of that fchool, feems
to have thought, that the foul confifts of two or three
parts, or rather that Ave have three fouls—the vegetable-,
the animal, and the rational. The animal foul he held
to be a certain form of the body, Avhich is infeparable
from it, and perifhes at death. To this foul the fenfes
belong; and he defines a fenfe to be that which is ca¬
pable of receiving the fenfible forms, -or fpecies of ob-
jefts, Avithout any of the matter of them 5 as Avax re¬
ceives the form of the feal Avithout any of its matter.
Of this dodlrine it feems to be a necefiary confequence,
that bodies are conftantly fending forth, in all diredtions*
as many different kinds of forms Avithout matter as they
have different fenfible qualities. This Avas according¬
ly maintained by the folloAvers of Ariftotle, though not,
as far as avc know, taught by himfelf. They difput-
ed concerning the nature of thefe forms or fpecies,
Avhether they Avere real beings or nonentities : but of
matter and form avc (hall have occafion to fpeak after¬
wards. _ 24
“ After Ariftotle had kept poffeffion of the fchoolsOfDes
for more than a thoufand years, his authority, Avhich Cartes,
had often fupplied the place of argument, Avas call¬
ed in queftion by Lord Bacon and others. Des Car¬
tes, hoAvever, was the firft philofopher Avho, convin¬
ced of the defeats of the prevailing fyftem, attempted
to form another entirely neAv : but on the nature of
perception by means of the fenfes he differs little or
nothing from thofe who had preceded him in that de¬
partment of fcience. He denies, indeed, and refutes
by folid reafoning, the do&rine Avhich maintains that
images, fpecies, ox forms of external objecls, come from
the objects themfelves, and enter into the mind by the
4 B avenues
M E T A P
»s
Of Male-
brancbe.
562
Prr -.r, ^en^es' ®ut ^ie fakes it for granted, as
ail the old philofophers had done, that what we im¬
mediately perceive muft be either in the mind itfelf,
or in the^ brain, in which the mind is immediately pre-
ent. i he impreffions made upon our organs, nerves,
and brain, can be nothing, according to his philofo-
puy, but various modifications of extenfion, figure,
and motion. 1 here can be nothing in the brain like
found ox colour, tnjle or fmell, heat or cold. Thefe are
fenfations in the mind, which by the laws of the
union of the foul and body, are raifed on occafion
of certain traces in the brain ; and although he fome-
times gives the name of ideas to thefe traces, he does
not think it neceilary that they fhould be perfedlly like
the things which they reprefent, any more than that
words and figns Ihould refemble the things which they
fignify.
According to this lyftem it would appear, that we
perceive not external objedls directlij by means of our
fenfes j but that thefe objedts, operating either mediate¬
ly or immediately upon the organs of fenfe, and they
again upon our nerves and brain, excite in the mind
certain fenfations j whence we infer the exigence of ex¬
ternal objedls from our fenfations of which they are the
caufe. Perception ef external objefts, therefore, ac¬
cording to Des Cartes, is not one fimple original acl of
the mind, but may be refolved into a procefs of reafon-
ing from effe&s to caufes.”
^The doftrines of Malebranche, Locke, and Hartley,
refpecling perception, differ not effentially from that
of Des Cartes. Malebranche, indeed, fuppofes, that
external objedls are not themfelves the caufes of per¬
ceptions ; but that the Deity, being always prefent to
our minds more intimately than any other being, does,
upon occafion of the impreffions made upon our or¬
gans of fenfe, difeover to us, as far as he thinks pro¬
per, and according to fixed laws, his own ideas of the
objedf : and. thus, according to him, wre fee all things
in. God, or in the divine ideas. He agrees, however,
with. Des Cartes and the ancient philofophers, in con-
lidering it as a truth which it is impoffible to refute,
tnat we perceive not the objedls without us, the
fun, moon, and flars, &c. beeaufe it is not likely that
the foul fallies out of the body, and takes a walk, as it
were, through the heavens to contemplate thefe ob¬
jedls. She fees them not therefore by themfelves;
and the immediate objedt of the mind,'when it fees
the fun, is not the fun itfelf, but fomething which is
intimately united to the mind, and is that which he
calls an idea.
Locke, fpcaking of the reality of our knowledge,
*ays : “ It is evident the mind knows not things imme¬
diately, but only by the intervention of the ideas it has
of them. Our knowledge, therefore, according to
him, is real only fo far as there is a conformity be¬
tween our ideas and the things which they reprefent.”
The manner of our perceiving external objeds he il~
luflrates by the following fimilitude: “ Methinks the
underllanding.is not much unlike a clofet wholly ffiut
from light, with only fome little opening left, to let
in external vifible refemblances or ideas of tilings ivith-
•ut. Would the pidlures coming into fuch a dark
room but flay there, and lie fo orderly as to be
found upon occafion, it would very much refemble the
underflanding of a man in reference to all objedls of
a.
Part 1
5(5
i>l Locke
H Y S I C S.
fight, and the ideas of them*.'’ He has ellewheref- Of
defined an idea, thus : “ Yv hatfoever the mind perceives Perceptiot>
m itfelf, or is the immediate c^edt of perception, v—
thought, or underflanding, that I call an idea; and on
the power to produce any idea in our mind, I oz\\jiandin-/'
quality of the fubjedt wherein the power is.” He like- book iif’
vife thinks it “ eafy to draw this obfervation, that chsl5> n*
the ideas of what he calls primary qualities of bodies, “•
llz‘ extenfion Jolidity, fgure, mobility, &c. are refem-^
blanees of thele qualities as they really exift in the bodies
themfelves.”
. This unguarded expreffion, which affirms that ideas
m the mind are the refemblances of external things, has
brought upon Mr Locke much undeferved ridicule.
J-hat on this and other cccafions he ufes the word idea
with too great latitude, and that he often confounds
ideas with fenfations, and even with the caufes of fen-
fation, mull be admitted by his warmefl admirers : but
we believe, that by an attentive reader, who perufes
his whole work, and compares fuch paffages as are ob-
fcuie with thofe which are clearer, his meaning may
always be difeovered, and with refpedt to fenfation and
perception will generally be found juft. That by call¬
ing the ideas of primary qualities refemblances of the
qualities themfelves, he meant nothing more than that
bodies in all poffible ftates imprefs the fenfes, nerves,
and biain, in luch a manner as to produce in the mind
ceitain fenfations, between which and thofe impreffions
theie is an infeparable, though unknoivn, connedlion, is
evident from the account which he gives of the manner
of perception. “ Our fenfes (fays he), converfant about
particular fenfible objedls, do convey into the mind
feveral diftindl perceptions of things according to thofe
various ways in which thefe objedls affect them : and
thus we come by thofe ideas we have of yellow, white,
heat, cold,fft, hard, bitter, fweet, and all thofe which
we call .fenfible qualities; which when I fay the fenfes
convey into the mind, I mean, they from external ob¬
jedls convey into the mind what produces thofe percep¬
tions.” And as bodies can adt only by impulfe, he
adds, that “ thofe perceptions can be produced only by
an impreffion made upon the fenfes, and fome motion
thence continued by our nerves to the brain or leat of
perception.”
Dr Hartley was the pupil of Locke and Newton ; Of Hartley,
and has, in a more fatisfadlory manner than all who had
preceded or have fince followed him, explained the
material part of the procefs of perception. His prin¬
ciples wTe ftiall have occafion, during the courfe of the
article, to develope pretty fully. For our prefent pur-
pofe it is fufficient to fay, that all his oblervations and
arguments evidently Tuppofe, that nothing diftant from
the mind can be perceived in the immediate adl of
fenfation ; but that the apparently immediate perception
of external objedls is an inltance of early and deep-rooted
affociation. c
In this fentiment Mr Hume agrees with his prede-Of Hume,
ceffors ; but he obfeures his philofophy, and mifleads
his reader, by confounding fenfations with the impref¬
fions from which they proceed. “ Every one (favS
he f) will allow, that there is a confiderable difference f Inquiry
between the perceptions of the mind, when a xn&wconrerniitg
feels the pain of exceffive heat, or the pleafure of mo-Human u’:‘
derate warmth, and when he afterwards recals to his me-
mory this fenfation, or anticipates it by his imagina-^’ ^ ’
tion.”
T.
Chap
Of tion.” Tlic lefs forcible and lively of thefe percep-
1 Perception. tjons grCat propriety calls ideas ; but it is ei-
ther hrough wilful perverfenefs, or confufion of intel¬
lect, that he choofes to call the others impreQhns.
Senfation and perception are caufed by impreffions ; but
they are no more impreffions themfelves, than the pain
occafioned by the ftroke of a bludgeon is the ftroke it-
felf, or the bludgeon with which it was (truck. But
more of this afterwards.
Agreement Thus far, then, that we perceive not external objects
ofphilofo- direcili/, but infer their exiftcnce from certain fenfations
phers, and excited in our minds by the operation of thefe objects
the^reafon Up0n om fenfes, nerves, and brain, feems to have been
f See Mo- the opinion of every philofopher from Pythagoras-f to
(biim't edi- Mr Hume. For an opinion fo univerfal, and at the
tion of Cud-fame, time fo contrary to the perfualion. of the multitude,
r^;j'-fome cogent reafon muit have been affigned. That
Sypm, reafon has been given by many philofophers, but by none
where the with greater perfpicuity than Dr Porterfield, in his
opinions of EflTay concerning the Motion of the Eyes. “How
h ^f°an"b°dy ai^s upon the mind, or mind upon body (fays he),
tiquity are f know not •, but this I am very certain of, that nothing
more faith-can afl, or be afted upon, where it is not: and therefore
fully col- our mind can never perceive any thing but its own pro-
■ded ihati pgj. moclifications, and the various dates of the fenforium
"ork with to which it is prefent. So that it is not the external
fun and moon, which are in the heavens, that our mind
perceives, but only their image or reprefentation im-
prefled on the fenforium. How the foul of a feeing man
fees thofe images, or how it receives thofe ideas from
fuch agitations in the fenforium, I know not ; but
I am fure it can never perceive the external bodies
themfelves to which it is not prefent.”
This reafoning appears to have force ; and, perhaps,
the unanimous agreement of thinking men in all ages
has dill greater force ; yet the doflrine which prevailed
fo long, and which to Locke appeared fo evident as to
need no proof, has been fince called in quedion by feme
eminent philofophers of our own country 5 who, though
they allow that we cannot perceive external objefts but
by means of the fenfes, yet affirm that they are the
objects themfelves which we perceive direflly ; and that
in perception there is no aflociation which can be refolv-
#d into a procefs of reafoning from fenfations the effects,
to external objects the caufes. Dr Reid, who was per-
M E T A P H Y S I C S.
5^3
! work
which we
are ac¬
quainted.
t EJays on
the Intel¬
lectual
Ponvers of
Man, Ef-
fay ii. ch. 5.
haps the find, and is unquedionably the able ft of this Of
clafs of philofophers, had expreflfed himfelf on the iabject PercePt101^
as follows : v
“ If we attend to the act of our mind, which we
call the perception of an external object of fenfe, tve
diall find in it thefe three things ; Fitji, Some concep¬
tion or notion of the object perceived. Secondhj, A
drong and irrefidible conviction and belief of its pre¬
fent exidence. And, Thirdly, That this conviction
and belief are immediate, and not the effeCt of reafon-
ingj.” To the fird and fecund of thefe propofitions,
we are perfuaded that Des Cartes and Locke would
readily have affented 5 nor do we imagine that they
would have denied the third, had the author allowed
that this drong and irrefiitible conviction is the con-
fequence of an early and deep-rooted affociation refol-
vable into a procefs of reafoning. This, however,
the learned profeffor does not allow ; for he repeated¬
ly affirms, that it is indinCtive. and original, and that
“ the conditution of our power of perception deter¬
mines us to hold the exidence of what we didinCtly
perceive as a fird principle, from which other truths
may be deduced, but it is deduced from none.” With
this view of the matter, he could with no propriety at¬
tempt to fupport his own opinion by argument •, but to
the reafonings of Dr Porterfield and others in defence
of the Cartefian theory, he replies in the following
words : “ That nothing can aCI immediately where it
is net, I think mud be admitted (d) ; for I agree with
Sir Ifaac Newton, that power without fubdance is in¬
conceivable. It is a confequence of this, that nothing
can be aCIed upon immediately where the agent is not
prefent; let this, therefore, be granted. To make the
reafoning conclufive, it is farther neceflary, that when
we perceive objeCls, either they act upon us, or we aft
upon them. This does not appear felf-evident, nor have
I ever met with any proof of it f.”
Of the profundity of Dr Reid’s underdanding, we
have the mod firm conviction 5 nor is there any meta-
phyfician, ancient or modern, from whom we differ
with greater reluCtance : but we cannot help thinking
this a very radr affertion, as his own works appear
to us to afford complete proof, that, in perception,
the mind both aCts and is aCted upon. Let us attend,
however, to the reafons which, on this occafion, indu-
4 B 2 ced
f Ejj'ays ofi
the Intel¬
lectual
Powers of
Alan, Effay
ii. chap. 14.
(b) One of the mod celebrated of Dr Reid’s followers thinks otherwife. “ That no diftant fubjeff can aCt
upon the mind, is a propofition (fays Lord Karnes) which undoubtedly requires evidence ^ for it is not indinc-
tively certain : And, therefore, till the propofition be demondrated, every man may without fcruple rely upon
the conviffion of his fenfes, that he hears and fees things at a didance.” But his Lorddiip ought to have
known, that Locke and Berkeley, the two philofophers whom he was combating, have no where called in
quedion the conviction of their fenfes. They do not, indeed, admit, that the external organs are themfelves
percipient, or that by means of them the mind can immediately perceive didant cbjefts; but they have no
where denied, that through the medium of them the mind comes to the knowledge of external exidence. And
the reafons which they affign for this twofold opinion are, that in perception they experience aftion or the
effeCls of a£tion, which is not their own ; and that it is an intuitive truth, that nothing can aCt where it is
not prefent. “ But admitting (fays his Lordfhip) that no being car^ a£t but where it is, is there any thing
more fimple or more common, than the aCting upon fubjeCts at a diltance by intermediate means ? This holds
in faft with refneCl both to feeing and hearing.” It certainly does, and with refpedl to the other fenfes like-
wife •, but it is the very thing for which Locke and Berkeley would have contended, had any man in their
Rays prefumed to call it in quedion. It is the very foundation of their fydem; and if it be granted, nothing
can be more evident, than that external exidence is not the immediate object of perception. See Appendix to
Elements of Crilicifnt.
4 M E T A P
Perocw'on ^ 'it: think, that in perception there is no action
‘ ^ ■ either of the objedt on the mind or of the mind on
the object.
“ W hen we fay, that one being a£ls upon another, we
mean, that fome power or force is exerted by the agent
which produces, or has a tendency to produce, a change
in the thing adted upon. If this be the meaning of the
phrafe, as I conceive it is, there appears no reafon for
aHerting, that in perception, either the objedt adts upon
the mind or the mind upon the objedt. An objedt, in
being perceived, does not adt at all. I perceive the
walls of the room where I fit ; but they are perfectly
inadtive, and therefore adt not upon the mind. To be
perceived, is what logicians call an external denomina¬
tion^ which implies neither adtion nor quality in the ob-
3® jedt perceived.”
We think This laft . fentence we pretend not to underftand.
folly^and Subitance without qualities is to us inconceivable, and
’ certainly is no objedl of perception; for Dr Reid
himfelf has told us, and told us truly, that “ the ob¬
jects of perception are the various qualities of bodies.”
That an objedt in being perceived does not adl at all,
is diredlly contrary to what the ingenious author has
taught us, both in his Inquiry and in his Effayr, viz.
that s£ it is a law of our nature that we perceive not
external objedts, unlefs certain impreflions be made by
the objedf upon the organ, and by means of the or-
gan upon the nerve and brain;” for if the external
objedl in being perceived make impreflions, it is cer¬
tainly not true that it adls not at all. It is indeed
readily acknowledged, that when one perceives the
walls of the room where he fits, thefe walls do not
adl immediately upon the organs of fight; but it does
not, therefore, follow, that they are perfedlly inac¬
tive ; for it is known to all mankind, that from every
point of the wall which is feen, rays of light are re-
fledled to the eye ; that thofe rays make upon the re¬
tina tunica an impreffion, which is conveyed by the
optic nerve to the brain ; and that this impreflion on
the brain is one of the immediate caufes of vifion.
In what particular manner it caufes vifion, we fliall ne-
« ver be abk to difeover, till we know more of the laws
which unite mind and body, and by which one of
thefe is qualified to adl upon the other ; but becaufe
we know not the manner of this operation, to affirm
that there is no operation at all feems to be as abfurd
as it would be to affirm, becaufe we perceive no necef-
fary connexion between a ftroke and the fenfiition of
found, that the found of a mufical firing is not cauf-
ed by the ftroke of a pledfrum. That God might
have given us powers of perception of a different kind
from thofe which we poffefs, there can be no doubt;
but with what we might have been, Are have no con¬
cern. As avc are, Ave knoAV perfedlly that the eye is
an inftrument of vifion, becaufe Avithout it nothing can
be feen : avc knorv alfo that the retina and optic nerves
are equally neceffary ; becaufe if they be difordered, vi¬
fion is ft ill wanting ; we know likewife, that the brain
is neceffary to all perception; becaufe, when it is difor¬
dered, thinking either entirely ceafes, or is proportion-
ably difturbed. And, laftly, We are not more certain
of our oAvn exiftenee, than that aSlual perception takes not
place but when the objedl makes an impreflion upon
fome organ of fenfe ; for when no rays of light fall up¬
on. the eye, avc fee nothing ; Avhen no fapid body is ap-
2
HYSICS. Part]
plied to the tongue and palate, avc tafte nothing ; and of
if we could be removed from every thing folid, we Perception
Avould feel nothing. Thefe are conclufions which can- ■
not be controverted. They are admitted equally by
the philofopher and by the plain unlettered man of com¬
mon fenfe; nor are they rendered one Avhit lefs certain
by our not being able to go a ftep farther, fo as to dif¬
eover in Avhat manner the brain or the affedlions of it
can be the immediate inftrument of fenfation and per¬
ception. For (as Dr Reid, in the fpirit of true philo-
fophy, obferves J), in the operations of mind, as Avell t Inquiry
as in thofe of bodies, avc mull often be fatisfied Avith into the Hu.
knowing that certain things are conneded and invari-man Min^
ably folloAv one another, without being able to difeover4th ^
the chain that goes betAveen them. It is to fuch con-11 ’
nexions that we give the name of laws of nature ; and
Avhen Ave fay that one thing produces an«ther by a Iuav of
nature, this fignifies no more than that one thing Avhich
Ave call in popular language the caufe, is conftantly
and invariably follovred by another which Ave call
the ejfe£l $ and that 4Are knoAV not how they are con¬
nected.
In the preceding feClion avc have obferved, that in
fenfation the mind exerts fome energy ; and therefore
as on. every hypothefis perception is a conlequence of
fenfation, it folloAvs, that in perception the mind
cannot be Avholly inaaive. Dr Reid, in his Effays on
the Intelledual Powers of Man, feems to affirm that it
" I fee no reafon (fays he) to believe, that in per
ception the mmd ads upon the objed. To perceive
an objed is one thing, to ad upon it is another : Nor
is the lait at all included in the firft. To fay that I
ad upon the Avail by looking at it, is an abufe of lan¬
guage, and has no meaning.” This is indeed true j
it would be a great abufe of language to fay, that by
looking at the wall a man ads upon it; but avc do not
believe that any man ever faid or fuppofed fuch a
thing. The philofophers, whofe opinion he is com¬
bating, might argue in this manner. We are confci-
ous that in perception the mind is adive ; nothing can
ad immediately Avhere it is not; the mind cannot ad
immediately upon external exillence : external exift-
ence therefore is not the immediate objed of that
energy which is exerted in perception. As Dr Reid
affirms that external exiftence is the immediate objed
of perception, he muft deny the firft propofition in
this argument ; for if it be granted, as Ate have juft
feen that in his reply to Dr Porterfield he admits the
fecond, the laws of reafoning Avill compel him to ad¬
mit the third. To fay, that in perception the mind
ads not upon external objeds, is a truth in Avhich all
mankind are agreed ; and it is the very principle from
Avhich his antagonifts infer, that the convidion of the
prefent exiftence of external objeds is not an original
and inftindive confequence of fenfation, but an early
and deep-rooted affociation Avhich may be refolved
into a procefs of reafoning. His meaning, therefore,
muft be, that in perception the mind ails not at all:
but this is diredly contrary to his definition of per¬
ception, Avhich he calls an act of the mind : it is like-
wife contrary to his theory of perception, as it is de¬
tailed in the Inquiry into the Human Mind on the prin¬
ciples of Common Senfe. We are there taught, Avith equal
elegance and perfpicuity, “ that an impreffion made by
an external objed upon the organ, nerves, and brain^
phap. I. M E T A P
Of is followed by a fenfation, and that this fenfation is
erception. f0ll0Wed by the perception of the objeft.” We are
Hkewife taught, that “ although the Peripatetics had
no good reafon to fuppofe an adtive and paffive intel-
ledt, they yet came nearer the truth, in holding the
mind to be, in fenfation, partly paffive and partly ac¬
tive, than the moderns in affirming it to be purely paf¬
five. Senfation, imagination, memory, and judgment,
have by the vulgar, in all ages, been confidered as adts
of the mind. The manner in which they are expref-
fed in all languages (hows this : for when the mind is
much employed in them, we fay, it is very adlive ^
whereas, if they were impreffions only, we ought to
fay that the mind is very paffive.” All this is unde¬
niable but if fenfation neceffarily precede perception,
and if in fenfation the mind be adlive, what becomes
of the affertion, that in perception it adls not at all ?
Indeed we may appeal to the common fenfe of man¬
kind, whether any thing can be perceived without fome
mental energy of the percipient. For when the impref¬
fions made on the external fenfes are faint, in order to
be confcious of them an evident exertion is requifite,
not of the organ only, but alfo of the mind, as in per¬
ceiving very remote objedts and founds •, but when the
impreffions are ftronger, the perception is involuntary
and unavoidable, as has been already explained in the
31 preceding fedlion.
herefore It being thus certain that in perception the mind
,e old the-a(cb and is adted upon, and it being
■ption to" acknowledged that nothing can adl where
prefer- we feel ourfelves compelled to admit with the Carte-
d to his. fians, that in perception the convidlion of the prefent
exiftence of external objedls is not original and inftinc-
tive, but the confequence of an early and unavoidable
aflbciation of certain fenfations with the caufes which
produce them. In this opinion we are flill more con¬
firmed by the vrell-known fadt, that particular preffures
upon the organ, nerves, and brain, excite not only
fenfations, but even perceptions of objedls apparently
external, when no fuch objedls are within the reach of
Hartley's 0ur fenfes. Thus §, if a man in the dark prefs either
corner of his eye with his finger, he will fee a circle
of colours like thole in the feather of a peacock’s tail,
though no fuch external objedt be before him, and
though the room be fo dark that nothing external
could poffibly be feen. Again, If a burning coal be
nimbly moved round in a circle, with gyrations conti¬
nually repeated, the whole circumference of the circle
will at once appear on fire, though it is certain that
there can be really no fire but one portion of that cir¬
cumference, equal in length to the- diameter of the
coal. Thefe are fadls known to ail mankind ; and
they are perfedlly irreconcileable with the fuppofitien,
that the perception of external objedls by the fenfe of
fight is original and inftindfive 5 but they are at once
accounted for, if it be true that rays of light falling
from external objedls upon the retina tunica agitate the
ootic nerves and brain, and that fuch agitations excite
fenfations in the mind which experience has taught us
to refer to external objedls, as, under God, their ulti¬
mate caufe.
Rut though we have declared ourfelves to be in this
inftance Cartefians, we do not admit all the abfurdi-
ties which have fometimes been imputed to that fy-
ftem of perception. We do not believe that external
umverfally
it is not,
H Y S I C S. 565
objedls are perceived by means of images of them in Of
the mind or the brain ; nor do we think that Des iF>erc^Ptl0n;
Cartes or Locke has anywhere affirmed that they are,
otherwife than by an expreffion obvioufly figurative,
denoting, not that the adlual ffiapes of things are de¬
lineated in the brain or upon the mind, but only that
impreffions of fome kind or other are conveyed to the
brain by means of the organs of fenfe and their cor-
refponding nerves 5 and that between thefe impreffions
and the fenfations excited in the mind, there is a real,
and in our prefent flate a neceffary, though unknown,
connexion. 33
Upon the whole, we think that there is good evi- That theory
dence for believing, that in perception the procefs of tairlyhated,
nature is as follows : Firji, If the objedl be not in con-aiul
tadl with the organ of fenfe, there mud be fome me¬
dium which paffes betrveen them j as, in vifion, the
rays of light; in hearing, the vibrations of elaftic air j
and in fmelling, the effluvia of the body fmelled ; other-
wife we have neither fenfation nor perception. Se¬
cond/]/, There mud be fome adlion or impreffion upon
the organ of fenfe, either by the immediate application
of the objedl, as in the two fenfes of touch and tade j or
by the medium that goes between them, as in the other
three fenfes. Thirdly, The nerves which go from the
brain to the organ, mud receive fome impreffion by
means of that which Avas made upon the organ 5 and
by means of thefe nerves that impreffion mud be car¬
ried to the brain. Fourthly, The impreffion made
upon the organ, nerves, and brain, roufes the dormant
energy of the mind j and this double adlion of the
mind and the objedl produces a fenfation. And, lajl-
ly, As wTe know by experience that the mind alone
cannot, by any exertion of its own, produce one fenfa¬
tion, and are intuitively certain that nothing can be¬
gin to exid without a caufe, we infer from the exid-
ence of any new fenfation the exidence of fome other
caufe than the internal energy of the mind, from
which that fenfation proceeds; and this caufe experi¬
ence teaches us to be the external objedl. This procefs
is carried on fo rapidly, and the feveral parts of it, by
being continually repeated, are fo clofely alfociated, that
except by a reflex adl of the mind we didinguifh them,
not from one another, and therefore we denominate the
whole perception. ^
It is ivith extreme diffidence that we advance a doc- shown to
trine Avhich Dr Reid has controverted j but he differs differ little
from us only in the lad dage § of the procefs, Avheredom Dr
he fuppofes fenfation and perception to be Iavo Ample l1cei t
and independent adts or the mind. Yet he iometimesn, into t^e
expreffes himfelf, as if he thought, as Ave do, that in Human
perception the belief of the prefent exidence of exter- Mind, 4th
nal objedls is rather the refult of experience than an6^1, P'3®3*
indindlive perfuafion. Thus, .fpeaking of the percep¬
tion Avhich Ave have in fmelling a rofe, he fays §, § ^i/piys ers
“ Perception has always an external objedl, and the^^^"
objedl of my perception in this cafe is that quality in ponV(rs 0f
the rofe Avhich I difeern by the fenfe of fmell. Obfer-Man,
ving that the agreeable fenfation is raifed Avhen the Effay ii.
rofe is near, and ceafes Avhen it is removed, I am led^P^S*
by my nature [we think by experience Avould have been‘
more proper] to conclude fome quality to be in the
rofe, which is the caufe of this fenfation. This qua¬
lity in the rofe is the objedl perceived ; and that adl
of my mind, by Avhich 1 have the convidlion and be¬
lief .
566 M E T A P
Obieds of lief ,,f tljis quality, is wliat in this cafe I call pereep-
til^Senfes.tion* ASaIn (he %s) that “ three of our fenfes, viz.
^ftnell, tafte, and hearing, originally give us only certain
fenfations, and a conviction that thefe fenfations are cc-
cafioned by fome external object. We give a name to
that quality of the objeCt by which it is fitted to pro¬
duce fuch a fenfation, and conned that quality with the
objed and with its other qualities. Thus we learn,
that a certain fenfation of fmell is produced by a rofe j
and that quality in the rofe by which it is fitted to pro¬
duce this fenfation we call the fmell of the rofe. Here
it is evident that the fenfation is original. The percep¬
tion that the rofe has that quality which we call its
fmell, is acquired.”
To this doCtrine no Cartefian could poflibly ob-
jeCt ; for it is the very account which Des Cartes
himfelf Avould have given of perception by the organ
of fmell, as it refolves fucli a perception into an early
affociation between a certain fenfation and that exter¬
nal quality from which We know by experience that
the fenfation proceeds. Indeed this excellent author
repeatedly affirms, that every different perception is
conjoined with a fenfation which is proper to it ; and
that the one is the fign, and the other the thing fig-
* °n hified. He likewife doubts *, whether children, from
the time that they begin to ufe their fenfes, make a
diflinClion between things which are only conceived
or imagined, and things which really exiif. Eut if
the convidion of the prefent exiflence of external
objeds were in perception infinciive, we cannot fee
how there could be room for fuch a doubt; for the
mere fenfes of children are as perfed as thofe of full
grown men 5 and they know well the difference be¬
tween adually fucking their nurfes and only thinking
of that operation, though they be not capable of ex-
prefiing that difference in language.
But if in perception our convidion of the prefeht
exiftence of external objeds be not in ft indive, what,
it may be afked, is the evidence that fuch objeds real-
that fome- ty exift ■ This queftion we {hall partly anfwer in the
thing exifts following fedion, and more completely when we come
befides the to examine Berkeley’s theory of the non-exiftence of
andAhe*011 matter : ^ut fr°m ^vhat has been faid already, it is fuf-
fenfation. ficiently evident, that every fenfation compels us to be¬
lieve in the prefent exiftence of fomething different
from ourfelves, as well as from our fenfations.
’ 36
the nature
the Intcl-
leciual
Powers of
Man.
34
Both theo¬
ries afford
intuitive
evidence
. 3S
Touch, the
fenfe by
which we
perceive
heat and
cold, See.
Sect. III. Of the ObjeSis of each Senfe refpeSivcly.
Hitherto we have confidered fenfation and per¬
ception in general, and fhown that it is not by inftind
that wre perceive the exiftence of external objedsi
This will appear more clearly, if tve can afeertain the
precife nature of that information which each fenfe
affords us : and in order to this, tve fhall begin with
the fenfe of touch, not only becaufe it is that which is
certainly firfl: exercifed, but alfo becaufe there is a
HYSICS. partI
meaning m which all the others may be refolved in- Objeeh
*-° the refpec]
By means of touch we perceive many things, 0f j’ve Seni'c;
which the chief are, heat and cold, hardnefs and foft
neB, roughnefs and fnioothnefs, extenfion, figure, f0.
lidity, and motion. Of thefe perceptions, fome arc ^Teat and:
immediate j and others, as we are perfuaded, early af.Cold>wM
fociations, which may be refolved into a procefs ofaT Pf-
reafoning. The perceptions of heat and cold are im-SdiatS'
mediate. When a perfon for the firft time in his life
approaches the fire, he feels heat; and when he is fii ft
expofed to the froft, he feels cold. What are heat
and cold, and where do they refide ? 'They are obvi-
oufly the reverfe of each other 5 but are they external
objefts, or mere fenfations in the mind ? They are un¬
doubtedly fenfations which have no exiftence but when
they are felt. To every man not altogether a ftranger
to thefe fpeculatiens, this prepofition is felf-evident}
but to the bulk of the people it appears an extravagant
paradox. To make it plain, however, to the meaneft
capacity, it is fufficient to obferve, that at a certain
diftance the fire has no perceptible influence upon any
perfon ; if that diftance be leflened, we feel an agree¬
able warmth 5 approach a little nearer, and the warmth
becomes difagreeable ; and ftill nearer, it will rife to
pain.. No mgji fuppofes the pain infiifted by a fword
to exift in the fword, or anywhere elfe but in a fen-
tie.nt being. It is equally abfurd to fuppofe pain to
exift in fire, or anywhere elfe but in a fentient being.
But that which at one diftance is pain, at another is
only agreeable warmth ; and fince warmth and pain
are only different degrees of the fame feeling, it is
equally abfurd to fuppofe the one as the other in the
fire. \\ iiat then is the objetft of fenfe when we feel
heat ? There is obvioully no objeft beyond the prefent
fenfation.
But has the fenfation of heat no caufe independent Tlicir'ex-
of us ? Undoubtedly it lias, and experience teaches us tcmal cau-
that the caufe is in the fire. We know that we can-fes*
not produce the fenfation of heat in ourfelves by any
mental energy of our own ; and we are intuitively cer¬
tain, that nothing can begin to exift without feme
caufe. A man on the top of a mountain covered with
fnow, may imagine or remember what he felt when in
the neighbourhood of fire, and thus have in his mind
what is called an idea of heat ; but that idea will not
Warm him (e) like the aclual fenfation, which no ex¬
ertion of his own can in fuch circumftances produce.
When he leaves the mountain, however, and approaches
the fire, he feels the fenfation adlually produced, and
produced as often as he makes the experiment. He is,
therefore, under the necefiity of inferring, that in the
fire there is fome power or quality which, adting either
mediately or immediately upon his fenfe of touch, ex¬
cites the feeling which is called heat. What that power
is, we fhall perhaps never be able to difeover ; but it is
felf-evident, that it is neither heat nor the refemblance
of
(e)  Who can hold a fire in his hand,
By thinking on the frofty Caucafus ?
Or cloy the hungry edge of appetite,
By bare imagination of a feaft ?
Or wallow naked in December’s fnow,
By thinking on fantaftic fummer’s heat ?
Oh no ! the apprehenfion of the good
Gives but the greater feeling to the worfe.
K. Richard It,
38
he per-
■ptions of
itenfion
hd figure,
,c. n@t irn
jdiate.
39
low they
re acquir-
d.
IL M E T A P
of heat, though in vulgar language it is known by that
name.
The fame reafoning holds good with refyecl to
cold. There is at certain times, and in certain coun¬
tries, fome power in the air which congeals water and
caufes cold ; but that power is as different from the
fenfation of cold, as the power of fire is different from
the fenfation of heat, or the point of a fword from a
flefli wound.
By the fenfe of touch we perceive extenfion, figure,
folidity, &c. but we do not perceive them imme¬
diately as we perceive heat and cold j for extenfion, fi¬
gure, and folidity, are not fenfation?. Thofe percep¬
tions then muff be acquired 5 and more clearly to af-
certain the manner in which we acquire them, let us
fuppofe a man from his birth deftitute of the fenfe of
fight and the power of local motion, but poffeffed of
intelleft and every other faculty which we enjoy.—
Such a perfon, it is obvious, would be capable of every
fenfation and perception which is original to us, except
the perception of colours •, but we doubt whether it
would be poflible to give him perceptions of extenfion,
figure, and folidity. Let us try j and as he cannot
move a Angle limb or member of himfelf, let us fup¬
pofe a folid fubftance of fmall dimenfions to be gently
preffed againft any part of his body ; what would fuch
preffure communicate to him ? We think it could com¬
municate nothing but a new fenfation, to which, as it
is neither pleafing nor painful, no name has hitherto
been given, except the general one of feeling. This
fenfation he would not know whether to refer to an
external or internal caufe •, or rather he could have no
notion whatever of an external caufe, though he would
at the fame time be confcious that the new fenfation
was not excited by any energy of his own will. Were
the preffure to be gradually increafed till it rofe to
pain, our blind man would ftill be confcious of nothing
but a fenfation, which could not lead him to the no¬
tion of extenfion, figure, or folidity, becaufe mere
fenfations cannot be conceived as either folid or ex¬
tended. Let us next fuppofe the preffure to be ap¬
plied fucceffively to different parts of his body \ he
would now indeed be confcious of fucceflive fenfations,
but he could not affign to them either extenfion or
place : for it lias been already fhoAvn that the external
parts of the body are not themfelves fentient *, and it
lhall be drown afterwards, that to a man who lias never
perceived motion, place is abfolutely inconceivable.
Laftly, Let us fuppofe the {Hmenfions of the preffing
fubftance to be greatly enlarged : what would then fol¬
low ? nothing, we apprehend, but an increafe of pain :
for though his whole body were preffed ah extra, the
preffure could affeft the individual being which is
fentient, not more extenfively, but only more vio¬
lently. It /appears, therefore, that a man blind from
his birth, and deftitute of the power of local motion,
could never be made to perceive extenfion, figure, or
folidity.
Let us now fuppofe this man to receive by a miracle
the ufe of his limbs, and to be fuddenly prompted, by
fome inftinfHve impulfe, to arife and walk. So long
as he met wfith no obftacle in Ins vray, he would not,
we apprehend, acquire by this exercife any correft no¬
tions of extenfion or figure •, but were a ftone or log
of wood of confiderable dimenfions to be laid acrofs
H Y s I c s. - 567
his ufual walk, the cafe would foon be altered. He Objefts of
would feel himfelf interrupted in his courfe, and he
would at the lame inftant recognize his wonted fenfa-    ^ *
tions of touch. After being twice or thrice thus in¬
terrupted, he would learn from experience that the in¬
terruption or refiftance proceeded from the fame caufe
which in this inftance communicated to him the fen¬
fation of feeling ; and were he to run his hand along
the furface of the log or ftone, he would perceive the
refiftance and the fenfation continued. As every effect
muff have an adequate caufe, this continued refiftance
would compel him to believe the continuity of fome-
thing external in every direction in which he felt his
hand refilled } but Inch continuity of being is all that
is meant by the rvord extenfion. At the very fame
time, and by the very fame means, he would gradual¬
ly acquire the perception of figure } for by running
his hand in every direction over the furtace of the ob¬
ftacle which oppofed him, he would foon perceive it
on all fides limited 5 but the limits of extenfion is a
phrafe of precifely the fame import with figure. It
appears, therefore, that without the power of local
motion, men could never, by the fenfe of touch, acquire
the notions of extenfion and figure ; and the lame will
be found to be the cafe with refpedl to hardnefs and
foftnefs. 40
When we prefs our hand gently againft; a flock or Hardnefs
a ftone, we feel a fenfation which is neither painful nd toftnefs,
nor pleafing. When we prefs it more violently, the^Jj®r'
fenfation becomes painful, and we experience in the
object a refiftance which we have not power to over¬
come. When we prefs butter or pomatum very gently,
we have a fenfation in all refpecls fimilar to that which
tve felt Avhen we gently touched the flock or the Hone.
But Avhen Ave prefs the butter with violence, avc leel no
pain, and experience little refiftance j for the parts of
Avhich it is compofed give way before the hand, though
the parts of the flock or the llone remained fixed and
immoveable. That the parts of one body Ihould thus
refift a preffure to which the parts of another fo readi¬
ly yield, mult proceed from fome difference in the
texture of the tAvo bodies : for by the fenfe of touch
Aver perceive the effedls to be different •, and are there¬
fore certain that they mull proceed either from differ¬
ent caufes, or from the fame caufe operating with
different degrees of force. That particular texture
Avhich makes the parts of a ftone refill the preffure of
touch, we call hardnefs j and the texture which makes
the parts of butter or pomatum give way to touch, Ave
call foftnefs. But Avhat hardnefs and foftnefs are in
themfelves, touch cannot inform us •, for they are nei¬
ther fenfations, nor fimilar to fenfations. We acquire,
hoivever, by experience, fo complete notions of hard¬
nefs and foftnefs, that every one who underftands the
Englilh language perfectly knows the meaning of thefe
Avords as foon as he hears them ; and Avhen he is told
that one body is hard and another foft, he knows Avith
abfolute certainty that the meaning of the aflertion is,
that the parts of the body Avhich is faid to be hard are
held together by fome unknoAvn caufe operating for¬
cibly, and that the parts of the other are held toge¬
ther by the fame or a fimilar caufe operating with lefs
force. 4-1
We acquire the notions of roughnefs and fmoothnefsRoughnefs
in the very fame way and by the very fame means thatam; finooA-
wenef<*
568
theSec- T' aC<lu!re 'deM °f 'xtenfion ;>"d %urf. To delcribe
tive Senfes. fj.16 Proce^s al- large would certainly be fuperfluous •, for
i what we have laid concerning our perceptions of ex-
tenlion and figure be juft and intelligible, every one
will, without farther alfiftance, difcover for himfelf how
lie perceives roughnefs and fmoothnefs. Motion lliall
be conlidered among the adjuncts of body ; but m
order to underftand what body itfelf is, it will be necef-
lary, before we difmifs the fenfe of touch, to inquire
how we come by the notion of folidity.
METAPHYSICS. pM. ]
and moiftened with the faliva, excite certain fenfations Obj^s J
42
Solidity, Solidity is one of thofe notions, or, in the language
howVer11 0^. ^‘oc^e> one thofe ideas, which are commonly
P ' t0 acquired by the fenfe of touch. That touch
gives, the fir it hint towards our notion of folidity, is
reived.
43
Nothing
but mere
fenfations
the objedt
of fiaeil,
44
Tafte, and
certainly truej but that hint muft be afterwards im
proved by the intellefi, or we never could have an ade¬
quate knowledge of wliat is meant when any thing is
laid to be abfolutely folid. We know by experience,
tnat we can at pleafure open and fhut our empty hand
without meeting with any refilfance. We know like-
wife, that when we grafp an ivory ball of three or four
inches diameter, no force which we can exert will bring
together the feveral parts of the hand, which were ea-
fily brought together when we grafped nothing. In
this way do we acquire our firft notion of folidity; for
that word denotes nothing more in this inftance than
the power or property of the ball, by which our
fingers are excluded from the place which it occupies.
Solidity differs from hardnefs in this refpeft, that
hardnefs refults from the flr«ng cohefion of the parts
of a hard body, which renders it difficult to change
the places of thofe parts, as they refipeft one another;
whereas folidity refpecls the whole mafs, and is as ef-
fential a quality of water as of adamant. A drop of
water, indeed, placed between two plane furfaces of
marble, will not like adamant preclude their conta£l j
becaufe the parts of a drop of water, cohering but
loofely to one another, give way to the preffure, and
efcape in every lateral diredion. But if a drop of wa¬
ter be confined on all fides, as in a globe of gold, we
know from experience that no force will bring the fides
of the globe together without forcing the water through
the pores of the metal; and hence we infer folidity to
be effential to every corporeal fubftance.
1 hus then it appears that of the objecls perceived
by touch not one is immediately perceived except heat,
cold, and other fenfations. I he ienfations, as they are
not excited by any internal energy of our own, lead us
indeed to fomething external as their caufe ; and by
comparing the different fenfations with each other, and
obferving what effeds their external caufes have upon
our own motions, wc are naturally led to conceive thefe
caufes as extended, figured, folid, hard or foft, rough
or fmooth, &c. •, but it is obvious that this conception
is the refult of experience, and a procefs of mental rea-
foning.
On the fenfes of taffe, fmell, and hearing, it is need-
lefs to fay much. The immediate objeds of thefe are
confeffedly fenfations which have no exiftence but when
they are perceived; though experience teaches us to
reier them all to external objeds as their refpedive
caufes. V> itli refped to fmell, this has been made fuf-
ficiently evident in the preceding fedion, and it is not
kb evident with refped to tafte and hearing.
Certain bodies applied to the tongue and palate,
which we call taftes. Thefe fenfations, however, are nfp^,
not in the bodies j nor can they have any exiftence buttive Senlk
in a fentient being. T hey are produced in confequence
of impulfes on the nerves of the tongue and palate,
exciting certain agitations in the brain; but the fen-
fation itfelf is neither impulfe nor agitation. Sonic
fubftances excite taftes which are agreeable, and others
fuch as are difagreeable ; and there are not a few which
excite no tafte at all. Bodies, which applied to the
tongue and palate of one man produce taftes that are
agreeable, applied to the fame organs of another man
give him taftes which are difagreeable ; and wre have all
experienced, that the fame fubftance, which, when the
organs are found, excites a fvveet or pleafant tafle,
has., when the organs were difordered, excited a tafte
which was bitter or unpleafant. Thefe fads, which
cannot be controverted, afford the fulleft evidence, if
evidence were wanted, that tafte, as we feel it, is no
quality of bodies, nor has any exiftence out of the
mind.
The organ of hearing is the and its objed is Hearln
found. It is well known, that found is produced by 3 *'
certain vibrations of the air ftriking the tympanum of
the ear, and that thefe vibrations are caufed by the
fonorous body. Sound, however, is not vibration, nor
the idea of found the idea of vibration. Sound conli¬
dered by itfelf is a mere fenfation, which can have no
exiftence but in a fentient being. We know by ex¬
perience, that it is caufed by fomething external; but
we know likewife that the effed has no refemblance
to the caufe. Previous to experience we could not
refer found to any external caufe j far lefs could we
difeern whether it proceeded from an objed above us
or below us, on our right hand or on our left. It ap¬
pears to us felf-evident, that if a man born deaf vrere
fuddenly made to hear, he would confider his firft fen¬
fation of found as originating wholly within himfelf.
Between that fenfation and the fenfations ef touch,
tafte, fmell, and fight, there is no refemblance j nor
are there any relations among them, which, previous
to experience, could induce him to trace them all to
external objeds as their feveral caufes. Our deaf man
might have learned to refer all his other fenfations to
their true caufes, in fome fuch "way as we have deferib-
ed under the fenfe of touch ; but found -would be
fomething fo new to him, and fo totally different from
touch, tafte, and fmell, that he could attribute it to
nothing external.
Experience, however, would foon teach him, thatjt ;s by ex*
the ear is its organ, and the fonorous body its caufe jptrience
and he would in time learn to diftinguilh one found, ^’e
that of a trumpet for inftance, from another, fuppofe^*^
the found of a bell j and to attribute each to its pro-foriorous
per caufe, even when neither the trumpet nor the bell bodies by
was perceived by his other fenfes. With refped to dkr re¬
founds which we have been accuftomed to hear, thisjp^ive
is done fo inftantaneoufly, that fome philofophers have
imagined it to be the effed of an inftindive principle in
our nature, totally different from experience, and inde¬
pendent of reafon. But the fad is not fo. Longbefore
xve are capable of making fenfation and perception ob¬
jeds of reftedion, we have heard the found produced by
the ringing of a bell, and feen the objed which pro¬
duced the found fo often, that, when we hear a fimilar
found
Chap-1-
M E T A P
Objefts of found again, we inftantly refer it to a bell, though we
the refpec- fee not the bell from which it proceeds : but this is the
the Senfes.e£pe(^. 0£ and not 0f inftinft. Had we never per-
' ■ ’ ceived a bell while ringing by either of our fenfes of
fight or touch, we could not by the fenfe of hearing
acquire any notion of the figure or texture of the body
from which the caufe of the found proceeds, though
we had heard that found every day of our lives.. It is,
indeed, by experience only that we learn to diftinguilh
by the ear whether a fonorous body be before or be¬
hind us, on our right hand or on our left •, for we find
it always difficult to fay from what precife quarter a
ftrange found proceeds j and this difficulty would be
heightened to impoffibility, had not all founds fome-
thing in common. Ur Sparrman relates, that when he
firft heard the roaring of a lion, he did not know on
what fide of him to apprehend danger, as the found
feemed to proceed from the ground, and to enclofe a
circle of which he and his companions flood in the cen¬
tre. The fame thing has happened to every man, when
the found was fuch as he had never heard before ; even
though it wTas neither fo loud nor fo terrific as the
roaring of a lion in a defert wildernefs : but with re-
fpetfl to founds which we are daily hearing on each
fide of us, we foon learn to diflinguiffi with tolerable
accuracy whether they be before or behind us, above
or below, on our right hand or on our left. All this,
however, is the effeft, not of inftinfl, but of experience
improved into habit.
Sight ori- Sight is juftly confidered as the nobleft and moft
ginally per- comprehenfive of all our fenfes. The reafon is obvi-
ceivei no- ous . for w]ien a full grown man opens his eyes, he
coloursUt perceives houfes, trees, rivers, the earth, fun, and moon,
which are &c. and to each of thefe objefts belong figure, exten-
mere fenfa-fion, colour, &c. which are all perceived inftantly by
lion*. means of this fenfe. Yet it is certain, that the fenfe
of fight does not originally communicate to us fo many
perceptions j and there is abundant evidence, that
an infant cannot at firft, or for fome "weeks after its
birth, diftinguifh by vifion one objeft from another.
Colour is the proper objeft of fight, and for fome time
its only objeft •, but colour as perceived by us is a mere
fenfation, which can have no exiftence but in a fentient
being. If this propofition flood in need of proof,
we might obferve that there are men, and even whole
families, who poffefs the fenfe of fight in a degree of
perfeftion fufficient for all the purpofes of life, and yet
cannot diftinguifh certain colours from each other;
blue, for inftance, from green, or perhaps from red :
and there is no man who can diftinguiffi between fome
particular (hades of blue and green by the feeble light
of a candle. Were colours the real qualities of body,
this miftake of one for another could never be experi¬
enced. No man who poffeffes the fenfe of touch ever
confounded hardnefs with foftnefs, a fpherc with a
cube, or an ell with an inch. The reafon is, that
hardnefs and foftnefs, figure and extenfion, are the
qualities of things external 5 whereas colour being a
mere fenfation, is nothing but an affection or modifi¬
cation of the fentient being. But it is obvious, that
fentient beings, according as they differ from one an¬
other, may be differently affected by the fame exter¬
nal caufe ; fo that one man may perceive that to be
green which all other men perceive to be blue. The
immediate external caufe of the fenfation of colour, is
VOL. XIII. Part II.
H Y S I C S. 5C9
the rays of light reflected from the body, which in Objeasof
common language is faid to be coloured. Thefe rays ^
falling upon the pupil of the eye, are refrafled differ-
ently, according as their incidence is more or lefs
oblique, into points on the retina, where they form
a picture of the external object j and from the pic¬
ture, by means of the optic nerve, is communicated to
the brain fome impulfe or agitation, which produces
vifion or the perception of colour. As rays of light
are corporeal fubftances, it is obvious that they can aft
upon body only by impulfe , but between impulfe and
the various fenfations of red, green, blue, &c. there is
no refemblance. For the laws of redeftion and refrac¬
tion, and for the ftrufture of the eye, fee Optics and
Anatomy. That which we have to inquire into at
prefent is, howr we learn, by means of the fenfe of fight,
to perceive the figure, magnitude, motion, and diftance
of external objefts, or indeed to diftinguiih one objeft
from another.
A ray of light proceeding, as all rays do, in a ftraight
line, muft, however great its length, affeft the eye,
retina, and optic nerve, as if it were a Angle point.
From this obvious and undeniable faft, Bifhop Berkeley
predifted *, that a man born blind, who Ihould be fud- * TLJay to-*
denly made to fee, would at firft perceive nothingnvard*c’r^
without him, would dittinguiffi neither the diftance,
fize, figure, nor fituation, of external objefts ; that he J
would only fee in his eyes themfelves, or, to fpeak
more properly, would only experience new modifica¬
tions in his mind, until joining touch to Jight, he form¬
ed thus a communication with the external world,
and learned, by the fimultaneous exercife of the two
fenfes, that natural language in which the vijible is the
fign of the tangible. This truth, which was difcover-
ed by the bifhop merely by contemplating in his own
mind the nature of fenfation and the known laws of
optics, after having been laughed at for more than 20
years as one of the many dreams of a vifionary genius,
was completely confirmed by the cafe of the famous
patient whom Chefelden cured of a cataraft ', and that
too, though the cataraft does not produce total blind-
nefs : which makes it evident, that the firft vifual per¬
ceptions of the patient after his recovery could not be
wholly new and unmixed. It may indeed be confirm¬
ed at any time by a Ample experiment made upon an
infant. For feveral weeks after birth, a child (huts
not its eyes upon the fudden approach of an objeft
to them, nor (hows the leaft fymptom of diftinguifh-
ing one diftance from another •, and it is eafy by a
little attention to obferve, how it gradually learns to
diftinguifh objefts at greater and greater diftances.
Indeed colour, or the immediate objeft of fight, be¬
ing a mere fenfation or affeftion of the mind, can
have no natural relation whatever to any thing ex¬
ternal. ... 4*
It is plain, therefore, that diftance is in its own na-Perception
ture imperceptible to the eye, and yet it is often per-of diftance
ceived by fight. How is this done ? We think, in^1^*
the following manner. Uiifance is one mode of
tenfion, which, we have already feen, is perceived by
means of touch. Of ftiort diftances, our firft ideas are
doubtlefs acquired by the ftretching out and drawing
back of our arms •, and thofe ideas are foon fo conneft-
ed with certain fenfations which we have in aftual
vifion, that the latter inftantly fuggefts the former.
4 C Thus,
57°
metaphysmc S. p....,
ite're^pec! i'1 's a ,aa ^.no'™ experience, that when a cube and another a fpliere ; and'fimlmp our r™f,. . '
>™ denies. ?' bok f » “ar objea with both ey«, accordin«r a, fight differently affefted by ’the fquare aidetcfe “-tf
   X tliClL W I1C/I1
a near object with both eye?, according as
it approaches or recedes from us, we alter the difpofi
tion of our eyes, by leffening or widening the interval
between the pupils. This difpofition os turn of-the
eyes, is attended with a fenfation of which every man
is confcious at the time of vifion ; and this fenfation
teems to us to be that which in this cafe fuggefts
the idea oi greater or lels ditlance to the mind. Not
that there is any natural or neceffury connexion be¬
tween the fenfation of which we are confeious,, and
greater or has diilance j for the fenfation is wholly in¬
ternal, and the dhtance is external. But becaufe the
mind has, by conftant experience, found the different
fe mat ions occa/ioned by different diipofitions of the
. eyes to correfpond, to different degrees of diftance in
the objea, there has grown a habitual or cuftomary
connexion between thofe fenfations and the notions
of greater or iefs diftance. So that the mind no foon-
er perceives the fenfation arifing from the different
turn it gives the eyes in order to bring the pupils
nearer or farther afunder, than it is inftantly impreffed
■with a eeitain notion of the diftance which was wont
to be eonnefted with that fenfation. Again, An objea
placed at a certain diftance from the eye, to which the
breadth of the pupil bears a fenfible proportion, be¬
ing made to approach nearer, is feen more confufed-
ly } and the nearer it is brought, the confufton is al¬
ways the greater. The reafon of all this is known
to every optician : but it being conftantly experienced
by thofe who never dipt into optics, there arifes in the
mind of every man a habitual connexion between the
feveral degrees of confufion and diftance, the greater
confufton ft ill implying the lefs diftance, and the lefs
confufion the greater diftance. It is of no avail to
fay, that between confufed viiion and diftance, great
or fmrdl, there is no neceffary conneftion : for there
is as little connexion between a blufh in the face and
the mental feeling of fliame j and yet no fooner does a
man of obfervation perceive that particular colour in
the face of another, than it fuggefts to him the notion
oi that feeling or paffion with which he has conftantly
obferved it accompanied.
In thefe ways, however, we perceive only fmall di-
ftances. Of diftances more remote our judgment is
formed from other data 5 and happily thefe data are
not j.ar to feek. It is a fa£t known to every man who
is not totally ignorant of the faience of optics, that a
greater number of rays fall upon the eye when reflefr-
ed from a body near at hand, than can fall from the
lame body at a diftance ; and as thofe rays operate by
impulfe, it is felf-evident that the impreflion muft be
ftronger, and of courfe the fenfation or colour more
vivid, when the body is near than when it is diftant.
Now having acquired the notion of the true diftance
of objefls by motion and the fenfe of touch, and find¬
ing by uniform experience, that as they are near or far
off, the fenfation or colour which they excite in the
mind through the organ of vifion is more or lefs vivid,
thofe degrees of fenfation come to be fo clofely affocia-
ted with the rtfpeclive diftances of the object, that the
4? one inftantly fuggefts the other.
How figure It is juft fo that we perceive figure by fioht. Ha-
n perceived ving experienced by the fenfe of touch that one fur-
y ght* face is a fquare and another a circle, that one body is
, , . ^ luc circle.v ^
by the cube and the fphere ; thefe different affe&ionsdve Senfe5*
come to be fo clofely connected in our minds with the    
figures of the refpedive bodies, that long before we
are capable of reafoning on the fubjecl the one is never
prefent to. us without fuggefting the other. Nay fo
complete in this cafe is the connexion or affociation,
that we cannot even in idea abltraft the colour from
the figure j though it is certain that colour is a mere
ienfation, and .figure an external quality ; that colour
alone 13 immediately perceivable by the eye, and the no¬
tion of figure fuggefted by the colour. We are aware
that it has been affirmed, and affirmed with great vehe-
mence, that figures of two dimenfions are immediately
perceived by the eye, and perceived with greater ac¬
curacy than, by the fenfe of touch. But they who in-
fift upon this doftrine affirm likewife, contrary to ex-
peritmee and the cleareft reafoning, that the immediate
objects of fight are external, and that colour is a qua¬
lity of bodies. In the arguments too by which they
fupport their hypothefis, they feem to confound fight
as an affe&ion of the mind, with the pifrure on the
bottom of the eye, as if the retina were the fentient be¬
ing ; whereas the retina and pifrure are no more than
inftruments of lenfation. It is indeed a fa<ft, that the
picture has the fame figure nearly with the plane of
the object which is prefented to the eye ; as when the
objeft is a fphere, the pifrure is a circle varioufly ftiad-
ed in colour. It is likewife a faft, that the pifrure
is enlarged, in proportion as the objefr is brought near,
and diminiffied as it is carried to a diftance. But
thefe fa&s are known only to perfons {killed in optics;
and therefore it is evident, that though calculations
may be railed from them by mathematicians to deter¬
mine the diftance and figure of external objedfs, they
cannot poflibly be the data from which diftance and
figure are inferred by the vulgar, who know not that
fuch piftures on the retina exift. Befides all this, it
is univerfally known, that a painter, by laying on’his
colours properly, can make a plain fquare furface ap¬
pear to the eye in certain pofitions as an oblong or as
a cube, and a plain circular furface as a concave or a
convex hemifphere. But not one of thefe things could
poflibly be done,, were figure, or indeed any thing elfe
than colour, the immediate objefl of vifion.
As wre fee diftance and figure, fo we fee magnitude : ^ 1
and we. fee both in the fame way that we fee ftiame or MaSmtudcv
anger in the looks of a man. The impreflion made
upon the bottom of the eye by rays refledled from a
large magnitude, muft neceffarily be different from the
impreflion made by rays reflected from a magnitude
that is lefs. This is felf-evident j and fince the im¬
preflion ab extra is in fome way or other the caufe of
that fenfation, which is all of which we are originally
confcious in vifion, it is obvious that the fenfation,
like every other effeft, muft correfpond to the caufe
from which it pioceeds. Being therefore confcious of
different fenfations y and having, at an earlier period
tiian we diftinctly remember, learned by experience to
refer them to different magnitudes j no fooner is each
fenfation excited than it fuggefts the notion, or, if you
pleafe, the perception, of that magnitude with which
it is connefted. So completely is this affociation fixed
in the mind, that when we look at a known objeiff, its
real
Chap. IT.
Objects ot real magnitude appears to be as inftantly obferved as
the rtHpec- jtg C()lourj whilft Ave hardly attend at all to the par-
tr/e'Seiile-. ).jcuiarJty 0£ tlie fenfation by which the magnitude is
v fuggefted. It is, indeed, cuftomary Avith Avriters on
optics to diftinguilh between tangible and Aufible mag¬
nitude, as if any kind of magnitude Avere the immedi¬
ate objeft of vifion : but this is not fo : for magnitude is
fomething external, Avhereas the immediate object of
vilion is a mere fenfation. What has introduced into
fcience this mode of fpeaking is the iollowing fa£t,
that as avc approach a diftant obje£t it appears to the
eye larger and larger every Hep, and lefs and lefs as avc
recede from it ; Avhereas the tangible magnitude of an
obje£t is always the fame. The reafon of this apparent
change of magnitude to the eye, according to the dif-
tance at which any particular object is vieAved, is, that
from a near obje£t rays of light fall in greater numbers
and more diverging than from the fame object vieAved
at a didance. This of courfe alters the nature of the
vilible fenfation : each common fenfation is in the mind
clofely linked Avith a particular notion of magnitude ;
and by the exercife of fight and touch Ave have learned
from experience, that the particular fenfation caufed by
diverging rays mull be referred to a larger magnitude
than that Avhich is caufed by parallel rays proceeding
from the fame diftance.
Upon the whole, then, Ave think ourfelves entitled
to conclude, that the proper and original objects of
kind of na- vjfion conftitute an univerfal language of the Author
of Nature, by which we are inflructed how to regu¬
late our a£tions, in order to attain thofe things that
are neceflary to the prefervation and AArell-being of our
bodies, as alfo to avoid svhatever m&y be hurtful or
defiru&ive to them. It :s principally by the informa¬
tion of this language that we are guided in all the tranf-
aftions and concerns of life : And the manner in Avhich
it fignifies and marks to us the obie&s which are at a
diftance, is fimilar to that of languages and figns of hu¬
man appointment, which do not fuggeft the things
fignified by any likenefs or identity of nature, but
only by a habitual connexion, which experience has
made us to obferve, betAveen them. This language
of the eye, like the language of the tongue, fuggefts
by one fenfation what may be refolved into a variety
of perceptions. A tree is compofed of a trunk,
branches, leaves *, it has colour, figure, fize ; and all
thefe things are at once fuggefted to the mind by the
tAVo Avords fpreading oak. Juft fo it is Avith refpeft to
vifion : the fenfation received by the eye fuggefts at
once the trunk, branches, leaves, colour, figure, and fvze
of the oak, and fuggefts them all as the qualities of one
objeft.
METAPHYSICS.
ance which we call white,
571
SI „
Vifible fen.
fations a
rural lan
guage,
Senfations
and percep¬
tions re-
main for a
very fliort
time after
the remo¬
val o) their
objedts.
* Hartley
Mau.
Chap. II. 0/" Retention Ideas.
From the experiment Avith the burning coal men¬
tioned in N° 31. it is apparent, the fenfations excited
through the eye, together Avith their correfponding
perceptions, remain in the mind for a Ihort time after
the external exciting caufe is removed. The fame
thing appears from another experiment Avhich Avas firft
made by Sir Ifaac Newton, and which every man may
repeat for his own fatisfaftion. It is univerfally knoAvn*,
that a proper mixture of the feven original colours, red,
yellow, green, blue, &c. conftitutes that uniform appear-
But Avhen thefe colours Fetentioa
are made to pafs in a rapid confecution before the eye, .‘trta ;cc iSv.
they excite the very fame perception as AA'hen they are
properly mixed, Avhich is a iatisfadlory proof that the
impreffion made by each feparate colour remains in the
brain until a revolution of all the colours be com¬
pleted 5 for nothing but the impreffion of all the co¬
lours at once can produce the fenfation and perception
of white. Indeed no perfon capable of paying the
proper attention to thefe things, can keep his eye nxed
upon a luminous objeft, and atierAvards Ihut it, Avithout
experiencing that the fenfation and perception remain
for fome time after the external object is Unit out, and
that they go off gradually till they leave behind them
the mental appearance, which is properly called an idea
of the obje£l.
The fame continuance of the fenfation after the re¬
moval of its caufe is equally obfervable in the fenfe of
hearing ; for every found Avhieh Ave hear is reflected
by the neighbouring bodies; and therefore conlifts in
reality of a variety of founds fucceeding each other at
different diftanees of time, according to the diftances of
the feveral reflefting bodies. Yet this caufes no con-
fufion or apparent complexity of found, unlefs AA'hen the.
diftance of the reflefting bodies is very confiderable, as
in fpacious buildings.
With refpedt to the continuance of the fenfation o£
touch, doubts have been ftarted ; but for thefe there
is as little room as for doubting the continuance of the
fenfations of feeing and hearing. The continuance of
heat after the heating body is removed, and of the-
fmart of a Avound after the initant of infiidtion, are
proofs that every fenfation of touch does not vanilh
with its caufe. A man unufed to the motion of a
ftiip or a coach, after having been a day at fea or on
the road, feels or imagines he feels the rolling of the
fliip or the jolting of the coach after he is in bed and
actually at reft. Of thefe faffs AAre knoAV not what
other account can be given, than that the agitation in
the brain, Avhich is the immediate caufe of the fenfa¬
tion of touch, remains for fome time after the external
caufe of the agitation is removed.
As to the fenfes of tafte and fmell, Dr Hartley
feems to think that there is no clear and direff evi¬
dence for the continuance of their fenfations after their
proper objefls are removed : but in this inftance the in¬
genious author does not do juftice to h’s oavo theory.
Let any man eat onions, garlic, or any other thing of
a very pungent tafte, and immediately Avafti his mouth
with frelh Avater, fo that he may be fure no part of •
the fapid body remains on his tongue or palate. Ac¬
cording to this doffrine, the tafte of the onion or garlic
ffiould inftantly vaniffi with its objefl ; but the facl is
otherAvife. Whoever (hall make the experiment, Avill
find the fenfation to remain a confiderable time 5 not
indeed in its original force, but weakened no more
than Avhat it muft neceffarily be by the introduffion of
a nerv fenfation excited by the Avater. It is more diffi¬
cult to afeertain the permanency of fmell : but analogy
inclines us to belnwe, that in this particular it refembles
the other fenfes, though we knoAV not horv to direft the
reader to an experiment Avhich Avill give him abfulute
convidtion.
Whether the caufe of thefe continued fenfations, af¬
ter the removal of their objedts, be in the brain alone,
4 C 2 in
572
Retention
and Ideas.
53
Hence we
have that
power or
faculty cal¬
led me¬
mory. •
* See An
E-ffay on
the Reduc¬
tion of the
Faculties
of the
JMind, by
j\I. Schwab.
t 54.
1 he opi¬
nions of phi-
lofophers
reipecling
memory.
55 .
'Hie eri-
pateties and
Platomlts
M E T A P
in the mind alone confidered as an immaterial being,
- or ln both together, is of very little importance •, be¬
came, taking the mind and its internal organs as one
metaphysical ’whole *, it matters not to our prefent in¬
quiry, where this retentive power refides, as long as
it can be proved to exift within us: for it feetns evi¬
dent, that what has the faculty of retaining a fenfa-
tion when no longer acted upon by the objeft which
excited it, muft alfo have a power to preferve the
veftiges of that fenfation even after the fenfation itfelf
ftiall be entirely obliterated. This is in faft the cafe
with the mind. When an objeft which we have once
perceived is moft remote from our thoughts, we are
certain that there is within us a capacity, difpofition,
tendency, or power, by which a reprefentation of that
objedt may be at any time revived and prefented to the
intellefh i hus the fame inherent power of the mind
and its. internal organs, which retains a fenfation and
perception in the abfence of the object by which they
were excited, can alfo reproduce that perception, or
bring into.the view of the intelleft fomething exaaiy
fimilar to it. The. reproduction will not indeed be fo
lively, as the original perception when accompanied
wuh its correfponding fenfation, becaufe fenfation and
adual perception are affeaed by a double caufe, the
aaion of the external objea upon the organ, nerves,
and brain, and the correfponding energy of the mind
or fentient principle j whereas, in the reproduaion,
the mind feems to aft folely by its own power, and
certainly without the alhltance of external objeas.
This reproduaive power is commonly called memory.
By many of the ancient pliilofophers, and by M.
Schwab, with one or two others among the moderns,
it is called imagination. We do not choofe either to
revive antiquated modes of expreffion, or to introduce
innovations of our own j but as we cannot difapprove
of the ancient phrafeology, after the definitions which
the reader will by and by find of imagination, memory,
and recolleShon, as given by Mr Harris, we have pre¬
fixed to this chapter the general title of retention, which
comprehends them all.
When one recals an objea of fight by the power of
memory, it appears to him precifely the fame as in the
original furvey, only lefs diftina, and with a convic¬
tion (which.is perhaps the refult of experience) that
the real objea is not immediately before him. How
is an objea recalled by the power of memory ? Does
the man endeavour to form in his mind a piaure or
reprefentative image of the objea ? Let us Men to
the anfwers given by different philofophers to this
queftion.
J lie fentiments of the Peripatetics, as expreffed by
Alexander Aphrodiftenfis, one of the earlieft commenta¬
tors on Arijlotle, are thus tranfiated by Mr Harris in
his Hermes.—“ Now, what fancy or imagination is,
we may explain as follows: We may conceive to be
formed within us, from the operation of the fenfes
about fenfible objeas, feme impreffion (as it were),
HYSICS. Part!.
or piaure in our original fenforium, being a relia of Retention
that motion caufed within us by the external objea ; aad Ideas,
a relia which, when the external objea is no longer
prelent, remains, and is dill preferved, being as it were
its image ; and which, by being thus preferved, be¬
comes the caufe of our having memory. Now fuch
a fort of relidt, (and as it were) impreffion, they call
fancy or. imaguiation (e).” paifiage from Alci-
NOUS of the doBrines of Plato, as rendered into Eng-
lifli by Dr Reidf, Ihows that, in this theory, as in that f Effkyt 0n
or perception, the Platonifts agreed with the Peri-tf}e in tel.
patetics. “ When the form or type of things is im- le®Ual
printed , on the mind by the organs of the fenfes S*"" ^
and fo imprinted as not to be deleted by time, but ^
preferved firm and lading, its prefervation is called
memory P
Mr Harris, who was deeply read in the ancient
philosophy, and who confidered the authority of Ari-
llotle and Plato as fuperfeding all reafoning and all
inquiry, after judly obferving, that if the foul had no
other faculties than the fenfes, it could never acquire
the. lead idea of time, thus expreffes himlelf on the
fubjeft before us : “ But, happily for us, we are not
deferted here. We have, in the fird place, a faculty
called imagination ox fancy ; which, however, as to its
energies it may be fubfequent to fenfe, yet is truly prior
to it both in dignity and ufe. This it is which retains
the feeling forms of things, when things themfelves are
gone, and allfenfution is at an end. 1 hat this faculty,
however connedted with fenfe, is dill perfedly differ¬
ent, may be feen from hence. We have an imagination
of things that are gone and extindl; but no fuch things
can be made objedts of fenfation. We have an ealy
command over the objedls of our imagination, and can
call them forth in almod what manner we pleafe ; but
our fenfations are neceffary when their objedls are pre¬
fent, nor can we controul them but by removing either
the objedls or ourfelves. As wax would not be ade¬
quate to its bufinefs of iignature, had it not a power
to retain, as well as receive ; the fame holds of the
soul, with refpedl to fenfe and imagination. Sense is
its receptive power : imagination its retentive. Had
it fenfe without imagination, it would not be as wax
but as water; where, though all impreffions maybe in-
dantly made, yet as foon as made they are entirely lod.
-L hus then, from a view of the two powers taken toge¬
ther, we may call sense (if we pleafe), a kind of tran-
fient imagination ; and imagination, on the contrary,
a kind of permanent fenfe."1'1
. Great part of the office which is here given to ima- diftinfuitfi
gmation, is in common Englilh attributed to me-properly
mory ; but between thefe two faculties, as well as be-t>etween
tween them and recolledlion, the author accurately
didinguiffies thus “ When we view fome reliB of^mow
fenfation repefed within us, without thinking of its rife, &c. ’
or referring it to anyfenfble obj-eB, this is FANCY or IMA¬
GINATION. When we view fome fuch reliB, and re¬
fer it withal to that fcnfble objeB which in timepaf was
its
(R) I he original is as follows : H « (puflamu. uh *v yvcgarcapu hi vow tv t*v t»v tip,
TIC UlThTCC, CIO, TV7TQV TIM tv TCO TC^*, «,CT0„T^«, tyxetlxXtlftfCX Tl OVT. TOO Xlcijl'V yi,6Utm »
prxir, T*V X^TOV viropmi rt c^txi, cv ^tg t,*»v xvlco, cv xxi t* *uiv rxfopiw xfoov ym™
TO toiooIo) tyKxlxteipux, KXI Toy ToiovToy WTTtg TV?™, (pxylxrw xxXoviw. Alex. Aphrod. de Ammo, p. 135. Edit. Aid,
Chap. II. _ M E T A P
Retention its cauje and original, this is MEMORY. Laftly, the
and Ideas. rocul which /eads to memory through a fcries of ideas
'V"--' however connecied, whether rationally or cafually, this
is recolleftion.”
Db’e it ions Of this theory we {hall only remark, that if we could
to their underftand the words picture and form in a metaphori-
iheory. cal fenfe, as candour obliges us to underhand Locke’s
images in the mind, the doctrine of Alexander Aphro-
difenfis would be very little wide of the truth. Ex¬
perience teaches as that memory as well as perception
depends upon the hate of the brain } and as it is unde¬
niable, that when a man to-day contemplates an objedt
which he perceived yefterday, or at any former period,
he has a view of it in all refpedts fimilar to the original
perception, only fainter and lefs diltincl, it is extremely
probable, that an impreflion, ab extra, which produces
a fenfation and perception, leaves behind it fome ten¬
dency in the brain, to vibrate as in the adlual fenfa¬
tion, and that this tendency is carried into effeB by the
internal energy of the mind itfelf. But in the Peri¬
patetic philofophy, pi&ures and forms in the fenforium
were conlidered as real things, and Ly no means as me¬
taphorical expreflions. This is evident from their be¬
ing conftantly compared to the impreflion of a feal up¬
on wax, and from their converting the materia prima
from fomething, which can neither be feen nor felt,
into vifible and tangible body, of which we {hall treat
afterwards. Now it being certain that on a being im¬
material, no corporeal form can be impreffed, and re¬
peated difledlions having Ihown that no fuch forms are
in faft impreffed on the brain, this whole theory is at
once overturned.
Locke’s Modern philofophers having denied that there are
dodrine real images or forms in the mind during the imme-
conceming aft of perception, cannot confidently with them-
memory. felves agm;t fuch images in the aft of retention, or
when thofe things which were formerly objefts of
perception are recalled to the mind by the power of
memory. IVXr Locke’s doftrine is, that the mind
retains thefe fimple ideas which it firft received from
fenfation or refleftion, two ways : firft, by keeping the
idea, which is brought into it, for fome time aftually
in view, which is called contemplation : and fecond-
ly, by the power which we have to revive again in
our minds thofe ideas, which, after imprinting, have
difappeared, or have been, as it were, laid out of
fight 5 as when we conceive heat or light, yellow or
fweet, the objeft being removed. This (he fays) is
memory } Avhich is, as it were, the ftorehoufe of our
* Iflay, ideas *.
book ii.’ To explain this more fully, he immediately adds the
«hap. io. following obfervation :—“ But our ideas being no¬
thing but aftual perceptions in the mind, which ceafe
to be any thing when there is no perception of them,
this laying up of our ideas in the repofitory of the
memory, fignifies no more than this, that the mind
has a power in many cafes, to revive perceptions
which it has once had, with this additional percep¬
tion annexed to them, that it has had them, before.
And in this fenfe it is, that our ideas are faid to be
in our memories, when indeed they are aftually no¬
where •, but only there is an ability, in the mind, when
it will, to revive them again, and, as it were, paint
them anew on itfelf, though fome with more fome
with lefs difficulty, fome more lively and others more
*
H Y SICS. 57
obfcurely. And thus it is, by the affiftance of this Retention
faculty, that we are faid to have all thofe ideas in our ,and 1 eat,<
underftandings, which, though we do not aftually con¬
template them, yet we can bring in fight, and make
appear again, and be the objefts of our thoughts, with¬
out the help of thofe fenfible qualities which firlt im¬
printed them there.”
To attempt a defence of the accuracy of this lan¬
guage would be vain ; but as the author’s meaning is
iufficiently obvious, his expreflions may be eafily and
certainly correfted. Had Locke faid—“ But our
ideas being nothing but fcenes or appearances in the
mind, which ceafe to be any thing when there is no
perception of them, this laying up of our ideas in the
repofitory of the memory fignifies no more but this,
that the mind has a power, in many cafes, to revive
fcenes which it has once viewed, with this additional
perception annexed to them, that it has viewed them
before j” there would have been no room for the many
petulant remarks which have been made upon the paf-
fage. . 59
But againft this account of memory, a much heavier obje&ed te.
charge has been brought than that which regards the
propriety of the language. It has been faid, that the
additional perception, wdrich, according to Locke, at¬
tends the revival of our ideas by the power of me¬
mory, “ would be a fallacious perception, if it led
us to believe that we had them before, fince they can¬
not have two beginnings of exiftence : nor can we
believe them to have two beginnings of exiffence vie
can only believe that we had formerly ideas or percep¬
tions very like to them, though not identically the
fame.” Let us examine this queftion fomewhat nar¬
rowly : for if it be really true, that in the fenfe in
which the word fame is here ufed, we cannot twice
contemplate the fame idea, all confidence in memory
would feem to be at an end. 6o
Suppofe a man to Hand on fome of the rifing The 0kj?G-
grounds about Edinburgh, the Caltonhill for inftance, V1*
and from that eminence to view the glorious profpeft
of the coafl: of Fife, the ocean, the frith of Forth,
and the little iflands {battered in the frith. Let him
go away, and return next day to the fame place, and
look the fame way : we would alk whether he has
the fame view or perception which he had the day be¬
fore ? The man muff furely be very captious who
would fay that he has not: and yet it is certain that the
energy of mind by which he perceives on one day can¬
not be identically the fame with that by which he
perceived on another j nor are the rays of light which
fall upon his eyes on the fecond day, identically the
fame with thofe which fell upon his eyes and occa-
fioned vifion on the firft day. Let the fame man now
{hut his eyes, and contemplate the various objefts at
which he had been juft looking. They will appear
to him in all refpefts the fame as when viewed by
means of his organs of fight, only fainter and lefs di-
ftinft, with this additional conviftion, that the imme¬
diate objefts of his prefent contemplation are not real
external things, but ideas or mental reprefentations of
thofe things which had fo lately been the objefts of his
fight. Let him think no more about the matter for
fome days, and then exert his powers of memory. We
have no hefitation to fay, that in the fenfe of the word
fame, as ufed by Mr Locke, the very fame ideas will
recur-
Lj
57+ M E T
ISZ Jecur "nd be to his intellect which
A P H Y S I C S.
Tlie opi¬
nion of
■Hume.
f . i   “i-> “I'-'-iicct. tvniun were pre-
^ lent to it at the former contemplation. The fecond
energy or memory or imagination, or whatever it may
be called, is not indeed identically the fame with the
r, ’ 111’f ,s_ that agitation or motion, or whatever
-other. affe6hon of the brain is neceffary to memory,
identically the fame at the fecond time as at the firft •
-but the mind exerting itfelf in the very fame manner
at the one time as at the other, produces the fame
kind of agitation in the brain, and is itfelf affected in
the very lame way at the fecond as at the firft exer-
•tion Whence it follows, that the fecond idea/ feene
will be as much the fame with the firft, as the fecond
perception is the fame with the firft; and the two
ideal feenes,. and the two adlual perceptions, arc re-
ipe tvely faid to be the fame with each other, only
became they imprefs the mind with a conviction that
they were occafioned by the fame external objects.
But though we think Locke’s doftrine, with re-
ipe& to memory, may be thus eafily vindicated from
the cnarge of fallacioufnefs, we muft acknowledge that
to us it appears not to be of much value. It teaches
nothing, but that the mind has a powrer to retain ideas
of thole objefrs which it formerly perceived, and in
many inftances to recal them as occafion may require.
But thefe are truths known to all mankind, to the
clown as well as to the philofopher.
Philofophers in general have paid lefs regard to the
retentive faculties, of the mind than to its original
powers of perception. Perhaps they imagined, °that
as memory depends upon perception, and in fome re-
fpefts appears to refemble it, a competent knowledge
of the nature of the former faculty would lead to that
of the fecond. Be this as it may, Mr Hume, who was
at fome pains to detail his notions of perception, has
in his Philofophical Eflays only dropt concerning me¬
mory and imagination a few hints, fo loofely thrown
together, that, if lie had not elfewhere exprelfcd him-
lelf with more precifion, it would have been difficult
to difeover his real meaning. According to him, that
which is commonly called the perception of an external
objeEi, is nothing but a ftrong impreffion upon the
mind ; and that which is called the remembrance of a
pafl object, is nothing but a prefent impreftion or idea
weaker, than the former. Imagination is an idea weak-
er than the idea or impreffion which he calls memory.
This fee ms to be a wonderful abufe of language. Im-
preffions are not perceptions ; and, if poffible, they can
ftill .lefs be called ideas, which are but fecondary per¬
ceptions.. It is likewife far from being true, that an
idea of imagination .has neceffarilv lefs vivacity than
an idea of memory. We have feen Mr Hume, and
have at the prefent moment an idea of his form and
drefs : we can likewife imagine to ourfelves a centaur j
and though a centaur was. never feen, and therefore
Part I
cannot be an imprejfion repeated by memory, our idea of Retention
the monfter rs much more lively and diitind than that and Ideas
ot the philoiopher. u—
Dr Held having obferved of memory that it is bynf n*
it we have an immediate knowledge of things paft : Reid
that ,t molt have an objeft ; that in thi, retpVit
grees with perception, but differs from fenfation, which tbe Int(l-
has no objed but the feeling itfelf j and that every ^
man can diihnguifh the thing remembered from thc.STm 0/
remembrance of it—proceeds to inquire what memory
is. And, “ Iirft (fays he), I think it appears that
memory is an original faculty given us by the Author
or our being of which we can give no account but
that we are to made. The knowledge (continues lie)
which I have of things paft by my memory, feems to
me as unaccountable as an immediate knowledge would
beof things to come (f) ; and I can give no reafon
why 1 fhould have the’one and not the other, but that
fuch is the will , of my Maker. I find in my mind a
diftma-conception and a firm belief of a feries of paft
events ; but how this is produced I know not. I call
it memory ; but t’ is is only giving a name to it : it is
not.an account of its caufe. I believe moft firmly what
I diftindly remember;, but I can-give no reafon of this
belief. It is the infpiration of the Almighty which
gives me this underftanding. When I believe the truth
of. a mathematical axiom or of a mathematical propo-
fition, I fee that it muft be fo : every man who has the
fame conception of it fees the fame. There is a ne-
ceffary and..an evident connexion between the fubjeft
and the predicate of the propofition ; and I have all
the evidence to fupport my belief which I can poffibly
conceive. When I believe that I waflied my hands and
face this morning, there appears no neceffity in the
truth of the propofition. It might be or it might not
be. . A man may diftinftly conceive it without be¬
lieving it at all. How then do I come to believe it?
I remember it diftinftly. This is all I can fay. This
remembrance is an a& of my mind. Is it impoffible
that this aft fhould be, if the event had not happened ?
I confefs I do not fee any neceffary connexion, be¬
tween the one and the other. If any man can fhow
fi-ch a neceffary connexion, then I think that belief
wmch we have of what we remember will be fairly ac¬
counted for : but if this cannot be done, that belief is
unaccountable; and ive can fay no more but that it is
the refult of our conftitution. Our original faculties
are all unaccountable : Of thefe memory is one. He
only who made them comprehends fully how they are
made, and how they produce in us not only a concep¬
tion, but a firm belief and aflurance, of things which
it concerns us to know.”
On this account of memory we fhall make no re¬
marks. I here is a certain fenfe of the words, in v7hich
every thing which the author has faid on the fubjeft is
undoubtedly
to ulVftrTnrifitrn^3 pH ^ ^ ^ f ^ ^ bcen affeaed in Paft Perceptions, this appears
Tble to u! Z imZffi T t ■ 'T11^ aUe]l0r meam n°thin8 more’ than if is as unaocSunt-
caufe remembrane/^ caufe perception, and the veftiges of thofe impreffions fhould
(ions on the hrni i * Tf il!’ k t/Ulln “’S^t not perceive things to come without the intervention of impref-
of that rrUt,Z whfr]Iffi meanm^ 110 ^ wiU eontrovcrt k : for k is impoffible to difrover the nature
l(^ experteiice. h ^ ^ betWeen an imPreffion and perception ; but that there is fucli a relation, we know
hap. II.
etention undoubtedly juft j and it would be very uncandid to
,d Ideas, words in any other fenle. But though me-
rnory, as it is the refult of that confutation which was
given us by God, and not the offspring of habit or
human contrivance, is unqueftionably an original fa¬
culty } and though it is therefore impoffible to account
for it fo fully as to filence every inquiry which may be
made, yet we could with that Dr Reid had beftowed
a little more pains upon it, in order to difeover if pof-
fible in what refpe&s it refembles or differs from per¬
ception. He has well obferved, that there are laws of
nature by which the operations of the’ mind are regu¬
lated, as well as laws of nature which govern the ma¬
terial fyftem. As the latter are the ultimate conclu-
fions which the human faculties can reach in the phi-
lofophy of bodies, fo the former are the ultimate con-
elufions which we can reach in the philofophy of
minds. The more general that thefe laws are in both
cafes, the more ufeful they are and the more fatisfac-
tory : for as they are theoifelves inexplicable, the
fewer they are in number, and the more comprehenfive
each, the fewer will thofe phenomena be for which we
can give no account. Thus, as we know not what
makes the planets tend to the centre of the fun, or
heavy bodies tend to the centre of the earth, we can
give no other account of thefe phenomena, but that,
as they appear to be of the fame kind, it is reafonable to
conclude that they proceed from fimilar caufes. What
the caufe is of this tendency of bodies towards each
other, we know not. We call it gravitation, and em¬
ploy it to account for all phenomena of the fame kind.
In like manner it is univerfally allowed, that as we
know not how mind and matter operate upon each
other, there is fomething in perception wholly unac¬
countable. That perception follows fenfation ; and
that there is no fenfation which is not occafioned by
fome affe&ion of the brain, proceeding from fome im-
preftion ab extra ; we have the evidence of experience :
but how a particular affcdlion of the brain fhould ex¬
cite a fenfation in the mind, we know not; though we
may here, as in the corporeal fyftem, attribute fimilar
effects to the fame or fimilar caufes. Thus, if when
we exert an a6t of memory we have the fame appear¬
ance of things as in the original aft of perception, the
rules of philofophizing authorize us to refer both phe¬
nomena to the fame general law ; juft as they autho¬
rize us to refer the motion of the planets and of pro-
jeftiles to the fame general law. On the other hand,
if we perceive no fimilarity between memory and per¬
ception, we have made no progrefs in the philofophy
of mind; for in that cafe we have difeovered tsvo phe¬
nomena proceeding from two caufes totally different
from each other, and both inexplicable. Although we-
fcarcely hope to throw any light upon a fubjeft which
Dr Reid has not attempted to illuftrate, we {hall ftate
a few fafts refpefting the memory, and fubmit to the
575
reader the conclufions to which we think thefe fafts Retention
lead. _ .andIdeas-,
i. Objefts once perceived by the fenfes, when re-
called to the mind by the power of memory, appear The ap-
precifely the fame as in the original perception, only pearance of
lefs diltinft *. For example, having feen yefterday a fenfible^ob-
fpreading oak growing on the bank of a river, and j,"
having heard a fhepherd play, and handled a fquare the power
ftone, wre endeavour to recal to our mind thefe objefts of memory,
which are now abfent. How is this operation per- * Appendix
formed ? Do we endeavour to form in our minds pic- t0 E[c~ -
tures ox them or repreientative images r or, does our Criticijiiu
intellect furvey the types or forms which, according
to Ariftotle, thofe objefts left in the imagination when
originally perceived ? Neither of thefe things is done.
We conceive ourfelves as {landing in the fame place
where we flood yefterday j upon which we have per¬
ceptions of the objefts fimilar in all refpefts to the
perceptions which we had when we employed our eyes,
our ears, and our hands. The tree appears, as it were,
before us $ faint indeed, but attended with all the ob¬
jefts which we obferved around it yefterday : we feem
to hear the found of the pipe eonfafedly, and at a dif-
tance ; to move our hands over the ftone, and to feel
the fame furfaces and the fame angles which we felt in
the original perception. In this recolleftion we are-
not confcious of piftures or images more than in the
original furvey. The perceptions feem to be of the.
tree and river themfelves, of the found itfelf, and of
the ftone itfelf, exaftly as at the firft ; and yet we are
fatisfied that in the aft of remembrance we perceive no
fuch object as a real tree, pipe, or ftone. That thefe
are fafts, every man muft be convinced who attends to
the energies of his own mind when exerting the powers
of retention : and therefore it is, in our opinion, with
no impropriety that Mr Harris fays, we may call SENSE,
if we pleafe, a kind of tranfient imagination ; and ima¬
gination, on the contrary, a kind of permanent fenfe ;
for if thefe two faculties, as far as the mind or intelleft
is concerned, be not the fame, they feem to refemble
each other much. 64
perception of a vifible objeft is as much more complete,
lively, and diftinft, than the idea of any other objeft,
as was the primary perception ; and that we remember
things which we have feen for a longer time than
founds which we have heard, or than tangible objefts
which we have only handled. Yet there feems to be
a conftant decay of all our ideas, even of thofe which
are ftruck (g) deepeft and in minds the moft retentive j
fo that if they be not frequently renewed by repeated
exercife of the fenfes, or by relleftion on thofe objefts
which at firft occafioned them, the print (g) wears
out,
M E T A P H Y S I C S.
(g) Thefe expreflions, which mention ideas as things which are deep fruck, and as prints which wear
out, are the expreffions of Locke. vVe hope it is needlefs to warn our readers, that they are ufed by
us, as they were by him, in a metaphorical fenfe. On thefe fubjefts it is impoffible to write without me¬
taphor j which, while the meaning L obvious, no man will condemn, who reflefts that the words of lan¬
guage were not invented by metaphyficians, and are for the moft part literally fignincant only of fenfible.
objefts.
576
Ketention
and Ideas.
*5
Memory a
kind of ha¬
bit.
■* Reid's
EJfayi on
the Intel-
leElual
Powers of
Man,
Locke’s Ef-
fay, &c.
and Har¬
ris's Her
(56
In recollec¬
tion one
idea fug-
gefts an¬
other, and
why
out, and at laft there remains nothing1 to be feen.
, Concerning ideas, it is eafy to remark, that thofe re¬
main longeft and cleared in the memory which are
derived from two or more fenfes, efpecially if the fenfe
of light be one of the number, or which are oftened
refredied by a return of the objects which produced
them. Hence a man has a longer and more didinct
remembrance of what he has feen than of what he has
only heard, of what he has both feen and felt than of
what he has only feen ; and the ideas which we have
of heat and cold, of hunger and third, and of all thofe
things which mod frequently affeft our fenfes, are ex¬
tremely clear, and are never quite lod whild the mind
retains any ideas at all.
3. Memory appears to be a kind of habit, which is
not always in exercife with regard to things we re¬
member, but is ready to fugged them when there is
occafion. The mod perfect degree of this habit is,
when the thing prefents itfelf to our remembrance
fpontaneoufly, and without labour, as often as there
is occalion A fecond degree is, when the thing is
forgotten for a longer or Ihorter time, even when there
is occalion to remember it, and yet at lad fome inci¬
dent, fuch as a violent padion *, •which agitates the
whole mind and fenforium, tumbles the idea, as it
were, out of its dark corner, and brings it into view
without any fearch. A third degree is, when we cad
about and fearch for what we would remember, and
after fome labour find it out. This fearching faculty
of the foul is by Aridotle called by Hr Reid
and others reminifcence, and by Mr Harris recolleSlion.
Should it be faid, that what avc will to remember we
mud already conceive, as Ave can Avill nothing of which
Ave have not a conception ; and that, therefore, a will
to remember a thing, feems to imply that wre remember
it already—we anfwer, with Dr Reid, that when avc
Avill to remember a thing, we mud indeed remember
fomething relating to it 5 but Ave may have no pofitive
idea or conception of the thing itfelf, but only of the
relation Avhich it bears to that other thing Avhich Ave do
remember. Thus, one remembers that a friend char¬
ged him Avith a commidion to be executed at fuch a
place, but he has forgotten what the commilfion Avas.
He applies himfelf to difeover it; and recolletis that it
was given by fuch a perfon, upon fuch an occafion, in
confequence of fuch a converfation : and thus by a train
of thought he is led to the very thing Avhich he had
forgotten and wilhed to remember. To this operation
it is not ahvays neceffary that the relations betAveen the
various ideas Avhich the mind turns over be very clofe,
or have their foundation in nature ; for a cafual con¬
nexion is often fufficient. Thus, from feeing a garment,
we think of its owner ; thence of his habitation ; thence
of Avoods •, thence of timber ; thence of Ihips j thence
of admirals ; thence of cannons, iron, furnaces, and for¬
ges,” &c.
That, in the procefs of recolle&ion, one idea Ihould
fugged another, may be eafily accounted for. When,
in perception, our minds are expofed to the influence
of external objedls, all the parts and properties, and
even the accidental \ariable adjunfts of thefe obje&s,
are perceived by full-groAvn men at the fame time ; fo
that the whole group makes but one impredion upon
mir organs of fenfe, and confequently upon the mind.
METAPHYSIC S. part,
By thefe means all the parts of the fimultanecus im- Betentioj
predion *, and confequently of the perception occa- ai,cl
fioned by that imprefiion, are fo intimately allbciated *T’V"
or linked together, that the idea of any one of them on
recurring at any future period, generally introduces
the ideas of all the red. But as the necefiary parts
and properties of any thing are more clofely linked
together, and occur more frequently than any parti¬
cular Arariable adjunfts, it is obvious, that by the idea
of any one of thefe properties, the idea of the red,
and of the objedt itfelf, Avill be more readily introdu¬
ced than by the idea of any variable adjunft. It
feems, hoAvever, to be certain, that Ave have no poAver
of calling up any idea at pleafure, but only fuch as
have a connexion, either in nature or by means of
former aflbeiations, with thofe that are at any time
prefent to the mind. Thus the fight, or the idea, of
any particular perfon, generally enables us to recoi¬
led! his name, becaufe his name and his perfon have
been condantly affociated together. If that fail to
introduce the name, we are at a lofs and cannot re¬
coiled! it at all till fome other affociated circumdance
help us. In naming a number of Avords in a fentence,
or lines in a poem, the end of each preceding word or
line being conned!ed Avith the beginning of the word
or line which fucceeds it, we can eafily repeat them
in that order $ but Ave are not able to repeat them
backwards Avith any eafe, nor at all till after many
fruitlefs efforts. By frequent trials, however, we ac¬
quire at lad a facility in doing it, as may be found by
making the experiment on the names of number from
one to tAventy. It is, indeed, probable, that in the
Avilded fiights of fancy, no Angle idea occurs to us
but fuch as had a connexion with fome other idea,
perception, or notion, previoully exiding in the
mind, as diall be diown more fully in a fubfequent
chapter. ^
4. “ Memory appears to depend entirely or chiefly memory
upon the date of the brain-f. For difeafes, concudions t!ePen^s ^
of the brain, fpirituous liquors, and fome poifons, im- j^0
pair or dedroy it; and it generally returns again withj Haitley
the return of health, from the ufe of proper medicines on Man.
and methods. It is obfervable, too, that in recovering
from concudions and other diforders of the brain, it is
ufual for the perfon to recover the power of remem¬
bering the then prefent common incidents for minutes,
hours, and days, by degrees j alfo the power of recal¬
ling the events of his life preceding his illnefs. At
length he recovers this lad poAver perfedlly j and at the
fame time forgets almod all that pad in his illnefs,
even thofe things which at fird he remembered for a
day or tAVo. Now the reafon of this feems to be, that
upon a perfef! recovery the brain recovers its natural
date, and all its former afte£!ions and tendencies j but
that fuch affeiRions or tendencies as took place during
the preternatural date, i. e. during the patient’s illnefs,
are obliterated by the return of the natural date.”
All this avc are induced to believe j becaufe, though
it is a fad! incontrovertible, that in certain difeafes the
memory it impaired, and recovers its vigour Avith the
return of health, it is not conceivable that the mind
itfelf Ihould differ any change by difeafes, concuflions,
or (pirituous liquors, &c.
From thefe fadls we are ftrongly inclined to con¬
clude,
Chap. II. , M E T A P
Iletention elude, tliat the power of the mind, or immaterial (h)
ami Ideas, principle, by which it remembers paft events, differs not
^ ' from that by which it perceives prefent objects. In
External perception, impreffions are made upon the organs of
bbjedtsope-fenfe, which are communicated to the brain; and, by
rating on forne unknown means, occafion ffenfations which are
the^fome f°^owe<i by the perception of the external objeft.
'trmanent When by the power of memory we recal paft objefts
effedt in the of fenfe, the mind has the fame view of them as in the
brain. original perception, except that they appear fainter,
lefs diftinct, and generally more diftant. We have,
therefore, reafon to conclude, that in the aft of re¬
membrance the brain is affefted in the fame way,
though not fo forcibly, as in perception. That me¬
mory depends as much as perception upon the ftate of
the brain, is confirmed by daily experience ; and
therefore there cannot be a doubt but that external
objefts, operating upon the fenfes, nerves, and brain,
leave fome permanent effeft behind them. What that
effeft precifely is we cannot know, and wTe need not
defire to know ; but that they leave fome effeft we
have as good evidence as that the planets are moved
round the fun by forces of the fame kind with thofe
by which projeftiles are moved on the earth. Could
we fuppofe that they leave real prints or hnprejjisns be¬
hind them, which we confefs to be very little probable,
memory would feem to be nothing but the perceptive
power of the mind turned to thofe impreffions. If the
permanent effeft of impreffions by external objefts be,
as Dr Hartley fuppofes, only a tendency in the brain
to vibrate as in the original perception, remembrance
will refult from the mind’s operating upon the brain
as in aftual perception; and the reafon that ideas of
memory are fainter than perceptions of fenfe, is, that
the former are produced by a Angle, and the latter by
a double, operation.
This theory appears to be greatly confirmed by the
following well known fafts, that children foon corn-
advances to mit to their memory any thing which they under¬
perfection, ftand, and as foon forget it; that the powers of me-
mory gradually advance to perfeftion, and then gra¬
dually decay ; and that old men remember more di-
ftinftly what they perceived in their youth, than what
they perceived a year ago* For if the memory be¬
longed wholly to the pure intelleft, and had no de¬
pendence upon the brain, it is not eafy to conceive
how it fhould advance towards a ftate of perfeftion
and afterwards decay. A being which is unextended
and indivifible, can fuffer no change either in its ef-
fence or in its faculties: the ideas which it had once
retained, it would retain for ever. But if memory be
occafioned by fome relift of fenfe left in the brain, it
is eafy to fee how all thofe changes ftiould take place :
and therefore, though we have the weight of Dr
Reid’s authority againft us, we cannot help thinking
that Ariftotle was in the right, when he imputed the
fhortnefs of memory in children to this caufe, that
VOL. XIII. Part II.
Why the
memory
and then
gradually
decays.
H Y S I C S. 577
their brain is too moift and folt to retain impreffions
made upon it ; and that he was likewife in the right, ,a!lt ^
when he imputed the defeft of memory in old men to
the hardnefs and rigidity of the brain, which hinders
it from receiving any durable impreflion.
Another argument to prove, that in remembrance
the mind afts upon fomething left in the brain by
the impreffions of fenfe, is this, that nothing can aft
but where it is prefent. The truth of this axiom is
acknowledged by Dr Reid, and we believe by all man¬
kind except Dr Prieftley and one or two others,
whofe paradoxes We fhall confider afterwards. Now
it is confeffed, that in recolleftion at leaft the mind is
aftive ; and therefore it muft aft, not upon an objeft
which has now perhaps no exiftence, and certainly no
immediate exiftence, but upon fomething left by that
objeft in the brain or fenforium, to which the mind is
intimately prefent. 73
But if this be fo, we may be afked how it comes By what
to pafs that men never confound memory with per-mearjS wft
ception, nor fancy that they perceive things which found
they only remember ? If perception be an inference m0ry with
drawn from certain fenfations excited by an impref-perception,
fion on the brain, and if remembrance refult from the
mind’s operating upon relxfts of thofe impreflions, one
would think it natural to fuppofe, that in both cafes
we have aftual perceptions, though in the one cafe
the perception muft be more vivid and diftinft than in
the other. To this we anfwer, That previous to all
experience, perception and memory are very probably
confounded ; and that we believe a man brought into
the world With all his faculties in their full natu¬
ral perfeftion, would not inftantly be able to diftin-
guiffi what he remembered from what he perceived.
This we know to be the cafe with refpeft to imagi¬
nation, a faculty which ftrongly refembles memory;
for in dreams, and fometimes even in wraking reveries,
we fancy that we aftually perceive things which it is
certain we can only imagine. A very fhort experi¬
ence, however, would enable this newly created man
to make the proper diftinftion between remembrance
and perception. For let us fuppofe him to be brought
into a dark room, and foon afterwards a candle to be
introduced. The candle would give him a vifible fen-
fation, though not at firft the perception of an exter¬
nal objeft. Let the candle after fome time be car¬
ried out: the man would retain a vifible idea, which
he might confound with the aftual fenfation. But if,
whilft this idea remained in his mind, the candle were
brought back, he would inftantly feel a difference be¬
tween the real fenfation and the idea, when both were
together prefent to his mind. And having, in fome
fuch manner as we have already deferibed, acquired the
power of perceiving external objefts by means of his
fenfes, he would foon difeover, without any effort of his
own, the difference between aftual perceptions and the
ideas treafured up in his memory.
4 D The
(h) Through the whole of this and the preceding chapters, w'e have taken it for granted, that the fentient
principle in man is not material. This is the common, and, as (hall be ftiown afterwards, the moft probable opi¬
nion : but whether it be abfolutely certain or not, makes no difference on the theories of fenfation and percep¬
tion. Thefe are obvioufly neither figure nor motion, and therefore not fubjeft to the laws which govern the
material world.
578 , M E T A P
imUdS Tlie °nly remaInIng difficulty which Teems to en-
i v tumber this theory oi remembrance, is, to account for
71 °rder of fucceffion in which objedfs recur to the
The order memory, and to which we give the name of lime. 
1 u, e^'on But this difficulty will vaniih when we have alcertain-
obj^'t^re- e,d "dial time is.. At prefent it is fufficient to obferVe,
cur to the our perceptions of external objects remain a cer-
memory. tain Tpace of time in the mind ; that this time is differ¬
ent, according to the ftrength and other circumftan-
ces of the impreffion which occafioned the perception 5
and that traces ot thofe perceptions, i. e. ideas^ may be
recalled after the intervention of other trains of ideas,
and at very different intervals. If one look upon a
houfe, and then thut his eyes, the impreffion which it
made upon his mind will not inilantly vaniih : he can
contemplate the houfe almoif as long as he pleafes and,
by the help of various affociated circumftances, he may
recal the idea ieveral years afterwards, and refer it to
the original perception.
Brutes have Before we difmifs the fubjedl of retention, it may
memory, not be improper to take notice of the retentive powers
of inferior animals. Ariftotle, Locke, Dr Reid, and
almoft every philofopher of eminence both among the
ancients and moderns, have maintained, that inferior
animals have memory as well as men 5 and indeed we
do not perceive how the fa£l can be denied of the more
perfedl animals, and thofe with whole operations we
are bed acquainted. A dog knows his mailer again
after a long abfence 5 a hoife will trace back a road
which he has but once travelled, often with more ac¬
curacy than his rider ; and it is well known that many
fpecies of linging birds have a capacity to learn tunes
from the human voice, and that they repeat the notes
again and again, approaching nearer and nearer to
perfeflion, till at laft they ling the tune correcllv.
Thefe phenomena can be accounted for only by fup-
pofing, that in the brains of the feveral animals traces
are left by perception, of the fame kind with thofe
which perception leaves in the brain of man, and which
are the caufe or occafion of his remembrance. With
refpecff to this point, the learned author of Ancient
Metaphysics differs from his mailer Arillotle. He al¬
lows that brutes have imagination, but denies tliat
they have memory: for (fays he) “memory neceffa-
rilv implies a fenfe of time, and what is jirjl and laji ;
but brutes have no idea of time, or of firlt and lall ;
and it is certain that they have not confcioufnefs or
refleflion, by which only they could review their own
operations. At the fame time he admits, that imagi¬
nation in the brute ferves the purpofe of memory in
us 5 for whenever he fees the objedl that is painted on
his phantajia, he knows it again, but without any per¬
ception of the time when he firfl faw it.” But that
a brute, when he fees the objedt which is painted on
his phantafia, ffiould know it again without referring
it to a former perception, is plainly impoffible. The
recognifance of any thing conlifts in a confcioufnefs
of its having been perceived before ; and nothing more
than fuch recognifance is effential to memory. The
author’s millake feems to lie in fuppoling that me¬
mory neceffarily implies a fenfe of fome determinate
portion of pall time ; Sut we furely remember many
things of which we can only fay that w’e have former¬
ly perceived them, without "being able to afcertain
the precife period at which wre had fuch perceptions.
H Y S I C S. part j
A child has the ufe of memory fooner than he ac- Refeutt
. j  xuj ltnon
quires the faculty of Ipeech ; but he muff have fpoken an<* Ideas,
and even reafoned before he can have an accurate no-
tion of time, which, as lhall be lliown afterwards
arifes. from comparing the fleeting fucceffion of dot
own ideas with the permanence of ourfelves and other
obje&s. The author’s dillincfion between memory
and imagination feems to be on all accounts impro¬
per. Arillotle has faid, and faid truly, that there is
memory of ideas as well as of fenfible objects ; mean¬
ing by ideas general conceptions or propofitions : but
this reviver of his philofophy is inclined to fay, “ that
memory is only of ideas, confequently belongs only to
man ; and that imagination is only of fenfible obje&s,
and confequently belongs both to man and brute.” 
But furely man remembers what he has feen and felt as
well as what he has conceived or thought ,■ and if ima¬
gination and memory be properly dillinguifhed by Mr
Harris, the reverfe of this writer’s dobirine mult be
true, viz. that imagination belongs only to man, and
memory of fenfible objefts both to man and brute. 
We can contemplate in imagination the idea of a cen¬
taur or a golden mountain ; but we cannot be faid to re¬
member them, for they were never perceived. That a
dog can contemplate in his imagination the idea of a
centaur or of a golden mountain, we have not the lealt
real'on to fuppofe j but were he not capable of viewing
relidls of fenfe repofed with him, and referring them to
their original caufes, he could not poffibly recognife his
mailer after a day’s abfence.
Dr Reid and the fame author agree with Ariftotle,thep’3wer
m thinking it probable that brutes have not reminif-of recoUec-
cence, or the power of recolledtion ; but there aretion-
many well-attelled fa£ls which feem to prove the con¬
trary. We lhall mention one which fell under our
own obfervation. One of the perfons concerned in
this work was, when a young man, abfent for five
months from the houfe of his father. Upon his re¬
turn, a dog of that fpecies which is commonly called
\\\>i Jbepherd's cur, and which had been in the pofftffion
of his lather only a few months before his departure,
gazed at him for a few minutes as at any other llran-
ger. The animal then began to w alk round him with
looks which foon attracted his notice. This made him
call the dog by the name which he bore in the family,
and llretcli out his hand to carefs him, when the crea¬
ture inilantly leaped upon him with all that appearance
of attachment which thefe animals fo commonly exhibit
upon the return of their mailer after a few days abfence.
11 this was not recollection, we Ihould be glad to know
what it was, for we cannot diltinguifh it from recollec¬
tion in men. Inde’ed, if dogs and fome other animals
pofiefs, as Arillotle, Locke, and others, allow them to
poffefs, the power of memory, and fomething of ratioci¬
nation ; and if, as Dr Reid exprefsly fays*, “ they ex-*Efays on
pedt events in the fame order and fucceffion in which the hitel-
they happened before it is not conceivable that they lehual
can be wholly dellitute of reminifcence, or the power P'Afrs
of recolleCHon. 1 °fmn’
That memory is a faculty of the firlt importance, Memory
cannot be denied ; fince it is obvious, that, without the capable of
pow’er of retaining the ideas and notions which w'e re ,mProve‘
ceive by the fenfes and other faculties, we never could ment‘
make any progrefs in the acquifition of knowledge,
but Ihould begin every day, nay every hour, in the
fame
chap. nr. M E T A P
Or ■ imple fame ftate of ignorance in which we are born. That
App ehen- jt jg a faculty capable of improvement by exercife, and
lion and are fome methods of exercife better adapted
, l1!.. . for this purpofe than others, has been drown elfewhere.
See Memory.
75,
Idea'> ot
fenation
the firft ma
tenals ot
human
biowled^e,
76
Simple ap-
preherfion
•f ideas
different
from con¬
ception.
'78
In what
fenfe it is
true that
we can
conceive
ohjefts
which ne-
'■« enited
Ch ap. III. Of Simple Apprehension atid Con¬
ception.
The ideas received into the mind by the fenfes,
and treafured up in the memory and imagination, are
"the original materials of human knowledge. It is by
comparing thofe ideas with one another, or by analyz¬
ing them into their firft principles, that we acquire
all our knowledge in mathematics and philofophy,
and indeed all the knowledge which regulates our
conduct through life. It muft, therefore, be of im¬
portance to trace the progrefs of the mind in her vari¬
ous operations upon thefe materials •, beginning, as die
certainly begins, with that which is moft fimple, and
proceeding regularly to thofe which are more complex
and difficult.
Now the firft operation of the mind about her
ideas appears plainly to be that which logicians term
fimple apprehenfon. Having yefterday obferved a tree
or any other object, if wTe contemplate the idea of that
tree to-day as it remains in the imagination, wdthout
comparing it wdth any other idea, or referring it to
any external object, we perform the operation which
is called fimple apprehettfion. We confider fimple ap-
prehenfion as an operation, becaufe the mind in the ap-
prehenfion of her own ideas is certainly active 5 fhe
turns them, as it wrere, round and round, and views
them on every fide.
Simple apprehenfon is a phrafe which is commonly
taken to be of the fame import with the word concep¬
tion ; and in the ordinary affairs of life no confufion can
arife from an indiferiminate ufe of the two words : but
in this article we think it expedient to employ the
phrafe fimple apprehenfon, to denote the view or con¬
templation of thofe ideas only which the mind by fen-
fation has actually received from external objects •, and
the word conception to denote the view, not only of
thofe ideas, but alfo of fuch as the mind fabricates to
herfelf. Thus, a man may conceive a centaur, but we
would not choofe to fay that he may apprehend a cen¬
taur : not that there is any impropriety, perhaps, in this
laft exprefiion ; but as there is certainly a difference
between apprehending the idea of what has been feen or
felt, and conceiving that which never exifted, perfpicuity
requires that thefe different operations be expreffed by
different nam s.
We have laid that the mind may conceive what
never exifted : and every man may eafily fatisfy bim-
felf that what we have fa id is true : but though this has
been frequently called the creative power of the mind,
it has in fa£l no refemblance to creation. The mate¬
rials of all our moft complex and fantaftic conceptions
are furniftied to our hands by fenfation and reflection ;
nor can eve form one fimple idea which wras not origi¬
nally received bv fome of our fenfes from external ob¬
jects, or, as fhall be ftiown afterwards, one intelle&ual
notion which was not acquired by reflecting on the
operations of our own minds. To exp1ain the pro-
eels of fantaftic conception, it is to be obferved, that
H Y S I C S. 579
in every fenfible object we perceive at once feve- OfSm,p.o
ral things, fuch as colour, fgure, extenfon and mo-
lion or ref, &c. Thefe are the objtcts of different (,on.
fenfes : but they are not, at lealt by full-grown men, s——y—a
perceived in fucceflion, but all at once j whence it
comes to pafs that the memory, or the imagination, re¬
tains not feveral diftind and disjointed ideas, but the
idea of one coloured, figured, and extended ohje£l. But
Avhen W'e compare various objeCts, or the ideas of va¬
rious objefts, together, we find that in fome refpeCts
they agree and in others difagree j i. e. that feveral ob-
jeCts affeCt fome of our fenfes in the fame way, and
other fenfes differently. Thus one globe is black, and
another white ; one black fubftance is circular and
hard, and another fquare and foft. In the firft in-
itance, the twro globes affect our fenfe of touch in the
fame way, and our fenfe of feeing differently •, in the
fecond, the two black fubftances affect our ftrde of
fight in the fame way, and our fenfe of touch different¬
ly.
From obferving this difference among objeCts by
means of the different fenfations received from diem,
the mind learns to analyze its original ideas, which are
Copies of thofe fenfations, into their firft principles,
and to combine thofe principles in fuch a manner as to
form complex ideas of objefts which were never ac¬
tually perceived by the fenfes. Of the fimple and un¬
mixed principles which compofe thofe complex ideas,
there is not indeed one which was not originally re¬
ceived by fome fenfe 5 fo that the whole difference be¬
tween complex ideas fabricated by the mind, and
thofe which are the relifB of fenfation, confifts in the
order in which the conftituent fimple ideas of each are
put together. Thus, no man ever faw a mountain of
pure gold ; and therefore the idea of fuch a mountain
can be in no human mind as a relict of fenfation •, but
we have all feen pieces of gold of different tizes, and
we have all feen mountains ; and nothii g is more eafy
than to conceive a piece of gold extend* d on all (ides
to the fize of a mountain, and rifing out of the earth.
Again, Though no perfon ever faw a centaur, yet it
is eafy to conceive the upper parts of a man joined to
the breaft and fhoulders of a horfe. In thefe infianees,
the complex conceptions are of things v'hich it is in the
higheft degree probable newer had a real exillence, and
which it is certain we wtver perceived as exifling : but
the fimple ideas of which they are compofed are the
reliefs of actual fenfadons; for every one has per¬
ceived as really exifting the body of a herfe and the
upper parts of a man, and when conceiving a centaur
he only perceives them to exift united. That we have
not in the imagination one fimple and unmixed idea
which uras not left there as a reliff of fenfe, every man
will be convinced who fhall trv to conceive a fimple
colour or tafte which is totally different from all the
colours and taftes, and all the (hades imd varieties of
tbqm, which he has received by fenfation •, but his
fimple ideas, though all received from without, he may
put together in numberlefs manners, differing from
any ordef in which he has ever adlually perceived the
qualities of external objeffs exifting. This^powfir
Yet even this power of the mind is limited. It isof concep-
impoffible to put together a number of contrary and tlon hmit-
inconffent ideas, in fuch a manner as to form of themed0 P0^
one complex conception. No man, for inftanee, canen ^
4 D 2 conceive
Annrehenl ConceIve a th{nS to be at once white and black, round
f10n and an^ hjuare, hard and foft, in motion and at reft.—-
Conception. Iience it is a maxim among philofophers almoft uni-
v " 1 serially received, that though we can conceive many
things which never achtalhj exifted, yet we can form
no ideas but of fuch things as might pojjibly exijl. A
centaur never exifted, but it may be conceived 5 for it
is by no means impoftible that the head ot a man might
be joined to the body of a horfe : but black fnow can¬
not be conceivedy for in the complex idea denoted by
the word fnow whitenefs is an effential part, and no-
thing can be conceived to be both black and white at
the fame time. From this undoubted fadd, that we
cannot conceive impoffible exiftence, the power of con¬
ception has by fome writers in certain inftances been
. made a teft 01 truth. “ In every idea is implied (fays
ofthetirin 1>r ?lice the PoffibIbty the exiftence of its objedi 5
being clearer, than that there can be no idea
tims and or an impollibility, or conception of what cannot exift.”
Difficulties “ It is an eftabliftied maxim in metaphyfics (fays
mMorals. Hume), that whatever the mind conceives, includes
the idea of poftible exiftence ; or, in ether words, that
f Fffiays. nothing we imagine is abfolutely impoflible f.” In a
word, it has been admitted by all philofophers, from
Pythagoras to Dr Reid, to be an axiom as evident and
undeniable as any in Euclid, that whatever we can
diiknctly conceive is poffible, though many things may
be poffible,. nay may really exift, of which we can form
So no conception.
W n,!inu!n Tllis axiom has been denied by the author of the
of Dr Reid -^ffays on the Intellectual Powers of Man ; who af-
refpedling firms, that any two lides of a triangle may be con-
011 r power ceived to be equal to the third,” as diftin&ly as “ any
sion°nCCp" tW0 1"1CleS a tr^anft^e may be conceived to be greater
than the third.” This affertion from fuch a man fur-
prifed us as much as any paradox which we ever read :
for nothing is more certain, than that we ourfelves can
form no conception of a triangle of which two of the
fides are only equal to the third. We can, indeed, re-
folve the propolition into its different parts, and form
the diftintl and independent ideas of a triangle, two
fides, and onefde ; and we can likewife form the general
notion of equalitij : but to combine thefe ideas and this
notion into one individual complex conception, we find
to be abfolutely impoffible. A man who knows no¬
think of triangles, if fuch a man there be, might be¬
lieve Dr Reid that it is a figure of which one of its
fides is equal to the other two; but fuch a perfon
Part I,
would have no conception of figure itfelf but only a Of Simple
confidence in the doflor’s veracity. Apprehen.
What is it to conceive a corporeal thing to exift 5 Is fion and
it not to fancy that we view it on all fides, as whatCOnCeption'
may be feen, or felt, or fmelt, or tafted ? The do&or, si ’
indeed, repeatedly reprobates as the fource of muchcontrov«rt,
error the notion of ideas as images in the mind j and ifed‘
ideas be taken as real material figures, he is certainly
in the right : But we appeal to the common fenfe of
mankind, whether every perfon wdio diftin&ly con¬
ceives a triangle,' is not at the time confeious that hi*
mind is affected in a manner limilar, though not fo for¬
cibly, as when he aftually views a triangle with his
eyes ? What other men may feel, they know' beft • but we
are as certain that this is the cafe with refpeft to ourfelves,
as we are certain of our owm exiftence. That this af¬
fection of the mind is occafioncd by fome agitation in
the brain, of the fame kind with that which occafions
aft J2i perception, is highly probable j but whatever be
the caufe, the fa£t is undeniable.
The doctor’s words, indeed, taken by themfelves,
would lead one to think, that by conception he means in
this cafe nothing more than the underftanding of the
terms of a propofition : but if that be his meaning,
there was no room for controverfy j as the great philo¬
fophers Cudworth, Clarke, Price, and Hume, whofe opi¬
nion he is combating, would have been as ready as
himfelf to allow, that "when a man is thoroughly mailer
of any language, he will find no difficulty in under-
ft an ding the meaning of any particular words in that
language, however abfurdly thefe words may be put
together. When Dr Price fays, that “ in every idea
is implied the poflibility of the exiftence of its obieCt
nothing being clearer than that there can be no idea of
impoflibility or conception of what cannot exift,” his
meaning evidently is, that w'e cannot mentally contem¬
plate or fancy ourfelves viewing any thing corporeal,
which w'e might not aClually view with our eyes, or
perceive by fome other fenfe (k). This is the true
meaning of conception, which is fomething very different
from underftanding the feparate meaning of each word
in a propofition. s
The learned profeffor, however, appeals to the
praClice of mathematicians for the truth of his opi¬
nion : and if they be on his fide, we muft give up the
caufe ; for in no fcience have we fuch clear ideas, or
fuch abfolute certainty, as in mathematical reafonings.
But it is to be obferved, that the word conception is
with
METAPHYSICS.
(k) Dr Price may be thought by fome to have contradicted in this paffage Avhat he had afferted in a for¬
mer. He is a ftrenuous advocate for abftraCt and general ideas even of material objeCts 5 but thofe among the
moderns who contend .the moft zealouffy for thefe, contend for them only as conceptions of the mind which
can have no poffible exiftence out of it. Were this likewife the opinion of Dr Price, he would certainlv have
tallen into a direCt contradiction 5 but this is not his opinion. His notion of abftraCt ideas feems to be the
feme, with that of Plato, who confiders ideas not only as the poftibilities of exiftence but as things aCtually
exifting from eternity, uncreated and independent even of the Supreme Mind That Dr Price carries the
matter thus far, we are unw'illing to believe but he certainly confiders general ideas as real exiftences indepen¬
dent of our minds, though the immediate objeas of our underftanding. That in this notion he is miftaken
we (hall endeavour to prove in the next chapter. It is enough for our prefent purpofe to have ftiown that he
does not contraffia himfelf j and that he might with great propriety affirm on his own principles, as well as
upon the principles of thofe who admit not of univerfal ideas, that in every idea is implied the Voflibilitv of its
object. r L "
Chap. III. M E T A P
of Simp'e with no propriety applied to abJlraEt truth, but to real
Apprehen- or p0JJib/e exiftence j nor can we be faid to conceive
fionand a real or pvjjible object, unlefs we be able to
concept;en. .fc roun^ ancj rounclj and view it on all fides.—
i 'pjje faculties which are converfant about abjlraEl truth
are the judgment and the reafon and truth itfelf con-
hfts in the agreement, as falfehood does in the dila-
greement, of two or more ideas or terms compared to¬
gether. If thofe ideas about which the judgment is to
be made can be immediately brought together, without
the intervention of a third idea, it is impollible that we
fhould judge, or, if Dr Reid will have it fo, conceive
that to be true which is really falfe. If the two ideas
cannot be immediately brought together, it is impof-
fible that we fhould form any judgment or conception at
all about their agreement or difagreement; but we may
fuppofe or admit, for the fake of argument, that they
agree or difagree j and if that fuppofition conduft to
a manifeft ablurdity, we then know that the fuppolition
was falfe. It is, therefore, perfectly agreeable to the
maxim of Price and Hume, that mathematicians fliould
in many cafes prove fome things to be poflible and
others impoflible, which without demonftration would
not have been believed •, becaufe if the ideas compared
cannot be immediately brought together, no judgment
previous to the demonilration can be formed of the
truth or falfehood of the propofition ; and if it concern
not real or poflible exiftence, it is a propofition with
which conception has nothing to do.
“ But (fays Dr Reid) it is eafy to conceive, that,
in the infinite feries of numbers and intermediate frac¬
tions, fome one number, integral or fraftional, may
bear the fame ratio to another as the fide of a fquare
bears to its diagonal.” We are fo far from thinking
this an eafy matter, that if the word conceive be taken
in the fenfe in which is is ufed by the philofophers
whofe opinion he is combating, we mult confefs that
we can form no adequate conception at all of an in¬
finite feries. When we make the trial, we can only
bring ourfelves to conceive the real numerical figures
I, 2, 3, &c. or the fractional parts -4:, &c. }
and even here our conception reaches but a fmall way.
We have reafon to believe, that minds of a larger grafp
can conceive at once more of the leries than we can
and that the Supreme Mind conceives the whole of it,
if the whole of a mathematical infinity be not a contra¬
diction in terms : but furely no man will fay that he
can conceive an infinite feries as he conceives a centaur,
and have an adequate and diftinCt view of it at once. If,
bv conceiving that in an infinite feries fome one num¬
ber may bear the lame ratio to another that the fide
of a fquare bears to its diagonal, the doCtor only
means that fuel) a fuppofition may be made, his obfer-
vation is not to the purpofe lor which it is brought j
for the queftion is not about our power to make mp-
pofitions of this kind, but about our power to laile. in
our imaginations an adequate and diftinCI mental view
of poflible or impoflible exiftence. “ lo fuppofe
(fays Johnfon), is to advance by way of argument or
illuftration, without maintaining the truth of the po-
fition.” In this fenfe a man may fuppofe that in an
infinite feries there may be fome one number which
bears the fame ratio to another that the fide ox a fquaie
bears to its diagonal : but fuch a fupponticn contains
in it nothing that is poftive, which conception always
3
H Y S I C S. 581
does} it is only admitting, for the fake of argument, Of Simple
a pofition, of the truth or falfehood of which the
perfon who makes the fuppofition knows nothing.— Conception.
He is only talking of ratios as a blind man may talk i-n v ■—'»
of colours. A man born blind may be made to com¬
prehend many of the laws of optics, and may make
iuppofitions about colours, and reafon from fuch fup-
poiitions to a certain extent, as clearly and juftly as
one who fees but will any perfon fay that a man blind
from his birth can conceive red or green ? It is much
the fame with refpect to an infinite feries. We can
follow fuch a feries fo far, and may know the ratio by
which it increafes or decreafes, and reafon from what
we know with the utmoft certainty : but no man ever
conceived the whole of an infinite feries as he conceives
an individual objeft ; nor can any reafonings upon the
nature of it be applied to the queftion of conceiving
impoflible exiftence.
But “ mathematicians often require us (fays Dr
Reid) to conceive things that are impoflible, in order
to prove them to be lo. This is the cafe in all their
demonftrations ad abfurdurn. Conceive (fays Euclid)
a right line drawn from one point of the circumference
of a circle to another, to fall without the circle. I
conceive this, I reafon from it, until I come to a con-
fequence that is manifeftly abfurd, and from thence
conclude that the thing which I conceived is impof-
fible.” If it be indeed true, that Euclid defires his
readers to conceive a mathematical circle with a line
drawn from one point of its circumference to another,
and that line lying without the circle—if he really de¬
fires them to form fuch a complex conception as this,
we have no hefitation to affirm, that he requires them
to do what is manifeftly impoflible. The writer of this
article has not in his cuftody any copy of the Elements
in the original Greek, and therefore cannot fay with
certainty what are Euclid’s words, nor is it of much
importance what they be ; for on a queftion which
every man may decide for himfelf, by looking into his
own mind, the authority of Euclid is nothing.—The
.propofition to which the doftor refers, is the fecond
of the third book ; and, in the edition of Simpfon, is
expreffed thus: “ If any two points be taken in the
circumference of a circle, the ftraight line which
joins them (hall fall within the circle.” Every ma¬
thematician who can form an adequate conception of
a circle and a ftraight line, perceives the truth of
this propofition inftantly, for it refults neceffarily
from his conception ; but he who has not an adequate
conception of a circle, may ft and in need of a demon¬
ftration to fliow him the truth : for it is to be ob-
ferved, that demonftration does not make truth ; it on¬
ly points it out to thofe who cannot perceive it intui¬
tively, juft as a microfcope does not make the hairs on
a mite’s back, but only brings them within the field of
yifion.
Were a man who never examined a mite through
a microfcope, and who has no adequate ideas of the
infeft kingdom, to be alked whether there be hairs on
a mite’s back ? he would probably anfwer that he did
not know, but he could conceive no fuch hairs. In like
manner, were a man who has no adequate conception of
a mathematical circle, to be alked whether a ftraight line,
which joins any two contiguous points in the circum¬
ference, could lie without the circle ? he "would pro¬
bably
-582
Of- Simple bably anftver that he did not know. Now it is to be
ZT,T remcmbered> that the reader of the Elements can have
Cor cepnon.110 very adequate conception of a circle when he comes
< y to the fecond propofition of the third book. The de¬
finition of a circle was indeed given him in the intro-
dudion to the firft book; but of that definition he has
hitherto had occafion to make very little ufe, fo that
his idea of a circle will be little more accurate than
that of an illiterate clown, who has no other idea
of the figure than what he takes from a halfpenny or
+ See Lord a {billing. Dr Reid himfelf has elfewhere -f well ob-
Sb'Trh*. rf ^ervt;d, that “ when a youth of moderate parts begins
the iiftory ftudy Euclid, every thing at firif is new to him.
e>f Man; rl's apprehenfion is unfteady ; his judgment is feeble,
Appendix and relts partly upon the evidence of 'the thino-, and
S°kenehfirft P-artIy Up°n thR authorily of I”* teacher : but'every
the Sci- Eme he goes ovep the definitions, the axioms, the
•nces. elementary propofitions, more light breaks in upon
metaphysics.
Part
and not real material things; and fuch a requeft would Of Ab.tra
have been the lame thing as if he had faid, Conceive tion ,nd
what cannot be conceived (l). general
We have infilled the longer on this point, becaufe Ideas'
we think it of the higheft importance: lor were it in- ir"*
deed true, that we could conceive impoflible exiltence
the confequences would be very melancholy. Ihefe
confequences it is needlefs to enumerate. Our read
ers will perceive, that il we could put together incon"
fillent ideas of fcnlible objeds, and view them fo united
as one confiltent whole, nothing is clearer than that
our faculties would be contrived to deceive us, and we
would be doomed to cheerlefs and univerfal feepti-
nfrn. A
Chap. IV. Of Abstraction and general
Ideas.
him ; the language becomes familiar, and conveys
clear and Heady conceptions.” In this ftate he cer¬
tainly is when he reads for the firfi time the fecond
propofition of the third book : his conception of a
circle can then be neither clear nor Heady. Our young
geometrician, however, mull; allow, that the propofition
is either true or falfe ; and if he has read the preced¬
ing books with any advantage, he muft have clear and
Heady conceptions of angles and triangles, and be able
to demonftrate many of their properties. k‘ Well (fays
Euclid), though you have no adequate conception of
a circle, you are well acquainted with plane angles
and triangles, and many of their properties : let us
fuppofe, it that be poflible, that my propofition is
falfe, and I will Hiow you that the fuppofition is abfo-
lutely inconfiftent with what you know to be demon-
flrable or felf-evident truth.”" This is all which Euclid
can be fuppofed to require, when, in the words of his
excellent tranflator, he fays, “ If it (viz. the firaight
line) do not fall wuthin (the circle), let it fall, if pof.
fible, without.” He could not poflibly defire a man
who has an adequate idea of a circle, to form the pofi-
tive and . complex, conception of that figure, with a
flraight line touching two points of the circumference,
and yet lying on the outfide of the circumference 5 be-
caufe all his figures and lines are mere conceptions,
. EVERY fenfible objed is an individual, and differs Ever! fen
in many refpe(Hs from every other objea. As fuch it Able objedt
is perceived by the fenfes j and ideas being nothingand every
more than reliefs of fenfation preferved in the imagi- are in*i
nation or memory, every idea muff of courfe be an™1*1*
individual, as much as the objeft to which it refers.
-But all feience, whether mathematical, moral, or me-
taphyfical, is converfant about general truths 5 and if
truth confift, as we have already obferved, and ffiall
more fully evince afterwards, in the agreement or co¬
incidence of ideas, how, it may be alked, can gene¬
ral truth refult from the comparifon ot particular ideas ?
I o get rid of this difficulty, many philofophers, both
ancient and modern, pretend that the mind is furniffi-
ed with general ideas, from a comparifon of which re-
ffilt general propofitions applicable to many individuals.
Philofophers, indeed, have differed in opinion refnedt-
mg the fource of thofe ideas, feme of the ancients
deriving them immediately from the Supreme Mind
to the human, whilfl almofl all the moderns fay that
they are framed by abffradion, and therefore call them
ahJlraSl ideas.
The dodfrine of abJlraEl ideas has been fo fairly The dL
Hated, and, in our opinion, fo completely overturned tnne oi ab-
by Biffiop Berkeley, that we ffiall content ourfelves’ideas
with abridging what he has faid on the fubjeft, andftated’aPi
obviating
tW tl n TP lL. of tbe commonly received dodtrine of abflradlion, and having ffiown
tnat thmygh Locke has in one paffage of Ins immortal work expreffed himfelf on the fubjea in termf unintel-
bgibie, his fentiments on the who e differed little from thofe of Berkeley and Hume, 'Lids, “ Some of the
greateff admirers of that eminent philoffipher feem to have overlooked entirely the preceding account of his fern
tiinents on this_ fubjeaiand, through I know not what paffion for the paradoxical (I ffiould rather fay the im-
] . ble and unintelligible), have ffiown an amazing zeal for defending the propriety of the hafly expreffions
which appear m the paffages formerly referred to. Has not the mind of man (fay they) an unlimited power in
moulding and combining its ideas ? The mind, it muft be owned, hath an unlimited power in moulding and
combining its ideas. It often produces wonderful forms of its own out of the materials originally fupplied by
fenfe , foims indeed of w hich there is no exemplar to be found in nature centaurs and griffins, ^ ^
Gorgons and hydras, and chimeras dire.
But Hill it muft not attempt abfolute impoffibilities, by giving to its creature contradiaory qualities. It muft
W aTdCt7oTl7iV eiRme ith,rg n0 be blaCk ?nd white at the time; to be no mo^than three inches
i b 7 ! 1311 i!’1’? tll0U!kn.d ’ to conceive two or more lines to be both equal and unequal; the fame
tWl-L q 0P£/ v7 ; oh}t’ and n?ht °r we nia-y addi the tw® fides of a triangle to be not greater than
the third. See Philofophy of Rhetoric, vol. ii. p. 108, &c. b 1 £
phap
iif Abftrac
tion and
general
Ideas.
■Introd
yjjt to the
‘r'licipla
f Hutnuu
piow-
tdge.
IV.
METAPHYSICS.
583
obviating Tome envils which have lately been urged
a gain it his reafoning. “ It is agreed on all hands
(fays that learned and ingenious prelate*), that the
j qualities or modes of things do never really exilt each
-of them apart by itfelf and feparated from all others j
but are mixed, as it were, and blended together, feve-
ral in the fame object. But, we are told the mind be¬
ing able to confider each quality fingly, or abltrafted
from thofe other qualities with which it is united, does
by that means frame to itfelf abftraft ideas. For ex¬
ample : There is perceived by fight an object extended,
coloured, and moved : this mixed or compound idea,
the mind refoiving into its fimple conttituent parts, and
viewing each by itfelf exclufive of the reft, does frame
the abftract ideas of extenfion, colour, and motion. Not
that it is poftible for colour or motion to exilf without
extenfion ; but only that the mind can frame to itfelf
by abflraciion the idea of colour exclufive of extenfion,
and of motion exclufive of both colour and extenfion.
Again, The mind having obferved, that in the particu¬
lar extenfions perceived by fenfe, there is fomething
common and alike in all, and fome other things pecu¬
liar, as this or that figure or magnitude, which diuin-
guiih them from one another 5 it confiders apart, or
ftngles out by itfelf, that which is common, making
thereof a molt abftraft idea of extenfion, which is neither
line, furface, nor folid, nor has any figure or magnitude,
but is an idea entirely prefeinded from all thefe. So
likewife the mind, by leaving out of the particular co¬
lours perceived by fenfe that which diftinguilhes them
one from another, and retaining that only which is com¬
mon to all, makes an idea of colour in abltract, which
is neither red, nor blue, nor white, nor any other deter¬
minate colour. And as the mind frames to itfclf abftradft
ideas of qualities or modes, fo does it by the fame preci-
fion or mental feparation attain abftrad ideas of the
more compounded beings, which include fcveral coex-
iftent qualities. For example : The mind having ob¬
ferved that Peter, James, and John, referable each other
in certain common agreements of ftiape and other qua¬
lities, leaves out of the complex or compounded idea it
has of Peter, James, and any other particular man,
that which is peculiar to each, retaining only what
is common to all, and fo makes an abftracf idea
wherein all the particulars equally partake, abo raffing
entirely from and cutting oft' all thofe circumftances
and differences which might determine it to any par¬
ticular exiftence. After this manner, it is faid, we
come by the abftraff idea of man, or, if you pleafe,
humanity or human nature, in which, it is true, there
is ineluded colour, becaufe there is no man but has
fome colour •, but then it can be neither black, nor
white, nor any particular colour, becaufe there is no
one particular colour wherein all men partake. bo
likewife there is included ftature ; but then it is nei¬
ther tall ftature, nor low ftature, nor middle fta'ure,
but fomething abftraffed from all thefe ; and fo of the
reft. Moreover, there being a great varietv of other
creatures that partake in fome parts, but not all, of
the complex idea of man ; the mind, leaving out thofe
parts which are peculiar to man, and retaining thofe
only which are common to all the living creatures,
frameth the idea of animal; which abftraffs not only
from all particular men, but alfo from all birds, beafts,
fifties, and infeefs. The conftituent parts of that ab-
ftradf idea of animal, are body, life, fenfe, and fpon- Of Abftrac-
tanteous motion. By bothj, is meant body without any
particular lhape or figure, there being no one ftiape or ideas.
figure common to all animals, without covering cither 1 J
of hair or feathers or feales, &c. and yet not naked ;
hair, feathers, feales, and nakednefs, being the diftin-
guifiling properties of particular animals, and for that
reafon left out of the abjlracl idea. Upon the fame
account, the fpontaneous motion mult be neither
walking, nor flying, nor creeping : it is neverthelefs
motion ; but what that motion is, it is not eafy to
conceive. 84
“ Whether others have this wonderful faculty of controvert-
abjlracling their ideas (continues the bilhop), they befted; and
can tell j for myfelf, I find indeed that i have a facul¬
ty of imagining or reprefenting to myfelf the ideas
of thofe particular things which I have perceived, and
of varioufly compounding and dividing them. I can
imagine a man with two heads, or the upper parts of
a man joined to the body of a horfe. I can confider
the hand, the eye, the nofe, each by itfelf abftrafted
or feparated from the reft of the body. But then,
whatever hand or eye I imagine, it muft have fome
particular ftiape, and fome particular colour —Like¬
wife the idea of man that I frame to myfelf, muft
be either of a white, or a black, or a tawney, a
ftraight or a crooked, a tall or a low, or a middle-
fized man. I cannot by any effort of thought con¬
ceive the abftracf idea above deferibed. Io be plain,
I own myfelf able to abftraift in one fenfe, as when I
confider fome particular parts or qualities feparated
from others with which, though they are united in
fome objects, yet it is poftible they may really exift
without them. But I deny that I can abftraift one
from another, or conceive feparately thofe qualities
which it is impoflible fliould exift fo feparated ; or that
I can frame a general notion by abftraftdng from par¬
ticulars in the manner aforefaid j and there are grounds
to think moft men will acknowledge themfelves to be.
in my cafe.” -
To think this, there are indeed fuch good grounds,
that it is probable fome of our readers, little conver-be abfurd.
fant with the writings of modern metaphyficians, are
by this time dilpoled to fulpe<ft, that the bifliop in
his zeal may have mifreprefented the doftrine of ab-
firaction ; as no man in his fenfes, who is not perverted
by fome darling hypothefis, can fuppofe himfelf ca¬
pable of tagging together fuch monftrous inconfiften-
cies, as magnitude which is neither large nor fmall,
and colour which is neither white, red, green, nor
black, &c. But that the ingenious prelate, in his.
account of this proeefs of lopping and pruning, as Mr
Harris contemptuoufly, but moft properly, terms it,
has not exaggerated in the fmalleft degree, is apparent
from the following account of abJlraEtion given by Mr
Locke. “ AbJlraB ideas (fays that writer) are not fo
obvious or eafy to children, or the yet unexercifed
mind, as particular ones. If they feem fo to grown
men, it is only becaufe by contlant and familiar ufe
they are made fo *, for when we nicely refleift upon
them, we fhall find that general ideas are fid ions and
contrivances of the mind that carry difficulty with
them, and do not fo eafily offer themfelves as we are
apt to imagine. For example, does it not require
fome pains and fkill to form the general idea of a
triangle
S&4
Of Abftrac
tion and
general
Ideas.
* Philofo-
phy of Rhe
tone.
86
Abftraft
conceptions
the fame
with ab-
ftract idea;
M E T A P
- triangle (which Is yet none of the moft abHraft, com-
prt icnfive, and difficult) ? for It mult be neither oblique
nor reflangle, neither equilateral, equicrural, nor fca-
lenon, out a l and none ojf thefe at once. In effeft, it is
fomething imperfeft that cannot exift, an idea wherein
lome parts of feveral different and inconfijtent ideas are
pul together.” “ Surely (to ufe the words of Prin¬
cipal Campbell *) the bare mention of this hypothecs
is equivalent to a confutation of it, fince it really
confutes itfelf.” But if any man has the faculty of
framing in his mind fuch an idea of a triangle as is
here defcribed, it would be vain in us to difpute
with him ; for we are poffeifed of no fuch faculty,
and therefore would fight on unequal terms. All
we have to defire is, that the reader would fully and
certainly inform himielf whether he has fuch an idea
or^ not ^ and tins can be no hard talk to perform.
What is more eafy for any one than to look a lit¬
tle into his own thoughts, and there try whether he
has, or cap attain to have, an idea of colour feparated
from all extenjion ; of extension, which is neither great nor
fmcll; of taflc, which is neither fweet nor bitter, nor
aad, nor agreeable, nor difagreeable; or the general idea
of a triangle, which is neither oblique nor reBangle, equi¬
crural, equilateral, nor fealenon, but all and none of thefe
at once (m) ?
heid having denied that there are or can be
in the mind any ideas of fenfible objects, re^efts of
courfe the doftrine of ahf raft general'ideas, whilft he
maintains in faft the fame thing, only fubftituting the
word conception for the word idea. “ What hinders
me (fays he) from attending to the whitenefs of the
paper before me, without applying that colour to
any other object: ?” We know nothing indeed which
can hinder any man from performing this, operation,
which is daily and hourly performed by infants j but
will the dodtor fay, that he can attend to colour, or
conceive it, abltradted from the paper and every other
furface T We are perfuaded he will not, though he
immediately adds, the “ whitenefs of this individual
objedt is an abfraft conception^ Now we fiiould ra¬
ther have thought, that, confiftent with his own no¬
tions of colour, he would have called the whitenefs of
the paper a concrete quality, and his own conception of
it a particular and concrete conception. If he conceives
the whitenefs as feparated from the paper, it is no
longer the whitenefs of that individual okjeft : and he
muft either conceive it as abftradted from all objedts,
which is plainly impoffible : or he muft conceive it as
inhering in fome other objedt, and then neither the
quality of whitenefs, nor his conception of it, is ab-
ftradt in general, but concrete and particular. He
affirms, however, “ that in abftraaion, ftridtly fo call¬
ed, he can perceive nothing that is difficult either to
be underftood or pradliled.” This is going much
farther into the dodtrine than Mr Locke went; for
H Y S I C S. part,
he owned that there was much difficulty in it. LetOfAbftJ
us fee how it becomes fo eafy to Ur Reid. “ What tion an<i1
can be more eafy (fays he) than to diftinguifh the grHne!'al
different attributes which we know to belong to a fub- »
jedt ? In a man, for inftance, to diftinguifti his fize
his complexion, his age, his fortune, his birth, his pro-
feffion,. and twenty other things that belong to him.”
All this indeed, and much more, we can do with the
utmoft eafe; but this is not abftradlion, ftridtly fo
called, nor any thing like abftraaion. We diftinguilh
the fize, the complexion, the age, &c. of the man, from
one another; but ftill we conceive them all as his qua¬
lities ; nor is it poffible, at leaft for us, to abfraft them
from him, without conceiving them as the qualities of
fome other man ; fo that our conceptions are all con¬
crete and particular. “ It ought likewife to be ob-
ferved (fays the. profeffor), that attributes may with
periea eafe be diftinguifhed and disjoined in our con¬
ception, which cannot be aftually feparated in the fub-
jedt.” They may be fo in his conception, but cer¬
tainly not in ours ; for we can conceive nothing which
may not aaually exift, “ Thus (continues he) I can
in a. body diftinguifti its folidity from its extenfion,
and its weight from both. In extenfion, I can di¬
ftinguifti length, breadth, and thicknefs; yet none of
thefe can be feparated from the body, or from one
another. It is therefore certain, that attributes, which
in their nature are abfolutely infeparable from their
fubjedt, and from one another, may be disjoined in our
conception ; one cannot exif without the other, but
one can be conceived without the other.” So far is
this from being a matter of certainty, that in every
poffible fenfe in which we can unuerftand the word
conception, it appears to us as evidently falfe, as that
three and two are equal to nine. It is indeed not dif¬
ficult to diftinguifti in a body its folidity from its ex- !
tenfion, and its weight from both : but can we diftin¬
guifti them out of the body ? or, to fpeak in plain
language, can we conceive folidity as feparated from
all extenfion and all weight ? Unlefs this can be done,
and by us it cannot be done, there is no abfiraftion
firiftly fo called. It is indeed eafy to conceive folidity
or extenfion abftradfed from any one individual object :
but how is it done ? Why by transferring your at¬
tention to fome other individual objeft. Thus, we can
eafily conceive folidity or extenfion feparated from a
guinea, for inftance; but it is only by transferring our
thoughts to another body, a piece offilver, or a ball of
lead, &c. and our conceptions in both cafes are parti¬
cular and concrete.
As we think this opinion of Dr Reid’s refpe&ing
abstraction both ill-founded and of danuerous con-
fequences, we have expreffed our diffent from it in
ftrong terms; and in doing fo we have only followed
the example fet us by himfelf when diffenting from the
theories of Hume and Berkeley. But we are fo tho¬
roughly
. (M) “ ^ an extraordinary faculty (abftraiftion) were poffible, I cannot for my part conceive what purpofe
it could ferve. .An idea hath been defined by fome logicians, the form or refemblance of a thing in the mind;
and the whole of its power and ufe in thinking is fuppofed to arife from an exadt conformity to its archetype.
. tnen the ufe or power of that idea, to which there neither is nor can be any archetype in nature, which
is merely a creature of the brain, a monfter that bears not the likenefs of any in the univerfe r” Philo for hv of
•Rhetoric, vol. ii. p. no.
Chap. IV.
3f Abitrac- rouglily convinced that the dolor’s acutenefs is fuperior
tion and t0 our own that we are not without our tears that
geneiat ^ may. miftaken his meaning. We are confci-
*^as~ ous that we have not wilfully mifreprefented it j and
to enable our readers to judge for themfelves be tween
him and us, we lhall lay before them his definition of
g, general conceptions in his own words.
Terms, That there are in every language general terms, is
how they known to all mankind } for fuch are all fubftandves,
Rre proper names excepted } and all adjeftives. But “ it is
EIntel- impoffible (fays the dottor*) that words can have a
general fignification, unlefs there be conceptions in the
Power* of mind of the fpeaker and of the hearer, ot things (n)
that are general* It is to fuch that 1 give the name of
general conceptions: and it ought to be obferved, that
they take this denomination, not from the ait of the
mind in conceiving, which is an individual act ; but
from the object or thing conceived, which is general.
Now, whatever is conceived, mult be either external to
the mind, or prefent with it. But the doitor himfelf
acknowledges, “ That all the objeits we perceive are
individuals. Every objeit of fenfe, of memory, or of
confcioufnefs, is an individual objedt. All the good
things we enjoy or defire, and all the evils we feel 01
fear, mult come from individuals j and I think I may
venture to fay, that every creature which God has
made in the heavens above, or in the earth beneatn, or
in the w'aters under the earth, is an individual. If this
be fo, and no man can call it in queftion, it is obvious
that we can have no general conception of any thing ex¬
ternal. The aEl of conceiving is an individual aEl ; and
therefore the only thing which can be general, mull be
fomething prefent with the mind, and different from the
mere aid of conceiving : But what can this be, if not what
88 Berkeley and others call an idea ? and how can we have
of general an ^ea Gf which we are not confcious ? yet every thing
gfica- of which we are confcious Dr Reid himfelf acknow¬
ledges to be an individual.
But if the doftrine generally received refpe&ing ab-
ftraft ideas be fo very abfurd as it has appeared in our
reprefentation, how comes it to be fo prevalent among
the acuteft philofophers ? To this we anfwer, that thofe
philofophers have certainly in this inllance been im-
pofed upon by the ftru&ure of language. Every ad-
je&ive and every fubftantive, proper names excepted,
are words of general fignification ; and all fcience is
converfant about general truth; but as words are faid
to be fignificant, not of things, but of ideas ; and as
truth refults from the agreement or coincidence of
ideas ; it has been haftily fuppofed, that without gene¬
ral ideas there could have been neither general terms
nor general truth. This is plaufible, but it is not folid.
Every objeft which affe&s our fenfes is an individual
obieft } but we perceive that two or more objects which
affeft fome of our fenfes very differently, affedl others
of them in precifely the fame way. I hus, the paper
upon which one writes, the fnow which he perceives
from his window, and the milk which he may uie at
VOL. XIII. Part II.
5 85
breakfafl, affec't his fenfes of touch and tafte very differ-0f;^b^c-
ently, but they preieut the fame appearances to his eye. geK"rjd
This diverfity m the one cafe he believes to proceed I:ieas.
from different powers or qualities in the feveral objects j»— v —’
and the famenefs of appearance in the other, from fimi-
lar qualities in thefe objects. To the fimilar qualities,
though he can frame no idea of them abltracted from
every individual object, he gives one common name;
and calls every objedt which prefents the fame appear¬
ance to his eye that fnow does, a white objedt 5 where
the word white does not Hand for an abflrait idea, but
for a quality inherent in one or more objects. Hence
the origin of adjectives in language, which denote mere
than can be exprelfed by any clafs of fubflantives ; for
every adjective, befides the power of a name, includes
in itfelf the force of a conjunction. See Grammar.
The other clafs of general terms comprehends fub-
ftantives ; of which the origin is as follows : The ob¬
jects about which we have occafion to fpeak or write
are fo numerous and fo fluauating, that if every indi¬
vidual had a proper name, a complete language could
never be formed. But as there are not perhaps in na¬
ture two objeas that appear to us fimilar in all re-
fpea*, fo are there not in nature two objeas which
alfea all our fenfes differently. The mind, therefore,
either aaually perceiving two or more objeas at once,
or contemplating the ideas left by two or more objects
in the memory, perceives, by its intelleaive power, in
what refpeas they agree and in what they difagree.
If the agreement be linking, and in more qualities
than one, it combines the feveral individuals into one
clafs or fpecies, giving to the whole a common name,
which equally denotes the fpecies and every individual
belonging to it. Thus, obferving that Peter, James,
and John, agree in having the fame erea form, in.
walking on two legs, in having hands, 8cc. and in be¬
ing endowed with reafon, we combine thefe three, and
all other individuals which we perceive to agree in the
fame linking and important qualities, into one fpecies,
to which we give the name of man—a word which
equally denotes the whole fpecies and every individual
of it. Again, Contemplating feveral figures, which all
agree in the circumltance of being bounded by three
llraight lines meeting one another fo as to form three
angles, we call the whole clafs of figures and each indi¬
vidual by the name of triangle—though it may be im-
poflible to contemplate any number of triangles with¬
out perceiving that all the angles of one are acute ;
that one angle of another is a right angle j and that in
the third there is one angle obtufe •, but the word tri¬
angle, unlefs it is limited in its fignification by the ad¬
dition of an adjedlive, is equally expreffive of an acute-
angled triangle, a right-angled triangle, and an obtufe-
angled triangle. By thus arranging individuals ac¬
cording to their moll confpicuous qualities, we may
combine all the obje&s exiiling into fo many claffes or
fpecies, which fhall be afterwards known by as many
names 5 but of each fpecies we neither have, nor can
4 E . have,
METAPHYSICS.
fsO Notwithftandine this declaration, which is made with the greateft fmcer.ty, we do not apprehend tha we
are guilt, of nrefumptiem when we examine the doftor’s opinions. Berkeley and Hume were certainly as acu e
any metaphyfician who has fucceeded them ; yet their opinions have been canvaffed without ceremony, and to
with the other ?
586
Of Abftrae- have, any other idea than that of a multitude of fimilar
tlonan“ individuals,
general a
Ideas. -^-s our acquaintance ■with nature enlarges, we dif-
v covcr refemblances, ftriking and important, between one
fpecics and another, which naturally begets the notion
of a higher clafs called a genus. From comparing man
with beads, birds, fifties, and reptiles, we perceive that
they are all alike poffeffed of life, or a principle of fen-
fation and action, and of r.n organized body : hence we
rank them all under a higher clafs or genus, to which
■we give the name of animal; which equally denotes the
■whole genus, each fpecies comprehended under the ge¬
nus, and every individual of every fpecies. Thus, ani-
mal, is a genus ; man, beaf, bird, are fo many fpecies
comprehended under that genus ; and Peter, James, and
John, are individuals of the fpecies man. Peter, James,
and John, are proper names, denoting each an indivi¬
dual ; man, beaf, bird, are fgecifictvrm^, denoting each
a whole fpecies comprifing many individuals ; and ani-
?nal is a general term, becaufe it denotes a whole genus,
comprehending under it feveralfpecies, of which each
con lifts of many individuals; and the general term
denotes eiiher the whok1 genus, all the fpecies, or any
individual of all the fpecies. This is the whole mvftery
of abfraBion : they are merely terms, that in ilrict-
nefs of fpeech are general and abfraS ; and even thofe
are general only asfgns, of which the full figniiication
Sp cannot always be reprefented by any conceivable idea.
Names and “ It is a received opinion (fays Bifhop Berkeley),
ufedasmere ^ larTuage has no other end but the communicating
%ns, ?Ur ^deas’ and bliat every fignificant name Hands for
an idea. This being fo ; and it being withal certain,
that names, which yet are not thought altogether infig-
nificant, do not always mrmk out particular conceivable
ideas; it is ftraightway concluded that they Hand for
abflradl: notions, d hat there are many names in ufe a-
mongfl fpeculative men, which do not always fuggeft
to others determinate particular ideas, is what nobody
will deny : and a little attention will difeover, that it
is not neceffary, even in the ftri&efl reafonings, that
fignificant names, which Hand for ideas, ftiould every
time they are ufed excite in the underftanding the ideas
they are made to Hand for. In reading and difeourf-
ing, names are for the moft part ufed as letters in al¬
gebra ; in which, though a particular quantity be mark¬
ed by each letter, yet to proceed right, it is not re-
quifite that in every ftep each letter fuggeft to our
thoughts that particular quantity it was appointed to
ftand for.” The fame thing is true of ideas, which
as well as names are often ufed merely as figns repre-
fenting a whole clafs ; and on that account they may
be called general, though every idea is in itfelf ftridtly
particular. I hus, “ An idea, which confidered in
itfelf is particular, becomes general by being made to
reprefent or ftand for all other particular ideas of the
fame fort. I o make this plain by an example, fuppofe
a geometrician is demonftrating the method of cutting
a line in two equal parts : He draws, for inftance, a
black line of an inch in length : this, which in itfelf is
a particular line, is neverthelefs, with regard to its fig-
nification, general •, fince, as it is there ufed, it repre-
fents all particular lines whatfoever : fo that what is
demonftrated of it is demonftrated of all lines, or, in
other words, of a line, in general. And as that parti¬
cular line becomes general by being made a fign, fo
2
METAPHYSICS.
Part I
the name line, and the idea of a line in the imagination, Of Abftrac
either of which taken abfolutely is particular, by being t‘on and
figns are made general likewife. And as the former general
owes its generality, not to its being the fign of an ab- , ItlCds'
ftraft or general line, but of all particular right lines ^
that may poflibly exift ; fo the latter, the name and
the idea, mult be thought to derive their generality
fiom the fame caufe, namely, the various particular
lines which each of them indifferently denotes.” A-
gain, When one demonftrates any propofition concern-
ing triangles, it is to be fuppofed that he has in view
to demonftrate an univerfal truth ; yet the particular
triangle which he confiders muft be either equilateral,
ifofceles, or fealenon ; for a plain triangle, which is
none of thefe, can neither exift nor be conceived. But
whether it be of this or that fort is of no importance,
as any of them may equally ftand for and reprefent all
rectilineal triangles, and on that account be denomi¬
nated univerfal.
1 his doctrine refpeCling names and ideas being ufed
merely zs figns, has been adopted by almoft every fub-
fequent philofopher ; and by Principal Campbell it
has been illuftrated with perfpicuity and acutenefs
every way worthy of the author of the Differtation on
Mil acres. In confirmation of this dodtrine (fays
he*), it may be obferved, that we really think by * Phihfo-
Jigns,' as well as fpeak by them. All the truths whichi%
conftilute feience, which give exercife to reafon, and uric'
are difeovered by philofophy, are general all our
ideas, in the ftribteft fenle of the word, are particular.
Ak the paiticuiar truths about which we are conver-
fant are properly hiftorical, and compofe the furniture
of memory. Nor do I include under the term hifori-
cal the truths which belong to natural hiftory 5 for even
thefe too are general. Now, beyond particular truth
or hiftorical fads, firft perceived and then remembered,
we ftiould never be able to proceed one fingle ftep in’
thinking any more than in converfing, without the ufe
of figns.
“ When it is affirmed that the whole is equal to all
its parts, there cannot be an affirmation which is more
peffoaiy intelligible, or which commands a fuller af-
fent. If, in order to comprehend this, I recur to
ideas, all that I can do is to form a notion of fome in¬
dividual whole, divided into a certain number of parts
of which it is conftituted ; fuppofe of the year, divided
into the four feafons. Now all that I can be faid
to difeern here is the relation of equality between this
particular whole and its component parts. If I recur
to another example, I only perceive another particular
truth. J. he fame holds of a third and of a fourth.
But fo far am x, after the perception of ten thoufand
particular fimilar inftances, from the difeovery of the
univerfal truth, that if the mind had not the power of
confidering things as figns, or particular ideas as re-
prefenting an infinity of others, refembling in one cir-
cumftance though totally diffimilar in every other, I
could not fo much as conceive the meaning of an uni- .5^
verbal truth. Hence it is that fome ideas, to adopt the ar
expreffion of Berkeley, are particular in their nature,'
but general in their reprefentationJ'' themfelves,
But if in univerfal propofitions, ideas particular inrerve t0 de'
themfelves be ufed only as the figns of others, it may ir'^|'te
be demanded, how we can know any propofition to be fnithT- be-
true of all the ideas which are reprefented by the caufe
fififn ?
M E T A P H Y S I C S.
587
fign ? For example, having demonftrated that the
three angles of an ifofccles reftangular triangle are
equal to two right ones, how can we conclude that
this affection therefore agrees to all other triangles
which have neither a right angle nor two equal lides ?
To this queftion Biihop Berkeley and Principal Camp¬
bell give the following anfwer : Though the idea we
have in view whiltt wa make the dcmonftration be that
of an ifofceles rectangular triangle, whofe tides are of
a determinate length, we may yet be certain that the
demonftration extends to all other reCtilineal triangles
of what fort or bignefs foever ; for tins plain reafori,
that neither the equality nor determinate length of the
tides, nor the right angle, are at all concerned in the
demonftration. It is true, the idea or diagram we
have in view includes all thefe particulars 5 but then
there is not the leaft mention made of them in the
proof of the propofition. It is not faid the three
angles are equal to two right angles, becaufe one of
them is a right angle, or becaufe the fides comprehend¬
ing it are of equal length ; which fufficiently (hows
that the right angle might have been oblique and the
fides unequal; and for all that the demonftration have
held good. In every one of Euclid’s theorems, a par¬
ticular triangle, and a particular parallelogram, and a
particular circle, are employed as ftgns to denote all
triangles, all parallelograms, and all circles. When a
geometrician makes a diagram with chalk upon a
board, and from it demonftrates the property of a
ftraight-lined figure, no fpe&ator ever imagines that
he is demonftrating a property of nothing elfe but that
individual white figure, five inches long, which is before
him.—Every one is fatisfied that he is demonftrating
a property of all of that order, whether more or lefs ex-
tenfive, of which it is both an example and a fign ;
all the order being underftood to agree with it in cer¬
tain characters, however different in other refpeCts.
Nay, what is more, the mind with the utmoft facility
extends or contracts the reprefentative porver of the
fign as the particular occafion requires. Thus the
fame equilateral triangle will with equal propriety
ferve for the demonftration, not only of a property of
all equilateral triangles, but of a property of all ifo-
fceles triangles, or even of a property of all triangles
whatever. Nay, fo perfectly is this matter underflood,
that if the demonftrator in any part fhould recur to
fome property belonging to the particular figure he
hath conftruCted, but not effential to the kind men¬
tioned in the propofition, and which the particular
figure is folely intended to reprefent, every intelligent
obferver would inftantly deteCt the fallacy : So entire¬
ly for all the purpofes of fcience doth a particular ferve
for a whole fpecies or genus. Now, why one vifible
individual ftiould in our reafonings ferve without the
fmalleft inconvenience as a fign for an infinite number, Of AbAnre*
and yet one conceivable individual, or a particular idea ^
of imagination, ftiould not be adapted to anfwer the qjeas.
fame end, it will, we imagine, be utterly impoflible to v—^ 1
fay (n).
It muft, however, be confeffed, that there is a con-
fiderable difference in kind, between ideas ufed as figns
and the general terms of any language. Amongft all
the individuals of a fpecies, or even of the higheft ge¬
nus, there is ftill a natural connexion, as they agree
in the fpecific or generic charaCler j and when the
mind makes ufe of any pofitive idea as the fign of the
fpecies or genus, that idea appears in the imagination
as an exaCt refemblance of fome one individual. But
the connexion which fubfifts between words and things,
or even between words and ideas, is in its origin ar¬
bitrary j and yet its effeCt upon the mind is much the
fame with that of the natural connexion between ideas
and things. For having often had occafion to obferve
particular words ufed as figns of particular things, and
fpecific terms ufed as figns of a whole fpecies, wre con-
trad a habit of affociating the fign with the thing fig-
nified, infomuch that either being prefented to the
mind neceffarily introduces or occafions the appre-
henficn of the other. Cuftom in this inftance ope¬
rates precifely in the fame manner as natural refem¬
blance in the other 5 fo that certain founds, and the
ideas of things to which they are not naturally relat¬
ed, come to be as thoroughly linked in our concep¬
tions as the ideas of things and things themfelves.
Nay, fo completely are they linked together, that we
often ufe, through long chains of reafoning, certain
founds or words, without attending at all to the ideas
or notions of which they are figns. “ I believe (fays
the author of A Treatife on Human Natwe), that every¬
one who examines the fituation of his mind in reafon¬
ing will agree with me, that we do not annex diftind
and complete ideas to every term we make ufe of;
and that in talking of government, church, negotiation,
conquejl, we feldom fpread out in our minds all the
fimple ideas of which the compound notions fignified
by thefe terms are compofed. It is, however, obferv-
able, that ntitwithftanding this imperfedlion, we may
avoid talking nonfenfe on thefe fubjeds, and may per¬
ceive any repugnance among the ideas as wrell as if
we had a full comprehenfion of them.” This remark
generally holds true ; but then it is to be obferved, that
all the words ufed as figns, and which yet do not denote
anv one conceivable determinate idea, muft be capable
of definition. Thus, in matters that are perfedly fa¬
miliar, in fimple narration, or in moral obfervations on
the occurrences of life, a man of common underftand-
ing may be deceived by fpecious falfehood, but is hard¬
ly to be gulled by downright nonfenfe or a repug-
4 E 2 nance
(n) Were it poffible to frame an abJlraEl general idea of a triangle, which is neither equilateral, ifofceies, nor
fealenon, even that idea muft be ufed merely as a fign as much as ary particular triangle whatever ; and the
queftion might ftill be aftced, How We can know any propofition to be true of all the triangles reprefented by
the fign ? For example : having demonftrated that the three angles of an ideal triangle, which is neither equi¬
lateral, ifofceles, nor fealenon, are equal to two right angles, how can we conclude that this affedion agrees
to triangles which are equilateral, &c. ? To this queftion it is not eafy to conceive what anfwer could be
given other than that of Berkeley and Campbell, in the cafe of ufing p .rticular and conceivable triangles as
'figns.
588
^tion^am^*1131106 ^eas* Almoft all the poffible applications
general °^t^e terms (in other words, all the acquired relations
Ideas. th® figns) have become cuftomary to him. The con-
1 v~" ■1 Sequence is, that an unufual application of any of them
is inftantly detefted : this detection breeds doubt, and
this doubt occafions an immediate recourfe to definition ;
which, proceeding through fpecies and genera, refolves
complex terms into others lefs complex, till it ends at
laft in fimple ideas and relations, which can neither be
pi defined nor mifunderftood (o). See Logic.
it is not 1 hus then we fee, that though there are no ideas,
but the^7 ProPer^y Speaking, general and abftraft, a man may,
pcwe*- of ^7 terms and particular ideas, ufed as figns, arrive at the
the fign knowledge of general truth. In neither cafe is it the
taat is re- mutter, if we may be allowed the expreffion, but the
the'm-'nd^ Power the fign that is regarded by the mind. We
find, that even in demonflrative reafonings, figns the
moft arbitrary, or mere fymbols, may be ufed with as
little danger of error as ideas or natural figns. The
operations both of the algebraift and arithmetician are
Itridily of the nature of demonflration. The one em¬
ploys as figns the letters of the alphabet, the other cer¬
tain numerical charafters. In neither of thefe arts is
it neceffary to form ideas of the quantities and fums
Signified ; in fome inftances it is even impoffible without
refolving the quantity or fum into parts, in a manner
analogous to definition j and then the mind comprehends
not the whole quantity or number at once, but the fe-
veral parts of which it is compofed, which it connects
(p) by the relation of junftion or addition. Yet with¬
out this refolution, the equations and calculations car¬
ried on by means of the letters and figures fignificant
of the whole quantity or the whole fum, are not the
lefs accurate or convincing. And fo much for abfirac-
tion, generalisation, and the power of figns, whether
natural or artificial.
Chap. V. O/*/^ Association c/Tdeas.
9*.
Acontinu- If.VERY man whilft awake is confcious of a eonti-
thou htin nue^ train °f thought fpontaneoufly arifing in his
rhemincL1 anc* Pa^'ing through it ; nor could a fingle now
or inftant be pitched upon in which fome idea is not
prefent in his memory or imagination. No one idea,
however, unlefs detained by a voluntary exertion of
the mind, or unlefs productive of intenfe pleafure or
pain, remains long in the imagination ; but each haf-
tens off the ftage to make way for another, which
takes its turn and is fucceeded by a third, &c. We
are not to imagine that this train of thought is alto¬
gether fortuitous and incoherent. “ It is evident
’ m/ayt. (fays Mr Hume *), that there is a principle of con¬
nexion between different thoughts or ideas of the
mind ; and that, in their appearance to the memory
or imagination, they introduce each other with a cer-
Part ij
tain degree of method and regularity. In our more Affociatioi!
ferious thinking or difeourfe this is fo obfervable, that ®fIdeai.
any particular thought which breaks in upon the re- »^
gular trapk or chain of ideas is immediately remarked
and rejefted. Even in our wildeft and moft wandering
reveries, nay, in our very dreams, we fhall find, if we
refleCt, that the imagination ran not altogether at ad¬
ventures, but that there was ftill a connexion upheld
among the different ideas which fucceeded each other.
Were the loofeft and freeft converfation to be tran-
feribed, there would immediately be obferved fome-
thing which connected it in all its traniitions : Or,
where this is wanting, the perfon who broke the thread
of difeourfe might ftill inform you, that there had fecret-
ly revolved in his mind a fucceflion of thoughts, which
had gradually led him from the fubjeCt of converfa¬
tion. Among different languages, even where we
cannot fufpeCt the leaft connexion or communication,
it is found, that words expreffive of ideas the moft com¬
pounded, do yet nearly correfpond to each other ; a
certain proof that the fimple ideas comprehended in
the compound ones, were bound together by fome uni-
verfal principle, which had an equal influence on all
mankind.” ^
That thefe obfervations are well founded, every Principles
man may be fatisfied by looking attentively into his°f a^0C‘J'’
own thoughts ; but when the author reduces the prin-tlon*
ciples of this affociation of ideas to three, viz. refiem-
blance, contiguity in time and place, and caufe or ejjcB,
he certainly contraCls them within too narrow a com-
pafs. That thefe principles often ferve to conned
ideas, will not indeed be denied. A piClure leads our
thoughts to the original: the mention of one apart¬
ment in a building introduces an inquiry or difeourfe
concerning the others : and if we think of a wound,
we can hardly forbear refleding on the pain which fol¬
lows it. But furely ideas fometimes fucceed each
other without refiemblance, without contiguity in time
or in place, and without being conneded by the rela¬
tion of a caufie to its effeB. Befides all this, there are
other affociations than of ideas. Ideas are affociated
with paflions and emotions, and paffions and emotions
are affociated together. A particular idea is affoci-
ated with a proper name, and often with the general
name of the fpecies. General conceptions, fuch as thofe
which Mr Locke calls mixed modes (fee Mode), are
affociated with figns both audible and vifible, and figns
are affociated with each other. Surely virtue, as it con-
fifts in adion and intention, does not refemble the found
virtue, is not contiguous to it in time or in place, and
is neither its caufie nor its efifeB ; nor is it conceivable,
that the arbitrary figns of different things fhould have
any natural relation to one another.
But were the enumeration complete, the bare men¬
tion of thefe principles does not account for the phe¬
nomena : •
METAPHYSICS.
(o) For a farther view of this fubjed, fee fome excellent obfervations on the common dodrine concern¬
ing abilradion by Profeffor Dugald Stewart of Edinburgh. Klements of the Philofophy of the Human
Mind.
^ (p) No man, we think, will pretend that he can perceive at one view a million of individual men, or
that he can imagine or conceive at once a million of ideal men : yet he may divide the million into parts,
which, in the one cafe may be eafily viewed, and in the other may be eafily conceived, in fucceflion. Thus,
i oo-j-1 oo+ 100, &c.
2hap. V. M E T A P
vffociation nomena : For, granting the faft, it may ftill be afeed,
of Ideas VVhy does a pidturd lead our thoughts to the original;
— > or the mention of one apartment in a building introduce
an inquiry concerning the others ? To thefe quell ions
our author has given no anfwer; nor are we acquainted
with any writer who can be faid to have attempted it,
except Dr Hartley and his ingenious editor. There
may be fome of our readers whom the names of thefe
men will prejudice againlt their theory •, but, doubtlefs,
the greater part are willing to adopt truth, or to exa¬
mine an ingenious fpeculation, from whatever quarter it
comes. To fuch as feel themfelves otherwife difpofed,
we beg leave to fay, that it they allow the name of
. Priejlley to difguft them at what follows, they will
furnilh him with a new proof of the truth of the doctrine
94 which they reject.
I How they That ideas thould be aflbciated together, feems to
joperate. inevitable from the manner in which the mind ac¬
quires them. All our ideas, properly fpeaking, are
of fenfible objedts, and by far the greater part of them
of vijible objedts. But every fenlible objedt conveys
at once various fenfations and perceptions to the mind,
which appear not only united in fadt, but infeparable
in imagination. Thus, when a man looks at any par¬
ticular objedt, a tree for inltance, he perceives the
trunk, branches, leaves, Ji'&e, Jhape, and colour, &c. of
the whole at once : he does not lirlt perceive the Jigui e
of the trunk, then its Ji^e, then its colour, then ihe
branches, &c. all in fucceffion •, but a perception of the
whole is conveyed to the mind by one limultaneous
impreflion We have already feen, that the
fenfes, in fadt, convey nothing to the mind but their
refpedtive fenlations 5 and that the perception of the
external obiedt inftantly follows the fenfation. We
have like wife feen, that fenfation is occalioned by
fome impreflion, concuflion, or vibration, given to
the nerves and brain, and by them communicated to
the mind or percipient being. We have like wife feen,
that memory depends as much upon the brain as ori¬
ginal fenfation, and is always attended or occafioned
by fimilar concuflions or vibrations, &c. I hefe are
fadts proved by univerfal experience, and which, we
believe, no thinking man has ever called in queftion.
It follows, therefore, that every adtual fenfation muft
leave fome effedl in the brain, either an adtual print,
which feems to be impoflible, or a tendency to vibrate
or be agitated in the fame way as when the original
impreflion was made. Fliis being the cafe, it is na¬
tural to conclude, that when any part of the original
perception is revived in the memory, the whole per¬
il Y S I C S.
589
ception fhould be revived at once, fo as that we cannot A®j0-j““n
have an idea of the trunk of a tree without perceiving , 0 ‘ j
the ideas of the branches affociated with it. This is
indeed not merely natural, but the contrary feems to
be impoflible ; for as the original agitation or vibra¬
tion was occationed by the whole tree, it is evident,
that whatever effedt or tendency that agitation or
vibration left behind it, muft be left by the whole vi¬
bration, and therefore be equally related to the whole
tree.
But no objedt Hands Angle in nature. When we
view a tree, or any thing elfe, we always notice, how¬
ever tranuently, the fteld where it grows and the ob¬
jedts around it. Thefe too leave ehedts in the brain
at the fame time that the tree does fo} and therefore
make their appearance with it in the memory or ima¬
gination : but if the tree was the objedt to which we
principally attended during the adtual fenfation, the
idea of it will be much more vivid than the idea of its
adjuncts, and remain much longer in the imagination
or memory 5 becaufe the original fenfation by which it
was perceived, was ftruck much deeper than the fen¬
fations by which its adjundts were perceived. All
this muft be intelligible to every one who attends to
what we have already faid of fenfation, perception, and
memory.
Thus we fee why a pidture leads our thoughts tc-
the original, and why the mention of one apartment
in a building introduces an inquiry concerning the
others. It is not merely becaufe the pidture refembles
the original, and becaufe the apartments of a building
are contiguous. Between a plain furface, variouily co¬
loured and fttaded, and the contour of the human
face, there is certainly very little real refemblance, as
any man may be convinced who places his eye with¬
in Ax inches of a good pidture. But the painter, hav¬
ing by his Ikill in perfpedtive, contrived to lay his
colours on the plain canvas in fuch a manner as that
they refledt the fame rays of light with the original,
provided the fpedtator Hand at the proper diftance j
thefe rays proceeding from the pidture fall upon the eye
in the fame diredtion, and therefore give to the nerves
and brain the very fame impulfe which was given by
the original. When one apartment of a building is
mentioned, we inquire concerning the others from the
very fame caufe that, when we think of the trunk of
a tree which we have feen, we cannot avoid thinking
likewife of its branches. 95
But the principle of aflbeiation takes place among Affociation
things not naturally conne&ed, as the apartments of
a words of
     language:
(o ) This is certainly the cafe with adults, but it may be doubted whether it be fo with very young c 1 -
dren. ^ It has been fhown already, that the fenfation communicated by the eye from any viAble objedt, has
not the leaft refemblance to that objeft •, and that in looking at a tree or any thing elfe, a full-grown man
pays not the leaft attention to the appearance which the tree really makes to his eye ; nay, that he is no ev en
confcious of that appearance farther than as it conAfts in colour. It is by the fenfe °f touch only rat
acquire ideas of Agure, even of plain Agure; and we imagine that we perceive them by the eye only be¬
caufe different Agures, as diftinguilhable by touch, are fo clofely affociated with their correfpondmg vi-
flble fenfations, that long before we are capable of inquiry, thefe two things are infeparable m the imag-
nation. It is otherwife with children, who, when they Arft begin to diftinguifti objedts by the fenfe of g ,
appear to do it, with great deliberation, as if they Arft felt the proper fenfation of light and ^ °ur fo °r Jo
modifled, and afterwards acquired, by fomething like a mental inference, a notion of the figure at which t J
are looking.
S9o M E T A P
? bmld!"g r!nd a fubftance and its attributes and ad-
1 ■ Junfts. It is affociation which is the original fource
of all the general or complex conceptions which we
have, and which even gives meaning to the words of
every language. Between founds confidered in them-
felves, and things, or the ideas of things, every one
knows that there is no natural connexion 5 yet the
idea of every known objeft is in the mind of every
man fo ftrictly affociated with the name that it bears
in its native tongue, that the prefence of the one
always fuggefts the other. It cannot indeed be other-
wife, if we attend to the manner in which a child
learns to affix a meaning to the words which he hears.
—A child knows his mother and nurfe, and indeed al-
moft every vifible objeft in the family, long before he
acquires the power of articulation. The impreffions
made by thefe objefts, and repeated daily and hourly
on his brain, every one of which excites a fenfation,
mull foon become fo deep as not to be ealily effaced.
Numbers of them too are affociated together, fo that
the prefence of one introduces the other. It has been
already obferved, that ideas of light are the moll vi¬
vid and the molt lading j but the child hearing the
lame found often repeated, even that found comes in
time to leave in his memory a permanent idea. He
then hears the found nurfe, for indance, uttered at the
time when he is looking earnedly at the perfon of the
nurfe, with whom he is well acquainted, and to whom
he is drongly attached j and having the two ideas re¬
peatedly excited together, they foon become fo af¬
fociated, that the one neceflarily excites the other:
the word nurfe calls into view the idea of the woman
treafured up in his imagination.
But we need not have recourfe to children for the
proof of our affertion. It is obvious that the name of
every dmple and uncompounded idea can be dgnificant
only by affcciation. Of a complex conception the
name may be made intelligible by a definition j but
dmple ideas cannot be defined, and between ideas and
founds there is no natural connexion, fo as that the
one previous to affociation ffiould fuggeft the other.
Even of complex conceptions and mixed modes, the
meaning of the names is generally acquired by af¬
fociation 5 for though it is certainly true, that all fuch
.names are capable of definition, they are yet ufed with
fufficicnt propriety by thoufands who know not what
a definition is. Were a plain unlettered man alked to
define virtue, it is not probable that he could do it fo
.as to make himfclf underflood ; yet having ideas of
the practice ofjufice, charily, fortitude, &c. llriclly af¬
fociated in his mind with the word virtue, he may
know the general meaning of that word as well as the
moff acute grammarian or the moil profound philofo-
pher.
An alms is a donation to a poor man ; but a child
who never heard of this definition knows perfectly
what an alms is, from having often feen his parents
give money to a beggar, and call what they were do¬
ing by the name alms. The found of the word, after
having feen the firfl alms given, will excite in his mind
an idea of the individual objefl who received it, and of
the alhon of him by whom it was given ; but after
having ften feveral poor men relieved, he comes to
aflociate with the word alms any thing given to any
peifon who needs it or appears to be in want.
HYSICS. PartI
So completely does this affociation take place be- Ailbciatio
tween ideas or chillers of ideas, and the w ords bv of Ideas.
which they are expreffed, that even men of letters hear' 
and under ft and perfectly many words without review¬
ing in their minds all the ideas and relations of which
they are the figns. It has been already obferved, that
m talking of government, church, negotiation, conquejl,
we feldom fpread out in our minds all the fimple ideas
of which the compound notions fignified by thefe terms
are compofed 5 and we now add, that the terms may
be ufed with fufficient propriety, and be perfe&ly un-
derftood by thofe who never attempted to analyze the
notions of which they are fignificant into their pri¬
mary and conftituent parts. Every man has read num-
berlefs details of the tranfaflions of one court with
another: lie has hetlrd fuch tranfaflions univerfally
ealled by the term negotiation. The term and the
tranfaflions fignified by it are fo clofely affociated in
his mind, that they are in a manner infeparable: and
by this affociation lie know* the meaning of the term
better than he could have done by the moft complete
definition 5 which, perhaps, he would find it difficult
to give, or even to comprehend.
We have faid that the meaning of the word virtueatd fsfte
is acquired by affociation, by having often heard that^0U),ce
 1! 1 • 1 . . . _
found applied to certain aSiions ; but it is extremely ourf‘rftno'
probable, that the very notion of virtue, fimple and °f W‘
uncompounded as it appears to be, is acquired in the
very fame manner. The frf rudiments of the notions
of right and wrong and obligation feem to be acquired by
a child when he finds himfelf checked and controuled
by fuperior power. At firfl he feels nothing but mere
force,. and confequcntly has no notion of any kind of
reflraint but that of rieceffity. He finds he cannot
have his will, and therefore he fubmits. Afterwards he
attends to many circumflances which diflinguifh the
commands of n father, or of a majler, from thofe of any
other perfon. Notions of reverence, love, efeem, and
dependence, are connedled with the idea of him who
gives thofe commands; and by degrees the child ex¬
periences the peculiar advantages of filial fubjeflion.
He fees alfo that all his companions, who are noticed
and admired by others, obey their parents} and that
thofe who are of a refraftory difpofition are univerfal¬
ly difliked. Thefe and other circumilances now begin to
alter and modify the notion of mere neceffity, till by de¬
grees he confiders the commands of a parent as fbme-
thing that mujl not be refilled or difputed, even though
he has a power of doing it 5 and all thefe ideas coa-
lefcing, form the notions of moral right and moral ob¬
ligation, which are eafily transferred from the com¬
mands of a parent to thofe of a magiftrate, of God,
and of confcience. This opinion of the gradual for¬
mation of the ideas of moral right and wrong, from
a great variety of elements affociated together, per-
feftly accounts for that prodigious diverfity in the
fentiments of mankind refpefting the objedts of moral
obligation ; nor do we fee that any other hypothefis
can account for the faffs. If the notion of moral ob¬
ligation were a fimple uncompounded idea, arifing
from the view of certain aflions or fentiments ; or were
it acquired, as it certainly might be, by a chain of
reafoning from the nature of God and the nature of
man ; why fhould it not in the one cafe be as invaria¬
ble as the perception of colours or founds, and in the
other
Chap. V. M E T A P
Affociation other as our judgments o£ mathematical or phyfical
of Ideas, truths ? But though the fhape and colour of a flower
~ » appear the fame to every human eye -7 though every
man of common underftanding knows, that if a billiard
ball be Ifruck by another, it will move from its place
with a velocity proportioned to the force of the impulfe
and though all mankind who have but dipt into mathe¬
matics, perceive that any two lides of a triangle mull
be greater than the third fide 5 yet one man praftifes
as a moral duty what another looks upon with abhor¬
rence, and reflefls on with remorfe. Now a thing that
varies with education and in ft raid: ion, as moral fenti-
ments are known to do, certainly has the appearance
of being generated by a feries of different impreflions
and affociations in fome fuch manner as we have en¬
deavoured to defcribe. Let not any man imagine that
this account of the origin of moral fentimentf endangers
the caufe of virtue *, for whether thofe fentiments be
inftindlive or acquired, their operation is the very fame,
and in either cafe their redlitude muft often be tried
by the teft of reafon, fo that the interefts of virtue are
equally fafe on this as on any other fcheme. See MORAL
Philofophy.
This principle of affociation has fo great an in¬
fluence over all our adlions, paffions, reafonings, and
judgments, that there is not perhaps any one thing
itheedu- which deferves more to be looked after in the educa¬
97
It ought,
therefore,
to be at¬
tended to
cation of
youth.
* Locke's
F-tfay, and
Ids Condi/fl
of the U/i-
ler/land-
wg-
tion of youth. Some of our ideas—fuch as thofe of
a fubftance and its attributes, a genus and the fpecies
contained under it, a fpecies and its feveral individuals,
have a real connexion with each other in nature.
Thefe it is the office of odr reafon to trace out and
to hold together in that union and order in which na¬
ture prefents them to the view of the mind ; for fuch
affociations conftitute perhaps the greateft part of ne-
eeffary and of ufeful truths. But there are others
formed by cuftom and caprice, which are too often
the fources of error, fuperftition, vice, and mifery—
of errors the more dangerous, and of vice the more
deplorable •, that if the affociations have been long
formed without an attempt to diflolve them, they ge¬
nerally become at laid too ftrong to be broken by the
moft vigorous effort of the beft-difpofed mind. Thus,
let a fooliffi maid * amufe or rather frighten children
with ftories of ghofts appearing in the dark, let her
repeat thefe fictions till they have made a deep im-
preffion on the young minds, and the notion of ghofts
will in time become fo clofely affociated with the
idea of darknefs, that the one lhall always introduce
the other; and it may not be in the power of the
children, after they have become men, and are con¬
vinced in their judgments of the falfehood and ab-
furdity of the tales which originally frightened them,
to feparate entirely the notion of ghofts from the
idea of darknefs, or with perfect eafe to remain alone
in a dark room. Again, Let the idea of infallibility be
annexed to any perfon or fociety, and let thefe two
infeparably united conftantly poffefs the mind ; and
then one body in ten thoufand places at once ftiall, un-
examined, be fwallowed for an incontrovertible faff,
whenever that infallible perfon or focieiy didlates or de¬
mands affent without inquiry.
Some fuch wrong and unnatural combinations of
ideas will be found to eftablifh the irreconcilable op-
pofftion that we find between different feds in phila-
H Y S I C S. 59*
fophy and religion j for we cannot imagine every in- Affocmtion
dividual of any fed to impofe wilfully on himfelf, and . 0 eas' .
knowingly to rejed truth offered by plain reafon.
That which leads men of fincerity and good fenfe
blindfold, will be found, when inquired into, to be
fome early and wrong affociation. Ideas independent
and of no alliance to one another, are by education,
cuftom, and the conftant din of their party, fo linked
together in their minds, that they can no more be
feparated from each other than if they were but one
idea : and they operate upon the judgment as if they
really were but one. This gives fenfe to jargon, the
force of demonftration to abfurdities, and conftftency
to nonfenfe : it is the foundation of the greateft and
moft dangerous errors in the world ; for as far as it ob¬
tains, it hinders men from feeing and examining.
Before we difmifs the fubjefl of affociation, it may
be proper to inquire, how far it is agreeable to the ac¬
count which we have given of the manner in which
external objefls are perceived by means of the fenfes,
and the ideas of fuch objefts retained in the memory.
—It has been proved, we think, by arguments un-The princi-
anfwcrable, that by the organs of fenfe nothing ispleofaffb-
conveyed immediately to the mind but fenfationsc,atl0n °Pe“
which can have no refemblance to external objecls, and
that the perception of an objedl may be refolved into external
a procefs of reafoning from effe&s to caufes.—But objects;
children, it will be laid, do not reafon from effeds
to caufes, and yet they foon acquire the faculty of
perceiving and diftinguifhing the obje£ls with which
they are furrounded. This is an undoubted truth j
and it can be accounted for only by the principle of
affociation. A child has as much the ufe of his fenfes
as a full-grown man. By his eye he has the fenfa-
tion of colour ; by his nofe, that of fmell ; by his
ear he has the fenfation of found ; and by his hand he
feels heat and cold, reftftance and bounded refiftance.
Every obje6t which is prefented to him, impreffes his
mind with various fenfations : and thefe fenfations
combined together are probably all that he perceives
for fome years ; for there is no reafon to imagine that
a boy of one or two years old has the ffighteft notion
of vffiat we mean by folidity, hardnefs, foftnefs, or
indeed of that -which is \.erma& fubjlance. Yet when
two or more objects are prefent, he may eafdy diftin-
guith the one from the other, becaufe the fenfations
excited by the one muft differ from thofe excited by
the other, as much as the real qualities of the one
are different from the real qualities of the other ; and
bv diftinguiftiing between his own fenfations, he in
effect diftinguiffies between the objects which produce
thefe fenfations. His fenfations too being frequently-
excited, leave behind them ideas in his memory or
imagination ; and thofe i leas, from having been im¬
printed together and never feparated, become in time
fo clofely affociated, that whenever one of them is
called into view, the others nectffarily make their ap- -
pearance with it. Thus a child has a fet of combined
fenfations excited in his mind by the prefence of his
nurfe 5 he has a different clufter excited, fuppofe by
the prefence of his mother. Thefe are often repeated,
and leave deep traces behind them 5 fo that when the
mother or the nurfe makes her appearance, ffie is im¬
mediately recognifed as a known objcfl ; or, to fpeak
more corrcffly, the child feels the very fame fenfi-
tiohs
592
M E T A P
Affociation tlons Tvhicli lie lias felt before, from which he has expe-
, oi ’ ^ ~ . rienced pleafure, and of which he has the ideas trea-
furcd up in his memory or imagination. A itranger,
on the other hand, muft affeft him with a fet of new
fenfations, and of courfe will be dxltinguilhed from a
known object as accurately as if the child were pof-
felfed of the notions of folidity, fublfance, qualities,
and diftance. A man born blind, who knew not that
fuch things as fire and fnow had ever exiited, would
yet diflinguiih the one from the other the moment
that he (hould be brought within their influence. He
could not indeed apply their names properly, nor fay
which is the fire and which is the fnow, nor would he
at firlt have any notion of either of them as a real, ex¬
ternal, and diftant object j but he would certainly di-
flinguifli his own fenfations, the fenfation of heat from
that of cold. It is juft fo with a child : At firft he
perceives nothing but different fenfations. Thefe he
can diftinguiih; and as they are caufed by differ¬
ent objects, in diftinguifliing between the fenfations
he will appear to diftinguiih between the objects
themfelves. In a Ihort time, however, he acquires,
by the following procefs, fome inaccurate notions
of diftance. He looks, for inftance, earneftly in his
nurfe’s face, and at the fame time touches her
cheek perhaps by accident. He repeats this opera¬
tion frequently, till the fenfation communicated by
his eye comes to be affociated with that of his touch,
and with the extending of his arm and being all
treafured up as affociated ideas in the memory, the
light of his nurfe makes him ever afterwards ftretch
out his hands with a defire to touch her. All this
while there is not the flighteft probability that the
child has any notion of fubjlance, or qualities, or of any
thing beyond his own fenfations, and the means by
which he has experienced, that fenfations which are
pleafant may be obtained, and that fuch as are pain¬
ful may be avoided. The precife time at which a
child begins to think of external things we cannot
pretend to afcertain ; but we are perfuaded that it is
later than many perfons imagine, and certainly not
till he has made confiderable progrefs in the exercife
of reafon. Prior to that period the things which men
know to be bodies, are known to children only as fen¬
fations and ideas ftrongly bound together by the tie
of affociation. »
But if affociation be of fuch importance in the aft
of fenfation, it is of ftill greater in that of retention ;
for it feems to conftitute the whole difference that
there is between imagination and memory. By many
of the ancient, as well as by fome modern philofo-
phers, thefe two faculties feem to have been confound¬
ed with each other j but between them there is cer¬
tainly a great difference, though they likewife refem-
ble each other in fome refpefts. An idea of memory,
confidered by itfelf, makes the very fame appearance
to the intelleft as an idea of imagination. We con¬
template both as if they were aftual, though faint and
diftant perceptions: but the one is attended with the
conviftion, that it is the idea of an objeft which has
really been perceived at fome period of paft time;
whilft the other is attended with no conviftion, except
that the idea itfelf is aftually prefent to the mind.
Mr Hume has faid, that ideas of memory differ from
thofe of imagination only in being more vivid and di-
99
and teems
to diitin-
guifh me¬
mory from
imagina¬
tion ;
H Y S I C S. Part]
ftinft 5 but certainly this is not always the cafe. An Afforiatic
idea of imagination has fometimes been taken for a r(,eas-
real perception, which an idea of memory can never » ^
be. The difference between thefe two kinds of ideas,
we are peifuaded, arifes chiefly, if not wholly, from
affociation. Every idea of memory is afiociated with
many others, and thofe again with others down to the
very moment of the energy of remembrance ; w here¬
as ideas of imagination are either the voluntary crea¬
tures of the fancy at the moment of their appearance,
in which cafe we flu mid call them conceptions } or
they are ideas which wre have aftually received from
fenfation, but which, on account of fome link being
broken in the vaft chain of affociation, we cannot
refer to any real objefts. What gives probability to
this conjefture is, that ideas often appear in the mind
which we know not whether to refer to the memory or
imagination, nothing being more common than to hear
a perfon fay, I have in my head the idea of fuch or fuch
an objeft ; but whether I remember or only imagine
the objeft, I am very uncertain. Afterwards, how¬
ever, by turning the idea over and over in the mind,
he finds other ideas make their appearance, till at laft
clufters of them come into view, and affociate fo clofely
with the principal idea, which was the objeft of doubt,
as to convince the judgment that it is an idea of me¬
mory. 100
It has been afked, Why wre believe what we diftinft- and to b«
ly remember ? and to that queftion it has been fuppofed
that no anfwer can be given. But it appears to us, jief 0) wl]a{
that afi'oeiation is the ground of belief in this as it will we remean
be found to be in other inftances ; and that a manber.
believes he walhed his hands and face in the morning,
becaufe the idea of that operation is fo ftrongly linked
in his mind to the whole train of ideas which have
arifen in it through the day, that he cannot feparate
the firft from the laft, that which Was a fenfation in
the morning from the fenfations which are prefent at
the inftant of remembrance. As thofe ideas are affo¬
ciated by nature, each muft pafs in review in its pro¬
per order ; fo that in fo flrort a fpace of time there is
no danger, and hardly a poffibility, of taking the firft
for the laft, or the laft for the firft. Nay more, we
will venture to hazard an opinion, that every paft
event of a man’s life, which he diftinftly remembers,
is tied by the chain of affociation to his prefent per¬
ceptions. That this is poflible is certain, fince it is
not difficult to conceive how it may be done. T he
principal events of a Angle day may furely be fo linked
together as to be all diftinftly reviewed in a clufter
of ideas on the morrow. Of thefe events fome one or
other muft be the moft important, which will there¬
fore make its appearance as an idea more frequently
than the reft, and be more clofely affociated with the
events of next day. Some event of that day will, for
the fame reafon, be more clofely affociated with it
than the others ; and thefe two, dropping perhaps all
the reft of their original companions, will pafs on to¬
gether to the third day, and fo on through weeks, and
months, and years, in the compafs of a year, feveral
things muft occur to make deep impreffipns on the
mind. Thefe will at firft be affociated together by
events of little importance, like the occurrences of a
Angle day. Whilft thefe feeble chains, however,
continue unbroken, they will be fufficient to link the
Chap- V.
METAPHYSICS.
593
Affociation one important event to the other, and to bring them
of Ideas, int0 view at the fame time, till at laft thele two,
L » from appearing fo often together, will in time unite
of themfelves, and the intermediate ideas be complete¬
ly effaced. Thus may two or three important events
of one year be affociated with inch a number of fimi-
lar events of another year, fo that the ideas of the
one fhall always introduce to the mind the ideas of the
other 5 and this chain of affociation may pafs from the
earlieft event wrhich we diltindtly remember through
all the intermediate years of our lives down to the in-
ftant when memory is exerted.
To this account of memory it may perhaps be ob-
jefted, that it gives us no diftinff notion of time.
Every thing that is remembered is neceffarily believed
to have been prefent in fome portion of paft time j
but affociation brings into view nothing but a feries
of events. This objeftion will be feen to have no
weight when we have inquired into the nature of time,
and afcertained what kind of a thing it is. It will
then perhaps appear, that duration itfelf, as appre¬
hended by us, is not diftinguilhable from a feries of
events j and that if there were no train of thought
palling through our minds, nor any motion among
the objecis around us, time could have no exiftence.
Meanwhile, whatever become of this opinion, we beg
leave to obferve, that our theory of remembrance is
perie£lly confident with the commonly received no¬
tions refpefling time; and indeed, that it is the only
theory which can account for numberlefs phenomena
refpedling pad duration. It is univerfally allowed,
that if motion, or a fuccedion of events, do not condi-
tute time, it is the only thing by which time can be
meafured. Now it is a fa<d which no man will deny,
that the didance of time from the prefent now or in-
ftant to the earlied period which he didinddly remem¬
bers, appears to his view extremely diort, much fhorter
than it is faid to be in reality •, and that one year,
when he looks forward, appears longer than two, per¬
haps longer than ten, when he looks backward. Upon
our principles this fa<d is eafdy accounted for. We
remember nothing winch is not linked by a chain of
affociations with the perceptions of the prefent mo¬
ment ; and as none but a few of the mod important
events of our lives can be linked together in this man¬
ner, it hence follows, that events which, in the order
of fucccflion, were far dijlant from each other, mud
thus be brought together in the memory, and the whole
chain be contrafted within very fhort limits. But
tv hen we figure to ourfelves a feries of future events,
we employ the aftive power of fancy indead of the
padive capacity of retention •, and can therefore bring
within the compafs of one periodical revolution of the
fun a longer feries of imaginary events fucceeding
each other, than is preferved of real events in our me¬
mory from the earlied period of our exidence: So
perfectly does our theory accord with this well known
fa6t. On the other hand, if memory be an original
faculty of the mind totally independent of affociation,
VOL. XIII. Part II.
and of which no other account is to be given than
that it necelfarily commands our belief, why is it a ta-
culty which, with regard to duration, thus uniformly *
deceives us ? and how comes it to pafs, that to a man
whole memory is tenacious, who has read much, feen
many countries, and been engaged in various occur¬
rences, any determinate portion of pad time always
appears longer than to another man v'hofe memory is
feeble, and whofe life has been waded in eafe and idle-
nefs ? To thefe queilions we know not what anfwer
can be given upon any other principle than that which
makes the evidence of memory depend upon afiocia-
tion. But if we remember nothing but what is linked
to the perception or idea which is prefent with us at
the time of remembrance, and if duration be meafured
by the fuccedion of events, it is obvious that any portion
of pad time mud neceffarily appear longer to him who
has many ideas affociated in the mind than to him who
has but few. _ lov
There is not perhaps a fingle facl of greater import-Tlieimport..
ance in the philofophy of the human mind than the ance of af-
ajfociution of ideas ; which, when thoroughly underdood, 0fo„
accounts for many of thofe phenomena which fome late j^y 0f th#
writers of name have, with injury to fcience and with human
danger to morality, attributed to a number of didindl mind,
and independent indinfts. It is for this reafen that wre
have conlidered it fo minutely, and dwelt upon it fo
long} and in addition to what we have faid on the fub-
jeft, we beg leave to recommend to our more philolo-
phical readers the diligent dudy of Hartley’s Oblerva-
tions on Man (p.)* In that work, we think feveral
things are taken for granted which require proof; and
fome which, we are perfuaded, have no foundation in
nature : but, with all its defeats, it has more merit
than any other treatife on the fenfitive part of human
nature Avith which we are acquainted.
Chap. VI. Of Consciousness W Reflection.
Sensation, remembrance, Ample apprehenfion, and Conicouf-
conception, with every other actual energy or pafiion™^’
of the mind, is accompanied with an inward teeling are
or perception of that energy or padion ; and that feel- 0bje<ds.
ing or perception is termed confcioufnefs. Confcioufnefs
is the perception of what paffes in a man’s own mind
at the infant of its pafiing there ; nor can wfee, hear,
tafe, fmell, remember, apprehend, conceive, employ our
faculties in any manner, enjoy any pleafure, or differ
any pain, without being confcious of Avhat we are do¬
ing, enjoying, or differing. Confcioufnefs is only of
things prefent * ; and to apply it to things y»rr/?, is to*Reid'sEf-
confound confcioufnefs with memory or reflection. One on the
cannot fay that he is confcious of Avhat he has feen
or heard -and now remembers : he is only confcious of °
the aft of remembrance; Avhich, though it refpefts a
pad event, is itfelf a prefent energy. It is likewife to
be obferved, that confcioufnefs is only of things in the
mind or confcious being, and not of things external.
It is improper in any perfon to fay that he is confcious
4 F of
io»
(k) Since this ivas Avritten, Mr Stewart’s Elements of the Philofophij of the Human Mind have been, pub-
liflied ; in which the reader will find many excellent remarks on the nature and influence of the aflociating
principle.
594
M E T A P
©ufneiTand f ^ tabI.e1beforc him > > perceives it, he fees it, and
Reflexion. "ie wl^‘1 8'r,-a^ propriety lay that he is corf clous he
' y—' perceives or fees it j but lie cannot fay that he is ccn-
feious or the table itfelf, for it is only ids immediate
energy of perception that can be the object of con-
icioufnefs. All tlie operations of our minds are at¬
tended with confcioufnefs; which is the only evidence
that we have or can have of their exiftence. Should
a man take it into Ids head to think or to fay that his
conlciaufnefs may deceive him, and to require a proof
that it cannot, we know of no proof that can be given
1dm : he mml be left to himfelf as a man that denies
A ft principles, without which there can be no reafon-
ing.. Every attempt to prove this point, or to fet it
in a Clearer light, would only lerve to render it more
dark and unintelligible. I think, I feel, I exijl, are
103 ^ hill truths, and the bafis of all human knowledge.
Descartes’s ^ This has given rife to the queftion, whether Des
fiwh'con- ^artes ^ not fall into an abfurdity when, inferring
feioufnefs bl3 own exiftence from his actual thought, he faid,
for his own Cogito, ergo fum. This argument has been called a
exiltence. pitiful lophifm, and apetitio principii; becaufe, before a
man take it for granted that he thinks,, lie muft alfo,
it is faid, take it for granted that he exifts, fince there
cannot be thought where there is no exiftence. Now
it muft be confelfed, that if Des Cartes pretended by
this argument to give us a frefti conviflion of our own
exidencc, his endeavours were ufelefs and puerile } be¬
caufe a man capable of being convinced by the argu¬
ments of another, muft have a previous conviftion of
his own exiftence : but the argument itfelf is certainly
* SeeBitf- neither a fophifm nor a petitio principii.. Thofe * who
Truth.1 J -^es Cartes aftert, and there is no reafon to
doubt the truth of their aflertion, that his only view
in. urging fueh an argument was not to prove the
truth of our exiftence, but to exhibit the order of
that procefs by which we arrive at the knowledge of
the fa6t ; and this he has very clearly done by analyz¬
ing the truth into its firft principles. A ftone exifts
as well as the human mind j but has the ftone any
knowledge of its own exiftence ? No man will fay that
it has j neither fhould we have any knowledge, of ours,
did wTe think as little as the ftone. We certainly might
exift without thinking, as it is probable w'e do in very
tound deep 5 and in that ftate our exiftence might be
known to other beings, but it could not poftibly be
known to ourfelves : for the only things of which the
mind is confcious, or has immediate knowledge, are
its own operations. I exijl is therefore a legitimate in¬
ference from the propofition I think; and the obferva-
tion that it is fo may be ufeful to ftiow ms the procedure
or the mind in the acquifition of knowledge j but it has
little merit as an argument, and ftill lefs as a difeovery,
though, being ftridftly true and juft, it fhould 'never
104 have been expofed to ridicule.
what'ft'i”’ , t0 be obferve(4 ^iat; w6 are confcious of many
and1 how5’ tb'nks to which we give very little attention. We
different can hardly attend to feveral things at the fame time ;
from confci-and our attention is commonly employed about that
oulneft. which is the objeB of our thought, and rarely about
the thought itfclf. It is in our power, however,
when we come to the years of underftanding, to give
attention to our own thoughts and paflions, and the
various operations of our minds. And when we make
thefe the obje&s of our attention, either while they
5
H Y S I C S. Part L
are prefent, or when they are recent and frefli in our. Of Confci-
meniory, we perform an aft of the mind which is pro- 01;fAfs and
peily called refection. I his rejieSion ought to be di- ^e^e<^hon.
ftinguilhed from confcioufnefs * ; with which it is con-YETt
founded fnmetimes by Locke, and often by the learnedAv/^
author of Ancient Metaphyfics. All men are confcious Intdleihial
oi the operations of their own minds at all times while Poru-’cri
they are awake, nor does it appear that brutes can be.^”*
w lolly dekitute of confeiouinels j but there are few men.
Avh<) reflect upon the operations of their minds, or make
them the objefts of thought j and it is not probable that
any Ipecies of brutes do lb.
From infancy, lift we come to the years of under¬
ftanding, we are employed folely about fcnfible objefts.
And although the mind is confcious of its operations
it does not attend to them; its attention is turned
iolely to the objefts about which, thefe operations are
employed. Thus, when a man is angry, he is confcious.
of his palhon 5 but his attention is turned to the perfon
who offended him and the circumflances of the offence,
while the paffion of anger is not in the leaft the objeft
of his attention. The difference between confcioufnefs
and reflettion, is like the difference between a fuperii-.
cial view of an objeft which prefents itfelf to the eye,
while we are engaged about fomething elfe, and that
attentive examination which we give to an objeft when
we are wholly employed in furveying it. It is by con-
feioufnefs that we immediately acquire ail the know¬
ledge which we have of mental operations; but atten-i
live refleftion is neceffary to make that knowledge ac¬
curate and diftinft. Attention is a voluntary aft j it.
requires fome exertion to begin and continue it j and
by great exertion it may be continued for a eonfider-
able timej but co/z/276'tt/b^/j is involuntary, and of no
continuance, changing with every thought. The
power of refleftion upon the operations of their own
minds does not at all appear in children. Men muft
have come to fome ripenefs of underftanding before
they are capable of it. Of all the powers of the hu¬
man mind it feems to be the laft that unfolds itfelf.
Moft men feem incapable of acquiring it in any con,
fiderable degree 5 and many circumftances confpire to
make it to all men an exercife of difficulty. The dif¬
ficulty, however, muft be conquered, or no progrefs
can be made in the fcience of our own or of other,
minds.
All. the notions which w’e have of mind and of itSAllourno-
operations are got by refleftion; and thefe notions aretionsof
by Mr Locke ^called ideas of reflection. This term -\vement:a^
think extremely ill chofen j and we believe it has been ener1gies
the fource of much error and confufion among Locke’s Ko"*
followers. _ A man, by attending to the operations of
his own mind, may have as diftinft notions of remem¬
brance, of judgment, of will, of defire, as of any objeft
Avhatever : but if the fecondary perception of a fenfible
objeft, that appearance which it has to the mind when
viewed in the memory or imagination, be properly call¬
ed an idea, it is certain that of the operations of the
mind itfclf there can be no ideas ; for thefe operations,
when reflefted on, make no appearance without their
objefts either in the memory or in the imagination.
Nothing is more evident, in faft, than that we have no
ideas, in the original and proper meaning of the word,
but of fenfible objefts upon which the mind exerts its
firft: operations. Of thefe operations we have indeed a
confcioufnefs j
Chap. VI.
106
Our know
M E T A P
Of Conf.'i- confcloufiiefs j but abftractcd from their objects we can-
w'nefs nd not frame of them any idea or refeiftblance. We are
^e‘e:l: in _ confcions to ourfelves of thinking, willing, remembering,
” difeerning, reafoning, judging, &c. but let any one
look, into himfelf, and try whether he can there find
any idea of thinking or willing, &c. entirely feparate
and abltrafled from the objeSl of thought or will.
Eve ry man who has feen a tree or houfe, will find in
his mind ideas of thefe objects, which he can contem¬
plate by themfelves, independent of every thing elfe ;
but no man can contemplate the idea of thinking or
defiring without taking into view the thing thought on
or defired. It is plain, therefore, that the energies of
thinking, 'willing, and defining, with all their various
modifications, are not themfelves ideas, or capable of
■communicating ideas to be apprehended, as the ideas of
bodies are apprehended by the pure intelledt. They
are the actions and workings of the inteileft itfef upon
ideas which we receive trom the objects of fenfe, and
which are treafured up in the memory or imagination
for the very purpofe of furni filing the intelledl with
materials to work upon. Between ideas and the
energies of thinking there is as great and as obvious a
difference as there is between a ftone and the energies
of him by whom it is caff. Ideas are the paflive fub-
jefrs *, the energies of thinking are the operations of
the agents. Ideas are relidts of fenfation, and have a
neceffary relation to things external ; the energies of
thinking are relidts of nothing, and they are wholly and
originally internal.
That we can in no fenfe of the word be faid to have
ledge of the Ideas of the operation of the intellect, will be itill more
ofintetefl ev‘^ent» we confider by what means we acquire the
immediate knowledge which we have of thofe operations. It has
and not by been already obferved, that when our thoughts are
the inter- employed upon any fubjedt, though we are confcious of
vention of t}nnldng^ yet our attention is commonly employed upon
the ohjeEi of our thought, and not upon the thought
itfelf; and that if we would give attention to our
thoughts and paflions, we muff do it by a reflex acl of
the mind, whilft the adt of thinking is ftill recent and
frefh in our memory. Thus, if a man wiflies to know
what perception is, it is not the time to make the in¬
quiry while he is looking at fome rare or beautiful ob-
jedt •, for though he is confcious of the energy of perceiv¬
ing, the objefl of perception employs all his attention.
But the time to make this inquiry is either when the
objedt has become familiar to him, or prefently after it
is removed from his fight. In the former cafe, he can
look upon it without emotion, pay attention to every
Itep in the procefs of perception, and be immediately
confcious what perception is. In the latter cafe, by
turning his attention inwards, and refledting on what
he did or felt when the objedt was before him, he will
find clear and vivid ideas of everv thing which he per¬
ceived by his fenfe of fight 5 but he will find no idea of
the adt of feeing or perceiving. On the contrary, if he
be capable of fufficient attention, he will obferve that
his intelledt is employed in the very fame manner upon
the ideas that it was upon the original fenfations ; and of
that employment, and the manner of it, he will be
equally confcious as he was of the original energy exert¬
ed in fenfation. There is indeed this difference between
the two, without which refledlion could make no dif-
coveries, that the moll vivid ideas being ftill faint when
ideas.
H Y S I C S. . 595
compared with adtual fenfations, the intellecl is not fo Conici-
wholly engroffed by them, as it was by the original
objedts, nor is it fo rapidly carried from idea to idea ‘ *
as it was from fenfation to feniation. It is thus at
leifure to attend to its own operations, and to know
■what they are ; though to form ideas of them as fepa¬
rate from their objedts, is abfolutely impoflible. Every
man capable of paying attention to what paffes wirh-
, in himfelf when he fees, hears, and feels, &c. may have
very accurate notions of feeing, hearing, and feeling &c.
but he cannot have ideas of them as he has of the ob¬
jects oifight, hearing, and touch.
The fame is the cafe with refpedt to the exertion of
our reafoning faculties. A man muft have diftindt
and clear ideas to reafon upon, but he can have no
idea of reafoning itfelf, though he muft be confrious
of it, and by attention may know what it is. When a
man fits down to ftudy for the firjl time a propofi ion
in the Elements of Euclid, he certainly employs his
reafoning faculty, and is confcious that he fr doing fo j
but his attention is wholly turned to the diagram be¬
fore him, and to the feveral ideas which the diagram
fuggefts. Afterwards, when he has maftered the pro-
pofition, he may go over it again, with a view to dif-
cover what reafoning is j but he will not find lie has
any idea of reafoning as he has of the diagram. He
will only exert that faculty a fecond time, and perceive
one truth linked to and depending upon another iu
fuch a manner that the whole taken together forms a
complete demonitration. In a word, the operations
of our own minds, when attention is paid to them, are
known immediately by confcioufnefs *, and it is as im¬
poflible that we ftiould have ideas of them, as that a
living man Ihould be a picture upon canvas. He who
attends to what paffes in his own mind when he per¬
ceives, remembers, reafons, or wills, muft know by
confcioufnefs what thefe operations are, and be capable
of forming very accurate notions of them, as connect¬
ed with their objedts ; and he who does not attend to
what paffes in his own mind will never acquire any
notions of them, though he were to read all that has
been written on the lubjedt from the days of Pytha¬
goras to thofe of Dr Pieid. IQ^
As we acquire ideas of external objedts by means There are
of our fenfes 5 and notions of perceiving, remember-things
ing, reafoning, and willing, &c. by refledting on the ^hh we
operations of our own minds 5 fo there are other things
of which we acquire notions, partly by fenfation, part-tl0n atl(i
ly by refledlion, and partly by means of that faculty of partly by
which it is the more peculiar office to compare ideas re^e<^10H*
and to perceive truth. Such are fubfiance, body, mind, ^c'
with their feveral qualities, adjundts, and relations j
the knowledge of which, as has been already obferved,
conftitutes what in ftridtnefs of fpeech is termed the
fcience of metaphysics. Thefe (hall be confidered in
order, after we have inveftigated the nature of truth,
and inquired into the feveral fources of evidence •, but
there is one notion, about the origin and reality of
which there have been fo many difputes, which in it¬
felf is of fo great importance, and which will be fo in¬
timately connedled with all our fubfequent inquiries,
that it may not be improper to confider it here.—The 10*
notion to which we allude is of power. Oaf rotioa
Among the objedls around us we nerceive frequent ^Power.
changes, and one event regularly fucceeding another. ^ ac<lu’r‘
4 F 2 Gold
596 M E T A P
Oi v-onfci , Gold thrown into the fire is changed from a folid to
Reflection. a body. Water expofed to a certain degree of
cold is changed from a fluid to a folid body. Night
fucceeds to day, and fummer fucceeds to winter. We
are confcious of new fenfations in ourfelves every hour.
We are like wife confcious of reafoning, willing, and
defiring ; and we know that by an exertion of will we
can rife or fit, (land Hill or walk, call one idea into
view, and difmifs others from our contemplation. Ex¬
perience teaches us, that it is not occafionally, but al¬
ways, that gold is changed into a fluid, by being
thrown into the fire, and water into a folid body by
bei-g expofed to a certain degree of cold ; that night
fucceeds to day, and fummer to wdnter. Thefe changes
have regularly taken place finbe the creation of the
world ; and it has never once been obferved that water
was made folid by fire, or gold rendered liquid by cold.
Were we not allured by experience that our own vo¬
luntary motions are produced by exertions of our
minds, of which we are confcious, and that without
fuch exertions tliofe motions would never have taken
place, we flrould probably have confidered the lique-
fa&ion of gold as an event equally independent of fire,
though uniformly conjoined with it, as night is inde¬
pendent of day, and day of night. But having expe¬
rienced that we can move or not move our bodies as
we pleafe ; that when it is our will to fit, we ne¬
ver get up to walk ; and that when we wilh to
walk, we always do it except prevented by ex¬
ternal violence : having likewdfe experienced, that by
a thought, by. fome internal and inexplicable ex¬
ertion of our minds, we can call up in our memory or
imagination one idea and difmifs others from our men¬
tal view ; we are led to believe with the fulleft con-
vi£fion, that all thofe motions of our bodies which in
common language are termed voluntary, and that fuc-
ceflion of ideas which follows a confcious exertion of
the mind, depend upon ourfelves. In other words,
we are neceflitated to believe that we have a power to
move or not move our bodies in many cafes, and a
power to turn our attention to one idea in preference to
others.
It is thus that wre acquire the notion of power in
ourfelves, which we eafily transfer to other objects.
Knowing that the various motions of our bodies thus
effected proceed from power, we are naturally led to
inquire whether the changes which we perceive in
other bodies may not proceed from power like wife, i. e.
from fomething analogous to that power, of the ex-
. ertions of which we are confcious in ourfelves Now
uniform experience teaching us that gold is liquefied
by ^eing thrown into the fire, and that water is made
folid by being expofed to cold ; we infer with the utmoft
certainty that there are powers in fire and cold to pro¬
duce thefe changes, and that without the exertion of
fuch powers thefe changes would not be produced.
We cannot indeed fay of external powers, as wre can
of our own, in what fubflance they inhere. We
know with the utmoft; certainty that the voluntary
motions of our hands, &c. are produced by a pow'er
not inherent in the hands but in the mind, for of the
exe tion of that power we are confcious; but we do
n< t know whether the power which liquefies gold be
inherent in that fenfible objedt which we call'/fre, or
m fomething elfe to which fire is only an inftrument.
4
H Y S I C S. PartI
We learn by obfervation, that the minute particles of Of toufj
fire or heat infinuate themfelves between the particlesoulneis 1!»
of gold, and, if we may ufe the expreflion, tear them ,Re
afunder but whether they do this in confequence of^ r"""'
a power inherent in themfelves, or only as inftruments
impelled by another power, is a queftion which obfer¬
vation cannot enable us to anfwer.
. Were we not confcious of the exertion of our owrn
powrers, it feems not conceivable that we could ever
have acquired any notion of power at all ; for power
is not an objeft of fenfe, nor, independent of its ope¬
rations, is it indeed an object of confcioufnefs. In ex¬
ternal operations, all that we perceive is one thinsr, in
which we fuppofe the power to refide, followed by
another, which is either the change or that on which
the change is produced; but the exertion of the pow er
itfelf we do not perceive. Thus we perceive gold,
after it lias been fome time in the fire, converted from
a folid to a fluid body; but we pqrceive not by our
fenfes either the power or the energy of the power
which operates to this converfion. In the exercife
of our own powers, the cafe is otherwife. When a
man puts his hand to his head, and afterwards thrufts
it into his bofom, he not only perceives by his fenfes
the change of pofition, but is alfo confcious of the
energy or exertion by which the change was pro¬
duced.
“ Suppofe (fays Mr Hume*) a perfon, though
endowed with the ftrongeft faculties of reafon and re¬
flexion, to be brought on a hidden into this world ;
he would indeed immediately obferve a continual fuc-
ceflion of objecls, and one event following another,
but he would not be able to difcover any thing far¬
ther. He would not at firft by any reafoning be able
to reach the idea of caufe and effeX ; fince the parti¬
cular powers by which all natural operations are per¬
formed never appear to the fenfes. The impulfe of
one billiard ball is attended with motion in the fe-
cond. This is the whole that appears to the outward
fenfes. The mind feels no fentiment or inward im-
preffion from this fucceflion of objeXs ; confequently
there is not, in any Angle particular inftance of caufe and
effeX, any thing which can fuggeft the idea of power
or neceflary connexion. From the firft appearance
of an objeX, we never can conjeXure what effeX will
refult from it ; but, were the power or energy of any
caufe difcoverable by the mind, we could forefee the
efieX even without experience ; and might at firft pro¬
nounce with certainty concerning it by the mere dint
of thought and reafoning. It is impoflible, therefore,
that the idea of power can be derived from the con¬
templation of bodies in Angle inftances of their opera¬
tions ; becaufe no bodies ever difcover any power which
can be the original of this idea.”
There is a fenfe in which this reafoning is unque-
ftionably juft. A man who had never been confcious
of exerting power in himfelf, would certainly not ac¬
quire the notion of power from obferving a continual
fucceflion of external objeXs. The impulfe of one
billiard ball being followed by the motion of another,
would no more lead him to the notion of power in the
former, than the fuceeflion of night to day would
lead him to the notion of a power in light to produce
darknefs. When Mr Hume fays, “ that from the firfl
appearance of an objeX voe can never conjeXure what ef-
effeX
'hap- VI. META P
nfci- feft will refult from it,” he ufes language that is ambi-
fnefs and g-uoUs, and utters an aflertion which is either true or
;.leA m faj{-e according to the fenfe in which it is underflood.
If it be meant, that after having reflected on the ope¬
rations of our own minds, and learned by experience
that motion is communicated by impulfe from one
ball of ivory to another, we could not conjedfure whe¬
ther a fimilar effeft would be produced bv the impulfe
of balls made of other hard bodies which we had ne¬
ver before feen, the affertion is manifeflly falfe. ^ A
man who had but once feen motion communicated in
this manner from one ivory ball to another, would cer¬
tainly coniedure that it might be communicated from
one wooden ball to another} and if he had feen it ic-
peatedly communicated from one ball to another of
different fubfiances, he would infer, with the utmoft
confidence, that it might be communicated from ball
to ball of whatever fubflance compofed, provided that
fubflance be hard, or of a fimilar texture with the
balls to the impulfe of which he had formerly paid
attention. If by this ambiguous phrafe the author only
means, as is probably the cafe, that from the firfl appear¬
ance of an objefl to which we had never before obferv-
ed any thing in any refpeft fimilar, we could not con-
jefture what effeiSl would refult from it *, or if his mean¬
ing be, that a man fuddenly brought into the world,
who had never acquired fuch a notion of po-wer as may
be had from attention to the energies and operations
of our own minds, would not, by obferving an effeft
to refult from one body, conjefture from the firfl ap¬
pearance of another fimilar body what effefl would
refult from it •, in either of thefe cafes his affertion is
certainly true, and tends to prove, that without the
confcioufnefs of the operations of our own minds we
could never acquire a notion of power from the changes
I0() perceived bv our fenfes in external objefls.
tor H me But Mr Hume, not contented with denying, winch
[attempt!, to ]ie might juflly do, that we could ever have deriv-
Lrove that e(i the idea of power merely from obferving the con-
tvC™ono- tinual fueceflion of external objeas, labours hard to
what- prove that wre have no notion of power at all, and
that when we ufe the word power, we do nothing
more than utter an infignificant found. To pave the
wav for the arguments by which fo extravagant a pa¬
radox is to be fupported, he lays it down as a “ propo-
fition which will not admit of much difpute, that all
our ideas are nothing but copies of our impreffions ',
or, in other words, that it is impoflible for us to think
of any thing that we have not anteceden ly felt either
by our external or internal fenfes.” As this jwopo-
fition, however, will admit, it feems, of Come difpute,
he takes care, before he applies it to the purpofe of
demolifhing all power, to fupport it by two argu¬
ments. “ Firfl (fays he), when we analyze our
thoughts or ideas, however compounded or. fublime,
we always find that they refolve themfelves into fut h
fixnple ideas as were copied from a precedent feeling
or fentiment. Thole who would aflert, that this poli-
tion is not univerfally true nor without exception, have
ver of
>ower#
H Y S I C S. 597
only one, and that an eafy, method of refuting it; by
producing that idea, which, in their opinion, is not Reflecq.ion.
derived from this fource. Secondly, If it happen,
from a deleft of the organ, that a man is not fufcep-
tible of any fpecies of fenfation, we always find that
he is as little fufceptible of the correfpondent ideas.
A blind man can form no notion of colours, a deaf
man of founds. And though there are few or no in-
llances of a like deficiency in the mind, where a per-
fon has never felt, or is wholly incapable of a fenti¬
ment or paflion that belongs to his fpecies ; yet ive
find the fame obfervation to take place in a lefs de¬
gree. A man of mild manners can form no idea of
inveterate revenge or cruelty 5 nor can a felfiili heart
eafily conceive the heights of friendlhip and gene-
rofity.” . no
As thefe propofitions are the engines by which all His reafon-
power is banilhed from the world, it may not be im-fophifu-
proper, before we proceed to inquire by what .meansca ‘
they perform fo arduous a talk, to confider their own
inherent llrength ; for if they be weak in themfelves,
their work, however dexteroully they may be em¬
ployed, can have no liability. We have already no¬
ticed the perverfenefs of this writer’s language, when
it confounds fenfations with impreffions ; but here it is
Hill more perverfe, for paflions, lentiments, and even
confcioufnefs, are llyled imprefjiom. When fenfations
are confounded with impreffions, the effeft is only mif-
taken for the caufe, it being univerfally known that
fenfations proceed from impreffions made upon the
organs of fenfe. When confcioufnefs is confounded
with an impreflion, one thing is millaken for another,
to which it is univerfally known to have neither re-
femblance nor relation. But, not to walle time upon
thefe fallacies, which, though dangerous if admitted,
are yet too palpable to impole upon a reader capable of
the flighted: attention, let us examine the propofitions
themfelves. The moll important, and that for the
fake of which alone the others are brought forward,
is, that it is impoflible for us to think of any thing
that we have not immediately felt, either by our exter¬
nal or internal fenfes.” Did Mr Hume then never
think of a mathematical point, or a mathematical line ?
Neither of thefe things is capable of beingeither
by making an impreflion upon the organs of fenfe. or
as an objeft of confcioufnefs and therefore it is im¬
poflible that he fhould ever have had ideas of them
fuch as he doubtlefs had of fenfible objefts 5 yet in
the moft proper fenfe of the word think (s), he cer-
tainly thought of both points and lines \ for he. appears
to have made confiderable progrefs in the fcience of
geometry, in which he could not have proceeded a
Angle Hep without a perfect knowledge of thefe things,
on which the whole fcience is built. It is not there¬
fore true, that our thoughts or ideas, when analyzed,
always refolve themfelves into fuch fimple ideas as
were copied from a precedent feeling or fentiment ,
for every mathematical figure of which we can think
refolves itfelf into a point and motion ; and a point
having
(V, in the propriety of the EnglifH tongue, (ignifies that fort of operation of the mind about its
ideas wherein the mind is 'active ; where it, with fome degree ol voluntary attention, conliders any ling.
Locke,
59*
in
Thint>s of
win :h we
can have
no ideas
may .them-
ielves be
SfneTand liaVlnJ.no Pa«* and no magnitude, cannot poflibly be
lleflettion. he °?Jed deling to any of our fenfes. If, tbere-
'     U'7l aine the.obje^ of thought, we have
refuted -nr Hume s pofition by the very method which
he him ltd lavs down ; for we have produced an idea
which is not derived either from a precedent feeling- or
a precedent fentnnent. By fentiment, we fuppofe to
be here meant that which by other philofophers is de¬
nominated confcioufnefs ; and of confcioufnefs it is un¬
deniable that nothing is the objeft but the aftual ener¬
gies of our own minds.
But ideas are not the only objefls of thought. We
have already given our reafons for reftrifting the word
/i/™ to that appearance which an objeft of fenfc, when
reflected on, makes either in the memory or imagina-
theobiefts Ti f •C1 WaS “ndoubtedly its original fignification j
el'thought iad lt"eXer been uft‘d t0 denote other and very
cinferent obietts, inuch error and perplexity would have
been avoided, which now difgrace the feience of me-
taphyncs. Things may themfehes be the obiefts of
thought ; and when that is the cafe, to think of their
ideas were it poflible to do fo, would be worfe than
uielels j for we may certainly know a man better by
looking at himfelf than by looking at his piflure. Of
things which are them/elves the objeas of thought, we
have either a chreB or a relative knowledge. We know
ireaiy the aaual operations of our own minds by
the moft complete of all evidence, that of confciouf-
nets •, and we have a relative notion of mathematical
and iines : but neither of mental energies nor
6t thefe external things (t) can we poflibly have any
; is ^11 obferved by Dr Reid *, that bur notions
tiv^s^lh °u vxn7 aIld,mind are noting more than rela-
offome t1^-1 . ^hat 18 body ■ It is, fay philofophers, that
things, which is extended, folid, and divifible. Says the que-
* F.Jfay en nft, I do not afk what the properties of body are
,but Tlla, ,is '^.thlng itfelf ? let me firft know direfti
Mart. ll "I?1 bodr ,s. an(1 then eonfider its properties.
Io this demand I am afraid the querift will meet
with .no fatisfa&ory anfwer •, becaufe our notion of
body is not .diretf, but relative to its qualities. We
know that it is fomething extended, folid, and divi¬
fible, and we know no more. Again, If it fhould be
afked, what is mind ? It is that which thinks. I afk
not what it does, or what its properties are, but what
metaphysics.
Part I
11 a
We have
lt.13,' ,To tllIs 1 can find no anfwer $ our notion of Ofc r-
mmd being noi dired, but relative to its opera o?S 3
tiesn(uV’OUr n0tl0n b°d7 ^ rektiVe t0 itS
Our notion of a mathematical point is of the very -bout3
which^Wh W iat 13 3 ^°mt ■ U is’ fays E”clid, thatwhiih,
ich Lath no parts and no magnitude. Replies the i <n''cver, i
querift, I afk not either what it has or what it has not wecan rea
let me hrft know what it is ? To thisfecond ’f?n with
pornTfs’L^i^ ST anf'rered’ ^
point is that which by motion generates a line Rut
rejoins the querift i am not inquiring what ft gcr“ :
rates-, give me a dired idea of the point itfelf ? or, if
that cannot be done as furely it cannot, tell me what
its offspring a line is ? A line, fays Euclid is Wth
w.thout breadth. I have no idea, replies the querfft
of length without breadth. I never felt an „„p„ao„
from a fenfible objed which did not fugged length
readth, and thicknefi, as infeparably united; and f
can have no idea which is not the copy of a former im-
rl 0 affilt ,the fluerifl’s conception, it may be
faid that lines are the boundaries of a fuperficies, ^and
that fuperficies are the boundaries of a folid body • but
of a folid body every man has a clear and dired idea
in the moft proper fenfe of the word. Here then are
ibveral things, viz, points, lines, and fuperficies, of not
one of which is it poflible to form a dired notion : and
yet. we know them fo thoroughly, from the relation
tVhidi they bear to other fubjeds, that we can reafon
about them with a precifion and certainty which only
the mathematical fciences admit. J
The great advantage of thefe fciences above theAndfuch
moral, l\Ir Hume himfelf exprefsly admits: but he is power,
attributes it to a wrong caufe, when he fays it confifts
in this, that the ‘ ideas of the former being fenfible
are always clear and determinate j” for we fee that the
notion of a point or of a line is merely relative, and
cannot poflibly be the copy of a fenfation, or, in his
language of a fenfible impreflion. If then we have
clear and determinate notions of points and lines, and
may reafon about them without ambiguity, as he ac¬
knowledges we may, what is there to hinder us from
having an equally clear and determinate notion of
power, or from reafon,ng about it with as little ambi¬
guity (V) : Why, fays he, we are not confcious of
power. And to prove this pofition, which needs no
proof,
% calIing mathematical points and lines external things, we do not mean to attribntP to tl
porcal exiftence. We know well that they are merely creatures of the mind Tn J E p T t0 them an3r cor*
change in the uo&n I form In this .vL Bnt f “"f •” d'mraUt:°n makes n" P«cePtibIe
pounds by attending m the vela,ions wild, this
,h« the relative notion „ d,ft.„a and feientific ; for the addition of t fingle mfn, T ftngie ^d, S
of
Chap. VI.
jftofci- proof, he makes many obfervations that, however juft,
: ilr.vs might certainly have been fpared. Of thefe one is, that
y.etfion. a mari Suddenly ftruck with a palfy in the leg or arm,
'"'V or who had now loft thefe members, frequently endea¬
vours at firft to move them, and employ them in their
ufual oftiees. Here he is as much confcious of power
to command fuch limbs, as a man in perfeft health is
confcious of power to aftuate any member which re¬
mains in its natural ftate and condition. But confci-
oufnefs never deceives. Confequently, neither in the
one cafe nor in the other are we ever confcious of any
power.” This is true 5 we never are confcious of any
power *, but we are frequently confcious of adtual
energies : and the man who, after being fuddenly
ftruck with a palfy, endeavours in vain to move 'his
leg or arm, is as confcious of energy as he who in
health makes the attempt with fuccefs. Nor let it be
imagined that his confcioufnefs deceives him j for, as
Mr Hume juftly obferves, confcioufnefs never deceives.
He is certain of the energy, but finds by experience
that the inflrument of this energy has fuddenly become
difordered and unfit for its ufual office. In this and
this alone confifts the difference between the paralytic
and the man whofe limbs are found. The one may be
as confcious of energy as the other, and his confci¬
oufnefs may be equally infallible. What then is this
energy ? Mr Hume will not lay that it is an idea, for
it is not the copy of any antecedent impreflion •, be-
fides, he has fomewhere allowed that ideas are never
aftive. Is it then a fubftance ? Impoffible ! for it. is
not permanent: and we believe no man will ven¬
ture to affirm, or even to fuppofe, that the fame fub¬
ftance can be repeatedly annihilated, and as often
created. Is it then the occafional exertion of fome
fubftance ? This muft be the truth ; for no other fup-
pofition remains to be made. If fo, that fubftance
muft be poffeffed of power; for a capacity of exert¬
ing aflual energy is all that is meant by the word power.
—“ Wherever there is a capability of energy or exer¬
tion, there muft be power; for though there can be
no exertion without power, there may be power that
fReid’s Ef-is not exerted *. Thus a man may have power to fpeak
'“yt o’i the when he is filent 5 he may have power to rife and walk
hZ'rs of wlien 'ne flts But tllough lt be one tbing /peak
dhl’S and another to have the power of fpeaking,. we al¬
ways conceive of the power as fomething which has a
certain relation to the effeft ; and of every power we
form our notion by the effect which it is able to pro¬
duce. Nor is it only in fpeaking and moving his
limbi that a man is confcious of energy. 1 here is as
much energy, though of a different kind, in thinking
as in adding. Hence the powers of the human mind
599
have been divided into a£Hve and fpeculative. By the Of Coma-
former we move the body ; and by the latter we fec,^^^
hear, remember, diftinguiffi, judge, reafon, and per-
form upon our notions and ideas every other opera¬
tion which is comprehended under the general word
to think.'1' X15
Mr Locke-f- has introduced into his theory of power Locke’spaf-
another diftin&ion than that which we have made be- llv<W°^r
tween active and fpeculative powers.. Gbferving by^p^ffion.
our fenfes, under which on this oceafion memory isq EJfay,
certainly included, various changes in objects, we col-book ii.
le£t, fays he, a poffibility in one obje£t to be changed,chap, al¬
and in another a poffibility of making that change,
and fo come by that idea which we call power. I bus
we fay that fire has a power to melt gold, and that gold
has a power to be melted. The firft he calls addive, the
fecond pa/jive, power. But to fay that the pojjibility of
being changed is power, feems to be a very improper
mode of fpeaking, and fueh as may lead to confequenees
which the excellent author certainly held in abhor¬
rence. It tends to make unwary readers imagine that
the paffive fubjeft is as neceflary to the exiilence of
power, as the aClive being of which power is an at¬
tribute ; but if the univerfe had a beginning,, and if
its Creator be immutable, two propofitions which Mr
Locke firmly believed, Lhere certainly was power when
there was no change, nor any thing exifting which was
capable of change. He owns, indeed, that aclive power
is more properly called power than the other •, but we
fee no propriety at all in paffive power. “ It is (in the
language of Dr Reid) a powerlefs power, and a contra-
diftion in terms.” 116
But though Locke here ufes improper terms, heJuft obfer-
has other obfervations with which we have the honour
fully to agree, and which lead to confequences the re- autbor re¬
verie of that impiety which feems to follow from the fpecting
notion of pa/Jive power. He obferves, that “ we have power as
from body no idea at all of thinking, nor any idea ofbel°n£nJ.
the beginning of motion. A body at reft affords us '
no idea of any aclive power to move 5 and when it is
fet in motion itfelf, that motion is rather a paflion
than an aftion in it. For when the ball obeys tha
ftroke of a billiard ftick, it is not any adljon of the ball,
but a paffion : alfo, when by impulle it fets another*
ball in motion that lay in its way, it only communi¬
cates the motion it had received from another, and
lofes in itfelf fo much as the other received; which
gives us but a very obfeure idea of an active power of
moving in body, whilft we obferve it only to transier,
but not to produce any motion. So that it feems to
me, we have from the obfervation of the operation of
bodies by our fenfes but a very imperfect obfeure idea
METAPHYSICS.
of a penny, is eafily perceived. In like manner, I can form a direcl notion of a polygon of a thoufand equal
fides and equal angles. This direft notion cannot be more diftinct when conceived m the mind, than that
which I 9et by fight when the object is before me 5 and I find it io indiftinct that it has the fame appearance to
my eye, or to my diredl conception, as a polygon of a thoufand and one, or of nine- hundred and nmety-mne
fides. But when l form a relative conception of it, by attending to the relation it bears to po vgons of a
greater or lefs number of fides, my notion of it becomes diitinft and feientihe, and 1 can demonnrate the pro¬
perties by which it is diftinguifhed from all other polygons. From thefe inftances it appears, that our relative
conceptions of things are not always lefs diftineft, nor lefs fit materials for accurate reafomng, than thole that are
diredl; and that the contrary may happen in a remarkable degree.” , „ cut*
’ 1 Reid's E/ays on the Active Powers oj Man*
6oo
Of Confci-
oufnefs and
Reflection.
v 117 .
Whence it
follows,
that only
fuch beings
as have will
and under-
ftanding
can poflefs
real power.
M E T A P
of aftive power, lince they afford us not any idea in
themlelves of the power to begin any aftion either of
1 motion or thought.” He thinks it evident, however,
that vve^ find in ourfelves a power to begin or for¬
bear, continue or end, feveral adtions of our minds and
motions of our bodies, barely by a thought or pre-
feience of the mind ordering, or, as it were, command-
ing, the doing or not doing fuch or fuch a particular
adhon. This power which the mind has thus to order
the confideration of any idea, or the forbearing to con-
fider it, or to prefer the motion of any part of the
body to its reft, and zi/ce verfa in any particular in-
ftance, is that which we call will. The adlual exer-
cife of that power, by direfting any particular adtion,
01. its forbearance, is that which we call volition or
willing.
According to Mr Locke, therefore, the only clear
notion or idea we have of power, is taken from the
power which we find in ourfelves to give certain motions
to our bodies, or certain diredlions to our thoughts j
and this power in curfelves can be brought into adtion
only by willing or volition. rihis is exadfly our doc¬
trine 5 where we have endeavoured to prove, that
without the confcioufnefs of adfual energy in ourfelves,
■we never could have acquired any notion at all of
power from obferving the changes which take place
among external objeas. But if this be fo, if the power,
of which alone we know any thing, can be brought
into aaion only by willing or volition, and if will ne-
celfarily implies fome degree of underftanding, as in
us it certainly does, it comes to be a queftion of the
firft importance, whether any being which poffelfes not
ill ai,d underftanding can be poflelfed of real power,
or be the efficient caufe of any aaion. This queftion
we feel ourfelves compelled to anfwer in the negative.
If we had not will, and that degree of underftanding
which will neceffarily implies, it is evident that we
could exert no power, and confequently could have
none . for power that cannot be exerted is no power.
It follows alfo, . that the power, of which alone we
can have any diftina notion, can be only in beings
that have underftanding and will. Power to produce
any effea, implies power not to produce it j and we
can conceive no way in which power may be deter¬
mined to one of thefe rather than the other in a being
that has not will. We grow from infancy to man¬
hood j we digeft our food, our blood circulates, our
heart and arteries beat ; we are fometimes fick and
fometimes in health : all thefe things muft be done bv
the power of fome agent, but they are not done by
our power. And if it be afked how we know this ?
the. anfwer is, becaufe they are not fubjeft to our will.
I his is the iniallible criterion by which we diftinguiffi
what is our doing from what is not; what is in our
power from what is not. Human power can be ex¬
erted only by will : and we are unable to conceive any
aftive power to be exerted without will. If, therefore,
any man.affirms that a being may be the efficient caufe
of.an action which that being can neither conceive nor
will, he fpeaks a language which we do not under-
ftand. If he has a meaning, he muft take the words
power and efficiency in a fenfe very different from ours :
for the only diftinift notion, indeed the only notion
which we can form, of real efficiency, is a relation be¬
tween the caufe and the effett fimilar to that between
HYSICS. partI
us and our voluntary anions. It feems therefore moft Of Confd.
probable, that fuch beings only as have fome degree of oufneh aw
underftan.ding and will can pofiels active power, and eaion'
that inanimate beings muft be merely pailive. Nothing
which we perceive without us aftords any good ground
for aferibing adtive power to any inanimate being j and
we can as little conceive fuch a being poilefied ol power
as we can conceive it capable ot teeling pain. On the
other, hand, every thing whic h we diicover in our own
conftitution, leads us to think that active power cannot
be exerted without will and intelligence : and to affirm
that, it can, is to aftum what to us at leaft is a contra-
didtion in terms. rij
To this reafoning, which is Dr Reid’s *, and which 4n objec-
to tis appears unanfwerable, we have heard it objedted, tl0,n obvi:1,
that a man born blind has the fame evidence for the ^'
non-exiftence of colour that is here urged for the im- * See ^
pofiibility of power being exerted without will and'SwH
underftanding. If the objediion had not been made Powers t/
by a very acute man, we ihould have deemed it alto- Man.
gether unworthy of notice 5 for between the two cafes
fuppofed to be limilar there is hardly any analogy. A
man born blind has no notion whatever of colour. If
you defenbe it to him in the beft manner you can,
and refer it to any of the fenfes which he poffeffes •
if you fay that it is the objedt of feeling, and that by
feeling it one may perceive things at the Siftance of
many miles ; the blind man has reafon to fay that you
are uttering a propofition which he knows with the
utmoft certainty cannot poffibly be true. But if you
tell him that colour is the objedl of the fenfe of fight,
a fenfe which he poffeffes not; that it has not the leaft
refemblance to the obje&s of the other fenfes j and
that perfons endowed with the fenfe of fight perceive
coloured objedts at the diftance of many miles 5 the
blind man cannot know whether what you fay be true
or.falfe, becaufe he has no idea or conception of the
things of which you fpeak. This is not the cafe with
refpedt to power 5 for every man who has refledted on
the operations of his own mind has a very diftindt no¬
tion of power, and knows perfedlly, that to the adlual
exertion of the only power which he can conceive, will
and underftanding are neceffary. Should it be faid
that there may be power altogether different from that
of which we have a diftindt conception, we think it
Efficient to reply, that of a thing which cannot be
conceived. nothing can be either affirmed or denied :
that activity exerted without wdll and underftanding
ought not to be called an exertion of power, becaufe
power is the name already appropriated to the attri¬
bute of a being by which he can do certain things if
he wills j that as we can form no notion of a real effi¬
cient caule which has not will and underftanding, fo
we have no reafon to believe that fuch a caufe any¬
where. exifts ; and to fay that porver, fuch as we can
conceive, may be exerted without will and underftand¬
ing, is as great an abfurdity as to fay that there may be
velocity without fpace.
But if adlive power, in its proper meaning, require*
a fubjedl endowed with will and intelligence, what
fliall we fay of thofe adlive powers which philofophers
teach us to aferibe to matter, the powers of corpufcu-
lar attradlion, magnetifm, eledlricity, gravitation, and
others ? T. hefe powers, as they are called, ffiall be con-
fidered when we treat of the nature and fource of cor¬
poreal
jhap. VII.
M E T A P
ofTruth, poreal motion. In the mean time, it is fufficient to
obferve, that whatever the agents may be in the ope¬
rations of nature, Avhatever the manner of their agency
or the extent of their power, they depend upon the
Firft Caufe, and are all under his centroul.
Chap. VII. O/"Truth, and the different Sources
oj Evidence.
Sect. I. Of Truth.
By purfuing thefe inquiries in the order which to
us appears mott natural, we are now led to the contem¬
plation of thofe faculties of the human mind of which
truth is properly the objea. But what is truth ? 1 his
was a famous queftion among the Greek lophiits >
which had been fo often agitated, and to _ which fo
many abfurd anfwers had been given, that it came at
laft to be doubted by men of the world whether a
fatisfaftory anfwer could -be given, or indeed whether
the matter was worthy of inveftigatiem. It is well
known, that among the ancient philofophers there
was a feft called from their principles Sceptics, and from
their founder Tyrrhenians, who openly avowed their
opinion that truth, like virtue, is nothing but a name 5
that all things are equally true, or rather equally doubt-
Vol. XIII. Part II.
H Y S I C S. . 6ot
ful and that it is in vain for man to hope for certain-
ty in any inquiry in which he ca^n be engaged, f'f
fcepticifm as this no modern philofopher has profeiled ;
but many have had enough of it to make iober men
hefitate about defining truth,, and even mfinuate that
of truth no definition can be given. This furely is a
miftake. If truth cannot be defined, it itill wanders
at large and in difguife, and vain rnuft be the purfuifc
of every man who endeavours to obtain it 3 he is pur¬
fuing he knowTs not what. vv
So obvious and fo folid is this reflection, that dimorC
every philofopher of merit who has lately written on 1
the nature of evidence has begun bis work, n not
with a formal definition, with fomething at leap equi¬
valent to a definition of the objedl of his purfuit. lo
repeat all thefe definitions could ferve no other pur-
pofe than to fwell this article to a difproportioned
bulk, and to perplex perhaps the mind of the reader.
We fliall therefore content ourfelves with that which
is given by Mr Wollafton. “ Thofe propofitions (fays
he) are true which reprefent things as they are . ^or
truth is the conformity of thofe words or figns dv
which things are exprefled to the things themfelves.
Notwithilanding the obje&ions of a very learned anc
acute writer (w), this is the bell definition Oi truth
which we have met with in any language. It is con-
4 G cife
“d tXVa "w ^on, and detacKmen, of*
,j„n. When upon a folemn ^came purpoMy and profefTed.y to teach, he did
though it was what he tully <.na pence y ’ . i a • n.ri11q- n . ancl that in its common ule
not define it. He knew that definition was never w0’rds do not conftitute truth;
and application it was feldom the fr.end of truth. Philofophically vmwen wora ^ ;t ;s r(,corded.
they are only the vocal inftruments by which it is commumcated, or the written g y
Byyan inqurL, therefore, things are to be examined ^ktd ^
conveyed bv words in fome form or ot icr, av nen are o definition quite another. Explanation is the
fufficiently underftood before, ^ explanation is one ^ an‘d is
frff office of a teacher : Definition, if it be good, is the faff f.W ared him for it.
then the moft o<f»ii»yigeoi//?y employed by t e teac er, " ™ ^ P declaring at his rifing a marvel-
GOD is a mind, am! truth is confequently an « e of MIND ,fin„ theKawfo/fy tlem:-
lous intlrument, He by whom all things were made h. h delegated ™ P°we oi enl, I U . g
wlniil he hath referred to HIMSELF the office which ls '7'“^ >3 through the fnftrumentality of
knowledge, by his eternal TRUTH to the ““Te -"uniform and eo.if,llent in his opefations; fo that one part
his creatures, or more immediately po™ him.e , . tlv sr'K (lieds ills Us hi over the material creation
of his divine economy is always .UuBrative of another As "f J ^ Crehended by the intclM,
to be apprehended by the eye, TRUTH is the/la thed down rom he yen “ “ ^ar by theii
ts: -         “
receive it from them.” The Chart and Scale of Truth, <^'1’ ,, for nerfoicuitv feems to be deferiptive, not
This paif ige, of which feme parts are divine, of which indeed no
of truth in the common acceptation of the ^ut alt km™ J to . as ufcd by Mr Wol-
adequate definition can be given ru,>, ^ k{J fenfe h mav ^tainly be explained, if not defined-, and
lafton and others, it is oppofite toAA^ WMft j ;ven a „ood explanation of the word truth as oppofed to
if the learned lefturer will allow tha Mi v\ odaiton has given a go / exnreffion We have called it a
fa!rehood we fliall not quarrel with him or any man about the propriety ot an exprellion.
of truth 3 be caufe it was fo called by the author from whom tt is taken.
6c2
iso
livery pro-
°F Truth, clfe and perfpicuous. _ It comprehends all kinds of
truth, as well that which is merely mental, the fubjeft
of filent contemplation, as that which is communicated
either by written language or by the living voice : and
it makes truth itlelt immutable, as depending not upon
the arbitrary conftitution of this or that individual,
or even of the whole human race (x), but upon the
nature of tmngs as eftablifhed by their Almighty
Creator.
petition ei- -Accwding to this definition, every propofition which
rher true can exPre^ec^ or apprehended is neceffarily either
®r falfe. true or falle, whether its truth or falfehood be perceiv¬
ed or not either by him who hears or by him who ut¬
ters it. All propofitions are either affirmative or nega¬
tive but before any thing can with certainty be af¬
firmed or denied of another, we muft know thofe things
as they are in themfelves, as well as the eftabliffied
ufe of the figns by which they are exprefled. He who
affirms or denies without this knowledge, fpeaks at ran¬
is x dom, and has no difiindt meaning,
manfaeuity -^very faculty which we poffefs is in fome way or
concerned7 ot^er an inftrument of knowledge ; for we know by
our fenfes, by our memory, and by our intelleft.
Every one of our faculties, therefore, is concerned in
the acquifition of truth, and furniffies the mind with
the materials of propofitions. Thefe propofitions are
indeed of various kinds ; but they are all certainly true
or certainly falfe, though the certainty of the truth or
falfehood of every one it is not always in our power to
perceive.
When a man affirms that red is a quality inherent
in a foldier’s coat, he utters a propofition which every
one of the vulgar firmly believes to be true, but which
every philefopher knows to be falfe. This diverfity
of belief, however, affefts not the truth of the propo¬
fition itfelf. All mankind know that it is either true
or falfe, independent of them or their perceptions j
and it is eafy, by a few optical experiments and by an
explanation of terms, to convince them all, that what
they have agreed to call red is no quality inherent in
external objedts, but only a fenfation caufed by the
rmpulfe of certain rays of light refledted from certain
objedts to the eye of the percipient. The contrariety
therefore in this cafe of vulgar to philofophical belief,
does not refult from any ambiguity in the nature of
truth itfelf, but from the different means of perception
which the clown and the philofopher poffefs.
METAPHYSICS.
Part I
in the
acquifition
®f truth.
Diverfity of
belief af¬
fects not
the truth
of what is
believed.
Again, Were a man looking at a red and a green ob- Of Truth,
ject, to affirm that they are both of the fame colour,1 y—■*
he would affirm what in one fenfe may be true, what
in another is undoubtedly falfe, and what in a third
may be either true or falfe. If it be his meaning that
the two objedls give to him the fame fenfation, he may
know with the utmoft certainty that what he fays is
true; if he mean that they affed all mankind precife-
ly as they affedt him, he utters what all mankind with
the moft abfolute certainty know to be falfe ; if he
mean that the texture of the two bodies (that parti¬
cular difpofition of parts on their furfaces which makes
them relied certain rays of light and abforb others) is
exadly fimilar, fo as that the one muff refled the very
fame kind of rays with the other, he utters what all.
mankind muft believe to be falfe, though ftill it is pof-
Jible that what he affirms may be true, ihis diverfity
of belief affeds not the truth itfelf. The two objeds
are what they are by whomfoever perceived, or whe¬
ther perceived or not; the rays of light refledled by
each are what they are, whether they fall upon this,
upon that, or upon any eye ; and the fenfation com¬
municated to this Angular man is certainly what he is
confeious it is, as thofe of the reft of mankind are with
equal certainty what they are confeious of. This be¬
ing the cafe, it is obvious and undeniable, that the or¬
gans of fight in this individual of the human race are
fomehow differently formed from thofe of other men :
and the only queftion which can occafion a doubt in
the mind of the fceptic is, whether his or their eyes
be fo formed as to rt-prefent things falfely ? for that
by the one or the other things are falftly reprefented,
is as evident as that two contradidory propofitions
cannot both be true. Now, though, for any thing we
know it is certainly poflible, as to us it appears not to
imply any contradidion, that the eyes of but one man
are formed in a manner fuitable to their objeds, whilft
the eyes of all other men are formed to deceive them ;
yet the contrary is fo highly probable, that no man
really doubts of it any more than he doubts whether
three and two be equal to five.
I his laft prepofition is indeed faid to exprefs a truth Why fom«
abfolutely certain, whilft the former expreffes a truth truths are
which is called morally certain : not that there is anyfaicl t0 be
difference or degrees of certainty in the nature of truths
themfelves ; the only difference is in our power of per-n101aiiy
ceiving them. That three and two are equal to five, certain.
is
his elegant effay, has given a definition of truth very different from this, though it is
poflible that his meaning may be the fame with Mr Wollafton’s. “ I account that to be truth (lays he)
which the conftitution of our nature determines us to believe ; and that to he falfehood which the conftitution
of our nature determines us to difbelieve.” But if truth be really immutable, as he teaches or willies to teach,
it muli depend upon the nature of things, and not upon the inftindive impulfe of any particular conftitution.
It is^always difficult, often impoffible, to diftinguilh between the conftitution of our nature, as it came from
t. e land of God, and the fame conftitution as it is moulded by arbitrary and capricious affoeiations of our
own. A fineere member of the church of Rome certainly believes the doddne of tranfubftantialion. How
le may do jo we have already ffiown. Were all mankind fincere members of that church, it would be faid
and thought, “ that the conftitution of human nature determines men to believe tranfubftantiation a dodrine
w n<_ i, though it is rejeded by millions,^ Pere Buffier lias laboured hard to reconcile with common fenfe. Yet it
iS ^u11 r ir !he , ,e cannot be in different places at the fame time ; and that therefore tranfubflantiation
muk ,e ifo.e, though believed by all mankind. Our believing any thing does not make it true, nor our difbeliev-
ii'g am t ung mam it falfe. We muft, indeed, m4? according to our belief; but in every inftance truth and falfe¬
hood would have been what they are, though we had never exifted.
3
Chap. VII. M E T A P
Of Truth, is faid to be an abfolute truth; becaufe we perceive
“v—the whole of it as it is in itfelf, and are convinced that
every intelligence from the higheft to the loweft who
underftands the terms in which it is expreffed perceives
it as we do : whereas of moral or phyjicaltruths, as they
are called, we only perceive a part, and may therefore
miftake for want of evidence. Thus, in the cafe of
the two objects exhibiting the fame colour to one man,
whilit they exhibit different colours to all other men,
could we fee into the objefts themfelves, and compre¬
hend them immediately with our intellect as we com¬
prehend our own ideas, it might, and no doubt would,
appear as palpable a contradi6Uon to fay that the par¬
ticular difpolition of the parts on their furfaces, which
refleft the rays of light, are the fame in both, as it is
now to affirm that three and two are not equal to five.
Between truth and falfehood there is no medium. All
truths are in themfelves equally certain*, and to the
Supreme Being, who knows the nature of every thing
more fully and intimately than we know our own
ideas, they all appear equally certain: but yet we may
without abfurdity fpeak of probable truth as well as .of
certain truth, provided always that we make the dif¬
ference to refult, not from the nature of things, but
from the power of our underftanding, which compre¬
hends the one kind of truth wholly and the other only
na partially.
Why fome There is another divifion made of truth, into that
truths are which is eternal and neceifary, and that which is tem-
faid to be p0rary ancl contingent. Though we do not approve
eternal and ‘ t]ie epithets temporary and eternal to any
Sit""7’ thing but real exiftences, yet as this manner of fpeak-
others are ing has been uled by all philofophers, we fhall give, in-
confidered ftances 0f each kind of truth, and endeavour to afcer-
as tempo- tajn what the diftindtion confifts. “ 1 he three
contingent, angles of a plain triangle are equal to two right angles,”
is a propofition exprcffive of a ncceffary and eternal
truth. “ The world exifts,” is a contingent and tem¬
porary truth. Here it is obvious, that if both thefe
propofitions be true, there is no diftindtion between
them, fo far as mere truth is concerned 5 for truth ad¬
mits not of degrees of comparifon. It is however faid,
that the firft propofition depends not upon time,, or
will, or any thing elfe j and that the Supreme Being
himfelf could not make it falfe : whereas it is certain¬
ly poffible, that he who created the world could anni¬
hilate it, and thus reduce what is now a truth to an
abfolute falfehood. This difference between the two
propofitions is thought a fufficient ground for calling
the former a neceffary^ and eternal truth, and the latter
a temporary and contingent truth. But is the difference
itfelf real? In the prefent inftanee we cannot think
that it is : for if the right angles and triangles, which
conftitute the materials of the former propofition, be real
corporeal things, they may be annihilated as well as the
reft of the world 5 and then the truth of the propofition
will ceafe, for there can be neither equality nor inequa¬
lity betiveen nonentities. If the angles and triangles
be merely ideas in the mind of a rational being, it is not
to be denied that the propofition muft oe true, inde¬
pendent of all vctlly whenever thofe ideas exift, i. e.
whenever right angles and triangles are tnought upon;
H Y S I C S. 603
but if all reafonable creatures were to be annihilated, iof I lutil ^
and the Supreme Being never to think of triangles, ' v "
the propofition would unqueftionably ceafe to be either
true or falfe. The world may indeed be annihilated j
but it certainly is not annihilated whilft any one
creature exifts to contemplate even that which is called
neceffary and eternal truth: and therefore whilft any
truth exifts in a mind not divine, it muft be neceffarily
true that the world exifts ; for the individual being by
which truth is perceived would then conftitute the
whole world.
But if in a fomewhat different manner we compare
the former of thefe propofitions with this, “ The lolar
fyftem confifts of the fun and at leaft feyen primary
planets,” we {hall at once perceive the difference be¬
tween neceffary and contingent truths. Both propofitions
we know to be true at this moment: but there is
this difference between them, that a plain triangle can
neither actually exift at any period of duration, nor
be conceived by any one mind divine or human, ol
which the three internal angles are not precifely equal
to two right angles ; whereas the folar fyftem may
eafily be • conceived, and might certainly have been
formed, with a fmaller number of primary planets
rolling round the central fire. This needs no proof;
as it is well known, that till very lately we conceived
the fyftem to confift of the fun and only fix primary
planets , and it has been already ftiown, that whatever
we can pofitively conceive may poflibly exift. Thus,
then, every propofition, of which the contrary is clearly
and diftin&ly perceived to be impoflible, is a necejfary
truth \ and it may likewife be faid to be eternal^
becaufe at every period of duration it muft of neceffity
when thought upon be perceived to be true : On the
other hand, every propofition of which the contrary
may be clearly and diftinddly conceived, is, if true,
only a contingent truth, becaufe its contrary might have
exiifted ; and it may likewife be called temporary,
becaufe what might have been falfe in time paft may
yet be falfe in time future. 125
Though all our faculties (our fenfes, our memory, Truth per-
and ouAntelleft), furnifti materials for propofitions, ceived by
and are therefore all fubfervient to the inyeftigation of^JJ^11*
truth ; yet the perception of truth, as it is in itfelf, is which are
commonly aferibed to our rational faculties ; and thefe commonly
have by Locke and others been reduced to two—rea- Lid to be
fon and judgment. The former is faid to be conver- ^'judz
fant about certain truths, the latter chiefly about pro- mefu
babilities. 126
Some late philofophers of great merit, diffatisfied Te which
with this analyfis of the intellect, have added to rea-
fon and judgment a third faculty, to which they have have added
given the name of common fenfe, and of which the pro-a third fa_
per object is fuch truths as neither admit nor ftand in culty, viz.
need of evidence. By common fenfe they mean, “ that common
degree of judgment which is common to men withA^A*
whom we can converfe and t ran fact bufinefs.” Whe¬
ther the introduction of fuch a term into, metaphyfics
was proper or improper, we do not think it of import-
tance to inquire. According to ihis definition oi it,
which is Dr Reid’s, it differs not from the reafon (y)
and judgment of Locke 5 agreeing with the former when
4 G 2 its
(y) This is exprefsly acknowledged by Dr Reid.
“ It is abfurd (fays that able and candid writer).to
conceive
604
METAPHYSICS.
Of Intuitive fts objeft i? certain truth, and with the latter when it
127
Intuitive
evidence,
what.
* Camp¬
bell's Phi-
lofopby of
Rhetoric.
is converfant about probabilities. Nothing indeed is
more evident, than that in the aiTcnt of the mind to
every proportion, fome energy of the judgment is ex-
'■ erted ; and upon every proposition not felf-evident, rea-
ioning of fome kind or other mutt be employed to pro¬
cure that afient. Inftead therefore of perplexing our-
felves and our readers with various analyfes of the hu¬
man urderftanding, or rather with various names to
what after all is perhaps but one individual power, it
will iurely be of more importance to the caufe of truth
to examine the different fources of evidence by which
the affent of the reafon, or judgment, or common fenfe,
is determined.
Under the article Logic it was obferved, that intui¬
tion, experience, and tejiimony, are each a fufficient
ground of judgment; but they are not the only grounds.
Confcioufnefs is certainly one fource of evidence, per¬
haps the moft complete of any 5 and, in a low degree,
analogy is another. Of confcioufnefs we have already
treated, but of analogy we have yet faid nothing : and
though Ave might (for an account of intuition, experience,
and tejiimony) refer our readers to the article Logic,
where they are accurately though concifely explained,
we fhall, without repeating rvhat has been already faid,
add a fc ivords on each, as well to complete the pre-
fent article as to fupply the deficiencies of the former.
Sect. II. Of Intuitive Evidence and Dernonf ration.
Intuitive eiudence is that which arifes from the
comparifon of two or more ideas or notions when their
agreement or difagreement is perceived immediately,
V'ithout the intervention of any third idea or notion.
Of this kind is the evidence of thefe propofitions : One
and four make five * 5 things equal to “ the fame
thing are equal to one another ) the w hole is greater
Part l
than any of its parts and in a word, all the axioms Of Intuitive
in arithmetic and geometry. All thefe are in reality Evidenc3
propofitions in which the fubjedl and predicate appear and De-
upon comparifon to be nothing more than the fame m“^ra'
thing taken in different views or expreffed by different1 ^
terms. In fail:, they are all in fome refped reducible
to this axiom, “ Whatever is, is,” We do not fay
that they are deduced from it •, for they have in them-
felves that original and intrinfic evidence which makes
them, as foon as the terms are underftood, to be perr
ceived intuitively. And if they be not thus perceived,
no dedudiion of reafon will ever confer on them any ad¬
ditional evidence. But though not deduced from the
general axiom, they may be confidered as particular ex¬
emplifications of it; inafmuch as they are all implied
in this, that the properties and relations of our clear
and adequate ideas can be no other than what the
mind clearly perceives them to be.
It may perhaps be thought, that if axioms were pro-Every de-
pofitions perfedlly identical, it would be impoffible by monftratioB.
their means to advance a fingle ftep beyond the fimple a feries
ideas firft perceived by the mind. And it would in- ProPofitl“ns
deed be true, that if the predicate of the propofition evident ^
were nothing but a repetition of the fubjedl under the
fame afpeft, and in the fame or fynonymous terms, no
conceivable advantage could be made of it for the fur¬
therance of knowledge. Of fuch propofitions as thefe,
for inftance, “ feven are feven, eight are eight, the
three angles of a triangle are the three angles of a tri¬
angle, two right angles are tivo right angles,” it is ma-
nifeft that we could never avail ourfelves for the im¬
provement of feience : But when the thing, though
in elfed coinciding, is confidered under a different af-
peft when that which is fingle in the fubjedl is di¬
vided in the predicate, and eonverfely; or when Avhat
is a whole in the one is regarded as a part of fome-
thing elfe in the other 5 fuch propofitions lead to the
difeovery
conceive that there can be any oppofition betiveen reafon and common fenfe. It is indeed the firft-born of rea¬
fon 5 and as they are commonly joined together in fpeech and in writing, they are infeparable in their nature.
We aferibe to reafon two offices or two degrees : the firft is to judge of things felf-evident; the fecond to draw
conclufions that are not felf-evident from tbofe that are. The firft of thefe is the province, and the foie province
of common fenfe j and therefore it coincides with reafon in its whole extent, and is only another name for one
branch or one degree of reafon.” Pere Buffier talks nearly the fame language ; but Dr Beattie oxpreffes himfelf
very differently. “ I hat there is a real and effential difference betiveen thefe twTo faculties 5 that common fenfe
cannot be accounted for by being called the perfeBion of reafon, nor reafon by being refolved into common fenfe;
will appear (he thinks) from the folloiving remarks : 1. We are confcious, from internal feeling, that the energy
of underftanding,. which perceives intuitive truth, is different from that other energy which unites a conclufion
wuth a firft principle by a gradual chain of intermediate relations. 2. We cannot difeern any necefiary connexion
between reafon and common fenfe.” Nay, he fays, “ That we often find men endued with the one who are
deftitute of the other :” and he inftances dreams and certain kinds of madnefs Avhere this is the cafe •, adding,
that a man who believes himfelt made of glafs, {hall yet reafon very juftly concerning the means of preferring his
fuppofed brittlenefs from flaws and frailures.” Surely thefe are ftrange remarks. Dreams and madnefs have hi¬
therto been fuppofed to originate in the imagination, or, as it ivas denominated by the ancient philofophers, the
phantafia : and when the ideas or forms which are there treafured up are difarranged or abfurdly compounded, a
dreaming' fane man or a waking madman, if he reafon at all, muft reafon from abfurd principles : not, however,
through any defeil of common fenfe, but from a diforder in that region of the brain, upon which the phantaf a
more immediately depends. Of his firft remark, we can only fay, that to us it appears to be the reverfe of truth.
In every propofition Avhich admits of demonftration, we are confcious that the conclufion is united with the firft
principle by a repetition of the very fame energy of the underftanding which perceives intuitive truth. That this
is the cafe in every one of Euclid’s demonftrations, we appeal to every mathematical reader ; and why it muft bs
fo, avc (hall by and by endeavour to evince.
3h»p- VII. M E T A P
fIntuitive difcovery of Innumerable and apparently remote reia-
Evidence tjons. It is by the aid of fuch iimple and elementary
and Oe- principies that the arithmetician and the algebraift pro-
mcnftra- tQ ^ moft aftoniihmg difcoveries. Nor are the
operations of the geometrician effentially different:
for to this clafs belong all propofitions relating to
number and quantity •, that is, all which admit of ma¬
thematical demonftration. If the truth ot a mathe¬
matical propofition be not felf-evident j in other words,
if the fubject and predicate do not appear at firil fight
to be different names for the fame thing, another term
muff be found that lhall be fynonymous to them both.
Thus, to prove that the three internal angles of a right-
lined’triangle are equal to two right angles, I produce
the bafe of the triangle ; and by a very iliort proeels I
difcover that the exterior angle fo formed is equal to
the two interior and oppolite angles. By a procels
equally plain and fhort, _ I perceive that the exterior
angle and the interior adjacent angle are equal to two
right angles: But I have already feen, that the ex¬
terior angle is neither more nor lefs than the two in¬
terior and oppofite angles under a different alpect;
whence it appears that the three internal angles of the
triangle are nothing elfe than two right angles under
a different afpeft. In a word, all demonftration is
founded on firft principles or primary truths, which
neither admit nor ftand in need of proof, and to which
the mind is compelled to give its affent by a bare in¬
tuition of the ideas or terms of which thefe primary
truths are compofed. Nothing is fufceptible of de¬
monftration, in the rigid fenfe of the word, but gene¬
ra!, neceffary, and eternal truths j and every demon¬
ftration is built upon intuition, and conftfts in a ieries
of axioms or propofitions of the very fame kind with
the firft principle or truth from which the reatoning
proceeds. That propofitions formerly demonftrated
are taken into the feries, doth not in the leaft invali¬
date this account 5 inafmuch as thefe propofitions are
all refolvable into axioms, and are admitted as links m
the chain •, not becaufe neceffary, but merely to avoid
the ufelefs prolixity which frequent and tedious repeti¬
tions of proofs formerly given would occafion. But
it is obvious that fuch truths only as reftilt from the
comparifon of ideas and notions are neceffary •, and oi
courfe that fuch truths only are capable of ftnet de¬
monftration. The truths which relate to real exift-
ences ar<fall contingent, except that which affirms the
exiftenee of the Supreme Being, the Parent ot all
UUThe mathematical fciences, categorical logic, and
that part of metaphyfics which demenftrates the being
of God, are therefore the only branches of human
knowledge which admit of Aria demonftration. I he
longeft demonftration in the mathematical feiences may
be traced to this general and neceffary truth, “ VV hat-
ever ft, is,” or to feme particular exemplification ot
it: the longeft train of categorical fyllogifms terminates
in this general principle, “ VV hat is affirmed or denied
of a whole genus, may be affirmed or denied ot all the
fpecies, and all the individuals belonging to that genus :
and the metaphyfical demonftration of tne being ot
God refts upon this foundation, “ Whatever had a be¬
ginning, had a caufe ” That thefe are truths abfo-
futely certain, which can neither be proved nor called
In queftion, every man may be fatisfied, merely by at-
H Y S I C 3. _ 6o5
tending to the ideas or notions which the terms of “^1™'
each propofttion expreis. I he two nrft are meicly
identical propofitions, of the truth oi which no man
has ever pretended to doubt 5 and though the late is
not identical, it is a neceffary and felt-eviaent truth, as
its contrary implies, that in the fame thing t ere is
power and no power, change and no change, action and
inadtion, at the fame inftant. ... . .
Before we difmifs the fubjea of intuition, it may I, is by m.
not be improper to obferve, that it .s hy this faculty
or power of the mind contemplating its ideas, and com ^ our n0_
paring one idea with another, that we acquire ail our tions 0f re_
notions of relation: fuch as identity and diverjity, rc-lation.
femblance, coexijlence, relations oi/pace and /??«<?, rela¬
tions of quantity and number, of a caufe to its effect, zna
many more which it would be uieleis as well as tedious
to enumerate.
Analogy.
129
Sect. III. Of Experience and Analogy.
130
It has been juft obferved, that intuition and demon-Experience
ftration are applicable only to general and necenary the rem
propofitions, of which the contrary are not only fade, obferva.
but abfurd and impoffible. The great buftnels ot liie,tionSi
however, is with fafts and contingent truths, which
admit not of demonftration, but reft upon other evi¬
dence. The fenfes, external and internal, are the in¬
lets to all our knowledge of facts j and the memory is
the ftorehoufe where that knowledge is prtferved. Ot
what a man fees or feels, he can at the inftant of lee-
ino- or feeling entertain no doubt; and whilft the ideas
of what he has feen or felt, with all ftieir aflociated
circumftances, remained vivid and diftinfl in his memo¬
ry, he is confeious that he paffeffes fo much real know¬
ledge. But all our knowledge, as it is derived from
the fenfes, is of particular fafts or particular truths}
and the man who has in certain circumftances obferved
one particular phenomenon, for the exiftence of which
he perceives no necefjity, has not fufficient ground to
conclude, that in limilar circumftances fimilar pheno¬
mena will always occur. Milton, who furpaffed the
o-reater part of his cotemporaries in philofophical
fcience almoft as far as he has furpaffed all fucceeding
poets in the fublimity of his genius, reprefents Adam,
when firft falling afleep, as under apprehenfions that
lie was about to fink into his original hate of infenfi-
bility :
-a Gentle deep
“ Firft found me, and with foft oppreffion feiz’d
“ My droufed fenfe, untroubled; though I thought
“ I then was palling to my former ftate
“ Infennble, and forthwith to diffolve.”
Apprehenfions fimilar to thefe would take place in his
mind1 when he ffrft perceived that darknefs had over-
fpread the earth. In his circumftances, he could have
no oround to expedt that the fun when once fet would
rife'again to relume the world, as he had not then ex¬
perienced the alternate, fucceffion of light and dark¬
nefs, and probably knew not whence light proceeds.
After fome time, however, having obferved day and
night regularly to fuceeed each other, thefe two ap¬
pearances, or the ideas of them, would be fo affociated
in his mind, that each fetting fun would fuggeft the
idea of next funrifing, and lead lum to expeel that
pi nr 1011$
enc?and' ^WioU3 f’ent wIt]l lhe confidence. He would
enca and
Analogy.
U1
Is the only
evidence
that we
phyfics,
even thofe
which we
think in¬
tuitively
certain.
* Camp¬
bell's Phi-
ley's Re
marks on
the Drs
Reid, See.
then conlidcr the alternate fucceffion of day and night
as a law of nature, which might be affirmed in a pro-
pofition expreffive of a certain truth.
This continued obfervation of the fame event hap-
w.c., pening in the fame or fimilar circumftances, is what
have for all we ca^ experience ; and it is the only evidence which
the general we have for all the general truths in phyfics, even for
truths m thofe which we are apt to think intuitively certain *.
I hus, that milk is white, and that gold is yellow, are
fuppofed to be univerfal and neceffary truths : but for
any thing that we know, they may be particular
truths ; and they are certainly contingent, as the con¬
trary to either of them may be fuppofed without ab-
«/<><.<... * ui- hirdity. We have indeed always obferved the milk
lofophy of pf animals of every fpecies ’while; and therefore the
Rhetoric; idea of white becomes a neceffary part of our idea of
tey's Re- ^he fubftance milk, of which we call whitenefs an ef-
fential property. This, however, refpefts only the milk
of thofe animals with which we are acquainted. But
fince the milk of all the animals with which we are ac¬
quainted, or of which we have heard, is white, we
can have no reafon to fufpea that the milk of any
new and ftrange animal is of any other colour. Alfo
fince, wherever there has been the fpecific gravity, duc¬
tility, and other properties of gold, the colour has al¬
ways been yellow ; we conclude that fiiefe circumftan-
ces are neeeffariiy united, though by feme unknown
bond of union, and that they will always go toge¬
ther. 6
The proper proof, therefore, of inch univerfal pro-
pofitions as “ milk is white,” “ that gold is yel¬
low, or, 4 that a certain degree of cold will freeze
water,” confifts in what is called an indu&ion of parti¬
cular fa&s of precifely the fame nature. Having found,
by much and various experience, that the fame events
never fail to take place in the fame circumffances, the
expeElation of the fame confequences from the fame pre¬
vious circumftances is neceffarily generated in our minds ;
and we can have no more fufpicion of a different event
than we can feparate the idea of whitenefs from that of
the other properties of milk. When the previous cir-
cum(lances are precifely the fame, we call the pro-
cefs of proof by the name of indudlion, and expedl the
event from experience : but if they be not precifely the
132
Difference
between
experience
-and analo¬
gy-
i <111 1
lame, but only bear a confiderable refemblance to the OfExPm
circumitances from which any particular appearance ence and
has been found to refult, wre call the argument ana- >'^-nakgy.
logy ; and it B ftronger in proportion to the degree of
refemblance in the previous circumftances. Thus the
milk of all the cows that we have feen, or upon which
we have made the experiment, having been found
nourilhing, we confidently expeft that the milk of
all other cows will prove nouriihing likewife ; and this
confidence of expedlation is the refult of uniform ex¬
perience. But if, from having found the milk of all
the animals with which we are acquainted to be nou-
riffiing, however different the nature of thefe animals •
we infer that the milk of any ftrange animal will like¬
wife be nouriffiing 5 the inference is drawn by analogy,
and by no means carries with it the conviction of expe¬
rience.^ A proof from real experience can leave no
doubt in the mind (z) 5 an argument from analogy al.
ways muft. In the one cafe, we only infer that two
events of precifely the fame nature, and in precifely the
fame circumftances, have been produced by the fame kind
of caufe j in the other, we infer that two events fimilar
in moft relpeCts, though for any thing that we know
diffimilar in others, have been produced by the fame
kind of caufe ; and it is obvious that between thefe
caies the difference is great.
Thus, after having obferved that all the proje&iles Th^3.
to which we have paid any attention—a ftone thrown dence of
from tne hand, a ball from a gun, and an arrow from analogy in.
a bow—deferibe a certain curve, and are impelled in ferior 1°
that curve by two powers afting in different lines of tlljat of ex‘
direction which form with each other a certain angle,1)cneI!Ce'
we infer that all projeCtiles which on the furface of
the earth deferibe the fame curve are impelled by the
fame or fimilar powers aCting in the fame or fimilar
lines of direCHon. This inference is the refult of ex¬
perience, and carries with it the fulleft conviCHon to
the mind. But when, from having obferved that the
curves deferibed by the planets are of the fame kind
with thofe deferibed by projeCtiles on the earth, Sir
Ifaac Newton inferred that thefe vaft bodies are im¬
pelled in their orbits by forces of the very fame kind,
and aCting in the fame manner with the forces which
impel a ball from a cannon or an arrow from a bow,
his argument was founded only on analogy 5 and even
that
(z) We fay from real experience 5 becaufe what is often taken for experience, and to human eyes has that ap¬
pearance, is m faCt nothing more than analogy. Thus a phyfician may have preferibed to ninety-nine patients la¬
bouring under the fame difeafe the fame remedy, and always with the fame fuccefs. If fo, he will think that he
has experience of its utility, and will preferibe it again with the fulleft confidence. Yet in this cafe he may be
diiappointed j for though the medicine be the fame and the difeafe the fame, there may be fomething in the con-
ititution of the hundredth patient fo different from that of the ninety-nine, that wdiat was falutary to them may be
pernicious to him. This does not detraCl from the evidence of experience 5 it only (hows, that the circumftances
ox the caie m which the medicine failed were different from thofe in which it fucceeded. In fuch conclufions as
are tounded on a complete induCfion and uniform experience, every man expe&s the event with the laft degree of
ailurance, and regards his pad experience as a full proof of the future exiftence of that event : In other cafes
where experience lias been variable—or apparently variable—he knows that the indudion has been incomplete!
«.nd thererore proceeds with caution. He weighs the oppofite experiments 5 takes as complete a view as he can of
the circumftances in which they were made 5 confiders which fide is fupported by the preater number of experi¬
ments, nnd inclines to that fide with doubt and hefitation. And when at laft he fixes his judgment, the evi-
tence exceeds nox what is called probability. All probability, then, fuppofes an oppofition of experiments and
obieryations, where the one fide is found to overbalance the other, and to produce a degree of evidence propor
tioned to the fuperiority.
METAPHYSICS.
jhap. VII.
Of Tefti- that analogy is very remote. We know by experience
roony. f]iat all projecllles which fall under our immediate cog-
*—nizance are of the very fame kind and in the very fame
circumflances j that every one of them has a tendency,
from whatever caufe, to the centre of the earth, and is
preferved from falling by the force of projection ; we
know likewife that they are all moved through the me¬
dium of the atmofphere, which at the furface of the
earth is confidcrably denfe, and that a denfe medium
mult occafion much refiftancc : But we do not know
that the planets have a tendency to the centre of the
fun, that they are preferved from falling into that lumi¬
nary by a projeClile force, or whether they move
through a medium or in vacuo ; fo that we are not cer¬
tain that the motion of the planets is perfectly fimilar
to that of terreftrial projeCtiles in any other circum-
Itance than the form of the curve which they all de-
feribe •, and from this Angle cale of coincidence no in¬
ference can be drawn which carries to the mind abfo-
lute conviction.
When a man reafons from experience, he infers, that
what has uniformly happened hitherto, wTill happen al¬
ways in the very fame circumftances ; or that what is
known to be the caufe of various phenomena of the fame
kind is the caufe of every other phenomenon in atl re-
fpe£ls limilar to thefe. Such an inference is founded on
the united and complete evidence of fenfe, memory, and
reafon. When a man reafons from analogy he infers,
that what has generally happened hitherto, will happen
again in circumitances nearly fmilar ; or that what is
known to be the caufe of various phenomena of the
fame kind, is the caufe of other phenomena in fame re-
fpedis fimilar to thefe. This inference is likewife found¬
ed on the united evidence of fenfe, memory, and rea¬
fon : but here the evidence of fenfe is not complete,
and it can be ftrengthened only by finding more faCts
of the fame or of a fimilar nature. .
Sect. IV. Of Tejlimony.
lankmd The la ft fource of evidence which we propofed to
>ady to confider is teflimony, or the report of men concerning
elievethe events which have fallen under the obfervation of their
Itimony fenfes> That IVe are all ready to believe the informa-
!hcearch tion which ive receive from the teftimony of our fellow
creatures is undeniable •, and indeed without fuch belief
every man’s knowledge of fads and events would be
confined to thofe only of which he himfelf had been a
perfonal witnefs. In that cafe, no man who had not
travelled would believe that there are fuch cities as
Rome and Conftantinople ; and no man whatever could
now believe that fuch heroes as Hannibal and Caefar
had ever exifted.
Between words and things there is no natural con¬
nexion •, and though rve are all aecuftomed to give to
things the names by which they are known in the lan¬
guage that we fpeak, and to exprefi their mutual rela¬
tions by the words appropriated for that purpofe *, yet it
is obvioufiy impoflible to denote one thing by the name
607
of another, and to exprefs by words relations that have Of T eiti-
no exiftence. This being the cafe, it may be a£ked up- , Tr‘°^' .
on what principle we give credit to human teftimony ?
To this queftion various anfwers have been given,
which have produced much controverfy on one of the
moft important fubjeds which can employ the mind of
man. _ 135
“ We may obferve (fays Mr Hume *), that there is The reafon-
no fpecies of reafoning more common, more ufeful, and affigned by-
even neceffary to human life, than that which is deri-
ved from the teftimony of men and the reports of eye-pengty
Avitneffes and fpedators. This fpecies of reafoning per- % Efj'ay mi
haps one may deny to be founded on the relation of Isliracles^,
caufe and efted. I (hall not difpute about a Avord. It
Avill be fufficient to obferve, that our affurance in any
argument of this kind is derived from no other princi¬
ple than our obfervation of the x^eracity of human tefti¬
mony, and of the ufual conformity of fads to the re¬
ports of Avitnefles. It being a general maxim that
no (a) objeds have any difcoverable connexion toge¬
ther, and that all the inferences Avhich we can draw
from one to another are founded merely on our experi¬
ence of their conftant and regular conjundion j it is
evident that xve ought not to make an exception to this
maxim in favour of human tetlimony, xvhofe connexion
Avith any event feerns in ittelf as little neceflary as any
other. Were not the memory tenacious to a certain
degree 5 had not men commonly an inclination to truth,
and a principle of probity ; were they not fenfible to
fhame xvhen deteded in falfehood : Were not thele, I
fay, difcovei’ed by experience to be qualities inherent in
human nature, xve fhould never repofe the leaft confi¬
dence in human teftimony. And as the evidence de¬
rived from witneffes and human teftimony is founded on
paft experience, fo it varies with the experience, and is
regarded either as « ^roq/' ox probability according as the
eonjundion between any particular kind of report and
any kind of objed has been found to be conftant or va¬
riable. There are a number of circumftances to be ta¬
ken into confideration in all judgments of this kind }
and the ultimate ftandard by which we determine all
difputes that may arife concerning them, is always de¬
rived from experience and obfervation. d he reafon
xvhy we place any credit in xvitneffes and hiftorians, is
not derived from any connexion xvhich we perceive a
priori between teftimony and reality, but becaufe xve are
accuftomed to find a conformity between them. But
when the fad attefted is fuch a one as has feldom fallen
under our obfervation, here is a conteft of two oppofite
experiences j of which the one deftroys the other as far
as it goes, and the fuperior can only operate on the
mind by the force which remains. The very fame
principle of experience which gives us a certain degree
of affurance in the teftimony of witneffes, gives us alfo,
in this cafe, another degree of affurance againft the fad
which they endeavour to eftablith ; from which con-
tradidion there neceffarily arifes a counterpoife, and
mutual deftrudion of belief and authority.” 136
This account of the origin of faith in teftimony has ™ jtedj
been
(A) Is there then no difcoverable connexion between a tree and the field in which it grows ; between a man
and his clothes •, between an author and his work } between a fceptic and paradoxes ? Surely all thefe are corre¬
lates, and neceffarily fuggeft the ideas of each other.
Co8
Of feftl-
mony.
* B'jj'erta-
tion on M ■
raclcs, and
The Phi¬
lo fophy of
Rhetoric.
f Inquiry
into the
Human
Mind, Sec.
betn controverted with much fuccefs by the Do&ors
Campbell and Reid. “ J'hat tlie evidence of teftimony
is derived folely fitim experience (fays the former of
thefe writers *), is at lead not fo incontedable a truth as
Mr Hume fuppofes it; that, on the contrary, teftimo¬
ny hath a natural and original influence on belief ante¬
cedent to experience, will, I imagine, ealily be con-
ceived. For this purpofe, let it be remarked, that the
earlieft aflent which is given to teftimony by children,
and which is previous to all experience, is, in fa£t, the
rnoft unlimited •, that by a gradual experience of man¬
kind, it is gradually contracted, and reduced to nar¬
rower bounds. To fay, therefore, that our diffidence
in teftimony is the refult of experience, is more philo-
fopliical, becaufe more confonant to truth, than to fay
that our faith in teftimony has this foundation. Ac¬
cordingly, youth, which is unexperienced, is credulous j
age, on the contrary, is diftruftful. ExaCtly the re¬
verie would be the cafe were this author’s doCtrine juft.”
I his is a complete confutation of the reafoning of Mr
Hume : but in order to prevent all cavilling, it is to be
wilhed that the very acute author had explained more
fully what he means by faying, that teftimony hath a
natural and original influence on belief j for thefe words
may be taken in different fenfes, in one of which what
he affirms is true, and in another falfe.
Dr Campbell’s omiffion is amply fupplied by Dr
Reid, who gives f the following account of teftimony,
and of the credit which it obtains. “ The wife and
beneficent Author of nature, who intended that we
ftiould be focial creatures, and that we ftiould receive
the greateft and moft important part of our knowledge
by the information of others, hath, for thefe purpofes,
implanted in our nature two principles that tally with
each other. The firft of thefe principles is a propenfity
to fpeak truth, and to ufe the figns of language fo as to
convey our real fentiments. This principle has a power¬
ful operation even in the greateft liars ; for where they
lie once, they fpeak truth a hundred times. Truth is
always uppermoft, and is the natural iffue of the mind.
It requires no art or training, no inducement or tempta¬
tion, but only that we yield to a natural impulfe. Ly-
ing, on the contrary, is doing violence to our nature,
and is never pradifed even by the worft men without
fome temptation. Speaking truth is like ufing our na¬
tural food, which we would do from appetite, although
it anfwered no end ; but lying is like taking phyfie,
which is naufeous to the tafte, and which no man takes
but for fome end which he cannot otherwife attain.—
When we are influenced by any motive, we muft be
confcious of that influence, and capable of perceiving
it upon reflection. Now, when I refleCt upon my ac¬
tions moft attentively, I am not confcious that in fpeak-
ing truth I am influenced on ordinary occafions by any
motive moral or political. I find that truth is always
at the door of my lips, and goes forth fponlaneoufly if
not held back. It requires neither good nor bad in¬
tention to bring it forth, but only that I be artlefs and
undefigning. There may indeed be temptations to
falfeho'd, whi ch would be too ftrong for the natural
principle of veracity, unaided by principles of honour
or virtue ; but where there is no fuch temptation, we
fpeak truth by inJiinB. By this inftinCt, a real con¬
nexion is formed between our words and our thoughts j
M E T A P H Y S I C S.
Part I.
and thereby the former become fit to be figns of the Of left;,
latter, which they could not otherwife be.” mony.
Such is the account which Dr Reid gives of the truth
of human teftimony : and he adds, that there is ano¬
ther original principle implanted in us by the Supreme
Being, to tally with it, viz. a difpofition to confide
in the veracity of others, and to believe what they tell
us. “ I his (he fays) is the counterpart to the former ;
and as that may be called the principle of veracity, we
ftiall, for the w'ant of a more proper name, call this the
principle of credulity. It is unlimited in children, un¬
til they meet with inftances of deceit and falfehood ;
and retains a very confiderable degree of ftrength through
life.”
It is ever with extreme reluClance that we contro¬
vert the opinions of this able writer •, and that reluc¬
tance tfannot be lefi’ened in the prefent inftance, when
v/e are confcious that great part of what he fays is un-
anfwerable. That truth is always at the door of the
lips ; that it requires no effort to bring it forth ; that
in ordinary cafes men fpeak truth uninfluenced by any
motive moral or political; that the greateft liars fpeak.
truth a hundred times where they lie once 5 and that
lying is never pradtifed by the worft men without fome
temptation, are pofitions which daily experience ren¬
ders it impoffible to queftion : But notwithftanding
this, we do not think that truth is fpoken by an in-
fin&ive principle •, becaufe it is inconceivable that in-
ftintft ftiould teach the ufe of arbitrary and artificial
figns, fuch as the words of every language undoubtedly
are ; or that between fuch figns and ideas any irtfinc-
tive connexion ftiould ever be formed. “ Truth (as we
have defined it) is the conformity of thofe words or
figns by which things are expreffed to the things them-
felves j” and things themfelves are what they are, in¬
dependent of us, our inftindls, and perceptions. When
we have precife and adequate ideas of objects, and
when thofe ideas are related to one another as the ob-
je£ls themfelves are related, we are in poffeffion of men¬
tal truth ; and in this cafe there is a real and natural
connexion between the figns and the things fignified :
for we cannot frame original and fimple ideas which
have no archetype in nature 5 nor can one objeft, dif-
tinftly perceived, generate in our minds the ideas that
are generated by other objefts. Here external things
are the objeeffs, and ideas are the figns, which, when
they are in conformity to the things fignified by them,
conftitute truth.
But in human teftimony, the ideas in the mind of The true
the Ipeaker are the things fignified, and the rvords ofrealon.a^
language are figns by which they are expreffed \ and fiSned-
when thefe things and figns are in conformity to each
other, the words uttered exprefs fo much truth.—
Now, though in this cafe there is no natural connexion
between the fign and the thing fignified, yet it is ob¬
vious, that Avithout a violent effort of the fpeaker to the
contrary they muft always be in conformity Avith each
other; becaufe, in every language, there are Avords ap¬
propriated for the purpofe of denoting every idea and
relation Avhich can be expreffed •, and in the mind of
every man thefe ideas, relations, and words, haA^e been
conftantly affociated from the time that he learned to
fpeak. So intimate is this affociation, and fo impoffible
to be broken, that Avhoever Avill pay fufficient attention
to
-hap. VII. M E T A P
Of Tefti- to the operations of Ins own mind, will find that he
mony. thinks as well as /peaks in fome language ; and that in
-»«* v carritation he fuppofes and runs over, filently and iiabi-
tually, thofe founds which id fpeaking he aftually ut¬
ters (b). If this be fo, it is impoffible that a man with¬
out fome elfort fliould ever fpeak. any thing but truth :
for the ideas of what he has feen or heard, &c. are
not of his manufa&ure ; they are generated by external
objects j and till they be effaced from the memory,
they muff always, by the law of affociation, make their
appearance there with all their mutual relations, and in
their proper drefs. In the very act of learning to
fpeak, we neceffarily learn to fpeak the truth : for were
we not to employ words exactly as they are employed
by thofe with whom we converfe, our language (if lan¬
guage it might be called) would be unintelligible: and
we could neither declare our wants nor alk relief with
any hopes of fuccefs. Children beginning to fpeak,
may indeed utter untruths without any motive, and
merely from miftake } becaufe the ideas and words of
children have neither been long nor clofely affociated:
but it is impoffible that a 7nan, however wicked, ftiould
habitually and without motives lie on ordinary occa-
fions, unlefs the fundamental principles of his nature
have been totally altered ; unlefs his brain has been dif-
ordered by difeafe unlefs his ideas have been difan&n-
ged, and all his original affoeiations broken.
We know indeed by wofui experience, that immo¬
ral men occafionally utter falfehoods with a view to
deceive. But on thefe occafions they are iniluenced by
fome motive either of hope or terror : the falfehood
rs always uttered with an effort : and fo Itrong is the
H Y s i c S. 609
affociation between words and ideas, that the truth °f Teto-
will at times break out in fpite of all their endeavours. ^ ‘ t
to fupprefs it ; fo that the end or middle of a falfe
narrative, if it be of any length, is commonly incon-
fiftent with the beginning. Vvre entertain a lufpicion
concerning any matter of ia£l, when thorn wrho relate
it contradift each other—when they are but few in
number, or of doubtful chara£ter—w hen they have
an intereft in what they affirm—when they deliver
their teitimony with hefitation—or, on the contrary,
with too violent afieverations } becaufe there aie ciicum-
flances which we have generally experienced to ac¬
company falfe wutnels. It is likewile with reluclancc
that we admit a narrative of events entirely different
from every thing which hitherto we have feen orhea.dj
becaufe we may not be certain that the narrator is not
under fome influence to deceive us in matters concern¬
ing which we have nothing but his teftimony on which
to ground our judgment. But in every cafe where the
fad recorded is in itfelf poflible, and attributed to an
adequate caufe j where a competent (c) number of wit-
neffes had fufficient means of information, and are cer¬
tainly under no inducement to deceive $ teftimony i-
complete evidence, however, extraordinary the fa&
may be } becaufe no fact which is known to have an
adequate caufe can be fo incredible, as that a numbe i or
men of found underftandings fliould aft contrary to the
fundamental principles of human nature, or be able, if
fo difpofed, to diffolve anociations which had been
formed in the mind of each from his infancy, and form
new ones, all agreeing exactly with one another, byt
all contrary to truth.
PART II. OF BODY WITH ITS ADJUNCTS.
Chap. I. Of the Composition of Bodies ; cr, of
Matter and Form.
HITHERTO we have contemplated only ^ the
powers of our minds by which we acquire a ftoeic of
ideas, and the various operations of the intellect upon
thofe ideas, as treafured up in the memory or imagina¬
tion. In the eourfe of the inquiry w7e have found, that
every idea and notion which we have was fuggefted by
fomething independent of usj and in order io difeover
what thofe things are, we have inveftigated the nature
Vol. XIII. Part II.
of each fenfe, as it is by the fenfes only that we have
anv communication with the external world. By touch
wre perceive heat and cold, bardnefs and loftnds, fi¬
gure, folidity, motion, and extenfion *, by the organ of
fmell, we perceive odours •, by the tongue and palate, _
taftes; by the ear, founds *, and by the fight colours.
We have like wife feen, that heat and cold, odours,
taftes, founds, and colours, are mere ft nfaiions which
have no exiftence but. while they are perceived. On.
the other hand, bardnefs and foftnefs, figure and iohdi-
ty, motion and extenfion, are neither fenfations, nor
like fenfations ; but are conceived to be fomething ex-
4 H ternal
This teems to have been P/'o/eV opinion ; for he calls ifohfi’ig « “A “A, i Ax"
J,l, 1ZZ™ the laromage by rvhich the fool explains itfolf .0 itfelf -.hen tt oonhders any th.v:g Sand
f":, -O ~ » Ax', “the vocal words are an .nntat.on of thofe
fay that vocal words are an imitation of thole of the foul is to /peak tnaceurately and to reverie the P
ofalTociation; but it affords fufficient evidence, that m the opmron of Plotinus men think as well us tpeah m
WOfci' Should it be alked what number we call competent, we beg leave to fay, that it will be greater or left
according to cfecnmliances. In cafes where they are ‘not liable to the deception, of fenfe, two men of mtegn.y
andfoteUigence deferve equal credit with two thottfand; but where there ts part.eu ar »“ar.on for good organs,
whether of fight, hearing, or touch, the greater the number the greater is our feciutty. lo this muft be adoed,
that as one mi, is influenced by that which to another would be no motive, a great number of Wltneffes concur-
Ihgirfhe feme fefttoony is akays an additional fecurity that they are not under the influence of any latent
bias.
6i o
Of the
Com poll-
tion of
Bodies.
I38
Of thing's
perceived
by the
fenfes the
greater
M E T A P
ternal and independent of our faculties, which may ope¬
rate in a defert wildernefs as well as in a populous cifv,
t toug i, for want of fentient beings to operate upon, it
' ln the wildernefs produce the fame effc&s as in
the city.
Of things perceived by the fenfes we find the great¬
er part always united j for when a man perceives a
piece of fealing wax, if he makes ufe of all his fenfes,
he perceives at once, cold, tafte, colour, hardnefs,
Part II
part always roughnefs or fmoothnefs, figure, folidity, ’ motion or
.m.te . reft, and extenfion. That the powers or qualities,
which in this inftance produce the fenfations of heat
or cold, tafte, odour, and colour, are fo united to the
hardnefs, figure, folidity, and extenfion of the wax,
as that they cannot exift alone, is evident ; becaufe it
is impoflible to remove any one of thefe things, or to
conceive it removed, without removing with it all the
reft. What then is the bond of this union ? Do thefe
things neceffarily accompany one another, fo as that
one of them cannot exiit without bringing all the reft
along with it ? No ; there is no neceffary connexion
among them ; for by the operation of fire the wax may
be rendered liquid, when the Aardne/s and co/c/ are
gone, though every, thing elfe remains the fame, or
nearly, the fame, as it was before. By a flill further
operation of fire the appearance may be entirely chan¬
ged ; and that which was formerly a piece of hard red
wax, may be reduced to fmoke and afbes, in which
there is neither hardnefs, colour, odour, nor figure ■ at
leafl there is not in the fmoke and afhes fuch hardnefs,
colour, odour, or figure, as was in the wax. The folil
dity and extenfion, however, remain ; for we perceive
afhes and fmoke to be extended and folid as much as
wax or an adamant; nor is it poffible to do any thing
with the wax, or with any other fenfible objeft, which
IhaH deprive it of extenfion or folidity.
thefe thin vs i Thus’.th®n» extenfion and folidity may exift and
termed ^ bePer,ceived’ when Separated from hardnefs, colour,
eidents, andan. °dour; but none of thefe can exift, or be con-
why. ceived to exift, independent of extenfion and folidity.
Hardnefs,. colour, odour, tafte, and figure, or the
things which fuggeft thefe notions to us, have with
great propriety been termed accidents or qualities :
tecaufe they cannot exift or be conceived to exift by
themfelves, but require for their fupport one common
ubjea. Extenfion and folidity can exift independent
of them ; but they cannot exift independent of folidity
140 and extenfion. J
Things per- Is then folidity the bafis of thefe qualities, fo that
fhefenfo, ‘ X n^rily refult from it? No; there are many
qualities tlllngs mbd and extended which are neither hard, nor
which in- coloured, nor odorous, nor fapid ; which could not be
here in a if thefe qualities were the neceifary effea of folidity
eailedLf- a11 mankind conceive of folidity and exten-
Ur. ,on as qualities of fomething elfe ; for we never fay
that folidity is extended or coloured, or hard or odo-
rous, but that fomething folid has thefe qualities :
whence it is evident that we confider folidity as a
quality itfelf. In what then does folidity and all the
other fenfible qualities inhere, fince they cannot exift
D9
Some of
H Y S I C S.
feparately, and do not fupport each other? This is Of the
a queilion which modern philofophers pretend not to ^orapoii-
anfwer : but fome of the ancients were not fo modeft fion of
Ariftot.le and his followers refolved every bodily fub-. Bodif^
nt° matter and fortni making matter the bafis
01 JubJtratum, and under form comprehending all fenfi¬
ble qualities.
As attempts have been lately made to revive this phi-
lofophy, it may not be improper to give a fhort view of
the doftrine of matter and form, if it ivere only to dif-
cover whether the fpeculations of Ariftotle and his ad¬
herents on this fubjeft deferve to be preferred to thofe
of Newton and Locke.
The moft perfpicuous, and by far the moft elegant
writer among the moderns who has adopted the^an-
cient philofophy, is Mr Harris; and left we fhould be
accufed by others of doing injuftice to a fubjed above
the reach of ordinary comprehenfion, we fhall tran¬
scribe fo much of what he has faid of matter and form
m his Philofophical Arrangements as feems neceffary to
make, our readers underftand his meaning as far as it is
intelligible.
Matter (fays this writer) is that elementary con- The Peri-
Lituent in compofite fubftances which appertains in patetic doc
common to them all, without diftinguifhing them fromtrine con*
one another. Everything generated or made, whe-Cerning
ther by nature or art, is generated or made out 0fmatteif ;
fomething elfe j and this fomething elfe is called its
fubjeft or matter. Such is iron to the faw j fuch is
timbei to the boat. Now this fubjeEl or matter of a
thing being necejfarily previous to that thing’s exiftence
is necejfarily different from it, and not the fame. Thus’
iron, as iron, is not a faw ; and timber, as timber, is
not a boat. Hence, then, one character of every fub-
jeft or matter, that is, the character of negation or pri¬
vation. [He means negation or privation of what is to
be made out of it].
“ Again, Though tiie fubjeft or matter of a thing be which Is
not that thing, ijet, were it incapable of becoming defenbed
fo, it could not be called its fubjetft or matter. T hus as deftitute
iron is the fubjeft or matter of a faw ; becaufe," thou eh °f T?
not a faw, it may ftill become a faw. On the contrary, quality 6 ^
timber is not the fubjeft or matter of a faw ; becaufe
it not only (as timber) is no faw, but can never be
made one from its very nature and properties. Hence
then, befides privation, another character of every fub¬
jeft or matter, and that is the ebarafter of aptitude or
capacity. [He means aptitude or capacity to be that
which is made out of it].
Again, M hen one thing is the fubjeft or matter of
many things, it implies a privation of them all, and a
capacity to them all. Thus iron being the fubieft or
matter of the faw, the axe, and the chiffel, implies
privation and capacity with refpeft to all three. A-
gain, We can change a faw into a chiffel, but not
into, a boat 5 we can change a boat into a box, but
not into a faw. The reafon is, there can be no change
or mutation of one thing into another where the two
changing beings do not participate the fame matter (d).
But even here, were the boat to moulder and turn to
earth,
mfl haS referenc' 10 wl,at tl‘ea"c!™ts called the immediate
mauer, in oppolition to vXn the remote or primary matter.
Chap.
Of the
(’ompolt-
tion of
Bo:lie:.
I.
M E T A P
*43
and to be
apprehend¬
ed only by
ab (tract ion
and analo¬
gy-
eartli, and tliat earth by natural procefs to metallize
and become iron } through fuch progreffion as this we
might fuppofe even the boat to become a law. Hence
therefore it is, that all change is by immediate or me¬
diate participation of the fame matter. Having advan¬
ced thus far. we muft be careful to remember, firfl:,
that every fubjeEl or matter implies, as fuch, privation
and capacity; and next, that all change or mutation of
beings into one another is /wo/zx of their participating
the fame common matter. This we have chofen to illuf-
trate from works of art, as falling more eafily under
human cognizance and obfervation. It is, however,
no lefs certain as to the productions of nature, though
the fuperior fubtlety in thefe renders examples more
difficult. The queftion then is, whether in the world
which we inhabit, it be not admitted from experience,
as well as from the confeffion of all philofophers, that
fubfiances of every kind (e), whether natural ot arti¬
ficial, either immediately or mediately, pafs into one
another : and whether, in that cafe, there muft not be
fome one primary matter common to all things. I fay
fome one primary matter, and that common to all things,
fince without fome fuch matter, ylr/z mutation would be
wholly impoffible. But if there be fome one primary
matter, and that common to all things, this matter muft
imply, not (as particular and fubordinate matters do)
a particular privation and n particular capacity, but, on
the contrary, univerfal privation and univerfal capa¬
city. If the notion of fuch a being appear ftrange
and incomprehenfible, avc may farther prove the ne-
ceflity of its exiftence from the following confiderations :
Either there is no fuch general change as here fpoken
of- which is contrary to fa£t, and would deftroy the
fympathy and congeniality of things: Or, if there
be, there muft be a matter of the charafler here efta-
bliffied ; becaufe without it (as we have faid) fuch
change would be impqffible. Add to this, however hard
univerfal privation may appear, yet had the primary
mutter, in its proper nature, any one particular attri¬
bute, fo as to prevent its privation from being unli¬
mited and univerfal, fuch attribute would run through
all things, and be confpicuous in all. If it were white,
all things would be white if circular, they, would be
circular; and fo as to other attributes ; which is con¬
trary to faft. Add to this, that the oppofte to fuch
attribute could never have exiftence, unlefs it were pof-
fible for the fame thing to be at once and in the fame
inftance both white and black, circular and reftilineal,
&c. fince this infeparable attribute would neceffarily
be every where, becaufe the matter, which implies it, is
itfelf every where, at leaft may be found in all things
that are generated and periihable.
“ Here then we have an idea (fuch as it is) of that
Angular being Trfdlv, the primary matter ; a being
which thofe philofophers who are immerged in fen-
fible objefts know not well how to admit, though they
cannot well do without it j a being which flies the
Of the
Competi¬
tion of
Bodies.
*44
H Y S I C S. 6it
perception of every fenfe, and which is at beft, even
to the intellell, but a negative object, no otherwife
comprehenfible than either by analogy or abftra&ion. We
gain a glimpfe of it by abjlrattion, when we fay that the -
frjl manner is not the lineaments and complexion which
make the beautiful face-, nor yet the flejh and blood
which make thofe lineaments and that complexion \ nor
yet the liquid and lolid aliments which make tiiat flefh
and blood ; nor yet the Ample bodies of earth and wa¬
ter which make thole vaiious aliments ; out fomethmg,
which being below all thele, and f upper ting them all,
is yet different from them all, and ellential to their ex¬
iftence. We obtain a fight of it by analogy, when we
fay, that as is the brafs to the ftatue, the marble to
the pillar, the timber to the flftp, or any one fecondary
matter to any one peculiar form ; fo is the fif and on*
ginal matter to all forms m general.'''1
Such is the do&rine of the Peripatetics concerning
the primary matter or the bafis of bodily fubftanccs.
We forbear to make any remarks upon it till we have
feen what they fay of form, the other elfential part
of every body 5 for what is meant by matter ana foi m
will be moft completely feen when they are viewed to¬
gether. _ . , p .
“ Form (fays the fame elegant writer) is iaat e!e-^ ^ (’j’11
mentary confituent in every compofite fubfance, by which trjnc con„
it is DISTINGUISHED, CHARACTERIZED, and known, cermng
from every other. But to be more explicit: The form,
and moft Ample of all extenfions is a line : this, when it
exifts, united with a fecond extenfion, makes a fuper-
fcies ; and thefe two exifting together with a third,
make a Johd. Now this laf and complete EXTENSION
we call thefrf andfimplejl FORM; and when this/z/Z
and fmplef form accedes to the fuf and jlmplcfi mattei,
the union of the two produces body ; which is for that
reafon defined to be matter triply extended. And thus
we behold the rife of pure and original body (f). It
muft be remembered,, however, that body, under this
character, is fomething indefinite and vague, and fcarcely
to be made an objedl of fcientific contemplation. It is ne-
ceffary to this end that its extenfion ftiould be bounded ;
for as yet we have treated it without fuch regard.
Nov, the bound or limit of fimple body h figure ; and
thus it is thvaX figure, with regard to body, becomes the
next form after extenfion. . 145
“ But though the boundary of body hy figure is one The three
ftep towards rendering it definite and knowable, yet isgig^1
not this fufficient for the purpofes of nature. It is ne- wh;cj^ ad(I_
ceflary here, that not only its external ftrould be duly e(j to mat-
bounded, but that a fuitable regard flrould likewife be ter, confti-
had to its internal. This internal adjufiment, difpofition,^ebody
or arrangement (denominate it as you pleafe), is calledP y lca *
ORGANIZATION, and may be confidered as the third
form which appertains to body. By its acceflion we
behold the rife of BODY PHYSICAL or natural j for
every fuch body is fome way or other organised. And
thus may we affirm, that thefe three, tnat is to fay,
4 H 2 extenfion.
(e) He muft mean only bodily fubftances •, for it is not admitted by fuch philofophers as make a diftinaron be-
tween mind and body, that the one ever paffes into the other. . • /- 1 n . „ .
(f) “ Original body (he fays), when we look downward, has reference to the primary matter, its fubftratum.
when we look upwards, it becomes itfelf a matter to other things ; to the elements, as commonly called, air, earth,
water, &c. and in confequence to all the variety of natural productions.
6l 2
Compoii- e^un;:0niflJ'lt fy and organisation, are the three original
tion of J<JI ^ /(J U Physical or natural; Jigure having refpedV
•Bodies. to ,lts external, organisation to its internal, and extenlion
* v  betng common both to one and to the other. It is
more than probable, that from the variation in thefe
un iv erf a l and (as I may fay) primary fjrmv, arife moll
of OmAz fecond iry forms ufually called quantities fenjible,
becaule they are the proper objects of our f.veral fen-
iutions. Such are roughnefs and fmoothnefs, hardnefs
und ioitnels \ the tribes of colours, favours, odours ; not
to mention thofe powers of charaaer more fubtle, the
powers elearic, magnetic (g), medicinal, &c.
“ Here therefore we may anfwer the quellion, how
natural bodies are dijlinguijhed. Not a Angle one
among them confifts of materials in chaos, but of ma¬
terials wrought up after the moll exquifite manner,
and that confpicuous in their organization, or in their
figure, or in both As therefore everv natural body is
dnWmihed by the differences juft deferibed, and as
thefe differences have nothing to do with the original
matter, winch being everywhere fimilar can afford no
chthn&ion at all ; may we not here infer the expe¬
diency of ESSENTIAL FORMS, that every natural fub-
Jrance may be cflentially charaBcrized ? Thefe forms,
though they diirer from matter, can yet never fub-
Jiji without it ; but united with it, they help to produce
every compofite being, that is to fay, in other words,
every naturalfubjlance, in the vifible world. It mull
be remembered, however, that it is the form in this
union which is the/ource of all diJlinBion. It is by
tins that the ox is dillinguilhed from the horfe, not
oy that grafs on which they fubfift, the common mat¬
ter to both. To which alfo may be added, that
a.s figures and fenfible qualities are the only objefts of
our fenfations, and thefe are all parts- of natural form ;
lo therefore (contrary to the fentiment of the vulmir,
who dream of nothing but of matter) it is form, which
is in.' truth the whole that we either hear, fee, or feel;
nor is mere matter any thing better than an obfeure im-
perfetl being, knowable only to the reafoning faculty
by the two methods already explained, I mean that of
analogy mid that of ahfraclion. Here therefore we con¬
clude Avith refpea to fenfible forms, that is to hy, forms
vnmerged in matter and ever infeparable from it. In
thefe and matter we place the ELEMENTS of natural
SUBSTANCE.”'
M E T A P H Y S. I C S. vw Tr
‘ rr i • o ^ II
II this extras appear long, let it be remembered Of the
.1 . . . a x iciiicuiucrca ui the
.c\ c°ntains the lulielt and rnoft perlpicuous detail ^onipoli-
wmch is to be found in the Englilb language, of a doc tion of
trine ot which the author of Ancient Metaphysics fup- , Bodics-
|)(des Locke to have been ignorant ; and for Avhich ”
ignorance he afTeits to. treat the Englilb philofopher
with mpercilious contempt. Had Locke really been ig-
norant of the ancient doctrine of matter and form, it is
probable that moft people will be of opinion, that the con*
tempt'exprelied by his cenfurer might have been fpared •
but it it Ihould appear, that, as far as this theory is intel’
ligible, it differs not, except in Avords, from the dodtrine
laid doAvn m the EJfenj concerning Human Underfunding
Avhat ihall we think of that zeal for ancient phrales
which had influence fufficient to make one rebpedable
philofopher pour contempt upon another who Avas an
ornament to his country ?
What Mr Harris- has fald of matter and form re-at ^
fpta.ng works of art is fufficiontly intelligible, mdUtTS*
ex tremely juft. Nor Ihould we object to the account unite of fo.
which he gives of the origin of natural bodv, if heliditf-
had not diverted his firft matter of every power and
every quality, foliclity and extenfion not excepted
But. though we can fuppofe body diverted of any one
particular figure and of every fenfible quality, fueh as
colour, odour, taftes, &c.. and the fubfratum or ba-
fs or matter of it flill to remain, yet it feems impof-
fibleto conceive it diverted of folidity without funpo-
fing it totally annihilated. Nay, if we have any juft
notion at all of folidity, it is evidently infeparable
from tne fubftratum of body, whatever that fubftra-
tum be ; amd indeed though Mr Harris diverts his firft
matter of every attribute, the argument by which he
proves the neceffary exirtence of fuch a being does
not require its privation to be fo univerfal. “ Had
the primary matter {{nys he), in its proper nature, any
one particular. attribute, fo as to prevent its privation
from being unlimited and univerfal,ybe/i attribute would
run through all things and be confpicuous in all.” This
indeed is obvious and undeniable : but folidity and ex-
tenfion do iwfatl run through all things into Avhich the
fubjh atum or matter of oody is ever formed or ever can
be conceived to be formed ; and therefore there is no
neceftity for fuppofing the firft matter divefted of thefe
attributes (h).
Mr Harris fays,', that both Timseus and Plato drop
expreflions
lo £ , nrt jtM fr°? the fftcffton' fiSure, aTld organization of bodies, that their medicinal powers arife feems
o be undeniable j for medicines operate by contaft : but it is not fo clear that the fame/«L, to ufe the au-
o slanguage, are the fource or magnetical powers. If the magnet be furrounded with an atmofnhere ex-
MagS^ism!^ m dlllanee’ fUCh ^ bC the Cafe ’ but if not’ the author’s conjeefure muft be ill founded. See
^i<)r'l?7Klt aPPear that ^ was diverted of them by all the ancient philofophers. We learn from Cud-
to that the atomical phyfiology, the moft ancient perhaps of any, teaches that body is nothing elfe but
f Ul\\8nd that ,n°tAin- 18 t0 be attributed t0 k but included in the nature and
o reft hal f; STt ^ ^ ™a^ud,e’ Wlth divirib5Iity into Parts» %ure» aild P°fition, together with motion
. f!’ b . 0 as that nr° Part body can ever move itfelf. And confequefttly, this philofopher fnppofes
/ia.- riere 18 no need.ot any thing elfe befides the fimple elements of magnitude, figure, fite,X and motion’
L . :td%La f earlVnt/lllSlbrle^°r m0des °f extcnded bubftance), to folve the corporeal phenomena
rtiL n tt t r any fubftantlLal^ from the -a«- ; nor of any other qualities1 realiv ex-
theinfenfiSe ^ 7K T ’ tbe rfults or aggregates of thofe fimple elements, and the difpofition of
parts of bodies m refpea of figure, fite, and motion j nor of any intentional fpecies or /bows
p* p ga td from the objeas to our fenfes; nor laftly, of any other kind of motion or aaion really diftina
5 from
Clmp.
Of the
Coin peti¬
tion of
Bodies-
I.
M E T A P
613
147
Some fir (l
matter
common to
all bodies;
expreflions as if they eonficlcred matter to be place i
but place, as will be feen afterwards, can be the ba¬
lls of nothing. He like wife quotes a paflage from
1 Ammonius on the predicaments, in which it is laid
“ that there never was in a&ttalilij either matter with¬
out body, or body without quality and we appeal
to our readers if it be not abfolutely impoffible to
contemplate fuch a being even in idea. To the quef-
tinn, Whether lire fir ft matter has a ffcparate exiftence
by itfelf. diLlL-a from all the qualities of body, the
author of Aincir-'t Metaphysics anfwers thus We
have no idea of it cxifting feparately, bccaufe we find
no fuch thing in nature, from which we draw all our
ideas •, but whether there may not be fuch a thing
exifting in the regions of infinite fpace, as matter with¬
out form and ditnenjions ; is what I think no man can
take upon him to decide.” But with all fubmifiion,
if a man cannot decide this queftion with the utmoft
certainty, his three ponderous volumes are nothing bet¬
ter than ufelefs paper : for the fubjea of them is things
cxi/iiny; and eoncerning exiftence we know nothing
with greater certainty, than that a being of which no-
thing pofitive can be affirmed, cannot poffibly have any
exiftence. _ . i-i r u
That, in the world which we inhabit, bodily iub-
llances of every kind, whether natural or artificial, ei¬
ther immediately or mediately pafs into one another, is
a truth which cannot be denied: and therefore it fol¬
lows, that there mult be fome one primary matter com-
mon'to all things. In modern philofophy this primary
matter is conlidered as folid, and as \\vt fubjlratum of
Of the
Competi¬
tion of
Bodies.
14S
H Y S I C S.
all bodies-, and all thofe things which, in the language
of Mr Harris, are comprehended under the appellation
of form, are called qualities: fo that on this iubject the
ancient and modern philofophy differ in notiiing but in
the latter ufing the word qualities inllead of the word
form ; and defining the firft matter to be, a folid fub-
ftance every where the fame,” whilft the ancient philo-
fophy confiders it as void of folidity.
Of the nature of this firft matter all philofophers are of the na-
equally ignorant: for, as Mr Harris fays, it is in truth ^eo ^
firm ; or, as modern philofophers would fay, they aremena’re
in truth qualities, which are the whole that we either equaBy ig-
hear, or fee or feel, or of which we have eifher idea ornorant.
conception. Mr Locke fays exprefsly, “ that if any¬
one will examine himfelf concerning his notion of pure
fubftance in general, lie will find that he has no other
idea of it at all, but only a fuppoiition of he knows not
what fupport of fuch qualities as are capable of produ¬
cing fimple ideas in us.'5 149
But how, it has been a (Iced, do we know that the How we
things which we perceive arc qualities, and cannot exift know that
without a-fubjeft ? We anfwer, Becaufe every one of
them, except folidity, may be- changed or deftroyed,ly perceived
and the fubjecHn which they inhere ftill remain. Thus, are quali-
though wax may be melted or burnt, and be no longer ties,
a hard red fubftance of fuch a figure and fuch a fmell,
the matter which fupported the hardnefs, figure, colour,
and fmell, ftill remains j for melted wax or affies is as
much a folid fubftance as is that which may be ufed for
the fealing of letters, &e.
It has been laid that folidity (1) is the fubfratum of
body;
from local motion (fuch as generation and alteration), they being neither intelligible as modes of extended
fubftance nor any way neceffary : Forafmuch as the forms and qualities of bodies may well be conceived tc
be nothing but the refult of thofe fimple elements of magnitude, figure, fite and motion vanoufly compound¬
ed together in the fame manner as fyllables and words in great variety reiult from the different combinations
and eoniunftions of a few letters, or the fimple elements of fpeech; and the corporeal parts of fenfation, and
mrticularlv that of vifion, may be folved only by local motion of bodies, that is, either .by corporeal effluvia
(called Jimilacra, membranes, and exuvia-), ftreaming continually from the fur face of the objects, or ratber, as the
later and more refined atomifts conceived, by preffure made from the objeft to the eye, by means of ligb in i
medium. So that r.v rahMs r9 /2te;rcpm> xvxfyilterxi, the fenfe taking cognizance of the
objeft by the fubtle interpofed medium, that is tenfe and ftretched (thruftmg every way from n upon the optic
nervesl doth bv that, as it were by a ftaff, touch it. Again, Generation and corruption may be fufficiently^ex-
plaTnedbv concretion and fecretion, or local motion, without fubftantial forms and qualities. And la ft ly, Thofe
fenfible ideas of light and colours, heat and cold, fweet and bitter, as they are diftinfl things flora the ngure, fite
and motion of the^nfenfible parts of bodies, feera plainly to be nothing elfe but our own fancies paffions, and
fenfation, however they be vulgarly miftaken for qualities in the bodies without us. Cudworth s Intellediual System,
E TV,'; ^ will'k feen bv and by, is the pbilofepby of Newton, Locke, and all their followers : and that it is the
Aft; philofophy of the' ancient atomitb, we may fafely take the word of the author whom we have quoted ; for
no modem has been more converfant with their writings, more completely mailer 01 their language, or has given
their fenfe with greater accuracy. Thofe authors, therefore, who m their zeal for ancient metap ly c
plode the nhyfiology of Newton and Locke, and fubllitute in its place the Arliloteban doc rine of matter and /<v »!,
belie their own pretences; for the theory which they would bauiih i, more ancient than that which they intro-
duce and we appeal to our readers it it be not mo;e inte!tigm,e. ... TT7- .-i ,1 p .1
(1) The phikffophers of moft eminence who have maintained tins opinion are,Z)r JVatts - the author of
Procedure, Extent, Ind Limits, of the Human Under/landing; and Dr Law, late bifflop or Carlffie who m a note
upon King's Origin of Evil gives the opinion of the triumvirate m t he following words -A e and by exper -
encc that a thing will always exhibit the fame appearances in fome refpeas, though it admit of changes m o., cn .
or Mr Locked language, that certain numbers of fimple ideas go conftant v together, whereasTome others do
no’t The former of thefe we call the fubfance, thing, or being,, itfelfthe latter are termed its modes or
accidents. Thus the fubftance of body, as far as we know of it, conufts m folidity and exiennonj which ■ mg
neceffarily finite, it alfo becomes capable of divifion, figure, and motion. Ihefe axe its original mfepax able qua
61 j.
Of the
Compofi-
tion of
Bodies.
I5®.
Our notion
M E T A P
body 5 and men liave been probably led into this no¬
tion fiom a conviction that fuch fubftratum, wiiatever it
be, is and mud be folid 5 but that folidity is only a
quality mfeparable from the firrt matter, and not that
matter jtfelf,. mud be evident from this confideration,
that folidity is the fame in all bodies, and incapable of
producing by itfelf any other effe£t than that of exclud¬
ing fr°ra the place occupied by it every other folid
Inidlance. It conld not of itfelf be the JubJlratum of
colour, tade, or fmell, otherwife all bodies would be
colouied, iapid, and odorous 5 and as, according to
all our notions of it, it is incapable of any change, it
could not by itfelf be fo modified as to excite in us thefe
fenfations.
_ The things then immediately perceived by us, or of
or matter • u i j -I J ’
relative and W11C1 wf. ave any adequate idea or conception, are
obfcure. only qualities which mud belong to a fubjeft • and all
that we know about this fubjeft is, that it is that to
which fuch qualities belong. From this it is evident,
that our notion of matter, as didinguifhed from its
qualities, is a relative*and obfcure notion, and mud
remain obfcure till men have other faculties. In this
the philofopher feems to have no advantage above the
TWrj 0/ vulgar : for as they perceive colour, and figure, and
motion, by their fenfcs, as well as he does 5 and as both
are equally certain that there is a fubjeft of tliofe qua¬
lities j fo the notions which both have of this fubject
are equally obfcure j or, to fpeak more properly, they
have no pofitive notion of it at all. When a philofopher
calls it the yfr/? matter, a fubjlratum or a fubjecl of inhe-
Jion, thofe learned words convey no meaning but what
every man underdands and exprefTes, by faying in com¬
mon language, that it is a thing extended, folid, and
moveable.
They are therefore qualities, or in the language of
ancient philofophy, forms alone, about which, in cor¬
poreal fubdance, we can reafon with precifion and
certainty j afid it is fufficient for all the purpofes of
Of the
tion of
Bodies.
* Reid's
P-ffays on
the Intel-
leElual
H Y S I C S. part jj
lire ^that we have of them an adequate knowledge. For
as thefrf matter or original fubjlratuvi of all bodies
leems to be the fame, though we know not what it is 5
and as one body is didinguifhed from another only by
its qualities or powers ; a knowledge of the nature of
thele is^all that can be necefiary to diredd our conduct
wuth refpect to the various objecis with which we are
furrounded.
Qualities thus confidered in bodies, are, fird, fuch oJdL
as are utterly mfeparable from the body, in what ftatepYmary
ioeyei it is j fuch as in all the changes and alterations an<l
which it differs, and under all the force which can be
employed upon it, it condantly keeps. Thus, in the
indance already given, a dick of fealing wrax may, by
the operations of fire, be rendered liquid or reduced to
fmoke and afhes j and when it has undergone thefe
changes, it lias lod many of the fenfible qualities which
it had.when a long round fubdance fit for the purpofc
oi fealing letters 5 but other qualities which were then
perceivable in it dill remain : for not only liquid wax,
but every particle of fmoke and adics, is folid* and ex¬
tended, as well as the hardeft or larged body 5 and
every fuch particle has likewife fome figure, and is ca¬
pable of motion or red. Again, If a°grain of wheat
or any other corporeal fubdance, be divided into two
parts, and each part be again divided without end, dill
the fmalled particle of it will be folid, extended, of
fome figure, and capable of further divifion. Solidity,
extenfon,' divifibility, and motion or ref, are therefore
qualities infeparable from body, and have on that ac¬
count been with great propriety called its original or
primary qualities.
. There are other qualities, which in truth are nothing fecondary,
in the bodies themfelves, but powers arifing from the
magnitude, figure, texture, and motion, of their in-
fenfible parts to produce in us various fenfations 5 fuch
are colours, founds, tafes, and odours. Thefe have been
denominatedqualities ; and to them may be
added
hties, which conditute the thing, and feem not to depend on any thing elfe as a fubjeSl. But a particular fio-ure
motion, &c. are only accidents or modes of its exidence ; which do not neceffarily attend it, though they them¬
felves cannot be fuppofed to exid without it. The fubdance oifpirit confids in the powers of thinking and X
mg, which like wife admit of various modifications. This feems to be all that we can learn concerninf the na¬
ture of things from obfervation and experience, lo inquire into the manner how thefe, which we call nrover
ties, exid together or to attempt to explain the caufe, ground, or reafon, of their union, is in vain. To
the word fubfance for a reprefentation of it, is faying nothing : it is fetting a mere word for what we have neither
any idea of nor occafion for Indeed if we eonlider thefe primary qualities as needing fomething to inhere in
we are obliged to feek for fome thing to fupport them : and by the fame way of reafoning, we maf feek for fome-,
thing elfe to fupport that other fomething, and fo on j and at lad diall find no other fupport for the whole but
he caufe which produced it.” “ Dr Watts (continues the Bifhop) is of opinion, that it is introducing a need-
Msfchohific notion into the real nature of things, and then fancying it to have a real exidence fLogic p
14O. The author of the Procedure, Extent, &c. affirms, “ That as far we diredtly know the effential properties
fLXn<:e’ fo far we rhave a dxtrfa knowledge of the fubdance itfelf: and if we had a direft knowledge of
fr, fentla] Properties of any fubdance, we fhould have an adequate knowledge of that fubdance • for furelv
of^Xe^fubdanceT8 m W°rdS’ ^ kn°Wlng any thing °f the effendal Pr0Perties of a thin§ is knoi^iug/. much
J hat ' he fubdance of body confids in folidity and extenfon, and nothing more j and that thefe depend not upon
wdLverSufe ^ Cann"t be true ' folidity, in our conception, is nothing but impenetrability ; but
whoever ufes the word impenetrability, certainly means that there is fomething impenetrable. That there is fome
rea! thing or being different from folidity and extenfion, which impredes us with the notion that it is folid and
extended is felf-evident to all mankind : if it be not matter, thefe conceptions mud be communicated to us by
A * ediate rgenCy, °f !he Bci^ whlch feems to have been the real opinion of the Bidiop of Carlifle. Buf
this differs not from the theory of Berkeley, which we fhall confider by and by. 1
cn
hap.
I.
M E T A P
Of t!ie
fompofi-
tion of
Bodies.
added a third fort, which arc univerfally allowed to be
barely powers, though they are in fa£t ab much real
qualities in the fubjett as thofe we have juft; mention-
_ ed. Thus the power in fire to produce by its primary
Y qualities a new colour or confiftency in wax or clay,
is as much a quality in the fire as the power which it
has to produce in us a new fenfation of warmth or
burning. That colours, tajles, founds, and odours, as
they are perceived by us, are mere fenfations, has been
already proved : and that the powers in the bodies
which produce thefc fenfations are not, like folidity and
extenfion, infeparable from the body to which they may
belong, is evident} becaufe a piece of red wax may be
reduced to black afhes ; and becaufe by pounding an
almond we may change its clear white colour into a
dirty hue, and its pleafant tafte into one that is oily
and rancid •, and a fingle rent through the body of a
bell deftroysits found.
The primary qualities of body have a real exiftence
independent of us and of every other creature. Thus
the particular bulk, number, figure, and motion, of the
parts of fire or finow are really in the fire or finow, whe¬
ther anv man’s fenfes perceive them or not 5 and there¬
fore thefe may be called real qualities, becaufe they
really exift in the bodies : But light, heat, whitenefis, or
cold (as they are perceived by us), are no more really
in fire or finow, than ficknefs is in tartar or pain in a
fiword. Take away the fenfations of them : let not
the eyes fee light or colours, nor the ears hear founds j
let not the palate tafte nor the nofe fmell ; and all co¬
lours, taftes, odours, and founds, as they are fuch par¬
ticular fenfations, vanifti and ceafe, and are reduced to
their caufes, i. e. to the bulk, figure, and motion of
,,.3 the parts of the body.
Bodily qua. The qualities then that are in bodies, rightly con-
lities are of fidered, are of three forts. 1. The bulk, figure, number,
three forts. fituati0n, and motion or refi, of their fiohd parts. Of
thefe, as they are in- themfelves, we have clear and
diftindl notions. We know that they are in the body
whether we perceive them or not, and we call them
primary or ejfential qualities. 2. The power that is
in any body, by reafon of its internal texture and
idfenfible primary qualities, to' operate upon our fenfes
in a peculiar manner, producing in us the different fen¬
fations of colours, founds, tafies, or fimelis, &c. Thefe
we have called fiecondary qualities, but they are often
termed fienfible qualities. 3. The power that is in any
body, by reafon of the particular conftitution of its
Of the
Compofi
tion of
Bodies.
H Y S I C S. 61
primary qualities, to make fuch a change in the bulk,
figure, texture, and -motion of another body, as to make it
operate on our fenfes differently from what it did be¬
fore. Thus, the fun has a power to make wax white,'
and fire to make lead fluid. Thefe are univerfally
called powers ; but we have no fuch notions of them
as we have of the primary qualities of bodies. We know
that they exift, but we know not wdiat they are. It
has indeed been difeovered, that the fenfation of fmell
is oecafioned by the effluvia of bodies* j that of found*
by their vibration. The difpofition of bodies to re-
fle£l a particular kind of light occafions the fenfation ie^uai
of colour 5 and the operation of the minute parts of Powers of
bodies upon the nerves of the tongue and palate is the Man, and
caufe of taftes. Very curious difeoveries have been lfick^sc -
made of the nature of heat and its manner of operat- • ’
ing, and an ample field ftill remains. We are like-
wife intuitively certain, that body can operate upon
body only by impulfe ; but how certain impulfes up¬
on certain organs fhould produce feniations in us to
which there is nothing fimilar in the impelling body,
is equally unknown to the clown and the philofo-
pher. # # 1 r4
Such is the diftindtion which in modern philofophy The doc-
is made between primary and fecondary qualities j but trine of th«
it is a diftindtion which was likewife well known to fe
that fedt of ancient philofophers who were denominated jpe(qmg
atomifis. At the head of thefe were Thales and Py- qualities,
thagoras (k) ; and we may infer from Ariftotle, that
the fedl comprehended almoft all the phyfiologifts who
taught before himfelfand Plato: for he fays-f, Avpazgileg f Lib. Ae
Kta 01 TTMtcrloi ruv Qvtriohoyuv UTonarctTov n Trouvri, TTMTct Senfv et
<yxf> ru. ctur&ylci ctTrlet irticvtri, r.cii S<s trgflpctlu cti/xyoviri tov$ f'.fi-
Xvu.6vs: “ Democritus, and mofi of [\\&phi/fiologifis, fall Lai-’‘ 4'
into a great abfurdity; for they make all fenie to be touch,
and refolve fenfible qualities into the figures of infen-
fible atoms.” And he adds, that “ the former phyfio¬
logifts (without exception) faid not well, that there is
no black and white without the fight, nor bitter and
fweet without the tafte.” He elfewhere % tells us, j pe Genem
that thofe philofophers explained generation and a\te-tatuwe et
ration without forms and qualities, by figures and local Comp- _
motion.” AjijMfljegiTo; kou Asuxiwwes rat crgyipdlu, tione, 1 • 1
rra oiXXoiuo-ai x.ou ryv y£»{o-<v lit rovlaiv ttohsci caP
y,ctt <rvfy>igiirii yivariv kxi (p6o^xv tx%u §6 xxt Sint xX^oiuciv.
“ Democritus and Leucippus having made figures (or
varioufly figured atoms) the firft principles, make ge¬
neration and alteration out of thefe 5 namely, genera¬
tion
(k) This is denied by Bifhop Warburton, who thinks nothing better fettled than that Democritus and Leu¬
cippus were the authors of the atomic phyfiology. We highly refpedl the learning and ingenuity difplayed in the
Divine Legation of IVIofes $ but on this point we are convinced that its author is miftaken. Strabo exprefsly
affirms, that Mofchus the Phoenician was the author of the atomic phyfiology 5 and Cudworth has proved,^by
arguments which to us are perfedfly fatisfadlory, that Fhales and Pythagoras were both atomifts, and that they
derived the dodtrine from Phoenicia or Egypt. 1 hey did not, indeed, Speculate in phyfics, but delivered their
dodlrines as they had received them from tradition, and they referred all motion to mind as its caufe. Leu¬
cippus and Democritus, we believe, were the firft fpeculative atomifts : but though they refined upon, and
perhaps improved, the mere mechanical part of the phyfiology of their matters, they unhappily dropt the better
part of it •, and, banifhing mind from their fyftem of the- univerfe, they became materialiffs and aihcifts.
With the fober and pious part of philofophers this brought the atomic theory into difrepute 5 and Plafo and
Ariftotle, who were theifts, when they oppofed that theory, always pointed their arguments againft Leucip¬
pus and Democritus, which is probably what led the learned Bifliopto confider thefe atheifts as the authors of the
atomic phyfiology.
tion together '\vitn corruption from the concretion and
lecretion of them, but alteration from the change of
their order and pofition” By the atomic phyfiolo-
gifts the name of quality was generally applied only to
1 hole things which we ‘have called fecondary qualities.
j he primary being conlidered as ejjential to mutter, were
Seldom, if ever, called qualities. That the atoms,
which they held to be the firlt principles of bodies,
were figured, iolid, extended, and moveable, is appa¬
rent not on y from the fhort view of their fyftem which
we have given from Cud worth, but likewife from the
pafiages which we have juft quoted from Ariftotle :
but the queftion debated between them and their anta-
gonifts was, whether thofe atoms had fmell, tajle, and
colour ; or, as it was commonly expreffed, whether they
bad qualities l Democritus, Leucippus, and the other
atsmifts, we fee, maintained that they had not ; and
the following account of the dodlrine of Protagoras,
another philofopher of that fchool, fhovvs, that on this’
iubjeft at leaft the ancient advocates for the atomic
fyftem reafoned as juftly as any of the moderns, and
much more juftly than the Peripatetics and Piatonifts
by whom they were oppofed. Plato having in his
Theoetetus firft faid in general that the pbilofophy of
1 iotagoras made all things to confift of a commixture
of atoms and local motion, reprefents his dodlrine
concerning colours in particular, after this manner :
Pn ft, As to that which belongs to the fight, you
muft conceive what is called a white or black colour,
not to be any thing abfolutely exifting either without
your eyes or within your eyes •, but black and white,
and every other colour, is caufed by different motions
made upon the eye, from obje&s differently modified 5
fo that it is nothing either in the agent or patient ab¬
folutely, but fomething which arifes from between
them both (l).” From this paffage it is plain, that
Protagoras thought of colours exaftiy as Mr Locke
thought, that they are not real qualities exifting in bo¬
dies, but merely feniations excited in our minds 5 and
indeed he is prefently after reprefented as having call¬
ed them t;v* ev vpi't q>ctcry.x\tt, certain fancies or appear¬
ances in us. But there is in the Theoetetus another paf-
fag^, in which a fuller account is given of the atomic
philofi’phy,tbis purpofe : “ The principle upon which
all thefe jhings depend is this, That the whole uni-
verfe (m) is motion of atoms and nothing elfe : which
motion is confidered two ways, and is accordingly call¬
ed by two names, aSlion and paffton. From the mu¬
tual congrefs, and, as it were, attrition of thefe to¬
gether, are begotten innumerable offsprings, which
though infinite in number, yet may be reduced to two
metaphysics. Part p
general heads, fenfiblcs mA fenfations, which are both Of tl„
r- TT ’ •• '»ocn ine eve and
its proper objeft meet together, both the and
the the fenfible idea of white and black, and
the fenjutwn of leeing, are generated together, neither
ol which would have been produced if thofe two had
not met. J be like is to be conceived of all other fen-
files, as hot and cold, &c. None of thefe are abfo-
hite things in themfelves, or real qualities in external
objefts; but they are begotten from the mutual con¬
grefs of agent and patient, and that by motion. So
that neither the agent has any fuch thing in -it before
its congrefs with the patient, nor the patient before
its congrefs with the agent. But the agent and pa-
tient meeting together, and begetting fenfation and
JenJibles, both the objetl and the fentient are forthwith
made to be fo and fo qualified 5 as when honey is
tailed, the fenfation of tailing, and the quality of
fweetnefs, are begotten together, though the fenfation
be vulgarly attributed to the tafter, and the quality of
fweetnefs to the honey ” The conclufion of all which
is fummed up thus, £, £<y«, «.J7* W rm xiu
yiynrix,: ‘‘ Not one of thefe fenfible things is any thing
abfolutely in the objedl without, but they are all gene¬
rated or made relative to the fentient (n).”
_ 1 he language of ancient philofophy was defective
in precifion ; terms were ufed vaguely and improperly,
fo that the meaning of the author is often to be
colledted only from the context. When Protagoras
is here made to fay, that when the agent and patient
meet together, both the objedl and the fentient are
forth with made to be fo and fo qualified y as when ho¬
ney is tafted, the fenfation of tailing and the quality
of fweetnefs are begotten together ; it could not be
his meaning, that any real change is made upon the
external objedi merely by our tailing it, but only
that the adlual fenfation and the lenfiDle idea of fweet¬
nefs are produced at once ; juft as he had faid before,
that the fenfible idea of white or black, and the fen¬
fation of feeing, are generated together. If his words
be thus interpreted they exprefs a noble truth ; and
tne v, hole paifiage fhows, that the ancient atomic
theory differed not from the theory of Des Cartes,
New ton, and Locke, being the moft rational, as well
as the earlieft fyftem of phyfics with which we have
any. acquaintance. By divefting body of ejfentialforms
diftindl from matter and motion, and by giving to the
firft matter extenfion and folidity, it renders the cor¬
poreal world intelligible j and accounts for thoff ap¬
pearances
(I. j y-A* rx cppAx 0 h xcO.u, Ze»px Xivxcv pr> wxt xdlo fnw n eppxU,
p-rf iv TOL? opuxn, xXXx u.iXxvn xxi Xtvr.ov xxt cr,ov> xXXo X^px i* t,;; vprSoXrs rm tppAm rra
<pc^ Cxvu.xi ytympmi xxi c n ixxfv umi Qxpvi yj^px, edit ro ^-fixXXv re re^xXXopmv xXXx pduZu Ti
9kxt\u idtoy yiyovos. * h
(m) Protagoras was a follower of Leucippus and Democritus in every thing, and of courfe an atheift.—This
however, does not hinder him from having been a correct phyfiologift with refpeft to the compofition of body ;
a”. ^Cil only [s.he (]uoted by us- lt ,s> ir.dee ;, melancholy to think, that there was hardly a fed of ancient
philolophers m which there were not many atheifis.
(' yZX* ^ is * vvv dr, tX yopi* ttxyIx nentTxi « h xvlm, e>9 to ttxv xtfvrp xta xXXo note* rovlo «vh» rnf Js
U7l■°6V, hcCTi<l6f ^ ™ h Tsiaryjtv, 8tc,—8ee the Tkccetetus ; fee
ano Cud worth s lute iled!uul System^ book i. chap. i.
Chap. II. M E T A P
Of the pearances winch are called fecondary qualities, in a
Effences of manner perfectly fatisfaclory. Ariftotle indeed op-
Bodies. p0pe(| atomic philofophy, and had influence e-
nough to bring it into difrepute for many ages *, but
when he infifted that the two conftituent principles of
body are matter and form, both independent of all fen-
tient beings, and which may be conceived as exifting
diflindt from each other, he fubftituted for a Ample
and fublime theory an abfurd and incomprehenfible
fidtion.
Chap. II. Of the Essences o/'Bodies.
*55
The ellen-
  Having treated of the fubftance, qualities, and
cesofbodies p0Wers 0£ body, we may feem to have exhaufted this
f*^t* part of our fubjedt j but there is ftill more to be done.
Metaphyficians, ancient and modern, have introduced
another term into the fcience, to denote that which
diitinguifhes one fpecics or fort of bodies from all
other fpecies or forts ^ and this term we (hall briefly
explain. Gold is apparently different from lead, and
from every other fpecies of metal ; a horfe is appa¬
rently different from an ox, and from every other
fpecies of animals ; and all animals apparently dif¬
fer from all vegetables, as vegetables differ from
. metals.
according It is only with the bodies, not the minds of animals,
to the Peri-that we are at prefent concerned: and we have fcen
patetics and that all bodies are compofed of the fame matter.—
Platonifts, ^ybat then is it that makes different bodies exhibit
li»l forms1* to us hm*1 different appearances •, or, in other words,
’ how come they to be poffeffed of fuch different qua¬
lities and powers ? It is (fay the followers of Plato
and Ariftotle) from their having different effential
forms, by which every natural fubftance is effentially
charadterized ; for of every animal, vegetable, or me¬
tal, &c. there is a for?n conceived, as exiiling before
the individuals in which it is incorporated, from which
refult all the properties of that animal, vegetable, or
metal, fuch as figure, fis&e, colour, and the other quali¬
ties perceptible by our fenfes : but this internal and
effential form itfelf, from which all other forms refult,
is not perceptible by our fenfes, nor even by our un-
derflanding diredlly and immediately, nor otherwife
than bv the analogy formerly mentioned. Thefe ef¬
fential forms, we are told, mean fomething, which,
though different from matter, can yet never fubfift
without it 5 fomething which, united with it, helps
to produce every compofite being, that is to fay, in
other words, every natural fubllance in the vilible
T world.
!»ut thefe This affertion Mr Harris fubmits with deference to
forms have his contemporaries ; becaufe (fays he) “ l fpeak per-
noexitt- baps of fpedlres as Ihocking to feme philofophers as
thofe were to iEneas which he met in his way to
hell—Terribi/es vifu formce.'n The elegant author’s un-
willingnefs to frighten his contemporaries, was a proof
of his amiable and benevolent difpofition ; but he need¬
ed not to have fuffered from any fuch apprehenfion.
Thofe fpedtres, apparently fo dreadful, had long before
been laid to reft by the incomparable Cud worth, who
has demonftrated, that effentialforms different from mat¬
ter and motion, as they have no real exiftence, had no
place in the moft ancient philofophy ; and that the dif¬
ferent appearances or fenftble qualities which different
Vol. XIII. Part II.
H Y S I C S. 6i7
bodies exhibit, are the refult of the different contest-
ture of their infenfible parts. Thus, gold and lead are Bodies>
compofed of the fame primary matter, but the atoms i— v J
or minute parts of that matter are in the one fubftance
differently combined from what they are in the other j
and this different combination is the foie caufe that
gold is fpecifically heavier than lead, more duCthe,
and of a dilferent colour, &c. For the very fame
reafon, iron is harder than either gold or lead, fpeci¬
fically lighter, and poffeffed of many other fenfible
qualities which are not found in either of them fub-
ftances. One vegetable differs from another exter¬
nally in fize, colour, tafte, fmell, rapidity of growth,
and proportion of parts, &c. : but all vegetables are
compofed of the fame matter 5 and the external dif¬
ference which prevails among them is the refult of a
different ftrufture and motion of their infenfible parts.
The fame is to be f&id of the differences which pre¬
vail among the bodies of animals j they all remit irom
internal organization and motion, and from nothing
elfe, whatever be the immediate caule of that motion.
This particular internal texture and motion of in-The real eC-
fenftble parts, is that which makes one fort of bodies fences of
differ externally from every other fort of bodies-, and]^3u"-
it is by modern metaphyficians called the real ejfence ^
of bodies. Thus, that internal texture of minute parts,
which makes gold of a bright yellow, extremely duc¬
tile, fpecifically heavier than all other metals, and fo-
luble in aqua regia, is the real effenee of gold but
what that effence is in itfelf no man can tell, as we
perceive only the qualities which refult from it. We
are, however, certain, that it is different from the real
effences of lead and iron, bccaufe it produces different
effefts from thofe which are produced by thefe effences j
and different effects are never produced in tire fame
eircumftances by the fame caufe. _ ^
We have called the internal texture and motion of Nominal
the infenfible parts of bodies, their real effences, to di-effences,
ftinguifh them from other effences which are only norm-v hat tliey
rial, and with which we are perfectly acquainted, be-aie’
caufe they are the fabrication of our own minds.—
Thus, a beautiful bright yellow, a certain fpecific gra¬
vity, extreme du&ility, and folubility in aqua regia,
are the qualities by which we diilinguiih gold from
all other metals. Of thefe qualities we frame a fort of
general conception, which we call the effence of gold $
and every fubftance in which we find this effence, we
clafs under the fpecific name gold. For though it is
obvious that our conceptions cannot be the real ejffences
of things external, yet are they fufficient guides to
thefe eflfences, as we know that bodies which, being all
formed of the fame matter, have the very fame fenfible
qualities, muff likewife have the fame internal organiza¬
tion or texture of parts, becaufe it is only in that orga¬
nization or texture that one body can differ from another.
 And fo much for bodily fubftance, qualities, and ef¬
fences.
Chap. III. Of the Existence 0/’Matter.
We have endeavoured to prove, that all corprtreal Berkeley
fubftanees confift of minute atoms, folid and extended } attempts to
and that the fenfible qualities of every body refult from 'iemon-
the combination and motion of the atoms of which thatftrr:te t^at
• matter iias
body is compofed The celebrated Berkeley, bilhop of ri0
A I Cloyne, ence.
61S
Of the
tdi
The view
of his theo
r
h
lulls.
Kxmen eofCl0yn?’ !50Wever, attempted to demonftrate that thefe
Matter ^Vms "ave(,no real exxftence 5 and that the very fupno-
— f tlon ot a extended, and inert fubitance, being'
the archetype of our ideas, involves in it an abfurdity
and contradiction.
It is univerfally allowed, that all our knowledge of
matter is derived through the fenfes, either immedi-
aU'iy in the very ad of fenfation, or mediately by an
auoeiation which is refolvable into a procefs of rea¬
soning. According to the principles which we have
Itated, and laboured to eftablilh, matter itfelf is no
immediate objed of the fenfes; and as thefe are the
principles upon which the bilhop ereded his demon-
ftration, it will be incumbent upon us to confider his
theory, becaufe it lias been reprefented as in the
mgheft degree pernicious, and as leading to univerfal
ieepticifm.
di ms meo , \ nc the E/Jluj on the Nature and Immu-
ry given by tu'>vlltl ,JJ 1’iith, reprefents Berkeley as teaching us,
hisantago- “ that external objeds (that is, the things which we
take for external objeds) are nothing but ideas in
our minds; in other words, that they are in every re-
fpecl different from what they appear to be j that mat¬
ter exilts not but in our minds; and that independent
on us and our faculties, the earth, the fun, and the
ftarry heavens, have no exiftence at all •, that a lighted
candle hath not one of thofe^ qualities which it appears
to have ; that it is not white nor luminous, nor round,
nor divilible, nor extended ; but that, for any thing
we know, or can ever know to the contrary, it may
be an Egyptian pyramid, the king of Prulfia, a mad
dog, the bland of Madagafcar, Saturn’s ring, one of
the Pleiades, or nothing at all.” With refped to the
confequences of this theory, he affirms, that “ it is
fubverfive of man’s molt important interelfs, as a moral,
intelligent and percipient being 5 and not only fo, but
alfo, that if it were univerfally and ferioufly adopted,
the diffolution of fociety, and the detlrudion of man¬
kind, would neceffarily enfue within the compafs of a
month.”
The diffolution of fociety and the deftruCHon of
mankind are indeed difmal confequences—enough to
make a man ffiudder in his clofet. But do they really
flow from Berkeley’s fyftem ? They certainly do, if it
be the aim of that fyftem to prove that a candle has
not any one quality which it appears to have, and that
it may be a mad dog ; for fliould all philofophers, by
fome means or other, become converts to the theory
of Berkeley, as ive know that the biffiops Sherlock,
Smalridge, and others, aftually did, the diffolution of
fociety and the deftru&ion of mankind would indeed
be inevitable. I he feribbling race, by ufing mad dogs
for candles, would all become infefted with the hydro¬
phobia •, and having their natural irritability augmented
by the canine rabies, they would bite and tear till not a
human being were left alive.
But to drop this ludicrous ftyle, fo unfuitable to
philofophical inveftigation and calm inquiry, we beg
leave to affirm, that the theory of Berkeley is here
totally and grofsly mifreprefented, and that not one
of thofe dangerous confequences which flow from that
mifrenrefeo.'ation can be fairlv deduced from any thing
taught in The Principles of Human Knowledge and the
Dial-r ues on the Exiftence of Matter. So far is Berke-
% from teaching that external things are nothing but
metaphysics.
162
A view ®f
hi.s t he ry
given by
himieii.
. Part II
ideas in our minds, and that they are in every refpea Ofth8
ditferent from what they appear to be, that he teaches d
the very reverfe of this in the plaineft language pof- Matter'
Able. “ I am of a vulgar caff (fays he), Ample enough ' ^
to believe my fenfes, and leave things as I find them
It is my opinion, that the real things are thofe very
things I fee and feel and perceive by my fenfes. That
a thing ffiould really be perceived by my fenfes, and
at the lame time not really exift, is to me a plain con¬
tradiction. When I deny fenfible things an exiftenc®
out of the mind, I do not mean my mind in particu¬
lar, but all minds. Now it is plain they have an cx-
11 fence exterior to my mind, finee I find them bv ex¬
perience to be independent of it. There is therefore
lome other mind wherein they exift during the inter-
va!s between the times of my perceiving them: as
hkewife they did before my birth, and would do after
my annihilation. And as the fame is true with regard
to all other finite created fpirits, it neceffarily follows
there is an omnipotent eternal mind, which knows and
comprehends all things, and exhibits them to our view
m fuch a manner, and according to fuch rules, as he
himfelf hath ordained, and are by us termed the laws
of nature.”
So far is Berkeley from teaching that, independent
on us and our faculties, the earth, the fun, and the
ftarry heavens, have no exiftenee at all, and that a
lighted candle has not one ot thofe qualities which it
appears to have, that he over and over affirms the di¬
rect con’rary ; that the univerfe has a real exiftence
in the mind of that infinite God, in whom, according
to the feriptures, we all live, and move, and have our
being; that a lighted candle has not only all thofe qua¬
lities which it appears to have, but that, with refpe<£
to us, it has nothing elfe ; that fo far from being con¬
tinually deceived by our fenfes, -we are never deceived
by them ; and that all our miftakes concerning matter
are. the refult of falfe inferences from true fenfations.
I he biffiop makes the fame diftin&ion that we have
made between ideas and notions ; reftraining the ufe
of the former term to denote the relias of "fenlation,
and employing the latter to denote our knowledge or
conception of fpirits and a-1 fuch objects as are not
perceived by ftnfe. He likewife affirms, that we can
have no idea of an external inert fubftance ; becaufe
an idea can be like nothing but. another idea, or the
fenfation of which it is a relift : and as all mankind
admit that ideas and fenfations can have no exiftence
but in the mind of a percipient being, he there fore
infers that we can have no idea of any tiling exift ing
unperceived, and bv confequenee can have no idea of
matter in the philofophical fenfe of that word. So¬
lidity, extenfion, divifibility, motion, figure, colour,
tafte, . and all thofe things which are ufually called
qualities primary and fecondary, being according to
him mere ideas, can have no exiftence but in a mind
perceiving them ; but fo far is he from fuppofing their
exiftence to depend upon the perception of our minds,
that he fays exprefsly, “ When in broad day-light I
open my eyes, it is not in my power to choofe whe¬
ther I ffiall fee or no, or to determine what particular
objects ffiall prefent thcmfelves to mv view ; and fo
likewife as to the hearing and other fenfes, the ideas
imprinted on them are not creatures of m\ will. There
is therefore fome other will or fpirit that produc es
them.
Chap. in.
Oi the them. The queflion between the materialifts and me
Exiftence of js not? Whether things have a real exiftence out ot
Matter. ^ mjnj 0f this or that perfon ? but, Whether they
^ • have an abfolute exiftence, diftinft from being perceiv¬
ed by God, and exterior to all minds ? I aflert, as well
as they, that fince we are affe&ed from without, we
muft allow powers to be without in a being diftinft
from ourfelves. So far we are agreed. But then we
differ as to the kind of this powerful being. I will
have it to be fpirit *, they matter, or I know not
what third nature. Thus I prove it to be fpirit :
From the effe&s I fee produced, I conclude there are
actions 5 and becaufe actions, volitions (for I have no
notion of any aftion diftindt from volition) j and be¬
caufe there are volitions, there muft be a will. Again,
The things I perceive muft have an exiftence, they or
their archetypes, out of my mind : but being ideas,
neither they nor their archetypes can exift otherwife
than in an underftanding : there is therefore an under-
ftanding. But wall and underftanding conftitute in
the ft r idle ft fenfe a mind or fpirit. The powerful
caufe, therefore, of my ideas is, in ftri£t propriety of
fpeech, a fpirit.”
That theo- This is a abftracl of Berkeley’s theory given
ry,'however in his own words. Matter, according to him, can-
improbable, not be the pattern or archctijpe of ideas, becaufe an
certainly }jca can rfcfemble nothing but another idea, or the
^T1’510’ fenfation of which it is a lelift. Matter, he thinks,
cannot be the caufe of ideas •, for every caufe muft be
aftive, and matter is defined to be inert and incapable
of aftion. He therefore infers, that all our fenfations
of what we call the qualities of body are the effeft of
the immediate agency of the Deity upon our minds •,
and that corporeal fubftance has no exiftence, or at
leaft that we have no evidence of its exiftence. 1 hat
fuch may pofjibly be the origin of our fenfations, no
man will deny who refle&s upon the infinite power and
wufdom of the Agent from whom they are faid to pro¬
ceed. Dr Reid himfelf, the ableit of all Dr Berke¬
ley’s opponents, frankly acknowledges that no man
“ can (how, by any good argument, that all our fen¬
fations might not have been as they are, though no
body or quality of body had ever exiited.”
in it* confe- lts confequences we do not perceive that, this
Iuenc.s theory can be hurtful either to religion, to virtue,
arralef*. or to the bufinefs of common life j for it only ex¬
plodes the notion of a fubftratum, which, though it
may have a real exiftence, was never thought of by
the generality of mankind in any nation under hea¬
ven. Dr Beattie indeed affirms, that in “ lefs than a
month after the non-exiftence of matter ffiould be uni-
verfally admitted, he is certain there could not, with¬
out a miracle, be one human creature alive on the
face of the earth.” But this affertion muft be the
confequence of his miftaking Berkeley’s non-exiftence
of matter for the non-exiftence of fenlible objedls, the
reality and exiftence of which the biffiop never denied.
On the contrary, he exprefsly fays, “ We are fure
that w'e really fee, hear, feel ; in a word, that we are
affedfted with fenfible impreffions; and how are we
concerned any farther ? I fee this cherry, I feelxt, I
tafe it *, and I am fure nothing cannot be feen, or felt,
or tailed : it is therefore real. Take away the fenfa¬
tions of foftnefs, raoifture, rednefs, tartnefs, and you
take away the cherry.” All this is equally true and
equally conceivable, whether the combined fenfations
which indicate to us the exiitence of the cheny be Vj.lt,er-
the effedt of the immediate agency ot God or ot the <
impulfe of matter upon our minds •, and to the lives
of men there is no greater danger in adopting the for¬
mer than the latter opinion. _ 165
But it has been laid, that Berkeley’s dodlrine nccef- A confer
farily leads to fcepticifm in religion, as the fame kind of quence^
reafoning which he employs to prove the non-exiftence
of matter, operates equally agamit the exiftence ot mind,
and eonfequemly againft the poffibility of a future ftate
of rewards and punithments. 1 he rational iiiue of
this fyftem (we are told) is fcepticifm with regard to
every thing excepting the exiftence of our idea* and
their neceffary relations. For ideas being the only
objedts of thought, and having no exiitence but when
we are confeious of them, it neceffarily follows, that
there is no objedt of our thought which can have .a
continued and permanent exiftence. Body and fpi¬
rit, caufe and effedt, time and fpace, to which we were
wont to aferibe an exiftence independent oi our
thought, all are turned out ot exiftence by this ihort
dilemma : Either thofe things are ideas of lenfation
or refledtion, or they are not : If they are ideas of
fenfation or refledtion, they can have no exiitence,
but rvhen Ave are confeious of them : If they are not
ideas of fenfation or refleftion, they are words without
any meaning.”
This fophifm was advanced as a confequence from
Berkeley’s principles by Mr Hume j and upon thtf©
principles it has been deemed unanfwerable t.y iubfe-
quent philofophers of great merit. But is it really
a part of Berkeley’s fyftem, or can it be fairly inter¬
red from the principles on which that fyftem is built ?
Thefe queftions it is fit that Berkeley ffiould anfwer
for himfelf; and we (hall venture to affert, that lus
anfwer will be perfeflly fatisfadlory to every reader who
attends to the diftindtion, which, after the bifliop, we
have ftated between ideas and notions. irttf
Though we believe this dangerous inference from that authoF
Berkeley’s principles is commonly attributed to Hume forelaw awl
as its author, it did not efcape the fagacity oi the bi¬
ffiop himfelf. In the third dialogue, llylos, who pleads
for the exiftence of matter, thus objedfs to the reafon¬
ing of his antagonift. “ Notwithftanding all you have
faid, to me it' feems, that according to your own way
of thinking, and in confequence of your own principles,
it ftiould follow, that you are only a fyftem of float¬
ing ideas, without any fubftance to fupport them.
Words are not to be ufed without a meaning. And as
there is no more meaning in fpiritual fubftance than
in material fubftance, the one is to be exploded as well
as the other.” iffy
To this Philonus anfwers : “ How often muft I re- obviate*,
peat, that I know or am confeious of my own being 5 but
and that I myfelf am not my ideas, but fomewhat
elfe ; a thinking aftive principle, that perceives, knows,
wills, and operates about ideas : I know that I, one
and the fame felf, perceive both colours and founds j
that a colour cannot perceive a found, nor a found
a colour ; that I am therefore one independent prin¬
ciple, diftindl from colour and found •, and, for. the
lame reafon, from all other fenfible things and inert
ideas. But I am not in like manner confeious either of
the exiftence oc effence of matter, farther, I know
4 I 2 what
METAPHYSICS.
6zo M E T A P
Ex,WofrhlIme^When Ira.ffirm l,ral there « a fpiritual
Matter. lubltance or lupport of ideas ; i. e. that a fpirit knows
* v-*'11 an“ poreeives ideas. jBut I do not knowr what is
meant, when it is faid that an unperceiving fubftance
hath inherent in it, and fupports, either ideas or the
archetypes of ideas. In the very notion or definition
of material fubftance there is included a manifeft re¬
pugnance and inconfiftency. But this cannot be faid
of the notion of fpirit. That ideas fhould exift in
what doth not perceive, or be produced by what doth
not acl, is repugnant. But it is no repugnancy to
fay, that a perceiving thing fhould be the fubjeft of
ideas, or an aftive being the caufe of them. That
I, who am a fpirit or thinking fubftance, exift, I
know as certainly as I know that my ideas exift. I
know likewife what I mean by the terms I and
> und I know this immediately or intuitively 5
though I do not perceive it as I perceive a triangle,
a colour, or a found. Ideas are things inaffive and
perceived 5 and fpirits a fort of beings altogether dif¬
ferent from them, by which they are perceived. I do
not,, therefore, fay, that my foul is an idea, or like
an idea. However, taking the word idea in a large
fenfe,. my foul may be faid to furnifh me with an idea,
that is, an image or likenefs of God, though indeed
extremely inadequate. For all the notion I have of
God is obtained on reflecting on my own foul,
heightening its powers, and removing its imperfec¬
tions.. I have, therefore, though not an inactive idea,
yet in myfelf fome fort of an active thinking image
of the Deity. And though I perceive him not by
fenfe, yet I have a notion of him, or know him, by
refieftion and reafoning. My own mind and my ovVn
ideas I have an immediate knowledge of 5 and by the
help of thefe do immediately apprehend the pojjibility
of the exiftence of other fpirits and ideas. Farther,
from my being, and from the dependency I find in
myfelf and my ideas, I do by an aft of reafon necef-
farily infer the exiftence of a God, and of all created
things in the mind of God. It is granted that we
have neither an immediate evidence, nor a demonftra-
tive knowledge, of the exiftence of other finite fipirits ;
but it will not therefore follow, that fuch fpirits are
on a footing with material fubftances : if, to fuppofe
the one be inconfiftent, and if it be not inconfiftent to
fuppofe the other 5 if the one can be inferred by no
argument, and there is a probability of the other 5 if
we fee figns and effe&s indicating diftintt finite a-
gents like ourfelves, and fee no fign nor fymptom what¬
ever that leads to a rational belief of matter. I fay,
iaftly, that I have a notion of fpirit, though I have
not, ftri&ly fpeaking, an idea of it. I do not per¬
ceive it as an idea, or by means of an idea ; but know
it by refleftion. Whereas, I neither perceive matter
objeftively as I do an idea, nor know it as I do my¬
felf by a reflex a£I 5 neither do I mediately apprehend
it by fimilitude of the one or the other, nor yet
colleft it by reafoning from that which 1 know
immediately. All which makes the cafe of mat¬
ter widely different from that of the Deity and all
fpirits.
Thus far we think Berkeley’s theory tenible, and
its confequences harmlefs. That by the immediate
agency of the Deity all our fenfations might be what
they are, though matter had no exiftence, we think he
3
H Y S I C S. Part II,
has proved by arguments unanfwerable j and we are Of the
like wife of opinion, that by admitting the evidence *-xiftence of
of fenfe, confcioufnefs, and reafon, in their fulleft ex- Matter-
tent, and by diftinguifhing properly between thofe
things of which we have ideas and thofe of which we not fatif-
have notions, he has fufficiently fecured the exiftencew>th
of fpirits or percipient beings, and obviated the irre-tblS'*ie en-
ligious fophiftry of Hume before it was conceived by r™? t9
that author. But the good bifhop flops not here, exiftence of
I\ot fatished with proving that all our fenfations lead matter im.
us immediately to the Deity, and that, for aught wePoflible’
knov, matter, as defined by philofophers, may have
no feparate exiftence, he proceeds farther, and en¬
deavours to prove that matter cannot poflibly exift.
This appears even in the extra&s which we have quot¬
ed from his book, in which he talks of the repugnance
and inconfiftency of the notion. In this part^of his
fyftern, we think he errs greatly, and advances an
opinion altogether inconfiftent with his own i'uft princi-
pIeS' . * 16a
1 he repugnance of which he fpeaks, arifes folely His reafon-
from confidering folidity and extenfion as relifts of^S
fenfation, or ideas of the fame kind with thofe of heat
and cold, taftes and founds. “ Light and colours,
heat and cold, extenfion and figures j in a word, the
things we fee and feel; what are they (fays his lord-
ftiip), but fo many fenfations, notions, ideas, or im-
preflions, on fenfe ? and is it poffible to feparate even
in thought any of thefe from perception ? Some there
are who make a diftin£lion betwixt primary and fe-
condary qualities : by the former, they mean extenfion,
figure, motion, reft, folidity or impenetrability, and
number : by the latter, they denote all other fenfible
qualities, as colours, founds, taftes, and fo forth. 
1 he ideas we have of thefe they acknowledge not ta
be the refemblances of any thing exifting without the
mind, or unperceived; but they will have our ideas of
the. primary qualities to be patterns or images of things
which exift without the mind, in an unthinking fub-
ftanee which they call matter. But it is evident that
extenfion, figure, and motion, are only idea* exifting
in the mind ; that without extenfion folidity cannot be
conceived j that an idea can be like nothing but an¬
other idea 5 and that confequently neither they nor
their archetypes can exift in an unpercciving fub¬
ftance. Hence it is plain, that the very notion of what
is called matter or corporeal fiubfiance, involves a con-
tradiftion in it.”
This account of extenfion and folidity affords a fallacious,
ftriking inftance how much the moft vigorous and up¬
right mind is liable to be warped by prejudice in be¬
half of a darling theory, and how apt the cleareft under-
ftanding is to be blinded by the equivocal ufe of terms.
That Biftiop Berkeley poffeffcd a vigorous and perfpi-
cacious mind, his moft vehement antagonifts are eager
to admit; and that his intentions were good, is known
to all Europe. Yet by the equivocal ufe of the word
idea, which the writings of Locke had then introdu¬
ced into the language of philofophy, he has here fuf-
fered himfelf to lofe fight of a very proper and accu¬
rate diftinflion, which, fo far as we know, was among
the moderns firft made by himfelf between ideas and
notions. According to the bifliop, “ we have a notion
of power and a notion of fpirits, but vre can have no
idea either of the one or the other ; for all ideas being
paflive
fchap
III.
M E T A P
Of the pa dive and inert, they cannot reprefent unto us by way
siftence of^£ image or likenefs that which a£ls. Such is the na-
Mattcr. ture 0£fpirit or that which a£ts, that it cannot be of
’^v itfelf perceived, but only by the effe&s which it pro-
ducetln It muft be owned, however, that we have
feme notion of foul, fpirit, and the operations of the
mind, fuch as willing, loving, hating, inafmuch as we
know or underhand the meaning of thefe words.”
Now we beg leave to affirm, that what is here faid
of fpirits, and of which we readily admit the truth,
is equally true of material or folid fubftances. We
have no ideas of folidity and extenfion, becaufe thefe
things are not originally impreffed upon the fenfes •,
but we have very dnlinct though relative notions of
them, for they are clearly perceived by the effects
■which they produce, lhat this is at leaf! poflible, .w e
have the acknowledgement of Bilhop Berkeley him-
felf: for he “ freely owns, that from a caufe, effe61,
operation, fign, or other circumftance, there may rea-
fonably be inferred the exiftence of a thing not imme¬
diately perceived $ and that it were abfurd for any man
to argue againft the exiftence of that thing, fro™ bis
having no diredl and pofitive notion of it.” This is
exaftly the cafe with refpect to folid fubftances. Thefe
fubftances we do not immediately perceive 5 but we in¬
fer their exiftence from eftefts, figns, and other circum-
ftances, and we have of them very clear though relative
notions. Thus a man can open and ffiut his empty
hand ; but when he grafps an ivory ball of three or
four inches diameter," he feels, that though the fame
power be exerted, his hand cannot then be. ftiut. Tie
is confcious that there is no change in himfelf; and
being intuitively certain that every effedft muft have a
caufe, he infers with the utmoft confidence, .that the
caufe which prevents his hand from (hutting is in the
ball 5 or, in other words, that the thing which com¬
municates to his eye the fenfation of colour, and im-
prefles upon his hand a fenfation of touch, reuft be
folid or impenetrable. Solidity, however, is not. the
fenfation itfelf; it is only the caufe of the. fenfation ;
and therefore it is fo far from being an idea m our
minds, that w'e are confcious our notion of it is of a thing
totally different from all our ideas, of a thing external,
at leaft to our minds. Indeed the notion itfelf is not
pofitive ; it is only relative, and inferred from the effe&s
which are produced on our fenfes. Lhat it is X\\efame
tliino- which communicates to the eye the fenfation of
colour, and has the power of refilling the compreffion
of our hand, is evident: becaufe, when the ball is
thrown away, the refiftance as well as the actual fenfa-
171 tion vaniffi at once.
The idea of yTom this faft, which a lefs acute man would think
colour and a f tpat tpe refiftance was not oceafioned by the
of folidity1 immediate agency of the Supreme Being, but by the
not natural-impenetrability of a folid fubdance fmall dimen-
ly infepa- fions, the billiop argues thus againft the pojjibility of
fuch a fubftance : “ They who affert that figure, mo¬
tion, and the reft of the primary or original qualities,
do exift without the mind in unthinking fubftances-,
do at the lame time acknowledge, that colours, founds,
heat, cold, and fuch like fecondary qualities, do not •,
which they tell us are fenfations exifting in the'mind
alone, that depend on and are occafioned by the dif¬
ferent fize, texture, and motion, of the minute par¬
ticles of matter. This they take for an undoubted
rable.
H Y S I C S. 621
truth, which they can demonftrate beyond all exception. £ Of ^
Now if it be certain, that thofe original qualities are ' Matter.
infeparably united with the other fenlible qualities, and     j
not even in thought capable of being abftra£led from
them, it plainly follows, that they exift only in the
mind. But I defire any one to reflea and try whe¬
ther he can by any abftraaion of thought conceive the
extenfion and motion of a body, without all othei fen-
fible qualities. For my own part, I fee evidently that
it is not in my power to frame an idea of a body ex¬
tended and moved, but 1 muft withal give it fome
colour or other fenfible quality, which is acknowledged
to exift only in the mind. In ffiort, extenfion, figure,
and motion, abftraatd from all qualities, aie incon¬
ceivable. Where, therefore, the other fenfible qualities
are, there muft be thefe alfo, to wTit, in the mind, and
no where elfe.”
In this reafoning, though plaufible, there is an un¬
intended fallacy. It is indeed true, that we cannot
contemplate in imagination a folid fubftance without
conceiving it to have fome colour ; but there is fuffi-
cient reafon to believe, that this union of colour and
folidity in our minds is not the effe£t of nature as T
operates at fir ft upon our fenfes, but merely, the con-
fequence of early and deep-rooted affociation. Bi¬
lhop Berkeley himfelf has taught us, that the ebje£ls
of light are not at a diftance ; and that if a man born
blind were fuddenly made to fee, he would conceive
the objects of his fight as exifting either in his. eye or
in his mind. This is a truth which no man will con¬
trovert who has dipt into the fcience of optics, 01 wno
has even paid the llighteft attention to the perceptions of
infants 5 and if fo, it follows, that to a man born blind
and fuddenly made to fee, colour and folidity would
not appear united. Were fuch a perfon to lay hold
of an ivory ball and raife it to the elevation of his eye,
he would perceive whitenefs as a newT fenfation exiit-
ino- in his eye or his mind, but he would feel refin¬
ance at the extremity of bis arm. He would not have
the leaft reafon to conclude, that this whitenefs was
infeparably united to the caufe of this refiftance ; and
he would, in fad, draw no fuch conclufion, till ex¬
perience had taught him, that by removing the ball
or caufe of refiftance from his hand, he at the fame
time removed the fenfation from his eye. After re¬
peated experiments, he would indeed difeover, that
the caufe of colour to the eye, was likewife by fome
means or other the caufe of refiftance to the hand ; and
he would fo affociate thefe in his mind, that the one
would never afterwards make its appearance as an
idea or a notion without bringing the other along with
it. The whole difficulty, therefore, in this, cafe, is
to break an early and deep-rooted affociation .5 for
it is plain that the affociated ideas were not originally
united, and that folidity and colour were at firft con¬
ceived as feparate.
If the reader perceive not the force of this rea¬
foning, we beg leave to recommend to him the fol¬
lowing experiment, which, if we miftake not, will
carry convhftion to his judgment, that in the laft-
quoted paffage Bilhop Berkeley has argued fallaciouf-
]y, and that extenfion and colour arc not infeparabhj
united as ideas in the mind. Let him go into a dark
room, containing a number of fpherical bodies of vari¬
ous colours } let him take one of them into his hand •,
and;
62 2
metaphysics
and he mil inftantly/^/ refinance, and have a notion
Matter ex-
ifts, but
Of the
ixiiten.eof „r r , r 'V —’
Matter. e^!ennon and fulidity j but will he likewife have
v—y-.— the idea of colour infeparably united with this notion ?
The bilhop fays he will: and if fo, it mult be the idea
of fome particular colour } for his lordfhip has taught
us, that the aiftraEl and general idea of colour, which
is neither red, nor green, nor blue, &c. cannot poffibly
be formed. i he man, then, we lhall fuppofe, tv hi lit
he feels refiftance, conceives the refilling body to be
g* een ; and holding it Hill in his hand, walks into the
light of day. The refinance, and confequently the caufe
of refiftance, remains unchanged ; but what becomes of
the infepai able union of thole with colour, when the
body, upon being adually fecn, proves to be black, i. e.
to have no colour at all ?—It appears, therefore, un¬
deniable, that folidity and colour are not united in na¬
ture 5 that the one is an elfential quality of fomething
external to us, of which we have no idea, but a very
diftmft though relative notion; and that the other is
an a£lual fenfation in our minds, caufed by the im-
preflion of fomething external on the organ of fenfe,
which leaves behind it in the memory or imagination a
pofitive and direil idea that exifts no ivhere elfe.
Solid fubftante, therefore may exift ; for though it
is not immediately perceived by the fenfes, and is a
thing of which we can have no idea, we acquire a clear
and diftina notion of it, by the very fame means which
Biihop Berkeley thinks fufficient to give us diftind
notions of power and of fpirits *, and, therefore, that
notion can involve in it no contradiction. Still, how¬
ever, we would not fay with Dr Beattie, “ that we
could as eafily believe, that two and two are equal to
ten; or, that whatever is, is not ; as that matter has
no feparate exiftence for it is certainly poffible, that
the Supreme Being, without the inftrumentality of
matter, could communicate to our minds all the fen-
faiions and notions from which we infer the reality
of folid fubftance. All that we contend for, as having
the evidence of demonftration, is the poffit ility of folid
and extended fubftance ; and if the thing pojjitle, the
general voice of mankind proclaims its probability. 
We are confcious of our aflual fenfations, and we know
by experience that they are caufed by fomething di-
ftindl from ourfelves. When a man grafps an ivory
ball, he feels that he cannot (hut his hand, and he
knows that the refiftance which prevents him pro¬
ceeds not from himfeif Thus far all mankind are a-
greed. But Bithop Berkeley fays, that the refiftance
pioceeds immediately from the Supreme Being or
fome other ‘pirit ; whilft we, without pretending that
his fcheme is impoftible, think it more natural to fup¬
pofe that the man’s hand is kept from (hutting by
the refiftance of a folid fubftance of four inches dia-
mettr ; of which fubftance, though we have no idea of
it, we have as diftindl a notion as Berkeley had of
fpirits. From one or other of thefe caufes this effeft
muft proceed ; and it is of little importance to life or
happinefs which of them be the true caufe, fince it is
with the effetft onlv that we are immediately concern¬
ed. Still, however, a philofopher would choofe to adopt
the eafieft and mod natural fide of every alternative ;
which, if our notion of folidity be juft, is certainly, in
the prefent cafe, the exiftence of matter.
After treating fo largely of the compofition of bo-
Part IT
dies, and (bowing the general agreement of metaphy- Of the ’
ncians, ancient and modern, with redped to the notion Exiftence„i
ot their (olidity, it will appear ftrange to the lefs phi- Matter-
lofophical part of our readers, that we (hould now ex- '
prels a doubt of that notion’s being well-founded.—is by7fjme
VVe have ourfelves no doubt, but on the contrary arePhiJof°-
, -  7   v-uhli cii y are
iully convinced, that folidity is elfential to matter. This p!len de'
however, has of late been der.ieH hv ?-ljledtobe
however, has of late been denied by philofophers of £t
great ment.^ Dr Prieftley, after Mr Mitchell and Fa-
thcr Bofcovich, affirms that matter is not folid or im¬
penetrable to other matter; and that it has, in fad, no
properties but thofe of attrafiion and repu/Jion *. The *
proofs of this pofition, which appears fo paradoxical, he ^ 'n
draws from optical experiments, from eledricity, andff^.v
mm the effeds of heat and cold upon fubftances ufual-i nd Cone).
ly conceived to be folid. pondenre
The appearances from which the folidity of matter is ^ Dr
r„ 1 — . i i ^ . - Price.
inferred, are nothing more, he lays, than fuperficial ap- 17,
pearances, and therefore have led to fuperficial and falfe the argu.
judgments, which the real appearances will not autho-Irients
rize. “ Resijlance, on which alone our opinion concern-in fuFport
mg the folidity or impenetrability of matter is founded,
is never occafioned by fohd matter, but by fomething of
a v.ery different nature, viz. a povoer of repu/fion, always
ading at a real, and in general an affignable diilance,
from what we call the body itlelf. When I prefs my
hand againft the table, I naturally imagine that the ob-
ftacle to its going through the table, is ihe folid matter
of which it confifts ; but a variety of philofophical cen-
fiderations demonftrate that it generally requires a much
greater porver of prefture than I can exert to bring my
fingers into adual contad with the table. Eledrical
appearances ffioAV that a confiderable Aveight is requiiito
to bring into feeming contad even the links of a chain
hanging freely in the air, they being kept afunder by a
repulfive power belonging to a very fmall furface, fo
that they do not adually touch, though they are fup-
ported by eacli other. It has been ffiown, from opti¬
cal confiderations, that a drop of water rolls upon a
cabbage leaf ivithout ever coming into adual contad
Avith it; and indeed all the phenomena of light are moft
remarkably unfavourable to the hypothefis of the folidi¬
ty or impenetrability of matter. When light is re¬
ceded back from a body on which it ftems to ftrike,
it was natural to fuppoje that this Avas occafioned by its
impinging againft the folid parts of the body ; but it
has been demonftrated by Sir Ifaac Neivton, that the
rays of light are ahvays refleded by a power of repul-
fon ading at fome diftance from the body. A gain,
W hen part of a beam of light has overcome this
pouer of repulfion, and has entered any tranfparent
fubftance, it goes on in a right line, provided the me¬
dium be of a uniform denfity, without the leaft inter¬
ruption, and without a fingle particle being refleded,
till it comes to the oppofite fide, having met with no
folid particles in its way, not even in the denfeft tranf-
parent^ fubftances, as glafs, cryftal, or diamond ; and
Avhen it is arrived at the oppofite fide, it is folely af-
feded by the laws of attradion and repulfion.
“ Nay, that the component particles of the hardeft
bodies themfelves do not adually touch one another,
is deroonftrable from their being brought nearer toge¬
ther by cold, and by their being removed farther from
each other by heat. The power fufficient to overcome
thefe
Ilhap.
III.
M E T A P
Of the thefe internal forces of repulfion, by which the ultimate
;iHence of particles of bodies are prevented from coming into ac-
Matter ^ contacf, is what no perfon can pretend to compute.
The power requilite to break their cohefion, or to re¬
move them from the fphere of each other’s attra&ion,
may in fome meafure be eftimated •, but this affords no
data for afcertaining the force that would be necefiary
to bring them into aciual contact, which may exceed
the other almofl infinitely.”
From thefe fafts, Dr Prieftley infers, that the mu¬
tual refiltance of bodies proceeds in all cafes from
of renulfion afting at a diftance from each
ers
powi— u
bodv : that the fuppofition of the fohdity or impenetra¬
bility of matter is deftitute of all fupport whatever •, and
that matter itfelf is nothing but powers of attraction
and repulfion, and feveral fpheres of them, one within
another. A.s other philofophers have faid, “ Take
away folidity, and matter vaniflies fo he fays ex-
prefsly, “ Take away attraClion and repulfion, and
matter vanifhes.”
To illuftrate this ft range notion, “ Suppofe (fays
he) that the Divine Being, when he created matter,
only fixed certain centre* of various attractions and re-
pulfions, extending indefinitely in all directions, the
whole eftefl of them to be upon each other, thefe centres
approaching to, or receding from each other, and con-
fequently carrying their peculiar fpheres of attraction
and repulfion along with them, according to certain
definite circumftances. It cannot be denied that thefe
fpheres may be diverfified infinitely, fo as to corre-
fpond to all the kinds of bodies that we are acquainted
with, or that are pofli )le. For all effeCts in which
bodies are concerned, and of which we can be fenfible
by our eyes, touch, &c. may be refolved into attraction
or repulfion. A compages of tnefe centres, placed
within the fpheres of each other’s attraction, will con-
ftitute a body that we term compaR ; and two of thefe
bodies will, on their approach, meet with a repulfion or
reftftance fufticient to prevent one of them from occu¬
pying the place of the other, without a much greater
force than we are caoable of employing •, fo that to us
they will appear perfectly hard.
“ A.s in the conftitution of all actual bodies that
we are acquainted with, thefe centres are placed fo
near to each other, that in every divifion that we can
make we (till leave parts which contain manv of thefe
centres •, we, reafoning bv analogy, fupnofe that every
particle of matter is infinitely divifible ; and the [pace
it occupies is certainly fo. But, ftriCtlv fneaking, as
thofe centres which conftitute any bodv are not ibfo-
lutelv infinite, it muft be naturally poffible to come by
divifion to one fingle centre, which could not be faid
to be divifible, or even to occupy anv por ion of
fnace, though its fphere of aClion ftiould extend ever
fo far •, and had only one fuch centre of attraction, 8ic.
exifted, its exiftence could not have been known, be-
caufe there would have been nothing on which it ic-
tion could have been exerted *, and th^re being no effeR,
there could not have been any ground for fuppofing a
caufeR 4
*FrteDif- jn anfwer to this reafoning againft the fobdity of
£d~ matter, Dr Prieftley was frequently alked by his can-
Pr. 'r" nd did and mafterlv antagonift *, “ What it is that at-
■br Prujt- traCls and repels, and that is attrafted and repelled ?
J3ut to the queftion he was never able to give a fatis-
H Y S I C S. 623
faftory anfwer. Indeed, how could he have been able ? ^ of tll-e .
for, as Dr Price argues, “ Excluiive of attraftion and " x‘
repulfion, he affirms matter to be abfolutely nothing •, __y
and therefore, though we were to allow it the power of
attraCling and repelling, yet as it is nothing but this
power, it muft be the power of nothing, and the very
idea of it be a contradiction.”
If there be any clafs of truths intuitively certain,
that clafs comprehends the two following propofitions :
Power cannot be without a subject ; and No¬
thing CAN ACT WHERE it is NOT. If, therefore,
there be powers of attraction and repulfion, (which
(hall be confidered afterwards in the Chapter ol Mo¬
tion), there muft be a fubjeCt of thofe powers 5 and
if matter, whether folid or unfolid, be the fubjeCt, it I7g
cannot poffibly attraft or repel at a dijlance. Sir Ifaac founded o*
Newton, in his letters to Dr Bentley, calls the notion fallaaous^
that matter poffeffes an innate power of attraction, or ^ contra_
that it can aCt upon matter at a diftance, and attradt ry t-0 m«
and repel by its own agency, “ an abfurdity into u,the and
which, he thought, no one could poflibly fall.” Henceue^eflary
it follows, that the appearances from which Dr Prieft- au
Icy infers the penetrability of matter muft be fallaci¬
ous appearances, Imce thev contradict an intuitive and
neceflary truth. The faCts which he itiftances are, in¬
deed, fuch as would make molt other men fufpicioufi
of fallacy, and in his reafonings from them he fome-
times takes for granted the truth to be proved. i he
links of a chain ufed for electrical purpofes, fuppofing
them to be in contaCt with each other, can touch only
with very fnall furfaees. The eleCtrical fluid is of
confiderable denfity, and incapable of being abforbed
within a very narrow compafs. I bis is evident, be-
caufe it paffes not through paper and other porous
bodies without making a paffage for itfelf, and leaving
a vifible aperture behind it ■, and though it affimilates
with metals, and paffes through them more eafily than
through other bodies, yet it is plain that it requires
a certain quantity of metal to condudl it j for when
the conductor falls (hurt of the neeeffary quantity, it
is melted or diffipated by the force of the fluid, i his
being the caff, it follows that the links of a chain may
be in aaual contact (we do not pofitively affirm that
they are}, and vet the fluid become vifible in pafling
from link to link •, for if the point of contadl be too
fmall to abforb the whole fluid, part of it mult pafs
without any metallic conductor through the atmo-
fphere, and thus become apparent to the eye of the
fpe&ator.
With refpeft to light, it is obvious that there can¬
not poffibly be any demonf ration, in the logical ffnfe
of the word, that it is refleaed by a poiver of repul•
fion aiding at fome diftance from the body } for, in
the opinion of all mankind, the primary and folid
atoms of matter are too minute to fall under the cog¬
nizance of our fenfes, however affifted by art •, and
therefore, if light appears to be refleaed &t a diftanc®
from the furface of the bodv, we muft conclude, either
that between the point of refleaion and the apparent
furface of the body, there are folid atoms unperceived
bv us, or that light is refleaed by the agency of fome
other fubftance than matter. One of thefe concluft ns,
we fay mufl be drawn, becaufe they are both pojjible,
and there is no other alternative but to admit one of
them, or to fuppofe that a thing may a& where it is
not;
624
Ex?ftenceofn0i ’ ^ clearty akfurd and impojible as that
Matter whatever is, is not. Again, When part of a beam of
V—-/ ■1>as entered any tranfparent fubifance, how does
i)r Prieitiey know that it goes on in a right line, with¬
out the leaft interruption, till it comes to the oppofite
fide ? 1 his he can know only by his fenfes ; but the
beam may meet with ten thoufand interruptions from
objects which the fenfes cannot perceive, and may de¬
le, ibe a zig-zag line, of which the dededlions are fo
fmall as to elude the keeneit eye aided by the moll
powerful glafs.
That the component particles of the hardeft bodies
do not a// afttrally touch one another, is indeed evi¬
dent from the effeas of cold and heat upon thofe bo¬
dies : but it does not therefore follow that thofe bo¬
dies have no component particles 5 but only that they
are fewer in number than we are apt to imagine ; that
all the folid matter in the univerfe might poffibly be
comprelfed within a very narrow fphere •, and that it
is held together in different bodies and different fyllems
by a power foreign from itfelf. Thefe are truths which
all philofophers have admitted who have thought futfi-
ciently on the fubjeft 5 but who will admit Dr Prieff-
ley’s propofition, when it is tranllated into common
Englilh : “ That the component nothings of the hardeft
bodies do not a£lually touch one another, is demonilra-
ble from their being brought nearer together by cold,
and by their being removed farther from each other by
i75 heat
Our moft Dr Prieftley owns, that if matter be folid it could
adequate aft upon other matter by impulfe. We are certain,
matter°f w^ate#ver ^ bei it can aft upon nothing in the
manner which he deferibes; and therefore, to ufe the
words of Dr Price, “ matter, if it be any thing at all,
muff conlift of folid particles or atoms occupying a
certain portion of (pace, and therefore extended, but at
the lame time Jimp/e and uncompounded, and incapable
of being refolved into any other fmaller particles. It
muff likewife be the different form of thefe primary
particles, and their different combinations and arrange¬
ment, that conftitute the different bodies and kinds of
matter in the univerfe.” This is exaftly agreeable to
the doftiines of Newton ; who, after confidering the
queffion in. every point of view, concludes, that “ in
the beginning God formed matter in folid, maffy, hard,
impenetrable, moveable particles, of fuch fizes and fi¬
gures, and with fuch other properties, as moft condu¬
ced to the end for which he formed them ; and that
thofe primary particles being folid, are incomparably
harder than any porous bodies compounded of them 5
even fo very hard as never to wear or break in pieces :
no ordinary power being able to divide what God
himfelf made one in the creation.” To talk, as Dr
Prieftley does, of matter’s being certain centres of vari¬
ous attra&ions and repu/fons extending indefinitely in
all direftions, and to deferibe thfcfe centres as not being
ph/Jical points or folid atoms, is either to fay, that no¬
thing attrafts and repels ; or it is to introduce the di¬
vine agency as the immediate caufe of all our fenfa-
ti.ons.. The former of thefe alternatives Dr Prieftley
difelaims.} the latter he feems willing to admit. But
if it be his meaning that all our fenfations are caufed
by the immediate agency of God or created fpirits,
his fcheme differs not from that of Berkeley, except
«n being lefs elegantly exprefled and lefs ingenioufly
Part III
fupported. Berkeley’s fcheme is evidently p^fible. The OfSpaca
commonly received fcheme is likewife poftible. It re- and it,
mains therefore with the reader, whether he will adopt Modes-
the lyftem of the Bithop of Cloyne 5 or admit, with all ^ 'r^‘
other philofophers, that matter exifts ; that it confifts
of parts actually diftinft and feparable ; and that each
of thefe parts is a monad or folid atom, which requires
no foreign agency to keep it united.
Chap. IV. Of Space and its Modes.
Having confidered bodies in their fubftance, ef-The^Lb
fences and qualities, and proved that they have afary ad-
real exiftence independent of us and our conceptions
we proceed now to inquire into the nature of /pace, 0U3r,what’
motion, number, and duration. Thefe are commonly
called the adjunBs of body, and are fuppofed to be ab-
folutely infeparable from its exiftence. It does not
indeed appear that attual motion is a neceffary adiunft
of body, confidered as a mere folid, extended," and
figured iubftance j but it is certainly neceffary to the
exiftence of organized and animated bodies, and the
capability of being moved enters into our conceptions
of all bodies whatever. Of thefe adjunfts, that which
firrt demands our attention is /pace: for without a
knowledge of its nature we could not have an adequate
idea of motion, and without motion we could have no
idea of time.
Every body is extended 3 and between two bodies OunLtio*
not in aftual contaft, we perceive that a third body of (pace,
may be eafily introduced. That which admits of thehowac-
introduftion of the third body is what we call fpace tquired'
and if it be totally void of matter, it is called pure
fpace. Whether there be any fpace abfolutely pure,
has been difputed 3 but that fuch fpace is poffible, ad¬
mits of no difpute. Were any one body (a cannon
ball for inftar.ee) to be annihilated, and the circumam¬
bient air, with every other material fubftance, kept
from ruffling into the fpace which the ball had occu¬
pied, that portion of fpace, with refpeft to matter,
would be empty or pure fpace : whether it would ne-
ceffarily be filled with mind fliall be confidered after¬
wards. Pure fpace, therefore, is conceivable 3 and it
is conceived as having three dimenfions, length, breadth,
and depth, which are generally called the three fimple
modes of fpace. In this refpeft it agrees with body :
but the agreement proceeds no farther 3 for fpace is
conceived as deftitute of folidity, without which the
exiftence of body is inconceivable. It has been former¬
ly obferved, that ubatever may be diftinftly conceived
may poflibly exift ; but with refpeft to the exiftence
of pure fpace, whatever is poflible is real : for it {hall
be fhown in the next feftion, that wrere there no fpace
abfolutely pure or void of matter, there could be no
motion. Our bufinefs at prefent is to inquire what the
nature of fpace is, and what notion we ought to have of
its exiftence.
.Many modern philofophers confider fpace as fome- Space fup-
thing entirely diftinft both from body and mind : fome Poled'° b*
of them a.fcribe to it no lefs than four of the attributes
of the Deity—eternity, immobility, infinity, and necefjary fR,m body
exigence; and a few of them have gone fo far as to a d nurd,
call infinite fpace the fenfsrium oi the Deity. “ q'|ie and to be
fuppofal of the exiftence of any thing whatever (fays Dr^-^ ^c.
Clarke)
METAPHYSICS.
Chap.
Of Space
and its
Modes.
* Donon-
a Gentle¬
man in
Gloucejler
Jbire, paf-
'2m.
IV. M E T A P
Clarke necclTarily includes a prefuppojition of the ex-
iitence of [pace. Nothing can podibly be conceived to
exiil without thereby preluppofmg fpace •, ’which, there-
^ fore, I apprehend to be a property or mode of the felf-
Mration of exiilent Subilance j and that, by being evidently necef-
the Being fary itfelf, it proves, that the fubftance of which it is a
and Attn- property muft be alfo necefiary.” Elfewhere he fays,
fpace is a property or mode of the felf-exiftent
Correfoond- Subftance, but not of any other fubltances. All other
ence with fubftances are in fpace, and are penetrated by it; but
the felf-exiftent Subftance is not in fpace, nor penetrated
by it, but is itfelf (if I may fo fpeak) the fubjlratum
of fpace, the ground of the exiftence of fpace itfelf.”
He acknowledges, however, that fuch expreflions as
« the felf-exiftent Subftance is the fubjiratum of fpace,
or fpace is a property of the felf-exiftent Subftance, are
not, perhaps, very proper: but what I mean (fays he),
is this: The idea of fpace (as alfo of time or duration)
is an abftract or partial idea ; an idea of a certain qua¬
lity or relation, which we evidently fee to be neceffarily
exiftingj and yet (which not being itfelf ■a.fubfance)
at the fame time neceffarily prefuppofes a fubftance, with¬
out which it could not exift.”
Thefe opinions refpefting fpace have been adopted
by fucceeding philofophers of great merit, and particu¬
larly by Dr Price j who fays, that “ it is a maxim which
cannot be difputed, that time and place are neceffary to
the exiftence of all things. Dr Clarke (continues he)
has made ufe of this maxim, to prove that infinite fpace
and duration are the effential properties of the Deity j
and I think he was right.”
Had authority any weight in philofophy, we know
not what modern writers we could oppofe to the cele¬
brated names of Clarke and Price, unlefs it were Bifhop
Berkeley, Dr Law late bilhop of Carlifle, and the author
of Ancient Metaphyfics. But the queftion is not to
This fuppo-.be decided by authority. Learned and acute as Dr
iition con- Clarke was, his affertions refpecling fpace are contra-
didlory and inconfiftent. If nothing can poflibly be
conceived to exift without thereby prefuppofing the ex¬
iftence of fpace, how can fpace be a property or mode
of the felf-exiftent Subftance ? Are properties prior
in the order of nature, or even in our conceptions, to
the fubftances in which they inhere ? Can we frame
an abftrafl idea of figure, or extenfion, or folidity, be¬
fore we conceive the exiftence of any one figured, ex¬
tended, or folid fubftance ? Thefe are queftions which
every man is as capable of anfwering as the Do&ors
Clarke and Price, provided he can look attentively into
his own mind, and trace his ideas to their fource in fen-
fation: and if he be not biaffed by the weight of
great names, we are perfuaded he will find, that if it be
indeed true, that the fuppofal of the exiftence of any
thing whatever neceffarily includes a prefuppoftion of
•the exiftence of fpace, fpace cannot poflibly be a pro¬
perty or mode of the felf-exiftent Subftance, but muft of
neceflity be a fubfance itfelf.
It is, however, not true, that the fuppofal of the ex¬
iftence of any thing whatever neceffarily includes a pre-
‘nce ot fuppofition of the exiftence of fpace. The idea of fpace
wery thing.is indeed fo clofely affociated with every vifible and
° tangible obje£t, that we cannot fee the one nor feel
the other without conceiving them to occupy fo much
of fpace. But had we never poffeffed thefenfesof fight
and touch, we could not have fuppofed the exiftence
Vol. XIII. Part II.
H Y S I C S.
62
Of Space
and its
Modes.
180
troverted.
t8i
Space ne-
ceffary to
the exift-
*nce of
of fpace neceffary to the exiftence of any thing what¬
ever. The fenfes of fmelling, tailing, and hearing, to¬
gether with our internal powers ol confcioufnefs and 1
intellect, would certainly have compelled us to believe
in our own exiftence, and to fuppofe the exiftence of
other things 5 but no object either of confcioufnefs,
fmelling, tailing, or hearing, can be conceived as occu¬
pying fpace. Space and every thing which fills it are
conceived as of three dimenfions j but who ever fuppofed
or can fuppofe an odour, tafc, or found, to have length,
breadth, and depth ; or an object of confcioufnefs to be
an ell or an inch long ?
Let us fuppofe that body and all the vifible world
had a beginning, and that once nothing exifted but
that Being which is alone of neceffary as well as eter¬
nal exiftence} fpace, fay the followers of Dr Clarke,
would then exift likewife without bounds or limits.
But we defire to know of thele gentlemen what fort
of a being this fpace is. It certainly is not fubfance;
neither is it a property } for we have feen that the very
notions of it, which lead men to fuppole its exiftence
necejfary, render it impoflible to be a property of the
felf-exiftent Being. Is it then nothing ? It is in one
fenfe * : it is nothing adlually exifting $ but it is fome- * Ancient
thing potentially ; for it has the capacity of receiving Aletaphy-
body whenever it lhall exift. It is not, and cannot,
become any thkig itfelf, nor hath it any a£lual exift¬
ence 5 but it is that without which nothing corporeal
could exift.” For this reafon it was that Democritus
and Epicurus made fpace one of the principles of na¬
ture ; and for the fame reafon Ariftotle has made pri¬
vation one of his three principles of natural things,
matter and form being the other two. But though the
privation of one form be doubtlefs neceffary before
matter can receive another (for a piece of wax or clay
cannot receive the form of a globe before it lofe the
form of a fquare), yet Ariftotle never dreamed that
the privation of the fquare was any property of the
globe, or that privation itfelf was to be reckoned a real
being. On the contrary, he exprefsly calls it to p-/[ ov,
or the no being. In this way, if we pleafe, we may
confider fpace, and call it the privation of fulnefs or of
body. We have indeed a pofitive idea of it, as well as
of filence, darknefs, and other privations : but to argue
from fuch an idea of fpace, that fpace itfelf is fome-
thing real, feems altogether as good fenfe as to fay,
that becaufe we have a different idea of darknefs from
that of light, of filence from that of found, of the ab-
fence of any thing from that of its prefence ; therefore
darknefs, flence, abfence, muft be real things, and have
as pofitive an exiftence as light, found, and body: and
to deny that we have any pofitive idea, or, which is the
very lame thing, any idea at all, of the privations above
mentioned, will be to deny what is capable of the moll
complete proof (fee N° I9*)» an<^ cpntradicl com¬
mon fenfe and daily experience. There are therefore
ideas, and Ample ones too, which have nothing ad ex¬
tra correfpondent to them } no proper idiatum, arche¬
type, or obje&ive reality : and we do not fee why the f See Mies
idea of fpace may not be reckoned of that number, f
To fay \Xmt fpace muft have exiftence becaufe it has^T1^”®^
fome properties (for inftance, penetrability, or fiat capa-Laf;s En_
city of receiving body), feems f to be the fame thing zsquiry into
to urge that darknefs muft be fomething becaufe it has the Ideas
the capacity of receiving light; flence the property 0^°^c^ace*
K
admitting'
626 metaphysics.
andT and chfence the property of being fup-
Modes. by prefence. To reafcn in this manner is to affign
lS2
Space no¬
thing but
- ^ ^ "    -*» i..Ct 1 1. J!' L 1C5 LU aillgll
abioiute negations; and inch as, in the lame way, may
be applied to nothing, and then call them pofitive pro¬
perties ; and lo infer that the chimera, thus clothed
wii n tnetn, mutt needs be fomething.
«.iung out , ^ut ^ _’s ^id, tliat as we cannot conceive fpace to
the pofiifcie °e annihilated, it mutt be fome real thing of eternal
exiltence and m ceffary exiflence. If this argument had not
b0;ly- Peen b7 '"liters of great merit, and with the belt
intention, we Ihould not have icruplt d to call it tire
moll contemptible fophifm that ever difgraced the page
oi plnlofophy. Whatever now has an aSual exiitence,
mult from eternity have had a pojjible exifience in the
ideas of the Bivine mind. Body, as an extended lub-
Jcance, has now mi aefuat exifience ; and therefore it
muft from eternity have had a pofjible exillence in the
meas of the Divine mind : but the pojjible exifence
oj body is all that we can conceive by fpace; and there¬
fore this argument, upon which fo much llrefs has
been laid, amounts to nothing more, than that what
has from eternity been poflible, can at no period have
een impoflible. It is evident that the capacity or po¬
tentiality of every thing exifling muft have been from
eternity; but is capacity or potentiality a real being >
All the. men and women who (hall lucceed the prefent
generation to the end of time, have at this moment
a poflibility of exiftence, nor can that poffibility be
conceived as an impoftibility ; but is it therefore any
thing acftually exifting either as a fubftance or a qua¬
lity ? 1
It has been urged, that fpace muft be fomething
more than the mere abfence of matter ; becaufe if no¬
thing be between bodies, fuch as the walls of a room,
they muft neceffarily touch. But furely it is not felf-
evidcnt that bodies muft neceffarily touch if nothing be
between them nor of the truth of this propofition
can any thing like a proof be brought. It is indeed
intuitively certain, that “ things, when they are in
contafl, have nothing between them ft5 and hence it
has ralhly been inferred, that things, when they have
siothing between them, are in contaft ; but this is an
illegitimate converfion of the proportion. Every lo¬
gician knows, that to convert a propofition, is to infer
from it another whnk Jubjetf is the predicate, and whofe
pi edicate is ihefubjebi, of the propofition to be convert¬
ed : but we are taught by Ariftotle and by common
ienfe, that an vniverfal affirmative can be converted
only into a particular affirmative. “ Things, when they
are in contaft, have nothing between them,” is an w.i-
verfal affirmative propofition j and therefore it can be
converted only into the following particular affirmative :
“ Some things, when they have nothing between them,
are in contaift \f a propofition which by no means in-
eludes in it the contaft of the walls of an empty room.
The reafon why the walls of an empty room do not
’n*S t!iat t^iey arC ('^ant > but is difar.ee, in the
abflract, any thing really exifting ? Two individuals
. ;er> or there is a difference between them ; but is
difercncchfrU any real external thing ? Bodies are long,
broad, thick, heavy j but are length, breadth, deeply,
weight, properly any thing ? Have they any real fepa-
rate archetvpes or external idiata ? Or can they exift
out in fome fubftance ?
Ti r i r . Part ft
1 he reafon why fo many philofopliers have confi- Ofw.
dered ipace as a real external thing, feems to be this : Rn'l its
Every bodily fubftance is extended ; but fpace is con- ^^es.
ceived to be that which contains body, and therefore J
to fpace wc like wife attribute exteniion. Extenfion The'Mao,
is a quality which can have no exiftence but as united which led
wrih other qualities in fome fubftance j and it is thatt0 tbe fuP-
of which, abffracied from all fubftances, we can pro- 1^f:tb)n
perly_ fpeaking, form no idea. We underhand thejs freaT
meaning of the werft, however, and can reafon about thing,
tnat which it denotes, without regarding the particu¬
lar lubixance in which extenfion may inhere j juft as
we can realon about whitenefs without regarding any
one white objett, though it is felf-evident that white¬
nefs, abilradled from all objedls, cannot figure in the
mind as an idea. (Qualities confidered in this maimer
are general and relative notions, the objedls of pure in¬
tellect, which make no appearance in the imagination,
and are far lefs, if poffible, to be perceived by fenfe :
but it is extremely painful to the mind to dwell upon
fuch notions ; and therefore the over-active fancy is
always ready to furnith them with imaginary fu If rata,
and to make that which was a general and mvifible no¬
tion be conceived as a particular ideal objeB. In the
cafe of extenfion this is the more eafily done, that the
notion which we have of a realfuhf ratum or fubftance,
the fupport of real qualities, is obfeure and relative,
being the notion of fomething we know not what.
Now, by leaving, if we can, folidity and figure out of
our conception, and joining the notion of fomething with
the notion of extenfon, we have at once the imaginary
fubf ratwn of an imaginary quality, or the general notion
of extenfion particularized in an imaginary fubjeft ; and
this fubjeeft we call fpace, vainly fancying that it has a
real external and independent exiftence. Whether this
be not all that can be laid of fpace, and whether it be
not abfurd to talk of its having any real properties,
every man will judge for himfelf, by refle&ing upon
his own ideas and the manner in which they are acqui¬
red. We eurfelves have no doubt about the matter. We
confider pure fpace as a mere notion relative to the ex¬
iftence of corporeal fubftance, as nothing more than the
abfence of body, where body is poflible ; and we think
the ufinal dilliinftion between abfolutc and relative Ipace,
if taken as real, the groffeft abfurdity. We do not,
however, pretend to diftate to others ; but recom¬
mend it to every man to throw away all refpedl for
great names, to look attentively into his own thoughts,
and on this as on all metaphyfical fubjects to judge for
himfelf.
Having faid fo much of fpace in general, we need Place, what
not walle much time upon its modes. Indeed the onlyk is.
mode of fpace, after confidering it with refpedl to the
three dimensions of body, which now demands our at¬
tention, is that which we call place. As in the fimpleft
mode of fpace we confider the relation of diftance be¬
tween any two bodies or points ; fo, in our idea of
place, we confider the relation of diftance betwixt any
thing, and any two or more points, which, being con¬
fidered as at reft, keep the fame diftance one from
another. Thus, when we find any thing at the fame
diilance now at which it was yefterday from two or
more points with wffiich it was then compared, and
which have not fince the companion was made changed
their
2
Ohap.
Of Sjiacs
and its
Modes
iSs
The uni-
verfe has
«o place.
IV. M E T A P
tlieir diftance or pofltion with refpect to each other,
we fay that the thing hath kept its f)/c*ce, or is in the
jfame place ; but if it hath fenfibly altered its diftance
from either of thefe points, we then fay that it hath
changed its place.
From this view of the nature of place, we need not
obferve that it is a mere relation j but it may be worth
while to advert to this circumftance, that a thing may
without falfehood be raid to have continued in the
fame place, and at the fame lime to have changed its
place, according to the different obje&s with which it
is compared. Thus, if two perfons find a company of
chefs-men ftanding each upon the fame fquare of the
chefs-board where they left them, the one may with
truth affirm that they are all in the fame place, or un¬
moved ; and the other may with equal truth affirm that
they have all changed place. The former coniiders
the men only with refpecf to their diflances from the
fcveral parts of the ehefs-board, which have kept the
fame diftance and pofition with refpett to one another.
The latter muft confider the men with refpeft to their
diftance from fomething elfe : and finding that the
chefs-board, with every thing upon it, has been removed,
we {hall fuppofe, from one room to another, he cannot
but fay that the chefs-men have changed their place
with refpeft to the feveral parts of the room in which
be formerly faw them.
This modification of diftance, however, which we call
place, being made by men for their common ufe, that
by it they may deiign the particular pofition of objedls
where they have occafion for fuch defignation, they
determine this place by reference to fueh adjacent things
as beft ferve their prefent purpofe, without regarding
other things which, for a different purpofe, would better
determine the place of the fame objedl. Thus in the
chefs-board, the ufe of the def ^nation of the place of
each chefs-man being determined only within that che¬
quered piece of wood, it would crofs that purpofe to
meafure it by any thing elfe : but when thefe very chefs-
xnen are put up in a box, if any one fliould afk where
the black king is, it would be proper to determine the
place by reference to fomething elfe than the chefs-board;
fuch as the parts of the room or elofet which contain
the box.
That our idea of place is nothing but fuch a relative
pofition of things as we have mentioned, will be readily
admitted, when it is confidered that we can have no
idea of the place of the univerfe. Every part of the
univerfe has place ; becaufe it may be compared with
refpe£t to its diftance from other parts fuppofed to be
fixed. Thus the earth and every planet of our fyftem
has a place which may be determined by afeertaining
its diftanee from the fun and from the orbits of the
other planets •, and the place of the fyftem itfelf may
be afeertained by comparing it with two or more fixed
liars: but all the fyftems taken as one whole can have
no place; becaufe there is nothing elfe to which the
diftance and pofition of that whole can be referred. It
is indeed true, that the word place is fometimes ufed,
we think improperly, to denote that //tare or portion of
[pace which any particular body occupies; and in this
fenfe, no doubt, the univerfe has place, as well as the
earth or folar fyftem : but to talk of the place of the
univerfe in the other and proper fenfe of the word, is
the groffeft nonfenfe.
H Y S I C &
Chap. V. (y Motion.
IDO
Mobility, or a capacity of being moved, is ewen- vioi>ility
tial to every corporeal fubftance; and by actual mo-etTeiitial
tion are all the operations of nature performed.
tion, therefore, ir it may be called an adjunSl of body, ance>
is certainly the moft important of all its arijunfts ; and but not na~
to afeertain its nature and origin demands the clofeft tural mo-
aitention of the metaphylician, as well as of the me-Uon“
chanic and aftronomer. With the laws of motion, as
di(covered by experience, we have at prefent no con¬
cern : they are explained and fully eftahlilhed in other
articles of this work (See Mechanics, Motion, &c.)
The principal queftions which we have to confider are :
“ What is motion ? and, By what power is it carried
on ?”
For an anfwer to the firft of thefe queftions, the
modern metaphyfician refers every man to his own
fenfes; becaufe, in his apprehcnlion, the word mo¬
tion denotes a fimple idea which cannot be defined.
Among the ancients, the Peripatetics were of a differ¬
ent opinion; and Ariftotle, whofe love of dialeftic
made him define every thing, has attempted to give
two definitions of motion. As fome learned men are
at prefent labouring to revive this fyftem, we {hall,
out of refpett to them, mention thofe definitions,
and make upon them fuch remarks as to us appear
proper. tSy
The author of Ancient Metaphyfcs having obferved, The Peri-
that both nature and art propofe fome end in all their
operations; that when the end is obtained, the thing0
operated upon is in a ftate of perfection or comple¬
tion ; and that in the operations of both nature and
art there is a progrefs, and by confequence a change,
from one thing to another; adds, that this change is
motion. Motion, therefore, according to him, is a
change or progrefs to the end propofed, or to that
ftate of perfection or completion which Ariftotle calls
It is not enough, however, that we know
to what the change or progrefs is made : to have an
adequate idea of motion, we muft likewife know from
what it proceeds. Now it is evident that every thing
exifting, whether by nature or art, was, before it ex-
ifted, poffible to exift ; and therefore, adds the fame
author, things do in fome fort exift even before they
exift. This former kind of ‘xiftence is faid by Ari¬
ftotle to be sv 'ovvxu.u, that is, in power or capacity. In
this way, plants exift in their feeds; animals in the
embryo ; works of art in the idea of the artifts and the
materials of which they are made ; and, in general,
every thing in the caufes which produce it. From this
power or capacity there is a progrefs to energy or aClual
exiftence ; fo that we are now able to anfwer the quef-
tion, “from what, and to what, motion is a change ?”
for it is univerfally true of all motion, that it is a change
from capacity to energy.
“ Having thus difeovered that motion lies betwixt
capacity and energy, it is evident (he favs) that it muft
have a connexion with each of them : and from this
double connexion Ariftotle has given us two definitions
of it ; one of them taken from the energy, or end. to
which it tends; the other from the capacity from which
it begins. The firft is expreffed in two words, viz.
imym ecnMij or irnperfeB energy; the other is tiltMxa*
4 K 2 ™
i88
unintelli¬
gible.
M E T A P
•to «. 3»»««■/ i „ ; which may he tranflated thus,
I /'eperfection f iuhat is in capacity, conjidered merely as
m capacity. 1 he meaning of the laft words is, that
nothing is confidered in the thing that is moved but
merely its capacity; fo that motion is the perfe&ion
of that capacity, but not of the thing itfelf. It is
fomething more (adds the learned author) than mere
capacity ; for it is capacity exerted, which when it has
atiained its end, fo that the thing has arrived at that
Hate to which it is de ined by nature or art, ceafes,
and the tiling begins to exi i m^yuoi, or aBually.
By all the admirers of Ariflotle, this latter defini¬
tion has. been preterred to the former : for what rea-
fon, it is difficult to fay. 1 hey both involve in the
thickeft obicurity that which, viewed through the
fenfes, is very eafily underftood; and on this, as on
many oilier occafions, Ariftotle was certainly guilty
of darkening counfel by words without knowledve.
The author, whole comment on this wonderful defini¬
tion we. have, faithfully abridged, admits that it is not
intelligible' till we know what change tsnA. progrefs are j
but is it poflible to conceive any change to take place
in bodily fubtfances without motion ? or, if we were
called upon to explain what progrefs hs, could we do
it better than by faying that it is motion from fome¬
thing to fomething ? It is likewife very obvious that
before we can have an adequate idea of motion, we
muff, according to this definition, know perfectly
what the words capacity, energy, and perfection denote j
and yet nothing can be more true than that perfection
denotes a complex conception, which may be eafily
defined by refolving it into the fimple ideas and no¬
tions of which it is compounded, whilft motion is fuf-
ceptible of no fuch refolution. The perfe£Hon of a
knife is compounded of the temper of the fteel and
the ih.arpnefs of the edge : the perfection of a fyftem
of philofophy confifts of the importance of the fub-
jeits treated, the ffrength of the author’s arguments,
and the perfpicuity of his ftyle and manner; but of
what is the motion of a ball, or an atom, or any thing
dfe, compounded ? We are aware that to this queftion
the modern Peripatetics will reply, That it is not the
motion of a hall, or an atom, or any one thing, that
their mafter has fo learnedly defined, but motion ab-
flracled from all individuals, and made an object of
H Y S I C S. Part II,
pure intellect-j and they will likewife affirm, that by
the word perfection ufed in the definition, he does not
mean any one kind of perfedion as adapted to any par¬
ticular objeCt or end, but perfedtion abftradled from
all objetis and all ends. The perfection of nothing and
the motion of nothing, for fuch lurely are that motion
and that perfedion which are abffraded from all ob¬
jects and ends, are ftrange expreflions. To us they
convey no meaning ; and we have reafon to think that
they are equally unintelligible to men of greater acute-
nefs (o). In a word, motion muff be feen or felt 5 for
it cannot be defined. To call it the aB of changing
place, or a paffage from one place to another, gives no
information *, for change and paffage cannot be conceiv¬
ed without previoully conceiving motion (p).
. The Peripatetics having idly attempted to define mo-The Peri,
tion, proceed next to divide it into four kinds or claf patetic di-
fes. This divifion was by the father of the fchoolvifl0n of
pretended to be made from the effeds which it pro- aV*
duces, and was faid by him to belong to three cate¬
gories, viz. quality, quantity, and where, (fee Catego¬
ry). The firft kind is that well-known motion from
place to place, which falls under the category laif men¬
tioned ; the fecond is alteration, by which the quality
of any thing is changed, the fubfiance remaining the
fame. This belongs to the category of quality. The
third is increafe, and the fourth diminution, both be-
longing to the category of quantity. The ancient
atomifts, and all the modern metaphyficians of emi¬
nence, have with great propriety rejeded this divifion,
as being nothing but a colledion of abfurd diftindions
where there is in nature no difference. It has been
already fhown, that body has no other real qualities
than fohdity, extenfion, and figure: but of thefe the
firft cannot be altered without deftroying the fubftance;
for every thing which is material is equally folid. The
extenfion of a body may indeed be enlarged, and its
figure may be altered, while the fubftance remains the
fame: but that alteration can be made only by moving
from their places the folid atoms of which the body is
compofed. Ariftotle’s fecond kind of motion there¬
fore differs not from the firft ; nor do the third and
fourth differ from thefe two. For a body cannot be
mcreafed without acquiring new matter, nor diminifh-
ed without lofing fome of the matter of which it was
originally
(o) Nunc dicendum de natura motus. Atque is quidem, cum fenfibus clare percipiatur, non tarn natu-
ra iua, quam doftis. philofophorum commentis obfeuratus eft. Motus nunquam in fenfus noftros incurrit fine
mole corporea fpatio et tempore. Sunt tamen qui motum, tanquam ideam quandam fimplicem et abftraaam,
atque ab omnibus alvs rebus fejunCtam, contemplari ftudent. Verum idea ilia tenuiflima et fubtiliflima intelleClus
aciem e m it. 1 quod quihbet fecum meditando experiri poteft. Hinc nafeuntur magnae difficultates de natu-
ra motus, et defimtumes, ipfa re quam i.lluftrare debent longe obfeuriores. Hujufmodi funt definitiones ill*
ultotelis et fcholafticorum, qui .motum dicunt effe atlum mobilis quatenus efi mobile, vel, aCium entis in potentia
quatenus in potentia. Hujufmodi etiam eft illud viri inter recentiores Celebris, qui afferit nihil in motu effe reale
prater momentaneum illud quod in vi ad mutationem nitente confiitui debet. Porro conftat, horum et fimilium defi-
nitionum aucrores in ammo habuiffe abftracftam motus naturam, feclufa omni temporis et fpatii confideratione, ex-
plicare : fed qua ratione abftrafta ilia motus quintelfentia (ut ita dicam) intelligi poflit non video.”
r n u . . . Berkeley de Motu.
multi etiam per tranfitum motum definiunt, obliti fcilicet tranfitum ipfum fine motu intelligi non poffe,
T P^r mo^m mmni opportere : Veriffimum adeo eft definitiones, ficut nonnullis rebus lucem, ita viciflim aliis
ene ras a ene.. t profeffo, quafcumque res fenfu percipimus eas clariores aut notiores definiendo efficere vix
quilquam potuent. (Jujus rei.vana fpe allefti res faciles difficillimas reddiderunt philofophi, mentefque fuas diffi-
ciutatibus, quas ut plunmum ipfi peperiffent, implicavere.” Id. ibid,
*
ipO
Whether,
if but one
body exiit
»d, there
could be
motion ?
Y. M E T A P
originally compofed : but matter can neither be added
nor taken a tv ay without motion from place to place *,
for there is now no creation de novo; and we have no
reafon to imagine that, fmce the original creation, a
Angle atom has been ever annihilated. It is therefore
pah difpute, that local motion is the only motion con¬
ceivable : and indeed, as far as we are capable of judg¬
ing from what we know of body, it is the only motion
P0This has given rife to a queftion which has been
debated among modern philofophers, though, as tar
as we know, it was never agitated among the an¬
cients viz. “ Whether, if there were but one iolid
body evifting, that body could poffibly be moved.'
Bifhop Berkeley feems to be of opinion that it could
not; becaufe no motion can be conceived but what
has a direftion toAvards fome place, and the relation ot
place neceffarily fuppofes the exigence of two or more
bodies. Were all bodies, therefore, annihilated ex¬
cept one globe, it would be impoflible (he thinks) to
conceive that globe in motion (a). With refpeft to
the origin of our ideas of motion, his reafoning appears
unanfwerable -, but we do not perceive how it con¬
cludes againft the poffibility of motion itfelf as exift-
ing in a Angle body. It has been already own in
the chapter of Simple Apprehenfwn and Conception, that
though nothing can be conceived which may not Po-
Ably exift, yet many things may be poflible which a
have not faculties or means to conceive. . In the pre-
fent inftance, were this folitary globe animated as our
bodies are, were it endowed with all our ftnfes and
mental powers, it certainly would not acquire any idea
of motion though impelled by the greuteft force The
reafon is obvious •, it would have no objefts with which
to compare its place and Atuation at different periods
of time •, and the experience of a (hip at fea in ca a
weather, afford, fufficient proof that motion which is
equable cannot be perceived by any other means than
bv fuch a comparifon. When the waves fwell and
the Aiip pitches, it is indeed impoffible that thofe
who are on board fhould not perceive that they are
aftually in motion-, but even this perception arifes from
comparing their poAtion with that of the waves ri mg
and falling around them: whereas in the regions of emp¬
ty fpace the animated globe could compare its F^ion
with nothing and therefore, whether impelled by
H Y S I C S.
equal or unequal forces, it could never acquire the idea
of motioi . It may perhaps be thought, that if t
folitary globe were a/Wf-moving animal, it might ac¬
quire the idea of motion by inferring its exiftence from
the energy which produced it. But horv Ave would
afk, could an animal in fuch cir cum fiances bcfclf-mw-
ing? Motion is the efTeft of fome caufeand it has
been already fhown (fee N° ny- of this article), that
we have no reafon to fuppofe that any bemg can be
the real and primary caufe of any effeft which that be-
ina can neither conceive nor will : but as motion can
be perceived only by the fenfes, a fohtary ammai could
have no idea of motion previous to its own exertions ,
and therefore could neither conceive, nor will, an exer¬
tion to produce it. Let us, however, fuppofe, that
without any end in view it might fpontaneoidly exert
itfelf in fuch a manner as would produce fenfible
tion, were it furrounded Avith other corporeal objeftsi
ftM we may venture to affirm, that fo long as it fhoul
remain in abfolute folitude, the being itfelf would ac¬
quire no idea of motion. It would indeed be
of the mental energy, but it could not infer the ex '
ence of motion as a confequence of that energy j for
idea of motion can be acquired only by fenie, andby
the fuppofition there are no objeas from Avhich the
fenfes of this fpherical animal could receive thofe i
preffions, without which there can be no perception,
ani:tr^ffippX, that, while this -hnated gffibe
is under the influence either of externa! impulfe or it*
own fpontaneous energy, other bodies are fuddenly
brought into exiftence : would it then acquire the idea
of motion ? It certainly would, from perceiving its
own change of place with refFa to thofe bodtes;
and though at Arid it Avould not perhaps be able to
determine”Avhether itfelf or the bodies around it were-
moving, yet a little experience would decide this que¬
ftion iikewife, and convince it that the motl™
the effea either of its oAvn mental energy, or that ex-
tnaftWc which it had felt before the o,h« bo-
dies were prefented to its vicav. But it is obvious,
that the creation of new bodies at a diftance, can
make no real alteration in the ft ate of a body which
had exifted before them : and therefore, as this ani¬
mated globe Avould now perceive itfelf to be moving,
we may infer with the utmoft certainty that it^«r
191
(Q.) Having proved that place in the Pr0Per ^ °f yeruntlten uthoc "ckrius appareat, animadvertendum
tion is relative likeivife, the biffiop proceeds _ • . /• direftione quae quidem intelligi nequit, mA
X motum nullum intelligi poffe fine delermrnaUone ^ua .fem d^one, exiftere. Nam furfum,
praeter corpus motum, noftrum etiam corpus, aut ^ relatione aliqua fundantur, et neceffano cor-
deorfum, ftniftrorfum, dextrorfum, omnefque pLg* et . corporibus in nihilum redaais, globus
pus a moto diverfum connotant et fupponunt. ^ondpi poffit: ufque adeo neceffe eft, ut
exempli gratia, unicus exiftere fupponatur , in ^ Huius fententiae veritas clanffima elucebit, mo-
r ^ “reae fupi'°-
^^cipianlur porro duo globi et prmterea £
circa'commun^centrum^equifp^rlmaghtat^nein concipi. (uf'led"mo^ XV Ja M “
^matoodu“nec uUa Klali0 3113 fine com'
latis concipi poteft.” Of Motu>
6jo
metaphysics.
m,„L. brfore; a"d tI,at tl« motion of a fingk body,
-—v tholl^h not perceivable by the fenks, might poflibly be
19a produced in empty Ipace.
Whether Having thus been that a Angle body is capable of
would*1 he motl™ empty fpace, the next quellion that occurs
poffihle n (>n thls lubJ1^ is, Whether it would be poflible to
Ipace ablo- move a b‘>dy in fpace that is abfolutely full ? buch
lately full ? are the terms in which this queftion is ufually put;
and by being thus exprelied, it has given rife to the
di pute among natural philofophers about the exiftence
or a vacuum. Ptrliaps the difpute might have been
avoided had the queftion been more accurately ftated.
hor inllance, had it been afked, whether motion would
be poffible, could matter be fuppofed abfolutely in-
finite without any the leaft interftice or vacuity amono-
its loud parts ? W e apprehend that every reflebling
man would have anfwered in the negative. At any
rate the queftion ought to be thus ftated in meta-
phylics ; becaule we have feen that fpace, though a
poiitive term, denotes nothing really exifting. Now it
being oi the very effence of every folid fubftance to ex¬
clude from the place which it occupies every other folid
lubfiance, it follows undeniably, that not one particle
^. an indnite folid could be moved from its place
Without the previous annihilation of another paititle
of equal extent; but that annihilation would deftroy
the infinity. Were matter extended to any degree
lejs than infinity, the motion of its parts would un¬
doubtedly be poftible, becaufe a fufficient force could
separate thofe parts and introduce among them va¬
cuities of any extent ; but without vacuities capable
of containing the body to be moved, it is obvious
that no force whatever could produce motion. This
ting the cafe, it follows, that however far wre fup-
poie the material univerfe extended, there muft be
faculties in it fufficient to permit the motion of the
planets and all the other heavenly bodies, which we
plainly perceive to revolve round a centre ; and if fo
the next queftion to be determined is, W hat can in
vacuo operate upon fuch immenfe bodies, fo as to pro-
193 a regular and continued motion ?
quallyS in". ^ a.]1 b(xilt's are equally capable of motion or
different to, relt’ ^ natu.raI philofcphers been as completely
motion and Pr,dVed as any thing can be proved by obfervation
.reft. and experience. _ It is indeed a faeft obvious to
the molt fuperfieial obferver ; for if either of thefe
ftates were effential to matter, the other would be
abfolutely impofiible. If reft were effential, nothing
coud be moved; if motion were effential, nothing
comd be at reft, but every the minuteft atom would
have a motion of its own, which is contrary to uni-
Vdfal experience. With refpea to motion and reft,
Part II.
matter is wholly paffive. No man ever perceived a Of
buoy in animated begin to move, or when in motion Motion.
Itop without refiftance. A billiard ball laid at reft '■“"'V'"—'
on the fmootlieft furfaee, would continue at reft to
tiie end of time, unlefs moved by feme force extrinfic
to itfeit. ^ Ii fuch a ball were {truck by another ball
it would indeed be moved with a velocity proportioned
to the impetus with which it M as ftruck; but the impell¬
ing ball would lofe as much of its own motion as was
communicated to that upon which the impulfe was
made.. It is evident, therefore, that in this inftance
tnere is no beginning of motion, but only the communi¬
cation of motion from one body to another; and we
may ftill afk, Where had the motion its origin ? If the
impelling ball was thrown from the hand of a man, or
ftiuck with a racket, it. is plain that by a volition of
the man’s mind the motion was firft given to his own
arm, whence it proceeded through the racket from
one ball to another ; fo that the ball, racket, and arm,
were mere inftruments, and the mind of the man the
only agent or firft mover. That motion can be/Wa*
by any being which is not poffeffed of life, confciouf-
nels, and will, or what is analogous to thefe, is to us
altogether inconceivable. Mere matter or inanimated
body can operate upon body only by impulfe : but
impulfe, though from the poverty of language we
are fometimes obliged to talk of its agency, is itfelf
merely an effeft.; for it is nothing more than the con¬
tact of two bodies, of which one at leaft is in motion.
An infinite feries of effedfs without a caufe is the
gr< ffeft abfurdity ; and therefore motion cannot have
been communicated from eternity by the in.pulfc of
body upon body, but muft have bee"n originally pro¬
duced by a being v ho afts in a manner analogous to
the energies of the human will.
But though motion could not have been begun Motfol
but by the energy of mind, it is generally believed produced
that it might be continued by the mere pafiivity 0f k inipuife
body; and it is a law of the Newtonian philofophv "‘nonly
that a body projecT d in empty fpace would continue ttraftht
to move in a ftraight line for ever. The only reafon line,
which can be afligned for this law is, that fince body
continues to move at all after the impetus of projec¬
tion has ceafed, it could not of itfelf ceafe to move
without becoming active ; becaufe as much force is
required to flop a body in motion as to communicate
motion to the fame body at reft. Many objedions
have been made to this argument, and to the law of
which it is the foundation 5 but as we do not perceive
theii .ftrength, we ftiall not fill our page with a formal
examination of them (r). If a Angle body could ex¬
it! and have motion communicated to it in vacuo by the
force
and belt urged of tlefe objeftions rvbieh we hove f en, is made by Dr Forfley a
"ntXtlbZIf a"dfW phil"<<,l’l,>'- “ I believe wilh lYeTulW „7^
ef motion j'k m i tl t tbat aftive principle is neceflary for the continuance as well as for the beginning
ISybeen JiM f' T ^ M ^1 ** ^ - I -yfelf 37*
Change ; a farther change is a ^a chan8'e 5 a continuance of motion is a farther
contrary of change • and mol inn ’ * ^pcated eftetft requires a repeating caufe. State implies the
pbg/fcsjvoh ii. g ’ 1 being Change’ a^“le ofmot20n " a contradiction in terms.” See Ancient Meta-
HeLffilv of admiuinf ^ Tf°™nS con.clnfive, they may be in the right ; and in that cafe they will fee the
V g, ven for the continuance of redtilintal motion, the jj/aJic nature, or fomething equivalent
t*
Chap-
of
Motion.
i^S
The New¬
tonian Joe
trine re¬
dies.
v. M E T A P
force of projeftion, tve are perfuaded, that from the
very paffivity of matter, that motion would never have
' an end j but it is obvious that it could be moved only
in a ftraight line, for an impulfe can be given in no
other dire&ion.
The heavenly bodies, however, are not moved in
■ ftraight lines, but in curves round a centre and there¬
fore their motion cannot have been originally com-
fpefting^t e mumc-ated merely by an impreffed force of projection,
the motion This is admitted by all philofophers j and therefore
ofthehea- the Newtonians fuppofe that the planets are moved
venly bo- jn elliptical orbits by the joint agency of two forces
aCting in different directions. One of thefe forces
makes the planet tend directly to the centre about
which it revolves : the other impels it to fly off in a
tangent to the curve deferibed. The former they call
gravitation, which fome of them have affirmed to be a
property inherent in all matter ; and the latter, which
is a projeClile force, they confider as impreffed ab extra.
By the joint agency of fuch forces, duly proportioned
to each other, Sir Ifaac Newton has demonftrated, that
the planets muft neceffarily deferibe fuch orbits as by
obfervation and experience they are found actually to
deferibe. But the queftion with the metaphyfieian is,
Whether fuch forces be real ?
With refpeCt to projection, there is no difficulty 5
but that bodies fhould mutually aCt upon each other at
a diftance, and through an immenfe vacuum, feems at
firft fight altogether impoffible. If the planets are
moved by the forces of gravitation and projection,
they muft neceffarily move in vacuo ; for the continual
Of
Motion.
t<)5
Mutual at-
tradion a-
mong the
heavenly
bodies im.
polfible.
H Y S I C S. 631
refiftance of even the rareft medium would in time
overcome the force of the greatelt impetus : but it they
move in vacuo, how can they be attracted by the fun “
or by one another ? It is a felf-evident truth, that no¬
thing can aCt but where it is prefent, either immediate¬
ly or mediately •, becaufe every thing which operates
upon another, muft perform that operation either by its
own immediate agency or by means of fome inftrument.
The fun and planets are not in contaCI ; nor, if the mo¬
tion of thefe bodies be in vacuo, can any thing material
pafs as an inftrument from the one to the other. We
know indeed by experience, that every particle of un¬
organized matter within our reach has a tendency to
move towards the centre of the earth } and we are
intuitively certain, that fuch a tendency muft have fome
caufe ; but when we infer that caufe to be a power of
attraction inherent in all matter, which mutually aCts
upon bodies at a diftance, drawing them towards each
other, we talk a language which is perfectly unintelli¬
gible (s). Nay more, we may venture to affirm that
fuch an inference is contrary to faCt. The particles of
every elaftic fluid fly from each other *, the flame of a
fire darts upwards with a velocity for which the weight
of the circumambient air cannot account 5 and the mo¬
tion of the particles of a plant when growing, is fo far
from tending toward the centre of the earth, that when
a flowerpot is inverted, every vegetable in it, as foon as
it is arrived at a fufficient length, bends itfelf over the
fide of the pot, and grows with its top in the natural
pofition.
Senfible of the force of thefe arguments againft the The hea-
poffibility ven]y bo-
dies cannot
be moved
      — —     by two for¬
ces impref-
to it, without which we have endeavoured to prove, that the heavenly bodies could not revolve round their re- ^ ab ex-
fpeClive centres in elliptical curves. . , . _, r 7 m •; r i r i tt
(s) A different opinion on this point is held by Profeffor Stewart m his Elements oj the rhilojophy oj the. Hu¬
man Mind; a work of which the merit is fuch as to make it painful to us to differ in any important opinion
from the ingenious author. We ftiall, however claim the fame liberty of diffenting occafionally from him that
he has claimed of diffenting from Newton, Locke, Clarke, and Cudworth, from whom he differs widely in think-
in0' it as eafv to conceive how bodies can aCt upon each other at a diftance, as how one body can communicate
motion to another by impulfe. “ I allow (fays he, p. 79.) that it is impoffible to conceive in what manner one
body aCts upon another at a diftance through a vacuum ; but I cannot admit that it removes the difficulty, to
fuppofe that the two bodies are in aftual contaCl. That one body may be the efficient caufe of the motion of
another body placed at a diftance from it, I do by no means affert ; but only that we have as good reafon to be¬
lieve that this may be poffible, as to believe that any one natural event is the efficient caufe of another.”
If by efficient caufe be here meant the firft and original caufe of motion, we have the honour to agree with
the learned profeffor ; for we are perfuaded that body inanimated is not, in this fenfe of the word, the caufe
of motion either at hand or at a diftance : but if he mean (and we think he muft, becaufe fuch was the
leaning of Newton, from whom he profeffes to differ), that we can as eafily conceive one body to be the in-
ftrumental caufe of the motion of another from which it is diftant, as we can conceive it to communicate mo¬
tion by impulfe, we cannot help thinking him greatly miftaken. We will not indeed affirm, with the writer
whom he quotes, “ that although the experiment had never been made, the communication of motion by
impulfe mio-ht have been predifted by reafoning a prioribecaufe we are not certain, that without fome
fuch experiment we ftiould ever have acquired adequate notions of the folidity of matter : But if all corporeal
lubftanees be allowed to be folid and poffeffed of that negative power to which philofophers have given the
name of vis inertia, we think it may be eafily proved H priori, that a fufficient impulfe of one hard body upon
another mufi communicate motion to that other 5 for when the vis inertia, by which alone the one body is kept
in its place is lefs than the vis impetus with which the other ruflies to take poffeflion of that piacc, it is evi-
dent that the former body mufi give way to the latter, which it can do only by motion, otherwife the two
bodies would occupy one and the fame place, which is inconfiftent with their folidny. But that a fubftance
poffeffed of a vis inertia fhould make another fubftance poffeffed of the fame negative power, quit a place to
which itfelf has no tendency, is to us not only inconceivable, but apparent.y impoffible, as implying a direct con-
tradition.
632
of
Motion.
198
nor by the
agency of
any mate¬
rial fluid.
M E T A P
pofliblliiy of an attrafHve power in matter which ope-
^ rates at a diftance, other philofophers have fuppofed
that the heavenly bodies are moved in elliptical orbits
by means of two forces originally impreffed upon each
planet, impelling it in different directions at the fame
time. But if the tendency of the planets towards the
centre of the fun be of the fame kind with that of
heavy bodies towards the centre of the earth (and if
there be fuch a tendency at all, we have no reafon to
fuppofe it different), it cannot poffibly be the effedt of
impulfe. A body impelled or projected in vacuo would
continue to be moved with an equable velocity, nei¬
ther accelerated nor retarded as it approached the objedt
towards which it was diredled \ but the velocity of a
body tending towards the centre of the earth is conti¬
nually accelerated : and as we cannot doubt but that
the fame thing takes place in the motion of a body tend¬
ing towards the centre of the fun, that motion cannot
be the effedt of impulfe or projedtion.
Some of the Newtonians therefore have fuppofed,
“ That all kinds of attradlion confift in fine imper¬
ceptible particles or invifible effluvia, which proceed
from every point in the furface of the attracting body,
in all right-lined diredtions every way ; which in their
progrefs lighting on other bodies, urge and folicit them
towards the fuperior attradfing body ; and therefore
(fay they) the force or intenfity of the attradling
power in general muff always decreafe as the fquares
of the diftances increafe.” The inference is fairly drawn
from the fadt, provided the fadt itfelf were real or pof-
fible : but it is obvious, that if fine imperceptible par¬
ticles or invifible effluvia were thus iffued from every
point in the furface of the fun, the earth and other
planets could not move in vacuo; and therefore the
projedlile motion would in time be flopped by the refift-
ance of this powerful medium. Befides, is it not alto¬
gether inconceivable, nay impoffible, that particles iffu-
ing from the fun fhould draw the planets towards that
centre ? would they not rather of necefflty drive them
to a greater diftance ? To fay, that after they have
reached the planets, they change their motion and re¬
turn to the place whence they fet out, is to endue them
with the powers of intelligence and will, and to trans¬
form them from paffive matter to adtive mind.
Thefe difficulties in the theories of attradlion and
impulfe have fet philofophers upon fabricating number-
lefs hypothefes : and Sir Ifaac Newton himfelf, who
never confidered gravitation as any thing more than an
effedt, conjedtured that there might be a very fubtile
fluid or ether pervading all bodies, and producing not
only the motion of the planets, and the fall of heavy
bodies to the earth, but even the mechanical part of
mufcular motion and fenfation. Others (x) again have
fuppofed fire, or light, or the eledlric fluid, to be the
univerfal agent; and fome few (u) have acknowledg¬
ed, that nothing is fufficient to produce the phenomena
but the immediate agency of mind.
With refpedt to the interpofition of any material
fluid, whether ether, fire, light, or eledfricity, it is
fufficient to fay that it does not remove any one dif-
Cf
Motion.
HYSICS. Part II
ficulty which encumbers the theory of innate attrac¬
tion. All thefe fluids are elaftic ; and of courfe the
particles of which they are compofed are diftant from
each other. Whatever motion, therefore, we may
fuppofe to be given to one particle or fet of particles,
the queftion ftill recurs, How is it communicated from
' them to others ? If one body can act upon another at
the diftance of the ten-thoufandth part of an inch, we
can perceive nothing to hinder its adtion from extend¬
ing to the diftance of ten thoufand millions of miles.
In the one cafe as well as the other, the body is adting
where it is not prefent ; and if that be admitted to be
poffible, all our notions of adiiomare fubverted, and it
is vain to reafon about the caufe of any phenomenon in
nature.
This theory of the intermediate agency of a fubtile The hypo,
fluid differs not effentially from the vortices of Destliefoof
Cartes; which appeared fo very abfurd to Cudworth,j^0’Ar;*
that with a boldnefs becoming a man of the firft genius Cudworth
and learning, he rejedled it, and adopted the plaftic na- '
ture of Plato, Ariftotle, and other Greek philofophers.
That incomparable fcholar obferves, that matter, be¬
ing purely paffive, the motion of the heavenly bodies,
the growth of vegetables, and even the formation of
animal bodies, muft be the effedl either of the immediate
agency of God, or the agency of a plafic nature ufed
as an inftrument by Divine Wifdom. That they are
not the effiedl of God’s immediate agency, he thinks
obvious from feveral circumftances. In the firft place,
They are performed flowly and by degrees, which is
not fuitable to our notions of the agency of almighty
Power. Secondly, Many blunders are committed in
the operations of nature, fuch as the formation of
monfters, &c. which could never be were things
formed by the immediate hand of God. He is there¬
fore of opinion, that, after the creation of matter, God
employed an inferior agent to give it motion and form,
and to carry on all thofe operations which have been
continued in it fince the beginning of the world. This
agent he calls plafic nature ; and confiders it as a being
incorporeal, which penetrates the moft folid fubftance,
and, in a manner which he pretends not to explain
otherwife than by analogy, adluates the univerfe. He
does not look upon it as a being endued with percep¬
tion, confcioufnefs, or intelligence ; but merely as an
inftrument which adls under Divine Wifdom according
to certain laws. He compares it to art embodied ;
and quoting from Ariftotle, fays, E< 8v»i» sv ?u fyha sj
vctvTinytx.Yi bfAoaui ctv tv <pv<nt sttohi. If the art of the fhip-
voright were in the timber itfelf operatively and effcBual-
ly, it would there add juf as nature doth. He calls it a
certain lower life than the animal, which a<fts regularly
and artificially for ends of which it knows nothing. It
may be, he fays, either a lower faculty of fome confci-
ous foul, or elfe an inferior kind of life or foul by itfelf,
but depending in either cafe upon a higher intellect.
He is aware with what difficulty fuch a principle will
be admitted by thofe philofophers who have divided all
being into fuch as is extended and fuch as is cogita¬
tive : but he thinks this divifion improper. He would
divide
(x) The feveral followers of Mr Hutchinfon.
(u) Cudworth, Berkeley, and the author of Ancient Metaphyfic?.
V. M E T A P
divide beings into tbofe which are folid and extended,
and thofe which have life or internal energy. Thofe
beings which have life or internal energy he would
again divide into fuch as aft with confcioufnefs, and
fuch as aft without it : the latter of which is this
plaftic life of nature. To prove that fuch an inftru-
ment is poflible, or that a being may be capable of
operating for ends of which it knows nothing, he in-
ftances bees and other animals, who are impelled by
inJHnB to do many things neceflfary to their ourn pre-
fervation, without having the lealt notion of the pur-
pofe for which they Avork. (See Instinct). He ob-
ferves, that there is an effential difference betiveen rea-
fon and inftinft, though they are both the attributes
of mind or incorporeal fubftance : and that therefore,
as Ave knoAV of two kinds of mind differing fo Avidely,
there is nothing to hinder us from inferring a third,
Avith powers differing as much from inftinft as inftinft
differs from reafon. Mankind are confcions of their
own operations, know for Avhat purpofe they generally
aft, and can by the poAver of refleEHon take a retrofpec-
tive view of their aftions and thoughts, making as it
Avere the mind its oAvn objeft. Brutes are confcious of
their oavu operations, but they are ignorant of the pur-
pofes for which they operate, and altogether incapable of
refleBing either upon their paft conduft or paft thoughts.
BetAveen their intelleftual poAvers and thofe of man,
there is a much greater difference than there is be-
tAveen them and a plaftic nature, which afts as an in-
ftrument of Divine Wifdom Avithout any confcioufnefs
of its oAvn operations. Ariftotle, from whom princi¬
pally the learned author takes his notion of this plaftic
nature, compares it, Avith refpeft to the Divine Wifdom
Avhich direfts and fuperintends its operations, to a mere
builder or mechanic Avorking under an architeff, for
the purpofe of which the mechanic himfelf knuivs no¬
thing. The wmrds of the Stagyrite are : Tovs
T£»7ov«f TipitoUgOVS KCtt pxXMv U^iVXt VOp.lfypiV
rh)v ,cct'1 oh ra? mijixi; ruv Troiovpivuv
Krounv oi aiTTrig x.xi reuv mix. Train piv, ovx. eidoha
eis Train, otov xcttsi to Trvf>’ rx pit ovv a^vgoo (pv/rn Tin Tram')
Tovjoav Bxxfav Tons %t‘gaTi%vxg h tiog •f. 44 We account
the architefts in every thing more honourable than the
mere workmen, becaufe they underftand the reafon of
the things done •, Avhereas the other, as fome inanimate
things, only Avork, not knowing Avhat they do, juft as
the fire burns : the difference between them being only
this, that inanimate things aft by a certain nature in
them, but the Avorkman by habit.”
Stift further to prove that a being may be endoAv-
Vepoilible. ed with fome vital energy of a fubordinate kind, and
yet be deftitute of confcioufnefs and perception, the
learned author obferves, that there is no reafon to
think that the fouls of men in found fleep, lethargies,
or apoplexies, are confcious of any thing ; and ft ill lefs,
if poflible, to fuppofe that the fouls of embryos in the
womb are from the very firft moment of their arrival
there intelligent and confcious beings : neither can we
Vol. XIII. Part II.
f Mcta-
pbyf lib.
eap. i.
£hown to
H,Y SICS.
fay, hoAV avc come to be fo differently affefted in our
fouls by the different motions made upon our oodies,
nor are Ave confcious always of thole energies by
Avhich we imprefs fantaftic ideas on the imagination.
But if it be poflible for the fouls of men to be tor one
inftant void of confcioufnefs and intelligence, it fol¬
lows, that confcioufnels is not abfolutcly neceffary to
thofe energies and motions by which life is preierved.
To this it may be added, upon the belt authority f, + G'r^orv’r
44 that where animal or vegetable life is concerned, Philofoyhi-
there is in e\'ery cafe a different relation between the
caufe and effect, and feemingly depending upon they^.
concurrence or influence of lome farther principle of
change in the fubjedt, than Avhat fubfifts in inanimate
matter, or in the caufes and effedts that are the objedts
of mechanical and chemical philofophy.” Now to this
principle of vegetable life, Avithout Avhich, in a feed or
in a plant, vegetation Avill neither begin nor continue,
though light, heat, air, earth, and Avater, Ihould concur
in the utmoft perfection, Cudivorth exprefsly compares
his plaftic nature in the univerfe. It is fo far (fays he)
from being the firft or higheft life, that it is indeed
the laft and loAveft of all lives, being really the fame
thing with the vegetative. _ 20X
Thefe arguments, if the phenomena of eledtive at- Arguments
tradlions in chemiftry be added to them, demonftrate, for its truth:
Ave think, the pojfibility of fuch a principle: and tobut
thofe Avho are inclined to affirm that no fuch thing
can exift, becaufe, according to the defeription of it
given by Cud worth and the ancients, it is neither
body nor fpirit in the proper fenfe of the words 5 we
be leave to alk, in the Avords of Locke, 44 who told
them that there is and can be nothing but folid be¬
ings which cannot think, and thinking beings that
are not extended? Avhich is all that they mean by the
terms body and fpirit.” All the Greek philofophers
avIio were not. materialifts, and even the infpired Avri-
ters of the Old and Ncav Teftaments, conflantly di-
ftinguiffi betAven the fpirit and the foul of a man, call¬
ing the former fometimes vovg, and fometimes Trnvpct,
and the latter and St Paul, who before he was
a Chriftian, was learned in philofophy, deferibes the
conftituent parts of man as three, Trnvfut, ■4/vX»>
fpirit, foul, and body. This diftinclion, fetting afide
the authority with Avhich it comes to us, feems to be
well founded j for there are many operations carried
on in the human body without any confcious exer¬
tion of ours, and which yet cannot be accounted for
by the Lavs of mechanifm. Of thefe, Cudworth in-
ftances the motion of the diaphragm and other
mufcles Avhich caufe refpiration, and the fyilole and
diaftole of the heart ; neither of Avhich, he thinks, can
be the effedt of mere meehanifm. But, as Ave are not
confcious of any energy of foul from Avhich they* pro--
ceed, even Avhile Ave are aivake, and ftill lefs, if pof-
fible, while Ave are afleep ; he attributes them, not. to
the intellect or rational mind, but to this inferior vital
principle called Tpvyv (v) } Avhich, in his opinion, adts
4 L the
(v) The exiftence of this plaftic nature was warmly debated between Monfieur Le Clerc and Mon-
fieur Bayle. Moffieim, who was inclined himfelf to admit fuch a principle, gives the following view of Le
Clerc’s fentiments from Bibliotheyue Choifre, tom. ii. p. 113. “ Refpiratio, inquit, et motus cordis adhones
funt, quorum nihil ad animam pertinet. Interim mechanice eas fieri, nuilo modo nrobabile eft. In volun-
202
whether it
be true or
not, the
motions of
the heaven
ly bodies
are car¬
ried on by
- the’t’on-
11 ant agen¬
cy of fome-
thing in¬
corporeal.
the fame part in the fyftem of the human body which
the plaftic nature acts in the fyftem of the world.—
To make the refemblance more ftriking, he obferves,
that even the voluntary motion of our limbs, though
it proceeds ultimately from an energy of will, feems
to be 'he effedt of that energy employing fomc injlru-
?ncnt which pervades the finews, nerves, and mufcles
of the body and if the human fpirit or Tmvpx em¬
ploy the inftrumentality of a plaftic nature or
in moving the fmall machine of the body, it feems to
be far from incredible that the Divine Wifdom ftiould
employ the inftrumentality of a plaftic nature in moving
the great machine of the univerle.
But we need not infift further on the pojjibilitu of
fuch an inftrument. Whatever may be thought of
the arguments of Cudworth, of which fome are, to
fay the leaft of them, plauftble, though others appear
to us to have very little ftrength, Dr Clarke has
proved, wifh a force of reafoning not inferior to ma¬
thematical demonftration, that the motions of the
heavenly bodies are carried on by the agency of fome-
thing very different from matter, under every poflible
form. . “ For, not to fay that, feeing matter is ut¬
terly incapable of obeying any laws in the proper
fenfe of the word, the very original laws of motion
themfelves cannot continue to take place, but by
fomething fuperior to matter, continually exerting on
it a certain force or power according to fuch certain
and determined laws : it is now evident beyond que-
ftion, that the bodies of all plants and animals could
not poflibly have been formed by mere matter ac¬
cording to any general la-ws of motion. And not
only fo, but that moft univerfal principle of gravita¬
tion itfelf, the fpring of almoft all the great and regu¬
lar inanimate motions in the world, anfwering not at
METAPHYSICS. Part!!.
ail the Jurf aces of bodies, by which alone they can aft Of
upon one another, but entirely to their folid contents Motion,
cannot poflibly be the refult of any motion originally
impreffed upon matter.”. For though it is true, that
tjie moft loud bodies with wrhieh we are acquainted
are all very porous 5 and that, therefore a fubtile ma¬
terial fluid might penetrate the bodies of the planets,
and operate upon them with a force exerted inter¬
nally ; ftill it is felf evident, that the greatejl quanti¬
ties of fuch a fluid could not enter into thofe bodiea
winch are leajl porous, and where the greateft force
of gravitation refides : “ and, therefore, this motion,
mult of neceflity be caufed by fomething which pene¬
trates the \erg folid fubflance of all bodies, and conti¬
nually puts forth in them a force or power entirely
diffeient from that by which matter a61s upon mat¬
ter \\ hich is, as the fame able writer obferves, an * Evidence
evident demonftration, not only of the world’s being Nat. and:
originally made by a fupreme intelligent Caufe ; but ~Re"jeal(d
moreover, that it depends every moment upon fome ReliZion'
fuperior Being, for the prefervation of its frame ; and
that all .the great motions in it are caufed by fome
immaterial power perpetually and attually exerting it¬
felf every moment in every part of the corporeal uni-
verfe.. This preferving and governing power, whe¬
ther it be the immediate power and a61ion of the
fame Supreme Caufe that created the world, or the-
adlion of fome fubordinate inftruments appointed by
him to diredl and preftde refpe61ively over certain
parts thereof, gives us equally in either way a very
noble idea of Providence. We know with certainty,
that real and original power can belong only to a be¬
ing endowed with intelligence and will 5 and, there¬
fore, if the exiftence of Cudworth’s (w) plaftic nature
be admitted, (and we fee not why it ftiould be
called
tariis commotionibus nefciunt an.imi noftri, quid fadlo opus fit, ut membra commoveantur : imperant illi tan-
tum. Fft. vero ahud nefcio quid, quod, fideliter, fi modo organa recte fint affedta, mandata ejus exfequitur.
yin m igitur iulpicemur, efle naturam in corpore noftro viventem, praeter animam noftram, cuius fit animae
prmceptis et juflis morem gerere ? quamquam potentia ejus ita fit definita, ut obedire nequeat ajiimo, nifi recle
lele habeant organa.. Eadem forte natura,. corporis noftri motibus impulfa, animam edocet, quid fadlum
lit, ut ille poftit praecipere, quae ad confervationem corporis neeefiaria judicat. Anima, pergit, fit haec vera
film putes, ftmilis ent domino, fibimet ipfi. fervire nefcio, nec ulla facultate alia, quam imperandi et iubendi
mirrucio. Haec vero natura. fidlrix. non diflimilis erit mancipii cui nihil eorum, quae dominus meditatur
notum eft, quodque nihil aliud facit, quam ut juflis pareat, et dominum de iHis rebus admoneat, quae ad
mutem ipfius. pertinent.” Moftieim proceeds,—Si quis huic loco fie oceurrat, Haec ratione tria fino-i in
lomine pnncipia j refpondet vir do6lus : “ Nullis eonftares argumentis, binis tantum hominem partibus
conitare.. Eos,, qui hominem ex binis tantum partibus component, nulla ratione explicate poffe naturam
conjunctlonis ammi et corporis, nifi ipfum Deum ftatuant cundlis adlionibus hominum intervenire: hoc vero
Divina Majeftate prorfus indignum elfe. Definitionem accuratam mediae hujus naturae poftulantibus fefe talem
.ire non poile defimtionem refpondet: Hoc unum fefe fcire : effe earn naturam interiori agendi virtute inftruc-
tam, quae ex le et .animam et corpus afficere queat; naturam, quae doceat animam quid rerum geratur in cor-
poic ; naluram demqiie, quae animi mandatis, quorum tamen eauflas nefciat, fideliter obtemperet.” Reliqua
quae illuftrandae hujus rei cauffa Clericus affert, praetereo. Satis copiofa eft in illis, quae produximus, meditandi
materia. Mofbetm. ed. Syst. Intellect, p. 173.
Such a principle abating the univerfe, if it be divefted of intelligence, and confidered as a fecond or inferior
cauE, under the diredhon of the Supreme, is acknowledged by a very able judge to be a rational hypothefis : and
uei, it property purfued, would certainly open a moft entertaining fcene of natural philcfophy.—See Jonesit
AnJvjer to an Effhy on Spirit.
(w) Befides Cudworth, we have mentioned Berkeley and the author of Ancient Metaphysics, as holding all
motion to be an effea of the immediate agency of mind or incorporeal fubftanee. The opinion of the laft of
t ele plnlofophers is not eflentially different from Cudworth’s 5 and therefore it is needlefs to quote from him:
Berkeley was better acquainted with the principles of the Newtonian philofophy, as well as an abler mathe¬
matician.
Chap- V. M E T A P
Of called in (x) queftion), it can be confidered only as an
Morion, jnftrument employed uy Divine VViidom, as a chil-
      fel or a law is employed by the -vviidom of the me-
203 chanic. _ . r
Xhi; iheory jqor ]et it be imagined, that this ancient theory oi
not incon- motion i3 in anv degree ineonfitlent with the mathe-
futent with matical prj[nt;ipl^s of Sir ifaac Newton’s aitronomy, or
with the calculations raifed from thofe principles.
Newton. Having founded his ailronomy on analogy between the
phenomena of projectile and planetary motions, he al-
figned the fame or iimilar forces exilting in nature as
•the efficient caufes of both. And indeed, both in
the aft of deriving his principles from the projectile
phenomena, and afterwards for the purpoie of apply¬
ing them to the planetary, it was neceilary to analyze
H Y S I C S. 635
the elliptical motion of the heavenlv bodies into a com- 0f
r A Mot-on.
pound oi two iimpie mutnms m light lilies, prouact*a
by the action of tlieie ditferent ioiees •, ana ^his might
alto be ufetul for the puipoles of teaching and detnon-
itraaon, juit as we finu it neceffary, in all parts of
fcience, to leparate what in nature is infeparable, tor
the convenience and affiltance of the under handing,
t he planetary motions, however, are very probably
limple ana uncompounded, tor no experiments can ue
tried in thofe diltant regions ; and the ahronom) of
Newion, which is only the application ol his maihe-
matical principles to their meniuiatn-n from their aoa-
logy to projectile motions, does not at all require that
the forces of gravitation and projection be aflignta as
their real exiltent caules (y). It is fufficient lor the
4 L 2 analogy,
matician than either of thefe pupils of the ancients-, and being like wife a man who on all fubjefts thought
L himfelf it may be worth while to lay before our readers a ftiort abihacl of Ins reafomng re peClmg the
origin of motion ^ His words are: “ Totum id quod novimus, cm nomen corpus indiaimus mini m le con-
t;net quod moms principium feu caufa efficiens effe poflit. Vis, gravitas, attratho, hujufmodi voces, utiles
funt ad ratiocinia et coraputationes de motu et corporibus metis led non ad mtelligendam fimplicem ipims motu.
nat iram vel ad qualitates totidem dittinHas defignandas. Attraaionem certe quod attmet, patet lilam ab Nei\-
tono adhiberi non tanquam qualitatem veram et phylicam, led folummodo ut hypothefm mathematical^
0 : et Jeibnitius nifum elementarem feu folicitationem ab impetu diftmguens, tatetur ilia entia non re p
fnveniri in rerum natura, fed abHraHione facienda effe. Similis ratio eft compohtioms et relolutionis vinum
11 >• rt.-rnm in nuafcunaue obhquas, per diagonalem et latere parallelogrammi. Hsec mechamees
e^aimputationi inferviunt : fed aliud eft computationi et demonftrationibus mathematicis infervire, ahud rerum
™tuZ Sere Rcvera corpu, *que prfevcral in utrovis liatu, vel motu, ve quKots. Il.a vero perleveiantta
naturam exhibere. i quam exiftentia eiufdem aftio diceretur. Ceeterum rehftentiam quam ex-
non magis dicen ^ • r,Ainnpm pffc finp-imus vana fpecie delufi. Revera enim iita refitientia
perimur in ftftendo coniia, utique no, tdem paituro, tuiife,
quam 2 ali„ principio impellatur. Aftfo et readio dicunlut- eife in corponbus ; nec
live corpus i. y- . ’ mechanicas. Sed cavendum, ne propterea fupponamus virtutem ahquam ;ealem,
incommode a ' mon . . - jp • ”s Etenim voces ilia; eodem modo intelligendae lunt ac vox attralao;
mathematica non autem quaiita, phyitca ; idem etiam de Uhs tn-
telligi debet, et ob eandem rationem. . remanebit nihil. Sed qualitates iftae funt ad motum
fcliiMt nulla aut attributum8 illis caufa efficietu vera eft, quas motura producat. Vocem autem ptolerre, et nthil
concipere, id demum lndl^.1;"' cooitantium : in iis autem potentiam ineflb corpora moveudi,
L^Tri pAprincipium motu,; particulare quidem et fubordinatum, quodque ipfun, dcpendeat, a pnmo et
M ^Tftt ” te^Tk contrario, qui — dfe principium mo.u, volunt, iententtam propr.a exponent.*
Inium preferunt, hfminumque omni tevo ^^^^“^ST^eret: quam quidem fententiam
feu mundum vifibilem, agitan et ammari a j".tn e» S £^ra effe, verum adhuc fvftema mundanum
(xl This we fax upon the received ..pinion, that there are things wholly incorporeal. The truth of the op.n.on
itfelf will be confidered in a fubfequent chapter. o- - ,c as tJ,e rm/ caufes of the phenomena.
(Y) Indeed Sir Ifaac himfelfvery far from pofinvely amgmng themjw Tne^ ^ ^ ;
The nurpofe for which they were introduced into to phb^ph-k* circmire, potefl et luna',
“ Eadem ratione qua projectile v. gravitatis in orbem flefl. poftet e. terram totam t ^
*' Tatham'
Chart nrd
Sr ale of
Truth
M E T A P
analogy, on wlncli the whole philofophy is founded,
, that the phenomena of motion are known from ex¬
periments and obfervations to be the fume in both in-
itances; that principles ox genera/ laws mavhemati-
eally cdaoliilieo from Uw. forces of the one are transfer¬
red to the phenomena of the other; and that the proofs
ana operations deduced from thefe principles in the lat¬
ter cafe are confirmed hy fuels and experience, the firft
s and final teil of truth *.
Chap. VI. 0/rNumber.
204
Unity, as
an de ,
cannot
f EJay,
book ii.
chap. xvi.
* Tirft
Truths.
*05
be abftracft
ed from
ever} indi¬
vidual.
Amongst all the ideas that we have, as there is
none (fays Mr Locke f) fuggefted to the mind by more
wayp fo there is none more limple, than that of unity
.or one- ^ Iias no fhadow of variety or compofition in
it. Every objedf our fenfts are employed about, every
idea in our underilandings, every thought of our minds
brings tins idea along with it : and therefore it is the’
moil intimate to our thoughts, as well as it is, in its agree¬
ment to all other things, the moft univerfal idea we
have ; or number applies itfelf to men, angels, adions,
thoughts, every thing that either doth exill or can be
imagined.” _ He feems likewife to be of opinion that
we have the idea of unity before that of many; and that it
is by repeating the Ample idea of unity in our own minds
that we come by the complex ideas of two, three &c
In this opinion he is joined by Pere Bufher* ; who ob-
Jerves that it is impoflible to explain the nature oi unity
becaufe it is the moll fimple idea, and that which per¬
haps /fry? occurred to the mind. 1
I hat unity is a fimple idea, muft be granted ; but it
certainly did not firft occur to the mind, nor can it be
abltracred from ail individuals, and apprehended in
.Locke s fenfe of the word as a general idea. Let any
man look into his own mind, and then fay whether
he has a general idea of one or unity as abftraded from
every individual objea mental and corporeal. In par¬
ticular, when he thinks he has completely abftra£ied
it from body and mind, fenfations, ideas, adions, and
pamons, &c, let him be Jure, before he pronounce it
a general abfraB idea, that he is not all the while
contemplating the idea, of its name, or of that nume-
x\c?t\ figure, by which it is marked in the operations of
arithmetic. Both thefe ideas are in themfelves parti¬
cular^; and become general in their import, only as
reprefenting every individual objeft to which unity is
in any fenfe applicable. But in the chapter of Abfrac¬
tion, we have laid enough to convince every perfon ca¬
pable of convidion that they are ufed as figns for whole
clafies of objeds.
In dead of being an abftrad general idea, unity, as
the bafis of number, is in fad nothing but a mere
relation,' which cannot be conceived without the re¬
lated objeds ; and fo far is it from being the frjl idea
H Y S ^ S’ Part II
that occurred to the mind, that it is certainly the re-
iult oi a companion, made by the intelled, of two
or. more objeds. 1 he ideas which firft occur to the
mind are beyond all doubt, thofe which are called
laeas oj fenfation ; and many fuch ideas every child re¬
ceives beiore he is capable of comparing objeds and Unity^a
forming to lumfelf notions of number. Unity, or the Particular
idea of one,' is indeed the element of the leience oflelation>
arithmetic, juft as a mathematical point is the ele¬
ment of the icience of geometry; but accurate notions
of thefe elements are, in the progrefs of knowledge
lubiequent to ideas of many and of furfaces. There is
reafon to believe that perfims totally illiterate have no
notion at all of mathematical points ; and we think it
poliib e to conceive an intelligent and confcious beitm
in luch a fituation as that he could not acquire a no¬
tion of unity or one. Were a child never to fee or feel
two objeds of the fame kind, we doubt if he would
think of numbering them, or of making fuch a com¬
panion of the one with the other as would fugf/eft to
his mind the relations of one and two ; for thele rela¬
tions imply both a famenefs and a difference of the
objeds. beyond the power of a child to afeertain.
Ihe difference indeed would be perceptible to the
ienies, but the fenfes would perceive no famenefs or
agreement. A guinea, a ihilling, and a bail of lead,
impreis upon the mind different fenfations ; and there¬
fore a child undoubtedly diftinguiihes thefe obieds
trom one another : but what could make him derive
from this his firft idea of the relation of number >
A guinea, a ihilling, and a ball of lead, are not one
two three, in any ienfe which a child can comprehend!
lo be. convinced of this, let any man throw a guinea,
a {lulling, and a ball of lead upon a table, and aik a
clown what is their number. From being accuftomed
to retail the names of number as figns, without affix¬
ing to them any idea of. the things fignified, he will
probably anfwer with quicknefs three, or perhaps one,
two, three: but if he be further aiked in what refpeEl
they are one, two, three, we believe his anfwer will not
be io ready :, They are not one, two, three guineas, or
JhiUmgs, or balls of lead. A philofopher knows them
to be three pieces of the fame firft matter under dif-
ferent forms, and can therefore apply to them the rela¬
tion Ox number with truth and propriety ; but of the
firft matter a clown is entirely ignorant, and of courfe
cannot call them one, two, three, in any fenfe which is
at once true and to him intelligible.
I o make it ftill.more evident, that it is only by com¬
paring together things of the fame kind that our frjl
ideas of unity, and number are formed, let us fuppofe
no.created being to have hitherto exifted except the
animated and intelligent globe mentioned in the laft
chapter,, and. we think it will be granted that fuch
a being in folitude could never acquire the idea of unity.
, Let
vwfuf eufmbXfuumVflea?-qrtaTbr1UeVtirna-ir " “r£eranir’ r.etraH f, mP''r a curfu refli-
terram TL a “e
=r i i
Malm, Def V, P d qU0T‘S loco dala cum vel°atate 'greffum data vi fca*tur.” Princfr,
4
Chap. VI. M E T A P
Of Let us next fuppofe a cubical body to be created and
Number, exhibited to the fenfes of this fpherical man j the con-
L—  fequence would be a fenfation or feeling entirely new :
but that feeling would not be of unity ; for, as the au¬
thor of Ancient Metaphjfics has fomewhere well ob-
ferved, unity is no objeid of feniation. i he xenfation
would be of colour, hardnefs, foftnefs, roughnefs or
fraoothnefs, &c. for beyond thefe the empire ot the
fenfes does not reach. 'Again, Let another body be
created of a colour and figure totally different from
the colour and figure of the cube, and the fpherical
man would then experience new fenfations having no
agreement with thofe which he had formerly felt.
Thefe different kinds of fenfations might be compared
together \ but the refult of the comparifon would not
be the ideas which are denoted by the words one and
two, but merely that which is expreffed by difference
or dijjimilarity. Were another cube, however, of ex-
a£tly the fame fize and colour with the former to >be
brought into exiftence, and both to be at once prefented
to the view of the fpherical man, the rudiments of ilie
idea of number would then be generated in his mind,
becaufe he could not but perceive the cubes to be in
one refpeft different and in another the fame \ different
as being diftinft from each other, and agreeing in tneiv
20- effedls upon the organs of fenfation.
Men muft It appears, therefore, that mankind muff have made
have made fome progrefs in clafling things according to their
genera and fpecies, before they acquired any con c£!
ideas of the relation of number, or thought of ufing
numerical names or figures as general and dhcrimi-
nating figns : for we fay one, /wo, three, &c. only with
1 anc^ refpedt to the fpecies or genus of which each of the
fore the'^ things denoted by thefe numbers is an individual j and
acquired^ if there be any thing which has no genus, or fpecies,.
any notion neither number nor unity can, in the original lenfe of
of number, ^g. worcL, be predicated of it (z). We fay indeed
that there is one God j but perhaps we do not always
attend to the meaning of the expreffion. Language
was formed to anfwer the common purpofes of life j
and thofe purpofes are beft anfwered by denoting in¬
dividuals by the name of the fpecies or genus to which
they belong : but God belongs to no fpecies or genus,
unlefs he be faid improperly (a) to be of the univer-
fal genus of Beinsr ; and therefore, the true meaning 01
the word one, when joined to the verb is, and trans¬
ferred from the creature to the Creator, in fuch a
H Y S I C S.
637
fome 1 re¬
gret- in
clafling
thin ;s ac¬
cording to
genera and
fentence as—-“ there is one God”—feems to be nothing Of Time,
more than an affirmation that God exifts, and that “ v—”
to him the relation of number cannot be applied. In
a word, unity and number are merely relations between
the individuals of the fame fpecies or genus of being ;
and men acquire ideas of thefe relations at the fame
time and by the fame means that they are led to clafs
things into fpecies and genera. As to the proceffes
of addition and fubtraclion, and the various purpofes
to which number is applied, thefe things belong to
the feience of arithmetic, and fall not under, the.pro¬
vince of the metaphyfician, whofe foie object is to
afeertain the real nature and caufes of things. It
may, however, be worth while to obferve, that Locke,
whofe notions of number feem to have been differe nt
from ours, owns, that a man can hardly have any
ideas of numbers of which his language does not furnifh
him with names. But if units were either real things,
or even potitive ideas, we fee not how names could be
neceffary to their exiftence *, whereas, if they be nothing
more than mere relations, it is obvious that they cannot
be conceived but as relative either to beings adually
exiftmg, or to names wInch are the figns of afliial
beings.
Chap. VII. 0/Time.
20S
When St Auguftine was alked what time is ? he Time, a
replied, “ Si non roges, intelligo.^ Ananfwer from which mode of du-
it may be inferred, that he thought the nature •
could not be explained by a logical definition. Time ftinaion t0
and eternity are commonly confidered as the two modes eternity.
of duration ; and if duration be taken in what Locke
thinks its true and original fenfe, to denote permanence
of exiftence, with a kind of refiftance to any deitru&ive
force, the diftin&ion feems to be fufficiently proper.
It is indeed the beft that tve can make or compre¬
hend 5 for duration, time, and eternity, are fubjects
which have perplexed philofophical minds in all ages,
and of which, if we have adequate notions, it is
very difficult to exprefs thefe notions in language. In-
ftead of attempting it by previous definitions, the me¬
thod in which the ancients generally began their in¬
quiries, we (hall purfue the better courfe of indu&ion
recommended by Lord Bacon, and endeavour to (how
by what means we acquire the notion of that, mode
of duration which is called time in contradiftm£lion
to
OO We are happy to find our notions on this fubjeft confirmed by. an authority fo refipeftable as that of
Profeffor Stewart. “ Without the power of attending feparately to things which our fenfes prefent to us m
a (late of union, we never (fays this able writer) could have had any idea of : for before we can con-
fider different objefts as forming a multitude, it is neceffary that we (hould be able to apply to all . m
one common name •, or, in other words, that we (hould reduce them all to the fame genus ^e various ob-
ieas, for example, animate and inanimate, which are at this moment before me, I may clafs and nu b ln
variety of different ways, according to the view of them that I choofe to take. 1 ™ay reckon fucceffively the
number of (beep, of cows, of horfes, of elms, of oaks, of beeches j or I may firft reckon the number o ani¬
mals, and then the number of trees *, or, I may at once reckon the number of all the organized fubftances w 1
my fenfes prefent to me. But whatever be the principle on which my claflification proceeds, it .is eviden a^
the obiefls numbered together muft be confidered in thofe refpeffs only in which they agree with each other j
and that if I had no power of feparating the combinations of fenfe, I never could have conceived them as
forming a plurality.” Elements of the Philofophy of the Human Mind, chap. iv. . i • t.
(a) We fay improperly, becaufe beings which were created can have nothing in common with that Being wine 1
is felf-exijlent, and upon whofe will and power all other things depend.
633
Of Time
209
Whilfl the
mind is o. -
cupied by
one idea or
notion,
there is no
perception
of time;
which
2x0
arifes from
comparing
the fiucef-
fion of our
ideas with
the perma¬
nence of
other ob-
jedb.
, 1° eternity. _ Vvre begin with time j becaufe we our-
felves exiit in it, and it is in feme fenfe familiar to us.
If we be able to trace our notions of this mode of du¬
ration to their fource, we may then give a definition
of it founded on fadt and univerfal experience, and
afterwards proceed to confider the other mode in con-
jundtion with infinity, to which it is nearly allied.
It has been already obferved (fee N° 92 of this ar¬
ticle), that every man, while awake, has a train of
fenfaaons and ideas conflantly palling through his
mind in inch a manner as that the one liicceeds the
other in a regular order. It is not.poffible, either, by
detaining in the mind one idta to the exclufion of
all others, to llop the courfe of this fucceflion en¬
tirely j or, by hurrying feme ideas (iff the ftage, and
calling others in their place, to quicken its progrefs
beyond a certain degree. One man indeed has naturally
a quicker fucceffion of ideas than another •, and all
men can, by great exertions, accelerate or retard in
a fmall degree the natural flow of their thoughts. A.
ftudious man lays hold, as it were, of a particular
idea, which he wilhes to contemplate, and detains it
in the imagination, to the exelufion of all others; a
man of wit calls remote ideas into view with a rapidi¬
ty of which a cool and phlegmatic reafoner can form
no conception ; and a forcible fenfahon takes full pof-
feilion of the mind, to the exclufion of all ideas what¬
ever. \\ hilft the attention is wholly occupied by one
idea, or by one fenfation, the mind has no notion
whatever of fime ; and were it pollible to detain fuch
idea or fenfation alone in the mind till the hand of a
-clock fhould move from the number of one hour
to that of another, the hour, as marked on the dial-
plate and meafured by the motion of the hand, would
appear but as one inftant abfolutely void of duration.
For the truth of this afiertion we appeal to the expe¬
rience of our reauers. Such of them as have ever
been engaged in deep ftudy muft often have had their
a i tent ion fo fixed upon one obie£t, that large portions
of time, as meafured by the clock, have palled axvay
wholly unheeded ; and every man who has feen a very
finking and uncommon objeft, muft remember, that
when the fenfation was firft impreffed upon his mind,
all othei objetfts, ideas, and notions, and among the
reft the notion of time, were for a while excluded.
No fenfation, however, keeps poffeflion of the whole
mind after it has ceafed to be new ; nor can tbe moft
vigorous exertions long preferve any one idea from be¬
ing driven off the ftage by the fucceeding train. Now
this fucceflion of ideas appearing and difappeanng in
t!r;ir turns, is that which, when compared with the
permanency of ourfelves and other things, gives us
our firft and jufteft notion of time : for whilft we are
thinking, or whilft a feries of ideas is fucceflively paf-
fing through our minds and vanifhing, we know that
we ourfelves and the things around us exift ; and this
exigence, or continuation of exiftence, commenfurate
with the train of our fleeting ideas, is what we call the
duration of ourfelves and the things around us.
We are aware that our firft notions of time have
been often faid to be derived from motion as perceived
by our fenfes in the objects around us. It is obferved
by Euclid, tnat “ if there were no motion, there could
be no found, nor any fenfe of hearing.” “ He might
aave added (fays the author of Ancient IVIetaphyfies),.
S
metaphysics.
. . Part II,
nor any other perception of fenfe. Further, Without Of Time
motion there would have been no vifible world, nor —y-—
generation or production of any kind here below •
and, among other things, time could have had no ex¬
iftence.” All this is certainly true ; but that corpor-
real motion, though the original fouree of all our
ideas, is not that which immediately fuggeiis to us tiie
notion of time, will be readily granted by him who
confiders that motion itfelf is perceived by us only
when it excites or accompanies a conliant lucceflion of
perceptions and ideas. IVeotion, when equable and
very flow, fuch as that of the hour hand of a com¬
mon watch, is not perceived by us in its courfe ; nor
can we diicover that the thing has moveu at ali, till
after we have been fenfible of the iapfe of a confider-
able portion of what is commonly called time; when
we difeover that the hand of the watch has changed
its place with refpea to other objedts which we know
tqr be fixed. I he fame is true of motion remarkably
quick : ‘ Let a cannon ball (fays Locke) pals thiough
a room, and in its way take with it any limb or tielhy
parts of a man ; it is as clear as any demonftration
can be, that it muft ftrike fucceflively the two lides_ of
the room ; it is alfo evident that it muft touch one part
of the ftefh firft, and another after, and fo in fuccefbon :
and yet I believe nobody who ever felt the pain of I'uch
a fhot, or heard the blow againft the two diftanl walls,
could perceive any fucceflion either in the pain or found
of fo fwift a ftroke.”
Of thefe two phenomena a fatisfadlory account may
be eafily given ; from which we think it will at the
fame time be apparent, that the fucceflion of the train
of ideas in the mind is the mealure and flandard of
all other fucceflions. W e know that the energy of Th^fuccef
mind which reviews a train of fenfible ideas is of the fior^Sas
very fame kind with that which attends to a lefies ofthemeafute
palling fenfations (fee N° 68.) ; and therefore it is na-‘l1 ail clhftr
tural to fuppofe that we can pay attention to fenfationsiuCceffionS*
and ideas palling with nearly equal velocities. But it
has been Ihown, that every fenfation remains in the
mind or fenforium, for a very Ihort fpace after the
objedt which excited it is taken away : whence it
follows, that a body communicating to the organs of
fenfe a feries of fimilar impreflions fucceeding each
other with remarkable rapidity, cannot excite a train
of fimilar and diftindt fenfations ; beeaule the efttdls
of the firft and fecond impreflions not having vanilhed
when thole of the third and fourth arrive, the whole
train of effedts muft neceflarily coalefee into one uni¬
form fenfation. I his reafoning is confirmed by expe¬
rience. Similar founds fucceeding each other at con-
fiderable intervals, are all diftindtly perceived ; and if
the motion be accelerated gradually, it may be carried
to a great degree of velocity before the founds be con-
tounded and coalefee into one. “ Mr Herfchel having,
by means- of a clock, produced founds or clicking
noifes, which fucceeded each other with fuch rapidity
that the intervals between them were, as far as could
be judged,.the fmalleft poflible, found that he could
evidently diftinguifti one hundred and fixty of them in
a fecond of time ; but beyond that he could by no
effort of attention diftinguilb one found from another,
The lame philofopher tried another experiment on vi¬
fible fenfations. By means of the fame handle and
work of the clock, he cauled a wheel in it to turn
till
r'l
hap. VII. M E T A P
Of Time, till it acquired tire velocity of once in a fecond. He
—V ; continued to increafe the velocity, and obferved it
while revolving at the rate of twenty times round in
thirteen feconds, and could ftill diftinguilh the teeth
and fpaces from each other ; whence it appears ( by a
computation given at length), that he- had two hun¬
dred and forty-fix did met vilible fenfatrons generated
bv equable motion in a fecond of time. Ihe teeth
of the wheel, he owns, were not fo far vifible as to thow
their fhape diftinaiy, much lefs could they have been
counted : but he very plainly diftinguilhed the circum¬
ference to be divided into teeth and fpaces } and he
fuppofes tliat the fame divifion might ftill have been
feen though the motion had been a little fafter, as far
perhaps as two turns in a fecond, equal to three hun-
* Wat fan's dred and twenty fenfalions The reafon that the
Treatife on ^ivinon could not be feen whilft the wheel moved more
Time.
f T.JJ'ay on
Truth.
ranidly titan twice round in a fecond of time, was
doubtlefs the continuance of that agitation in the brain
from which each fenfation proceeded, until a new im-
prefiion caufed a new agitation, which coalefced with
the former and removed all diftinaion. Hence it is
plain that no external fucceflion can be perceived which
move’s with a greater velocity than that of which the
internal train of fenfations and ideas is capable. Un
the other hand, an external fucceflion which moves
with lefs rapidity than that to which the internal flow
of ideas may be reduced, either has not fuffleient force
to generate fenfations at all, or the fucceflive impref-
fions from which the fenfations proceed follow one an¬
other at fetch diftances as to permit the natural tram of
ideas to intervene between them, and thus deftroy the
perception of the fucceflion entirely.
Xo us, therefore, it feems evident, that the con-
ftant and regular fucceflion of ideas in the mind of a
waking man, is the meafure and ftandard of all other
fucceflions •, of which, if any one either exceeds the
pace of which our ideas are capable, or falls fliort ot
it, the fenfe of a conftant and continued fucceffion is
loft, and we perceive it not but with certain intervals
of reft between. So that it is not motion, but the
conftant train of ideas in our minds, that fuggefts to us
our firft notion of time •, of which motion no other-
wife o-ives us any conception, than as it caufes in our
minds a conftant fucceflion of fenfations •. and we
have as clear a notion of time by attending to the
train of ideas fucceeding each other in our minds, as
by a train of fenfations excited by conftant and percep¬
tible motion.
That it is merelv by comparing the permanent ex-
iftence of things with the fleeting feicceflion of ideas
in our own minds that we acquire our notions of
time, may perhaps be ftill more evident fiom the fol¬
lowing narrative quoted by Hr Beattie+, fiom L Hif-
toire de P Academic Roy ale des Sciences pour l'anr.ee 1719.
“ A nobleman of Laufanne, as he was giving orders
to a fervant, fuddenly loft his fpeech and all Ins fenfes.
Different remedies were tried without effea. At
laft, after fome chirurgical operations, at the end of
fix months, during all whfeh time he had appeared to
be in a deep deep or delirium, his fpeech and fenfes
were fuddenly reftored. When he recovered, the fer¬
vant to whom he had been giving orders when he
was firft feized with the diftemper, happening to be
in the room, he afked whether he had executed his
H Y S I C S> -
commiffion, not being fenfible, it feems, that any in- ^
terval of time, except perhaps a very fhort one, had
elapfed during his illnefs.” If this ftory be true, here
was a man, who, by* the train of ideas vanifiiing at
onoe from his mind, loft the perception of what was
to others fix months of time ; and had all mankind
been in his ftate, the fame portion of time would have
been irrecoverably loft even to the annals of chrono-
logy.
We are aware of an objeftion to any inference
which may be drawn refpefting the preient queftien.
from the cafe of this nobleman. It may be feud that
he had loft, together with the perception of time, the-
perception of every thing befides ; and that, therefore,
motion may ftill be the caufe from which a waking
man derives his notions of time. But in reply to this
objeflion, we beg leave to afk, Whether if a ball had
been put in motion on a table, and the nobleman had
been told, that a body moved ivith the velocity of that
ball would have been carried over fo many thoufand
miles of diftance during the time that he lay in a ftate
of infenfibility, he could from ftich information alone
have formed any tolerable notion of the length of
time in which he was infenfible ? He certainly could
not, for want of a ftandard by which to meafure the
rapidity of the motion. He Avould, indeed, have
known inftantly that he had been infenfiblc for a con-
fiderable length of time, becaufe he had the evidence
of former experience that a body carried by perceptible
motion over a great extent of diftance Avould have
generated in his mind a vaft train of fuccefirve fenfa¬
tions 5 but till he had attended this ball during part
of its courfe, and compared with the permanency of
other objefts the feries of fenfations which it gene¬
rated in his mind, he Avould not have been able to
guefs with any thing near to accuracy the length of
time it Avould take to pafs over a thoufand miles.-—
The fame infenfibility of duration happens to every
man in found fleep. From having notions of time,
filch as they are, formed in our minds, we never in¬
deed fuppofe, hoAvever foundly avc have flept, that the
moment at which avc aAvake in the morning is conti¬
guous to that in Avhich avc fell afleep at night. I he
reafon is obvious ; every man has been awake whilft
others Avere fleeping, and has knoAvn by experience,
that if they had been aAvake likewife a train of ideas
■would have paffed through their minds Avhich muft have
fuggefted to them the notions of time. Moft men, too,
have been frequently awake whole nights,^ and have
thus acquired a notion of time as going on incefiantly,
639
Of Time.
•whether perceived by them or not} and this notion be¬
ing clofely aflociated Avith our ideas of night and morn¬
ing, Ave inevitably fuppofe a portion of time to. have
elapfed betAveen them, though unperceived by us in our
fleep. But Avere a man to fleep Avithout dreaming from
Sunday night till Tuefday morning, and then to awake
at his ufuai hour as marked on the clock, there are num-
berlefs inftances on record to convince us, that he would
not of himfelf fuppofe, nor perhaps be very eafily
perfuaded, that more than one night had elap-ed be~
tween his falling afleep and the moment at Avhich he
arvoke.
It being thus evident, that our notion of time is
fuggefted by that cornparifon Avhich avc inevitably
make of the exiftence of things permanent with the
train
640 M E T A P
.tram “f ■clc,s inccffanlly pading through our minds:
we may now perhaps be able to anfwer the queftion,
. iat ls tame It of neceffity be one of three
things, viz. either the ideal fucceffion itfelf; a certain
quality inherent in all objects j or merely the relation
ot coexiftence between things that are permanent and
the trains of fleeting ideas which fucceed each other
on the theatre^ of the imagination. It is not the firft
of thefe ; for in every train of thought, the appearance
of any one idea in the mind occupies no more of the
extenfion of time, than a mathematical point occupies
of the extenfion of diflance. Ten thoufand mathe¬
matical points added together would make no part of
a line 5 and ten thoufand ideas made to coalefce, if
that were poffible, would occupy no part of that mode
of duration which is called time. A point is the
boundary of a line, but no part of it: the appearance
of an idea in the mind is inflantaneous ; and an inlfant
is the boundary, but no part of time. Hence it fol¬
lows^ that were every thing inftantaneous like ideas in
a train, there could be no fuch thing- as time, fince
nothing eould be faid to have in that fenfe of the
word any duration. That time is not a quality inhe-
lent in all objefts, is likewife plain j for we have feen,
that, were ideas as permanent as objcdfs, the notion
of time could never, have been acquired. Succeflion,
though it. does not itfelf conftitute time, is effential
lo its, exiftence $ and were all motion to ceafe, and
the attention.of men to be immoveably fixed upon one
Time1 a i^vari^ble object or duller of objedfs, time would ceafe
mere rela- IlkeYife- 11 rem*ins, therefore, that time can be
iron of co- nothing elfe than the relation of coexiftence appre-
exiftence. hended between things that are permanent and thofe
trains of fleeting ideas which inceflantly fucceed each
other on the theatre of the imagination. Thus whilft
a man is fteadily looking at one objedl, which, from
its being common, does not occupy his whole mind,
he may be confcious of a thoufand ideas ftarting up
in his imagination, and each in its turn vanilhing the
inftant in which it appeared. Every one of thefe
ideas had an exiftence as well as the objedt at which
he is looking ; but the exiftence of each of them was
inftantaneous and in fucceflion, whilft the exiftence of
the external objedt is permanent. The objedt, there¬
fore, as contrafted with a train of ideas, is faid to
endure or to exift in time, whilft each idea is deftitute
* 13 of duration, and exifts in no time.
SST* , T° tllis theory fome objedt ions occur, which it will
be incumbent upon us to obviate. It may be faid,
that though each idea confidered by itfelf is inftan¬
taneous, and occupies no time ; yet the whole train
when taken together, without being compared with
any thing.external, is perceived to occupy a confider-
able portion of. that mode of duration j and that,
therefore, time itfelf muft be fomething more than a
mere relation between a fleeting fucceflion of ideas
and ob^'edls of more permanent exiftence. But how,
we beg leave to alk, is the whole train perceived to
occupy any portion of time ? Is it not by being com- *“
pared with our own exiftence ? A man whilft a train
of ideas is palling through his mind may be fuddenly
deprived of all his external fenfes, and then indeed it
will be impoflible for him to compare the fleeting ex¬
iftence of this internal fucceflion with the more per¬
manent exiftence of external things j but, whilft he
H I SICS. Part II
thinks at all, he muft be confcious of his own exiftence of j ime ’
and cannot avoid perceiving, that whilft his ideas pals ' 
in conftant fucceflion, each making an inftantaneous
appearance in his mind, he himfelf remains unchanged.
Note, wliat is it that this perception fuggefts to^the
mmd > Evidently nothing more than the relation of
coexiftence between a fleeting fucceflion and a per¬
manent .objedt j for were it poflible that the man could
be deprived of memory as well as of his fenles, and
ftill have ideas fuccceding each other in his mind, he
would then think all objedts equally fleeting 5 he would
indeed be himlelf a mere fucceflion of inftantaneous
diftinct perfons, and could have no notion whatever
of time. His exiftence, though it ihould feem to
endure half a century as eftimated by others, muft
to himfelf appear to pafs away like a flaih of light¬
ning.
it may be ftill further objedted to our theory, that
time is meafured by motion ; and that it feems very
abfurd to talk of meafuring a relation, efpecially a
mere idea/, relation, by a real external thing. In an-
hver to this objedlion, which at firft fight appears for¬
midable, we beg leave to obferve, that all relations are
equally ideal 5 and that yet many of them may be laid
to be meafured by real external things, with as much
propriety as time can be faid to be meafured by mo¬
tion. . When a man wifties to afeertain the relation of
quantity which one body bears to another, though he
knows that fuch a relation has no other than an ideal
exiftence, and cannot be conceived but in conjundtion
with the related bodies, he applies to them fucceflively
fome. common ftandard ; and having difeovered the
1 elation which each bears to that, he compares the
one relation with the other, and thus afeertains the
relation fought. Juft fo it is with refpea to motion
meafuring time. That which to each individual con-
ftitutes real time, is the relation of coexiftence be¬
tween the fleeting fucceflion of his own ideas and other
things of a more permanent nature. But a man has of¬
ten. occafion to afeertain the time of things external
which fall not under the inlpedtion of his fenfes; and
in fociety all men have tranfadtions with one another to
be performed in fome determinate portion of time,
though there are not, perhaps, two men exifting whofe
ordinary trains of thought flow with precifely the fame
rapidity. I o remedy thefe inconveniences, it was ne-
ceffary to invent fome common ftandard, by means of
which men might afeertain the duration of adiions per¬
formed at a diftance, and be able to keep appointments
made with each other. The only ftandard proper for thefe
purpofes is fuch a conftant and equable motion as has
fuggefted a flux of perceptions common to all men in
all ages and countries; and hence the motions of the
heavenly bodies have been univerially made ufe of for the
common regulators of time. T. hele motions, however,
do not conftitute real and natural time, any more than a
foot or a yard applied to twro diftant bodies conftitutes
the relation of quantity which thefe bodies bear to each
other. They are merely ftated meafures, to be different¬
ly applied according to the different purpofes which we
have in view.
Thus, if a man in Europe wifties to know what
would to him have been the rea/ and natural tin:t of
an adtion performed in the Eaft Indies, he has only
to be told that it was co-exiftent, we fliall fuppofe,
with
Chap. VIII.
Of rime, -with a diurnal revolution of the earth 5 and by com-
‘-“-V 1 ‘ paring this common meaiure with his ufual flow of
thought, he can form fome notion of the extent of that
train^ of ideas, which, had he been prefent, would to
him have been fucceflively co-exiftent with the action
in queftion. But when perfons have an appointment to
keep, this common meafure of motion muft be differ¬
ently, or rather partially, applied. In fuch cales, it
is no part of their intention to compare their own ex-
iftence with that of the whole train of ideas which
may pals in the mind of each j for the reiult of fuch
a comparifon, which alone conftitutes true and natu¬
ral time, would not be the fame in perhaps any twm
men : but their purpofe is, to compare their own per¬
manent exiftence only with that train of fenfations
which fhall be excited in the mind by the perceptible
motion of the fun, or any other body fixed upon which
moves equably } and fuch a train mull conlift of an
equal number of inftants in all men. Neither the
fun, nor the hour hand of a common watch,. moves
with fuch apparent rapidity as to keep pace with the
internal flow of thought of which the nvoft phlegma¬
tic man is confcious. That thefe bodies move at all,
is known only by their visible change of place during
the lapfe of a confiderable portion of real time *, and
as there is in their courfe a certain number of places
diftinaiy marked, to which alone it is agreed that
the attention is to be turned, it is impoflible that of
time fo computed two men can have different notions.
Such time, however, is but partial ^ and the method
of afeertaining it, when compared with that by which
we afeertain real time, has a ftriking refemblance to
that by which we afeertain the relation of partial
quantity between two diftant bodies. When it is
our purpofe to afeertain the relation of real quantity
xvhich one body bears to another, we apply the com¬
mon ftandard to each in every dimenfion of length,
breadth, and depth j but when we have no other view
than to afeertain the relation of length which the one
bears to the other, we apply the common ftandard to
each in that dimenfion only. .lull fo it is with regard
to real and partial time. When an individual wiflies
to afeertain what would to him have been the dura¬
tion of any adtion which he did not fee performed,
he applies the common ftandard to the exiflence of
that a61 ion, and to the ufual flow of his own thoughts :
but when two men talk of the duration of any ac¬
tion, or agree to meet on fuch a day, they compare
the exiftence of the a6Hon, or the diftance interven¬
ing between the prefent * moment and the day of
meeting, only with that partial tram of fenfations
which by the common ftandard is generated in an
equal number, and in the fame order, in the minds
of both.
It will be faid, that if time be nothing more than a
mere relation fubfifting between trains of ideas or
other fleeting obje6Is, and things of a more perma¬
nent exiftemce ; and if the univerfe had a beginning ;
either time muft have had a beginning likewife, or the
Deitv cannot be immutable. We allow the force of
Vol. XIII. Part II.
METAPHYSICS. _ 6+r
the argument; but inftead of an obje£lion, we ccnfider Of Ii tuMy
it as a confirmation oi the truth ui out theory, ihe
Deity, who is immutable, exifts not in time, but in u—
eternity j and that theie, though from the poverty of
language they are both called modes of duration, aic
vet very different from each other, we ihall endeavour
to prove in the next chapter.
214
Time m ft
have hdd a
beginning.
Chap. VIII. 0/Infinity W Eternity.
*15
As corporeal fubftance is certainly not infinite, and Why we
as the prefent material iyflem has in itfelf every evi- ar,^
deuce of its not being eternal, it may leem ftixrgt, e.erI,jty
perhaps to the reader, that we thould treat of infinity amorii’ the
and eternity among the adjunfts of body. But inadju-As
modern metaphyfics thefe words are ufed in a vague01 0 f*
fenfe to denote the extent of fpace and time } anu in
this chapter it is our intention to do little more than
afeertain their meaning, and to (how, in oppofition to
fome celebrated names, of what fubje61s they may not
be predicated. 1- here is a mathematical and a meta¬
physical infinity, which, though often _ confounded,
ought to be kept diilin6f. In mathematics, extenfion
is faid to be divilible ad infinitum, and number is forue-
times confidered as infinite : but in metaphyfics theie
modes of exprefiion are extremely improper. A poff-
tive and metaphyfical infinite is that which has no li¬
mits, and to which no addition can be made j out it is
obvious that there is no number which may not be en¬
larged, nor any pofitive idea of extenfion which has not
limits, and which may not be either increafed or dimi-
nifhed. The infinity of the mathematician is termed
infinity of power, and that of the metaphyfieian abfolute
infinity, i. he firll confifts in this, that a being, how¬
ever great or fmall it be fuppofed, may ftill be con¬
ceived to poffefs more greatnefs or minutenels than we
can form an idea of, even after the utmoft ftrcich 01
human thought. Ihus when it is faid, that all exten¬
fion as fuch is infinitely divifible, it is not meant that
every extended fubftance contains an innnite numbe..
or reai parts ; for then the parts of an inch would be
equal to thofe of a league : but the meaning is, ilia»
in ideal extenfion wTe can never reach the end 01 idea!
divifion and lubdivifion. In like manner, when it is
faid that number is infinite, the meaning is not that
any pofitive number is without limits, or the pollibi-
lity of increafe, but that we might go on for ever,
adding unit to unit, without approaching nearei to the
end of the procefs. If, therefore, the - mathematician
would (peak properly, and without the affectation of
paradox, he ought to fay that all extenfion as fuch rs
indefinitely divifible, and that unit might be added to
unit without end *, but thefe phrafes fuggeft notions
very different from that of a metaphyhcal infinite, 2I5'
xvhich is fomething pofitive to xvhich nothing can be Space and
added (B).
Tha; there is fomething pofitrvely infinite, has been ^ one Yfi_
very leldom queftioned j but it has been warmly dii-rate, and
puted among metaphyficians what fubje6ts are infinite, the other
4 M Dr eternal:
(s'1 'Ov
tom. i. Oper.
xXX ov mu to s|6> urlt, rovlo M7rugo> t<rU. Arifi. Phys. Auficult. lib. ix. cap. 9. page 492..
642
°f Infituty Dr Clarke and his adherents have contended that fpace
ann;ty.er* »nd tin}e are real things 5 that they are bodies of necef-
e—yj— fary exiftence j that the former impreffes us with the
* Demon- idea of its infinity, and that the latter is pofitively
of eternal. “ Time and fpace (fays the doftor *) are
and Anri- ^ ftne rua non of all other things, and of all other
iutes of uleas' To fuppofe either of Xhzm jinite, is an exprefs
God, and contradiction in the idea itfelf. No man does or can
Correfpon- poiTibly imagine either of them to be finite ; but only
a Gentle-^ either by-no.n-fttEntion or b7 c^ce he attends perhaps
man 6f~ to Partr ^llIs itleai forbears attending to the remain-
Glouce/ler- dei* _ 1 hey who fuppofe fpace to be nothing but a
/hire. ' relation between two bodies are guilty of the abfurdity of
fuppofing that which is nothing to have real qualities:
tor tne fpace which is between two bodies is always unal-
teraoly juil what it was, and has the very fame dimen-
fions, quantity, and figure, whether thefe or any other
bodies be there or any where elfe, or not at all. Juft as
time or duration is the fame, whether you turn your
houi -glafs or no, or whether the fun moves or ftands
Hill, or whether there was or was not any fun, or any
material world at all. ’I o fet bounds to Ipace is to
fuppofe it bounded by fomething which itfelf takes up
fpace, and that is a contradiction ; or elfe that it is
bounded by nothing, which is another contradiction. To
fuppofe fpace removed, defrayed, or taken away, amounts
to the abfurd fuppofition of removing a thing away
from itfelf; that is, if in your imagination you annihi-.
late the whole of infinite fpace, the whole of infinite
fpace will Itill remain 5 and if you annihilate any jiart
of it, that part will ftill necejfarily remain, as appears
by the unmoved fituation of the refi ; and to fuppofe
lu divided or divfible amounts to the fame contradic¬
tion.”
The abfurdity of confidering fpace as a real external
thing has been already evinced in Chap. IV. p. 624.
where it was ftiown how we acquire the notion, and what
kind of notion it is. Space, as was there obferved, may
be conceived either as the mere abfence and poflibili-
ty of body ; or as ideal extenfion, united to, and in¬
hering in, an ideal fubftratum. Taken in the former
fenfe, it is an objecft of pure intellecft ; in the latter, it
is an idea ox form in the imagination. That the ab¬
fence of body or matter is the fine qua non of all other
things, and all other ideas, Dr Clarke rvas not dif-
pofed to affirm, when he made the divine fubftance to
pervade every material atom in the univerfe : and to
talk of the abfence of body being infinite is a palpable
contradiction, unlefs Berkeley’s dodtrine be true, that
the material world_ has no exiftence. To fay that the
pofihihty of matter is infinite, is to ufe language which
has no other meaning than that, however far the mat-
terial world be on all fides extended, its extenfion may
ftill be conceived greater and greater ad infinitum. This
is a pofition which no philofopher ancient or modern
has ever denied but it is fo far from implying that
we have a pofitive idea of the infinity of the material
world, or of any adjundf of the material world, that it
is abfdutely inconfiftent with fuch infinity. Whatever
is capable of perpetual increafe muft certainly have
limits, and every new addition is the limit of that to
which the addition was made.
Faken in the fecond acceptation as an ideal extenfion
united with an ideal fubfiratum, fpace is fo far from
being infinite in any fenfe of the word, that we will
M E T A P H Y S I C S.
217
But impro
periy.
»i8
Neither
fpace nor
Part II,
venture to affert no man ever contemplated fuch a form Of Infinite
m Ins own imagination, without conceiving it to be andEter-
bounded. Of this, at leaft we are certain, that when niV
we have attempted to frame a pofitive idea of pure     
ipace,. it lias not been in our power to diveft that idea
of limits. Thofe who can frame in their minds real
and pofitive ideas wholly abftrafted from every indi¬
vidual objea, may indeed perform in this way many
feats above our abilities j but as we polfefs no fuch
powers of abftraaion, everything which we can call an
idea is limited m the fame manner that the objea it¬
felf is limited from which the idea was derived.-l-Thu'
the largeft expanfion that ever we beheld is the concave
hemnphere; and when we try to form the largeft po¬
fitive idea of pure fpace, all that we can do is to figure to
ourfelves that concave empty of body. We may, in¬
deed, fuppofe its diameter to be either a million or ten
thoufand millions of miles 5 and we may go on enlarg¬
ing it ad infnitum: but when we return from this pro-
cels of intellect^ to the contemplation of the ideal forms
of the imagination, none of thefe forms appear to us
larger or more extended than the hemifphere, which is
the object of fenfe, and they all appear to be bounded
and bounded in the very fame way.
With refped to the eternity of time, we think Dr
Clarke equally miftaken as with refpeft to the infinity
of fpace. Of time, indeed, we cannot, properly fpeak- 215
mg, have any idea or mental/*™. Time, as we have time can be
leen, is a mere relation, and is in itfelf the creature ofP0^ltivcly
the mind which has no external idiatum. It is fuegeft-infimte 5
ed, however, by the fleeting fucceflion of our ideas, ^ Why‘
compared with the more permanent exiftence of other
objeds : and therefore fucceflion is effential to it. But
nothing which has parts, whether coexiftent or in
fucceflion, can be politively infinite. For, “ in an in¬
finite feries of fucceflive generations of men, for in-
ftance, there will be feveral infinites that are parts of
one another j and by confequence one greater than an¬
other : which (as has been well argued*) is an ex- * Dr Law’s
prefs contradiction, fince the greater muft neceflarily Inquiry in¬
bound the lefs, and exceed its limits by fo much as it the ideas
is greater than it; that is, muft make it not infinite. °f. Slace'
Infinite geneiations contain an infinitely greater infi- ^ a
nity of particular men. An infinite number of vaonEtenuty.
muft have twice as many hands, and ten times as many See alfo the
fingers, and fo on. Infinite time has an infinity 0ffame acute
iSui ftf Smuc1'Sr“ter, of
hours, &c. _ Space likewife (according to Dr Clarke) otKing's
has three dimenfions, all infinite. It muft therefore, Origin of
contain an infinity of furfaces, an infinitely greater [n-Evil‘
finity of lines, and a ftill infinitely greater infinity of
phyfical points. The cafe is the fame in number it¬
felf, which, if we fuppofe it to contain an abfolute in¬
finity of thoufands (and we may as well do that as
imagine it to comprehend an infinity of units), it will
contain ten times as may hundreds, fifty times as
many fcores, and fo on. All this is only the indeft-
tiitenefs of number, which we in vain attempt to turn
into a pofitive infinite with which it is totally incom¬
patible. For let us add one to any of thefe infinite
feries of generations, ages, lines, or numbers, which
we know to be always in our power, and if it was ab-
folutely infinite before, here is one more than infinite.
If it only becomes infinite now, then one finite added
to another finite makes infinity. If it be no larger af¬
ter
M E T A P
Chap. VIII.
Of Infinity ter the addition than it was before, then one part
and ttter- acye(i to another adds nothing; all which are abfurdi-
nity- , ties. The fame will appear, if we fubtraft a part from
^ * this fuppofed abfolute infinite, which may be done in
any of the forementioned fubjects, as well as in every
thing tvhich admits of parts, or may be taken in pieces
by the mind.'”
The'ufnal To this kind of reafoning Dr Clarke replies as fol-
reply to the lows : “ To endeavour to prove that there cannot pof-
foregoing fioly be any fuch thing as infinite time or fipace, fnmi
reafoning tJie imp0{Tibility of an addition of finite parts ever com-
<lluwn pofing or exhaufting an infinite 5 or from the imagi¬
nary inequality of the number of years, days, and hours,
that would be contained in the one ”, or of the miles,
yards, and feet, that would be contained in the other,
is fuppofing infinites to be made up of numbers of
finites •, that is, it is fuppofing finite quantities to be
aliquot or conflituent parts of infinite, when indeed they
are not fo, but do all equally, whether great ox fimall,
whether many or few, bear the very fame proportion
to an infinite, as mathematical points do to a line, or
lines to a fuperficies, or as moments do to time, that
is, none at all. No given number or quantity can be
any aliquot or conjlituent part of infinite, or be compa¬
red at all with it, or bear any kind of proportion to it,
or be the foundation of any argument in any queftion
concerning it.”
If it be indeed true, and it is that for which we
contend, that no given number or quantity can be any
aliquot or conftituent part of infinite, or be compa¬
red at all with it; then it undeniably follows, not that
miles, yards, and feet, are no conftituent parts of fpace ;
or years, days, and hours conftituent parts of time
but that fpace and time cannot poflibly be pofitive in¬
finites. This, we fay, follows undeniably for no¬
thing is more evident, than that all quantities of the
fame kind, from the largeft to the leaft, bear a certain
proportion to each other j and upon the fuppofition
that fpace is a real extending thing, miles, yards, and
feet are included in it, and bear to it the relation of
parts to a whole. I he fame is true of time, days,
and hours. To affirm (for no proof is offered), that
all finite quantities, whether great or fmall, whether
many or few, do equally bear the very fame proportion
to an infinite, as mathematical points do to a line, or as
in moments do to time, is plainly to beg the queftion—
to be ii pe- “ that fpace confidered as a real extended thing is
titio prin- infinite;” and to beg it, too, in oppofition to the com-
fenfe and reafon of mankind. Mathematical points
we all know to be nothing real, but merely negations
of extenfion } but fuppofing fpace to be fomething real
and extended, can any man perfuade himfelf that a mile
or a million of miles of this fpace is likewife a mere
negation of extenfion ? With him who can bring him¬
felf to this perfuafion, we pretend not to argue. He is
poffeffed of faculties, whether true or falfe, of which we
are deftitute.
That finite quantities, whether great or imall, do
all equally bear the fame proportion to an infinite in
power, is indeed true *, but it is no great difcovery : for
fuch an infinite, as we have feen, is nothing but the
continued poflibility of repeating the fame mental pro-
cefs of addition or multiplication ; and he who can go
on for ever adding, in his own imagination, foot to
foot,, or hour to hour, will find it equally eafy to add,
II Y S I C S. 643
in the fame manner, league to league, or age to age.
If he can perform the one operation, he muff like- *nnity '
wife have power to perform the other ^ and he cannot i, „,,n.y n., m 1
but perceive that it is as impoflible to come to an end,
of adding league to league, or age to age, as ot add¬
ing loot to foot, or hour to hour } but then he muff
know that thefe leagues, feet, ages, and hours, are not
real external things, but mere ideas and notions in his
mind, if fiich powers of ideal multiplication and ad- .
dilion be what Dr Clarke means by the ideas of Ipace
and time, it is indeed a contradiction to luppolc cither
of them limited j for that is to iuppoie our powers
different from what we know them to be by confciouf-
nefs and experience. But to confound powers with the
obje&s of thole powers, is certainly very inaccurate j and
to fuppofe, becaufe we can go on for ever adding one
portion of ideal fpace or time to another, that therefore
our ideas of fpace and time are in themfelves politively
infinite, is a contradiction : for to an idea pofitively
infinite, it is obvious that nothing can be added. Ei¬
ther, therefore, fpace and time do not imprefs us with
the ideas of their pofitive infinity •, or we cannot have
the power of adding league to league, and age to age,
without end.
“ But (fays the doClor) to fuppofe fpace removed,
deftroyed, or taken wholly away, amounts to the ao-
furd fuppofition of removing a thing from itfell \ tiiat
is, if in your imagination you remove the whole oi fpace,
the whole of fpace will llill remain.” i rue, every
man has ideas of fpace treafured up in his imagination,
which the found of the very word fpace wifi at all
times bring into his immediate view •, and whilit he
has fuch ideas, it is impoffible that he fiiould not have
them •, which is all the myftery of the matter, qnd
amounts to nothing more than that a thing cannot be
and not be at the fame inftant. When the doClor
affirms, that if “ you annihilate any part of fpace, that
part will neccffarily remain, as appears by the unmoved
fituation of the reft,” we are not certain that we per¬
fectly underftand him. A man may lurely think of
a cubical inch without thinking of a foot or a yard j
and he may fuppofe the inch taken away from the foot
or the yard, and thefe ideal quantities fo much leilen-
ed by the fubtraftion. But if the doClor be here
again confounding the powers of the mind with the
pofitive ideas of fpaee, the fentence when explained
will be feen to contain nothing to his purpofe. Every
man has the power of contemplating in idea millions
of miles, and millions of ages, and of adding mile to
mile, and age to age, without end ; and if he try to
deprive himfelf of any part of this power, or to fix
a limit to the mental procefs of addition, he will find
that in fpite of himfelf his imagination will ramble be¬
yond the limit affigned, and that he has attempted an
impoflioility. This, however, is fo far from being a
proof that his ideas of fpace and time are pofitively in¬
finite, that, as we have already obferved, it is a proof of
the contrary. _ 2*2
But (fays this great man and his followers) “ fpace Space and
and time are the fine qua non of all other things and time are
all other ideas. The fuppofal of the exiftence of any
thing whatever includes neceffarily a prefuppqfition oi the ,zoe of aft *
exiftence oi [pace and time ;” and, therefore, if there be other
any thiicg infinite and eternal, fpace and time muft like-things; but
wife be fo.
4 M 2
To
Of Infinity
and Eter¬
nity.
**3
there are
things
6++ M E T A P
To every corporeal fubitance, and every idea of fuch
fubfiance, fpace and time are indeed neceflary : for
every body has extenfion and duration ; and every idea
of a particular body, being nothing but a feeondary
perception in the imagination or memory, mull have the
fame relation to imaginary extenfion, that the objedt
fiom which it was derived has to extenfion which is real.
Every idea, too, which remains in the imagination
Avhilil a train of other ideas pafles fucceflively in view,
or whilft external things are perceived to change, has
which h ve rea^ ^1Tie* will any man fay that cotifcioufnefs, our
no relation* 1lot*on Power, our acts of willing, or even tujles,
whatever tofoun/iS'> and/wd’/Zj’, are extended, or that the fuppofal of
fpace, or their exiftence neceffariiy implies a prefuppofition of
the exiftence of fpace ? We acquire our ideas of ex¬
tenfion and fpace by means of our fenfes of touch and
fight ; and we learn from experience, that things ex¬
ternal and extended are the caufes of our fenfations of
tade, found, and fmell. The effects are in our minds
clofely affociated with the ideas of their caufes 5 and
it is not perhaps ealy to think of a particular found,
tafte, or fmell, without at the fame time thinking of
the objett by which it was at firft excited in the mind ;
but had we been originally formed with the powers of
confeioufnefs, thinking, and willing, and with no other
fenfes than thole of tailing, fmelli-ng, and hearing, it
is obvious that we never could have had the idea of
/pace / and therefore, that idea cannot poffibly be ne-
eeffary to the prefuppofition of every thing elfe. To
confeioufnefs, thinking, and willing, fpace is fo far
from being neceffary, that we cannot perceive any the
moll dillant relation between them. It is not more
difficult to conceive a part greater than the whole, than
it is to conceive an ell of confeioufnefs, of thought, or of
will; nor is it in the power of any man to make fpace
fweetnefs coalefce in his mind fo as to form of the
two Ample ideas one complex conception. The very
reverfe is the cafe with refpeft to the objedls of fight
and touch. The idea of every thing which we fee and
handle neceffariiy coalefces in the mind with the idea
of fpace, nor can we poffibly feparate the one from the
other ; but the things which we fee and handle are nei¬
ther infinite nor capable of infinity.
With refpedt to time, the fame obfervations will be
found to be juft as with refpe£t to fpace. Whatever
is liable to change, exifts in time and cannot be eter¬
nal ; but if there be any being immutable, and rvho
views at once all things which to us are pall, prefent,
and to come, the exiftence of that being is not com-
menfurable with time. That fuch a being is poffible
no man can doubt, who refleas, that if we had one
permanent idea invariably in the mind, we Ihould never
have acquired the notion of fucceffion or of time ; and
that it there were actually no change in nature there
could not poffibly in nature be any fuch thing as time.
Every man, therefore, who can conceive exiftence
w ithout change, mull be convinced, that “ the fuppofal
of the exiftence of any thing whatever does not necef¬
fariiy include the prefuppofition of the exiftence of
time ; and that there may be an eternity diftina from
time, as well as an infinity diftina from fpace 5 nay,
that nothing which is properly infinite and eternal can
poffibly occupy either fpace or time,
224
time.
H Y S I C S. Part II.
Ifitbeafked, What kind of infinity and eternity Of Infinity
they are which have no relation to fpace and time ? and Eter-
Cudworth, treading in the footfteps of the ancients, has , n‘ty'
long ago anfwered, That they are “ abfolute perfbaion, hZT*
and neceffary exiftence. For (fays lie), infinite under- Infinity and
funding and knowledge is nothing elfe but perfect know-eternity,
ledge, xvhich hath in it no defea or mixture of igno-
ranee, but knows whatfoever is knowable. In like man-aie"
ner, infinite power is nothing elfe but perfect power,
which hath in it no defea or mixture of impotency ^
a power which can do every thing which is poffible or
conceivable. Laftly, Infinity of duration, or eternity, is
really nothing elfe but perfcSlion, as including in it ne¬
ceffary exifence and immutability ; fo that it is a contra-
diaion to fuppofe fuch a being to have had a beginning,
to ceafe to be, or to fuffer or be affeaed by any change
whatever. And becaufe infinity is perfeaion, therefore
nothing which includes in its idea or effence any thing
of imperfeliion, as every pofitive idea of number, cor¬
poreal magnitude, and fucceffive duration, evidently
does, can be truly and properly infinite * Intelkc-
It muft indeed be confefied, that the idea of fuccef- tualSyjlem.
fion ft) in fin nates itfelf into our ufual ideas of exiftence,
and is fo clofely conneaed w ith the exiftence of all finite
beings, that wre find it extremely difficult to ima¬
gine the eternal exiftence of God, any otherwife than
As an eternally continued feries or fucceffion. Our
con ft ant converfation with material objeas, and the
affociations thence arifing, make it almoft impoffible
for us to confider things abftraaed from time and
fpace j yet we have the evidence of experience' and
confeioufnefs, that an idea may be conceived without
relation to fpace and time, and that fpace and time
cannot be made to coalefce with fome of our notions.
The fame muft be true with refpea to infinity and
eternity ; for are have feen that neither fpace, time,
nor any thing elfe which eonfifts of parts, whether
continuous or fucceffive, can be fuppofed to be pofi-
tively infinite, as the fuppofition implies the moft pal¬
pable contradiaion. But that there may be perfea
power, perfea knowledge, and permanent invariable
exiftence, is fo far from implying any contradiaion,
that even we, Avliole faculties are fo very narrow, can
yet make fome advances towards the conception of
fuch perfeaions, .thus, every man of common un¬
demanding knows that fome things are in themfelves
poffible, and others impoffible, to be performed by
any power. Of thefe poffibilities and impoffibilities
a philosopher knows more than an illiterate man ; and
one philofopher knows more than another. An intel-
ka more perfea knows more of them than any man j
and that intelka which knows them all muft be abfo-
lutely perfea, and incapable of improvement, becaufe
it knows every thing which is to be known. Tire
fame, is true of perfea power :—but we ffiall treat of
real infinity and eternity more at large when we come
to demonftrate the being and attributes of God. At
prefent it is fufficient to have ftiown that nothing can
be pofitively infinite but a being abfolutely perfea ;
which never was not, which can produce all things*
pofiible and conceivable, and upon which all other
things muft depend.
PART
METAPHYSICS.
Chap. I-
Of Mind
in general.
645
Of Mind
in general*
PART III. OF MINDS AND THEIR POWERS.
aid
Mind di-
117
Probably
minds ot
different
*rders.
Chap. I. 0/*Mind/« General.
THE fcience of metaphyfics comprehends^ every
thinp, into the exiftence, nature, or caul'es of which any
inquiry may be made. But all things of which we have
any notion or idea may be divided into mind and body,
with their various powers, qualities, and aojunCls. By
jvnno 01- body is meant that which is folid, extended, inert, an
ftinguifhed divilible •, and its feveral adjuncts are fpace motion,
from body. number, and time. The only mind with ivhich we are
intimately acquainted is our own} and we know that it
is poffelfed of the powers of fenfation, perception, re¬
tention, confcioufnefs, reiledtion, realon, and will.
Thefe are totally different from extenfion, folidity, di-
vifibility, and motion •, and therefore it is proper to di-
ftinguilh the being of which they are powers by another
name than that of body.
Of bodies there are various kinds poffefling various
fenfible qualities; and from analogy it is reaionable to
conclude, that there may be various dalles of minds
endowed with "different kinds or degrees of power.
For this indeed we have ftronger evidence than that of
analogy. Brute animals evidently poffefs the powers
of perception and fpontaneity with fome degree of
confcioufnefs ; but as they appear not to refleiff upon
their own conduct, or to have their actions influenced
by motives, their minds are inferior to ouis, though
ftill perfectly dittina from mere extended, inert, and
divifible fubftances. Mind, therefore, confidered with
refped to its powers, is evidently different from body
confidered with refpea to its qualities. This is indeed
a truth which has feldom if ever been controverted 5
but it has been long and warmly difputed, Whether
mind and body be not both compofed of the fame firifl
matter ?
Hobbes fuppofed, that every material atom is en¬
dowed with the faculty of fenfation (c) -, but that for
want of memory each fenfation is momenUneous, being
inftantly and wholly effaced as foon as its caufe is remo¬
ved. Though this hypothefis is too abfurd to require a
formal and laboured confutation, it may not be impro¬
per to obferve, that, if it were true, the hairs of a man’s
head would feel extreme pain when pinched by the hot
iron of the hair-dreffer ; and that the nails of his fingers
-would be feverely tortured when under the operation of
the knife or the rafp.
Others have fuppofed that each atom of matter has
a tendency towards fenfation and perception } and that
when a fufficient number of thefe atoms are brought
together in a certain order, the united tendencies pro-
ai8
The abfurd
hypothecs
of Hobbes
refpecting
mind.
aap
Other hy-
pothefes.
duce the aBual powers which diftinguifti mind from
nrofs body. This fuppofitiun is if pofiible more ao-
furd than that of Hobbes. Senfation and perception
are of fuch a nature, that a mere tendency towards them
is inconceivable. A thing muff either be fenfible and
percipient, or infenfible and inert : there is evident y
no medium. Or if we could fuppofe each indiviaual
atom to have a tendency towards feniation, n would oy
no means follow that a number of fuch atoms brought
together in any poffible order would become one ien-
tient, thinking, and aaive being. A number of bodies
laid upon an inclined plane have each a tendency to roll
downwards ; but if the declivity of the plane be not
fuch as that their feparate tendencies may overcome
the refiftance oppofed to each individual body by fric¬
tion, the united tendencies of all the bodies when brought
together will not be able to overpower the refiftance of
their united fridions. Juft fo is it with refpeft to len-
fation and perception : If the tendency of one atom can¬
not overcome one degree of inertnels, the tendency of a
thoufand atoms will not overcome a thoufand degrees of
the fame inertnefs. „ , „ „ . _ ,230
We have juft mentioned thefe abfurd fuppofitions Only two
that our article might be complete: but it is proper
to inform the reader, that, fo far as we know, neither^ fubjecl:.
of them has for thefe many years been maintained by
any philofopher of eminence either at home or abroad.
The opinions on this fubjeft, which at prefent divide
the republic of letters, are two •, and thefe alone are
worthy of examination. One party maintains, 1 hat
perception, memory, reafon, and will, &c. are the
powers of a being which muft be immaterial and indi-
vifible : The other alleges, That as we know nothing
of thefe powers but from our own confcioufnefs, and
as we can trace them in ourfelves to the brain and no
farther, vTe have no reafon to fuppofe that they are
the powers of any fubftance diftind from matter. Both
parties, however, diftinguifti that which in man is t.ie
fubjed of thought from his external organs ot jenie,.
and aiwee to call it by the name of mind; though the
one confiders it as compofed of the fame firft matter
with the dull of the ground 5 whilft the other believes
it to have no property whatever in common with that
matter. . , , c
, Were we to adopt fome of the ancient methods ot
philofophizing, this important queftion might be foon
decided. A moft refpedable writer, who has labour¬
ed to reftore the nietanhyfics of Plato and Ariftotle,
hopes to confute the materialifts,_ by laying down what
they muft think arbitrary definitions of mind and mat¬
ter, and then (bowing that the one is not the other.
“ In
(cj Scio fuiffe philofophos quofdam, eofdemque viros do Bos, qui corpora omnia fenfu prasdita effe fuftmuerunU
AVc lideo, fi natura fenfionis in readione fola collocaretur QUOMODO refutanpojjmt bed etfi ex readione etia^
corporum aliorum, phantafma aliquod nafeeretur ; i.lud tamen, remoto objedo, ftatim ceflaie . f t
tinendum motum impreffum, etiam remoto objedo, apta habeant organa, ut habent amma 1a , . aj- ’
ut minquam fenfiffe fe recordentur. Senfioni ergo, qu, vu.go.aa appellator, — ^
M E T A P
in'general “ In aI! tllC Parts of the material world (fays he) there
wJU, i IS a Perpetual motion : For the celeftial bodies move
conuantly m one refpea or another , and all here be¬
low is m a continual vicilTnude of generation and cor¬
ruption, which cannot be without motion. Now, where
there is motion, there muft be fomething that moves :
Aw hat \% moved I call body; what moves I call mind.'1'1
i'rom this definition he undertakes to prove, that mind
rnutt be immaterial. “ d hat there is a relation be¬
tween moving and being moved (fays he), nobody can
deny ; and the relation is no other than that of a&ion
and pitflion. But the nature of relation is fuch, that
it mull neceffarily be between two things at leait j and
it is further neceflary, that the two things related
Ihould exiif together. Hence, if there be that which
moves, there muft be a different thing that is moved;
and wherever the one is, the other muft neceffarily be ;
fo that nothing can move itfelf. This being eftablifti-
ed, I fay that what moves muft be either material or
immaterial : for the one of thefe being the negation
of the other, there can be no middle betwixt them 5
becaufe a thing muft neceffarily be, or not be. If then
it be immaterial, there is an end of the queftion : but
if it be faid to be material, then I fay that it muft be
moved itfelf before it can move any thing elfe 5 for it
is only in that way that body can move body. If
then it muft be firft moved itfelf, but cannot itfclf
move itfelf, what is it that moves itfelf? If it be an-
iuered, I hat it is another material mover, then I re-
peat the fame queftion, to which the fame anfwer muft
be given : and fo we have an infinite feries of material
movers,, without any beginning or principle of motion.
Now this is abfurd, and contradi&ory to this firft prin¬
ciple of natural philofophy, admitted by all philofo-
phers ancient and modern, That nothing can be produced
Ancient without a caufe*.
Metaphy. For the immateriality of the human mind, and of
every being endowed with the powers of perception
and thought, tne learned writer has better arguments j
but it is upon this chieffy that he refts his perfuafion’
that mind is the only mover in the univerfe. It is
needlefs to obferve, that in the very definitions and
axioms upon which this reafoning is built, the thing to
be proved is taken for granted : for if it be felf-evi-
dent, that what moves is, in the author’s fenfe of the
rvord, mind, that what is moved is body, and that no¬
thing can move itfelf, all reafoning on the fubjea is fu-
perfluous. This, however, is fo far from being felf-
evident, that a materialift may reply, “ every animal
moves itfelf, and yet every animal is nothing more
than a fyflem of matter.” This pofition, whether
true or fahe, can neither be proved nor confuted by
arguments d priori founded on general definitions.
L kat animals move themfelves, and that to the fenfes
they appear to be nothing elfe than fyftems of matter,
are fadls which cannot be controverted. If we would
know whether they have in them a principle of motion
H Y S I C S.
which is not material, we muft fubmit to the laws ofolthet s
induction (fee Logic) j and by inveftigating the ef- ft-Wof
lential qualities of matter, endeavour to afcertain whe-**1® ttumar
ther a material fyftem can be rendered adtive. 1 hat lVJlri(i-
we ourfelves have adtive powers, we know by the molt
complete of aft evidence, v'u. confciuulneis oi their The proper
energies } and it has been already Ihown, that fuch nie^10{l of
powers as we experience in ourfelves cannot exilt butmvefliga*
in a iubjedt poffelfed of will and underltandmg. The nature^f
queftion therefore to be firft decided between the ma- mind. °
terialifts and immaterialiiis is, Whether the powers of
confcioufnefs, underftanding, and will, can refult from
the particular organization of a fyitem of ssatter ? If
they can, we have no reafon to attribute them in man
to any other fource : If thefe powers appear necefla-
nly to require an immaterial principle for their fup-
port, it will probably be granted, that an immaterial
principle is the lource of every powder and every mo-
thm in the univerfe j and the dodtrine of mind, in the
ftndteft fenfe of the word, will be fufficiently efta-
bliflied. J
Chap. II. Of the Substance of the Human
Mind.
I HE moft celebrated materialift of this or perhaps Amtraents
of any other age is Dr Prieitley j who having in his for the im-
own imagination divefted matter of foiidity, and re- materiality
duced it to mere centres of attradfion and repullion ofthe]?u:
observes, that “ if one kind of fubjlanee be capable 0£manmm •
fupporting aft the known properties of man ; that is, if
thofe properties have nothing in them that is abfolute-
ly incompatible with one another j we Ihall be obliged
to conclude (unlefs we openly violate the rules of phi-
lofophizing, which will not authorize us to multiply
caufes or kinds of fubftance without necefilyf that no
Onier kind of iubftance enters into his compoiition j
the fuppolition being manifeifly unnecclJhry, in order to
account for any appearance whatever.—Aft the pro¬
perties that have hitherto been attributed to matter,
may be comprifed under thofe of attradlion and repul-
lion. Befides thefe, man is polleffed of the powers of
fenfation or perception, and thought. But if, without
giving the reins to our imaginations, we fuffer ourielves
to be guided in our inquiries by the fimple rules of
philolophizing above mentioned, we muft neceffarily
conclude, that thefe powers alfo may belong to the
fame fubftance that has alfo the properties ot attrac¬
tion, repulfion, and extenfion (d), which I as weft as
others call by the name of matter. The reafon of the
conclufion is limply this, that the powers of fenfation
or perception and thought, as belonging to man, have
never been found but in conjundhon with a certain
organised fystem of matter ; and therefore that thofe
powers neeeffarily exift in and depend upon fueh a
fyftem. I his at leaft muft be our conclufton, till it
can be Ihown that thefe powers are incompatible with
the
mein^WvW1 Pnfeftley m^nti?ns ^\exteffton of corporeal fubftance, it muft be remembered that he does not
rmw/lr ih 3117 thlnSPoffeffed of an ^dependent exiftence. The extenfion belongs wholly to the
7? {?htr^£ attrai°n and r£Pul^n' The centre itfelf, which attradls and repels, he
dcSw^-r h?76 thC dira1enfions even of a Phyfinal point j and he fometimes feems to entertain a
ooubt whethei. it be any thing more than a mere relative notion.
Chap. II. M E T A P
3f the Sub-the other known properties of the fame fubftance; and
ftance of for this I fee no fort of pretence.”
he Human 'j']^ jg w]iat Dr Prieftley calls the proper and direcl
^]‘n ' , proof that the fentient principle in man is the material
fubftance of the brain } and he enforces it by the follow
xng obfervations: “ Had we formed a judgment con¬
cerning the neceflary feat of thought by the circum-
ftances that univerfally accompany it, which is our rule
in all other cafes, we could not but have concluded
that in man it is a property of the nervous fyjtem, or
rather of the brain •, becaufe, as far as we can judge,
the faculty of thinking, and a certain ftate of the brain,
always accompany and correfpond to one another ;
which is the very reafon why we believe that any pro¬
perty is inherent in any fubftance whatever. There
is no inftance of any man retaining the faculty of
thinking when his brain was deftroyed j and whenever
that faculty is impeded or injured, there is fufficient
reafon to believe that the brain is difordered in pro¬
portion ; and therefore we are neceffarily led to con-
fider the latter as the feat of the former. Moreover,
as the faculty of thinking in general ripens and comes
to maturity with the body, it is alfo obferved to decay
with it j and if, in fome cafes, the mental faculties
continue vigorous when the body in general is en¬
feebled, it is evidently becaufe in thofe particular cafes
the brain is not much affetted by the general caufe of
weaknefs. But, on the other hand, if the brain alone
be affefted, as by a blow on the head, by atftual pref-
fure within the fkull, by fleep, or by inflammation,
the mental faculties are univerfally affe&ed in propor¬
tion. Likewife, As the mind is affe&ed in confequence
0/ the affetftions of the body and brain, fo the body is
liable to be reciprocally affe£led by the affe&ions of
the mind, as is evident in the vilible effe£ts of all ftrong
paflions, hope or fear, love or anger, joy or forrow,
exultation or defpair. Thefe are certainly irrefragable
arguments, that it is properly no other than one and
the fame thing that is fubjefl to thefe affe&ions, and
that they are neceflarily dependent upon one another.
In faft, there is juft the lame reafon to conclude, that
the powers of fenfation and thought are the neceffary
refult of a particular organization, as that found is
the neceffary refult of a particular concuflion of the
air. For in both cafes equally the one conftantly ac¬
companies the other; and there is not in nature a
ftronger argument for a neceffary connexion of any
caufe and any effeft. To adopt an opinion different
from this, is to form an hypothefis without a Angle
Difquifi- fafr to fupport it
tionson Though the ingenious author thinks, that if there
Spi^andbe any foundation for the eftablilhed rules of philofo-
phizing, this reafoning ought to be concluiiye, he yet
fubjoins, for the greater fatisfa&ion of his readers,
fome additional arguments, or rather, as he fays, di-
ftinft illuftrations of the great argument. They are
as follow:
I. “ That the faculty of thinking neceffarily de¬
pends, for its exercife at leaft, upon a flock of ideas,
about which it is always converfant, will hardly be
queftioned by any perfon. But there is not a Angle
idea of which the mind is poffefled but what may be
proved to have come to it from the bodily fenfes, or to
have been confequent upon the perceptions of fenfe.
The notion, therefore, of the pojjibility of thinking in
3
H Y S I C S. 647
man, without an organized body, is not only deftitute Of the Sub-
of all evidence from adlual appearances, but is directly
contrary to them; and yet thefe appearances ought
alone to guide the judgment of philofophers. y-—J
2. “ The only reafon why it has been fo earneftly
contended for, that there is fome principle in man
that is not material, is, that it might fubftft, and be
capable of fenfation and a&ion, when the body is dead.
But if the mind was naturally fo independent of the
body, as to be capable of fubfifting by itfelf, and even
of appearing to more advantage, after the death of
the body; it might be expected to difcover fome
figns of its independence before death, and efpecially
when the organs of the body were obftrudled, fo as
to leave the foul more at liberty to exert itfelf; as in
a ftate of Jlcep or fwooning, which muft referable the
ftate of death; in which it is pretended that the foul
is mod; of all alive, moft active, and vigorous. But
judging by appearances, the reverfe of all this is the
cafe.
3. “ If the mental principle was, in its own nature,
immaterial and immortal, all its particular faculties
would be fo too; whereas we fee that every faculty
of the mind without exception is liable to be impair¬
ed, and even to become Avholly extin61, before death.
Since, therefore, all the faculties of the mind, fepa-
rately taken, appear to be mortal, the fubftance or
principle in which they exift muft be pronounced to be
mortal too.
4. “ If the fentient principle in man be immaterial,
it can have no extenfion ; it can neither have length,
breadth, nor thicknefs; and confequently every thing
within it, or properly belonging to it, muft be Jimple
and indivi/ible. Let us now confider how this notion
agrees with the phenomena of fenfation and ideas. It
will not be denied, but that fenfations or ideas pro¬
perly exift in the foul, becaufe it could not otherwife
retain them, fo as to continue to perceive and think
after its feparation from the body. Now, whatever
ideas are in themfelves, they are evidently produced
by external objedls, and muft therefore correfpond to
them; and lince many of the objetb or archetypes
of ideas are divifible, it neceffarily follows, that the
ideas themfelves are divifible alfo. But, how is it pof-
fible that a thing (be the nature of it what it may)
that is divifible, Ihould be contained in a fubftance, be
the nature of //likewife what it may, that is indivijible ?
If the archetypes of ideas have extenfion, the ideas
which are expreflive of them, and are actually produ¬
ced by them according to certain mechanical laws,
muft have extenfion iikewife ; and therefore the mind
in which they exift, whether it be material or imma¬
terial, muft have extenfion alfo. But how any thing
can have extenfion and yet be immaterial, without
coinciding with our idea of mere empty fpace, I know
not.”
To the argument, which is here chiefly infifted on
as being agreeable to the eftabliftied rules of philofo-
phizing, a very able reply has been made, which we
fhall give in the words of its elegant and fpirited au¬
thor. But before we attempt to dig up the founda¬
tion of the doflor’s fyftem, it may not be improper
to demolilh, if poflible, the additional buttreffes by
which it is ftrengthened. An experienced general,
before he ftorm a citadel which he knows to be ftrong-
¥
648 M E T A P H Y S I C S. Part III
Ctf the Sub-]y fortified and flcilfully defended, will take care to
the1 Human raze eveiy important redoubt from which the ene-
mind. n)y might annoy iiim in his rear.
' - ■' ■ v~~~J Becauie the faculty of thinking in general ripens,
2v comes to maturity, and decays with the body, and
Anfwered. on |_]ie 0t]lt.r hand is affedled by the affec¬
tions of the mind, the dodfor affirms that we have
the fame reafon to conclude, that the powders of fen-
fation and thought are the neceffary refult of a parti¬
cular organization, as that found is the neceffary re¬
fult of a particular concuffion of the air. This argu¬
ment is conclufive only upon the fuppofition that there
is no pojitive evidence whatever for the immateriality
of the being which is the fubjeft of thought. If the
other reafonings for the materiality and immateriality
of the mind be of equal weight, this argument ought
doubfiefs to turn the balance ; but if there be the
fmalleft preponderancy in behalf of the immaterialills,
it is a mere begging of the queftion to attempt to
counteradl it by any inference which can be drawn
from the mutual affeftions of the body and mind. If
two fuch heterogeneous beings as an immaterial mind
and an organized body can be fuppofed united in one
perfon, they muff neceffarily affedt each other •, and
to affirm, on account of this reciprocal affection, that
they are one and the fame, is equally abfurd as to fay
that an eleftrician and his apparatus are one and the
fame. Dr Prielfley himfelf did not at firft perform
his eleflrical experiments with fo much cafe as after
he had acquired facility by long practice, nor could
he even yet perform them fo neatly with a bad as with
a good apparatus.
That wdiich the doctor calls the firft illuftration
of his argument might be admitted, and the force of
the argument itfelf be confiffentlv denied. Some kind
of organized body may be neceffary to the mind as an
inftrument without which it could not exert its fa¬
culties •, but it wrould certainly be rath to infer that
the mind muff therefore be a fyftem of matter. An
anvil and a hammer are neceffary to the exercife of
the blackfmith’s art *, but what would be thought of
him who fhould from this fa6I conclude, that the
blackfmith himfelf muff be a fyftem of iron ! This,
therefore, inftead of illuftrating the great argument,
feems to be wholly foreign from the queftion. in de-
^ Corre- bate \ and it has in faff been admitted by Dr Price *,
/ponderce anc| (houfands of others who reject the doftrioe of ma-
'priejtlf terialifm, as an impious abfurdity. The fecond illuftra¬
tion, however, is more to the purpofe ; and as it is not
new, we ftiall give it. an old anfwer.
Why do not we perceive external objects in our
f Religion flceP or ’n a fwoon ? “ Bt caufe (fays Mr Wollafton-f),
of Nature the paffages are become irnpracticable, the windows
Delineated, ftlut} and the nerves being obftrudled, or fomehow ren¬
dered for the time unlefs, can tranfmit no informa-Of the Sub.
tion to it. Why, however, does it not reafon and fiance of
think aboutfomething or other? Becaufe, all the markstheM^'c|nai1
by which things are remembered, being for the pre- —_ ^
fent choked up or diibrdered, the remembrance of
thofe objeEis about which it is wont to employ itfelf,
and even of the words (or other figns) in which it ufes
to reafon, and to prelerve the dedu&ions and conciu-
fions it makes, is all fufpended at leaft for the time :
and fo its tables being covered, its books clofed, and
its tools locked up, the requilites for realoning are
wanting, and no fubjeft offers itfelf to exercife its
thoughts, it having yet had little or no opportunity
to take in higher objetis and more refined matter for
contemplation. And, to conclude, if it be demand¬
ed, Why any one fhould imagine that the foul may
think, perceive, a£t, after death, wrhen it doth not do
this in ileep, &c. ? the anfwer is, Becaufe thofe enc/o-
fures and impediments which occafioned the foremen-
tioned intermiffions, and thofe great limitations under
which it labours at all times, will be removed with its
enlargement out of the body. When it fhall in its pro¬
per vehicle be let go, and take its flight into the open
fields of heaven, it wrill then be bare to the immediate
impreffions of objects: And why fhould not thofe im-
preffions which affe&ed the nerves, that moved and
affe&ed the vehicle and foul in it, ajfeB the vehicle im¬
mediately when they are immediately made upon it,
without the interpofition of the nerves ? The hand
which feels an objeft at the end of a faff, may cer¬
tainly be allowed to feel the fame much better by im-
mediate contaB without the ftaff.”
The opinion, that the foul is united to fome fine ve¬
hicle, which dwells with it in the brain, and goes off
with it at death, was not peculiar to Mr Wollafton.
It was thought extremely probable by Dr Hartley,
and fhall be fhown afterwards to have been a very an¬
cient opinion ; but we do not quote it at prefent as
either v’ell or ill founded, but only as fufticient, in
conjunction with the reafoning of its author, to ob¬
viate the force of Dr Prieftley’s fecond illuftration of
his argument for the materiality of mind, provided the
argument itfelf be not more powerful than any which
the immaterialifts can bring againfl it.
The doctor’s third illuftration we have already ob¬
viated, when avc accounted for the mind and the body
mutually affeCting each other ; and we might refer to
Dr Price’s anfwer (e) to the fourth, as being, in our
opinion, a full confutation of it. But as that author’s
notions of mind and ideas differ in fome refpeCts from
our own, we flrall examine this objeCfionto the doCtrine
of the immaterialifts upon principles which we believe
Dr Prieftley more inclined to admit.
That the fentient principle in man, if it be imma¬
terial.
(e) In T) if quifftions, p. 3 7 and 102, it is afferted, that ideas are certainlv divifible. “ 1 his feems to me very
abfurd. It would be as proper to affert ideas to bt hard or round The idea of an objeCt is the apprehenfion,
view, or notion of it; and how can this b' civifihle ? Perception i- a fingle and indivifible aCt. 'J he objeCl per¬
ceived may be divifible *, but the perception of it by the mind cannot be lo. It is faid in page 9^, that if Ideas
are not things dfftvB from the mind, a mind w th ideas and a nund without ideas would be thefame.— I maintain,
that ideas are net diftitiCI from the mind, but its conceptions: or not ihings tbrndt’ves. but notions of things.
How does it follow' from hence, that a mind with or without ideas b the >anw > It would feem that this follows
much more from the contrary allertion.” Corrffpondence between Dr Price and Dr Prieffley.
Chap. II. M E T A P
Of the Snb-terial, can have no extenfion, is a truth which we
fiance of think cannot be controverted j and if fo, every thing
'the Huriattin that principle muft bz Jimple and indivifibk. Thus
^ . far we agree with Dr Prieftley j but with rcfpeft to
what follows we differ from him entirely. The agi¬
tation in the brain, which is the immediate caufe of
fenfation, muft indeed correfpond to the impreffnm
ab extra by which it is produced, and therefore rmift
have the property of extenfion •, but that agitation,
whatever it be, is not itfelf fenfation any more than
•a bludgeon is a blow, or a fword is a wound. Dr
Prieftley, indeed, in anfwer to Dr Price, affirms, that,
according to Hartley’s theory, ideas are only Vibra¬
tions in the brain ; but whoever {hail take the trouble
*to examine that theory himfelf, will not find that its
author ever advances fuch an opinion, or confiders
vibrations as any thing more than the inftruments by
which fenfations and ideas are excited in the fentient
principle. A real and proper idea, as we have often
repeated, is nothing elfe than a fainter fenfation but
fto fenfation, from whatever caufe it may proceed, is it¬
felf extended} nor could we, without memory, the
reafoning faculty, and the power of local motion, have
acquired from mere fenfe anv notion of extenfion at
all: (feefeft. 3. Chap. x. Part I.). Senfations and ideas
are thofe appearances (if we may fo fay), which vibra¬
tions or fome other motion in the brain excite in the
mind ; but a half appearance is an abfurdity. A man
may view half a tree with his eyes, and he may con¬
template the idea of half a tree in his mind; but he can¬
not have half a view or half an idea of any thing. Se n¬
fations and ideas refult from the mutual agency of the
VOL. XIII. Part II.
H Y S I C S. 649
brain and fentient principle upon each other ; and if0^®^]?'
the agency of the brain be vibration, more of it niaythe 'HumaR
vibrate at one time than at another : but furely the Mind_
mere relation between its agency at any time and the -- r"" '
agency of the mind, can neither have extenfion nor
be divifibie ; for who ever thought of extending or
dividing relations ? On this fubjeft it is extremely
difficult to write with perfpicuity and precifion ; and
what we have faid may very poffibly be mifunderftood.
Our notion is to ourfelves clear and determinate ; but
language, which was not invented by motaphyficians,
wants words in which it may be properly exprtffed.
Perhaps the reader may underftand what we mean,
when we lay that a fonlation or an mea is the inftanta-
neous effedt of the mutual agency of the brain and
fentient principle. Of this we think every man, by
a little attention, may be perfeaiy convinced, though
it may be impoffible ever to difcover the precife na¬
ture of this agency ; and il fo, it is plain that lerfa-
tions and ideas cannot be divided, for no inftantaneous
effedl of any kind is divifibie. A fenfation, and of
courfe a fimple and original idea, neKlier has extonfion
itfelf, nor fuggefts the notion of extenfion ab extra.
By running the hand or any other member along a fo-
lid body, we feel continued refiftance : this feeling, or
the idea of this feeling, becomes in time fo clofely affo-
ciated with all our fenlations of touch and light, that
the one cannot be feparated from the other ; and thefc
affociations are what Dr Prieflley calls extended ideas.
Upon the whole then, we think it apparent, that our
fenlations, and the relidls of our fenfations, are uncx-
tended and indivifible (f) ; and that though they fug-
4 N geft
(F) We affirm this only of human fenfations and ideas, becaufe thefe are the only fenfations and ideas of
which we are confcious, and about which we can reafon. Other animals are fentient as well as man, and
appear to have their fenfations excited by impreffions ab extra; but whether m every fpecies of a -
mals a fingle impreffion excites but one fenfation common to the whole animal, or different fenfation*
which are felt each by a different faculty or fentient principle, is a queftion which we are not able to anfwer.
We make this remark, becaufe from the phenomena of fenfation in the earthworm and other rep les o^
philofophers of eminence having fupnofed, that in thefe creatures the fentient faculty belongs .0 the mate-
rial fyftem, and is divifibie will it; have thence concluded, we think raffily, ^ f ^^mTon raffi • be
immateriality of the human mind are founded merely on our ignorance. \\ e call this conclunon raffi , be
caufe, though we know perfeaiy what a human fenfation is, vve have fo little kn^d|eof°yhe j
fenfoti-.n in worms, that what may be true of the one principle of fenfation may be falfe of the other. In¬
deed, if we are to judge from the phenomena, tiffs is actually the cafe. It appears from experiments made
by Abbe Snallanzani and others, that if a certain number of lings be cut off either from the anterior or
pofterior part of a worm, or even from both, the remainder will not only continue to live and be fentient,
but will alfo regenerate a new bead and a new tail, and become again a complete worm. Nothing like this takes
place in man or in the highe- orders of animals; and therefore, Were it certain that the fentient principle m
the worm is diffufed through the whole fyftem, and divifibie with it, we could not infer that the pi maple
of fuch fenfations as we are confcious of. is likewife extended and divifibie. It is, however, fo far from emg
certain that the fentient principle is diffufed through the whole worm, that nothing neceffanlyfdlows from
this fa<ft but that its feat is at fome diftance from either extremity. Nay, were it true, as perhaps it is,
that a worm may be fo divided, as that each of the two feaions ffiall retain life, fenfation and tins r< pro-
duaive power, we would not therefore be authorized to conclude that the fenlient principle is gm coex-
tended and divifibie with the material fyftem. The earthworm, like many other reptiles, being an her a-
phrodite, which unites in itfelf both fexes, may poffibly confift of two animated fyftems ; ^ich though unit-
ed by fome bond of connexion, bv which fenfation is communicated from the one to the other, are y t
themfelves nerfeaiv diftina. Should this, upon proper mveftigation, be found to be the c»k ’ and fh_
likewife be found, that when a worm is divided into three or more parts, only one or two of thefo parts con¬
tinue to live. there would be no room whatever for fuppofing that even m hefe creatures
fation is extended and divifibie. Tn the mere power of reproducing amputated parts,
eonfidered by itfelf, there is nothing more wonderful than m the growing of the nails of our g ,
o
rtance of t^ie exi^ence of extended things ab extra,
the Human ^“e_gen|;ient being may be unextended and indivifible.
Mind. Having thus examined Dr Prieltley’s auxiliary ar-
v guments tor the materiality of mind, we now proceed
to consider his main and direct proof. To this, as we
have obferved, fo able a reply has been made, that it
would be injuftice to our readers not to lay it before
them, in the ATords of its author. “ I readily ac-
kn°wledge (fays this fpirited effayift *), that the power
calHUlo- fen!atlon or Perception never having been found but
rical, and *n conJun(^lon with a certain organized fyftem of matter,
we ought, as philofophers, to conclude that this power
ncceffarily exifts in, and refults from, that organized
fyftem, unlefs it can be fhown to be incompatible with
other known properties of the fame fubftance. On the
other hand, it muft be admitted, that conftant con-
junftion implies necejjary connexions only rvhen realbns
cannot be difcovered to prove the conjunction to be ac¬
cidental and arbitrary. In the prefent inftance, it is
alleged, that difcerptibility is a property of matter ab-
folutely incompatible with the property of fenfation
METAPHYSICS.
Literary.
Tol. ii.
Part Ilf.
or perception; or in other words, that fcnfation is aOftheSub
power or property incapable of divifion. But as the ftance of
power of the entire fyftem is clearly nothing more than the Human
the fum or aggregate of the powers of all the parts , Mind-
it neceflarily folloivs, that the primary particles of which 234
the fyftem is compofed muft, upon the material hypo-
thefts, poffefs-diftinff powers of fenfation 3 and that1)roof that
thofe powers combined conftitute the indivifible nower th-e f*n,tient
of fenfation belonging ,0 the fyltem ; or, in P„,her irSj
worciS) that the indivifible power of lenfation is a divi- be a fyftem
Jible power, nay, an infinitely divifible power, if mat-of matter.
ter be, as philofophers in general allow, an infinitely
divifible fubftance—a conclufion obvioufly and grofsly
ridiculous. . We are then compelled to acknowledge,
that fenfation or perception is not the property of a
material fubftance 3 i. e. if the common mode of ex-
preffion be retained, it is the property of an immaterial
fubftance 3 or, to avoid verbal contention, it is a property
not refulting trom, or neceflarily connected with, the
organical fyftem, but a property wholly foreign, fuper-
induced, and adventitious (g).
“ In
hau s of our heads. 1 he only thing which feems to militate again ft the fimplicity of the principle of fen-'
.10U rin,. W‘)rm‘g 15 the continuance of life, &c. with both parts of a worm when cut into two by a knife or'
mals l brl t rV°rmi f r’rnd t0- haVC tW° featS of fenfation analogous to the brain in^igher ani-
maL audit it be likewife found that life continues only in fuch fetfions as retain at leaft one feat of fenfa-
tion, the fentient principle in the worm may be as Ample and indivifible as in any animal whatever. We nei-’
ther wufh nor expert much ftrefs to be laid upon thefe hints and conjertures. Should they induce any of our
phyfiological readers who have leifure, and are at the fame time tkilled in philofophy, properly fo cafted to
mftitute a fet of experiments upon worms and fuch reptiles, and to trace apparent ’efforts to theTr higher
caufes, th,ey might eventually lead to important difeoveries. In the mean time, it is fufficient for our purpofe
onirnrt rlm V whatcv^' be the fentient principle or principles in the earthworm, it is obvious that tlJwhole
animal cannot in any cafe be confcious, as man undoubtedly is, of one individual fenfation ; and that therefore no'
arguments bmft upon the phenomena accompanying fenfation in worms, can be of any importance in the contro-
verfy about the materiality or immateriality of the human mind. ,
(G) ±lus ar«uraeft .1S not new. It was long ago urged by Dr Clarke againft Mr Dodwell 3 and fome of
our readers may not be ill plea.ed to fee it ftated by fo mafterly a reafoner : “ That the foul cannot poflibly
,. la <lein0nft'a!J.le fr<?m the finbr]e confideration of bare fenfe or confcioufnefs. For matter beino a'
uivnime fubftance,^ confuting always of feparable, nay of artually feparate and diftinrt parts, it is plain that un-
anddiftTrt6 rl-,la ynC<”' C1°l;S’ IU wl\lch.cafe every particle of matter muft confift of innumerable feparatc
fcil?be n,COIFCU>U/ne f’ 7 uflt’i!n P°ffible eompofition or divifion, can be an individual1 con-'
1- being. lor fuppofe three or three hundred particles of matter, at a mile or any given diftance one
from another, is it poftible that all thefe feparate parts fhould in that ftate be one individual confcious being >
ouppole then all thefe particles brought together into one fyftem, fo as to touch one another, will they therel
)y, or y any motion or compofition whatfoever, become one whit lefs truly diflinrt beings than they were when
a the greateft diftance . How then can their being difpofed in any poffible fyftem make them one individual
---"being If you will fuppofe God by his infinite power fuperadding confcioufnefs to the united particles
which thatfed-P-dtlC eS bf1-ng/er11?r rd ne<2effarily as CJ.iftina beinSs as ever, cannot be themfelves the Jubjea in
which that individual confcioufnefs inheres 3 but the confcioufnefs can only be fuperadded by the addition of fome-
■ ung, w u h in all the particles muff ftill itfelf be but one individual being. The foul, therefore, whofe power
»fninln? IS//Und,tni]a-b-y °ne mdlvlclual confcioufnefs, cannot poftibly be a material fubftance,” Clarke’1 s Letter'
to Mr Dodwell, 2d edition. ’
That the fame mode of reafoning was known to the ancients, Cudworth has ftiown by numerous quotations •
and as an argument certainly lofes nothing by antiquity, or by having occurred to thinking men in diftant
ages, we fliali lay before our readers two paffages from Plotinus, of which the extrart from Clarke’s lettJ
nlwaftfri/T, ^ was not browed by the author) muft be confidered as little more than a para-
* 1 ' " .ian latl0n- frtwv evrovrt,, 01 rKv rupee, inoti XiyolUt, ^ulov piv mei Ucerrov pipov? r/.c, xlum
Z[lYa “ STTOy ^ 15 ™ ^ TO pvyiics run-
n *1° rr' ™°~cv rtu< ^ rupuri Tru^ou ctMov. iv yrXuore to
KEn IV Ub Hi rC^\ 6 ^ T° V7rX£%ur si h Uottflov TUV ps^uv, ov (pmrovmv, s| u-^vxuv viru^st.
,o3lbee fame Jgument is elfewhere ftated thus : £; ^ sv cc^sr L h prfvc; uvluv
UbX’ATap*h * ^ rupeeruv tyv iPyct^sTfaij kw yovv ywxv m etyoflet. En, IV, :
Chap. II. .META P
•Of the Sub- {{ In oppoiition to tills reafoning, the materialifts
ftance ot affirm, that entire fyftems may pofieis, and they think
t^eiV]ind,an themfelve5 warranted to pronounce that organized fyf-
i . terns of matter a6tuaJiy do poflels, powers effentially
different from thofe which inhere in the feveral parts.
Amongft various familiar though ftriking illuflrations
of this truth, it has been laid, that a rofe poffeffes the
property of fweetnefs or fragrance, a globe the pro¬
perty of fphericity, a harpfichord the jiroperty or
power of producing harmony, aqua regia the property
of diffolving gold, &c. though the component parti¬
cles of thefe different organized fyflems are themfelves
totally deftitute of the powers and properties here enu¬
merated.
“ The immaterialifls, in reply, affert, that it is not
only falfe in faff, but a direft contradi6Kon, and an
abfolute impoffibility in the nature of things, that a
fyftem ffiould poffefs any property which does not
inhere in its component parts. To affert that the
power of the whole is the fum or aggregate of the
powers of all the parts, is an identical and felf-evident
propofition, the whole and all the parts being terms
•precifely fynonymous. Whoever, therefore, calls in
queflion the truth of this axiom, mult maintain that
the power of the whole is fomething different from the
power of all the parts, i. e. that the power of the
whole is not the power of the whole.
“ It will be eafy to demonftrate the correfpondence
of fadts with this plain and fimple theory. For this
purpofe, it is neceffary to obferve, that the properties
*of matter, or what are generally dertominated fuch,
may be divided into real and nominal, which Locke
end others have called primary and fecondary qualities.
Figure, magnitude, and motion, are qualities really in¬
herent in matter j but figure, magnitude, and motion,
eternally varied, can produce only different combina¬
tions of figure, magnitude, and motion. There are
alfo powrers, or qualities, vulgarly confidered as inhe¬
rent properties of matter organically difpofed, wffiich
are really and truly qualities or affections of the men¬
tal or percipient principle, and have no exiftence when
not perceived. Thus the fweetnefs or fragrance of the
rofe, confidered as mere fweetnefs and fragrance, can
-be nothing but an affedtion of the mind j confidered
as a quality of the rofe, they can mean nothing more
than a certain arrangement, configuration, and motion
of parts, which in fome inexplicable manner produces
the fenfation of fweetnefs. In this inffance, therefore,
the power of the whole is plainly the aggregate of the
powers refiding in the parts, by the motion and or¬
ganization of which a certain effedt is produced upon a
foreign and percipient fubltance.
“ But a globe, v7e are told, poffeffes the property of
fphericity, though not a fingle particle amongft that in¬
finite number of which the globe is conftituted is itfelf
of a fpherical form. The fallacy of this illuftration is,
however, as eafily demonftrable as that of the former.
The fphericity of a globe is evidently the fum or aggre¬
gate of the curvilinear or convex parts which compofe
its furface •, and the property of the wdiole is neither
more nor lefs than the combined properties of all its
parts. No one doubts, that by new compofitions or
arrangement of material particles poffeffing magnitude,
figure, and motion, an endlefs diverfity of phenomena
may be produced, to which it may be necelfary to apply
H Y s i c s. 6
new names. Newr names, however, do not conflitute Of the J
new properties j and though we give to a globe the tj^ea!j^nvin
appellation of an entire fyftem, and aferibe to it the Mind,
property of fphericity, we know at the fame time that'.. ..i*
it is really nothing more than a colledtion of thoufands
of millions of particles, adtually feparate and diltindt,
arranged in that particular form wffiich we denominate
fpherical. But this can never be regarded as in the
remoteft manner analogous to the creation of the power
of perception, in conlequence of a certain organical
arrangement or difpofition of impercipient particles.
Though fphericity is, indeed, the property of the entire
fphere, yet every part of the fphere, if divided, pofieffes
its ffiare of fphericity. But if the percipient principle
be divided, wffiat would become of the power ol percep¬
tion r A fphere equally divided becomes two hemi-
fpheres \ Does a perception, when divided in like man¬
ner, become two demi-perceptions ?
“ The fame reafonings-may eafily be transferred, and
applied to the harpfichord. Can any one be abfurd
enough to affirm that the power of harmony refides in
the harpfichord, as the power of perception does in the
mind ?■ After the utmoft Ikill of the artificer has been
exerted, we difeover nothing more in the harpfichord
than new modifications of the old properties of figure,
magnitude, and motion, by means of which certain
vibrations are communicated to the air, which, convey¬
ed by the medium of the auditory nerves to the fen-
forium, produce the fenfation of harmonic founds.
Thefe new modifications are therefore, attended, indeed,
with new and very wonderful effects ; but then tliofe
elfefts are produced upon, and are themfelves modifica¬
tions of, the fentient or percipient faculty. And though
it is wholly incomprehenfible to us in what manner
thefe effefts, that is, tliefe fenfations, are produced,
we wrell know, and perfe<511y comprehend, that they are
not new powers belonging to any organized fyftem of
matter \ that they have no exiftence but in a mind
perceiving them; and that they are far from militating
againft that grand and univerfal axiom, that the power
of the whole is nothing more than the united powers of
all the parts.
“ As to the laft inftance adduced, of the power of
aqua regia to diffolve gold, though neither the fpirit of
fait, nor the fpirit of nitre of which it is compounded,
feparately poffeffes that power, it is plain, that from
the union of thefe two fubftances, certain new modes
of configuration and motion refult ; and the folutioa
of gold is the confequence of this new arrangement
and motion of the parts. But the particles of which
the menftruum is compofed were always poffeffed of
the properties of figure and motion *, and what is ftyl-
ed a new property, is clearly nothing more than a
new effeft of the old properties differently modified.
In a word, the advocates for materialifm may fafely
be challenged to produce, in the whole compafs of na¬
ture, a cafe which bears the leaft analogy to that which
thefe inftances are moft unphilofophically adduced to
prove and to illuftrate. It is an abfurdity which tr&ir-
fubftantiation itfelf does not exceed, to maintain that
a whole is in reality any thing different from its com¬
ponent parts : and all nature rifes up in confutation of
an affertion fo monftrous and extravagant. To affirm
that perception can arife from any combination of im¬
percipient particles, is as truly ridiculous-, as to affirm
4N.2 that
Oi
6.52 M E T A P
Of the Sub-that a combination of the feven primary colours vrith
the Humanthe .f°Ur cardInal vi.rtu.es ma7 conaitute a planet. It is
Mind. equivalent to an aflertion, that an epic poem might be
compofed of parallelograms, cones, and triangles. In
a word, it is an abfurdity not lefs real, and a little lefs
obvious, than that of the blind man who thought that
the idea of a fcarlet colour refembled the found of a
trumpet.”
if a matter be taken in the common aceptation, to
be a lolid, extended, and inert fubllance, this reafonmg
for the immateriality of the fentient principle in man
appears to us to have the force of demonftration,
>35 'which no difficulties or partial objedfions, arifing from
Reply by our inability to conceive the band of union between
lialifts*^ tW° fucb lieter°geneous fubftances as mind and body,
fliown can ever weaken, and far lefs overturn. But the mo¬
dern materialifts deny that matter is either folid or
inert. “ All thofe fadts (fay they) which led philo¬
sophers to fuppofe that matter is impenetrable to other
matter, later and more accurate obfervations have
ffiown to be owing to fame thing elfe than folidity and
impenetrability, viz. a power of repnlfion, which for
that reafon they would fubllitute in its place. The
property of attraction or repulfion (fays Dr Prieftley)
appears to me not to be properly what is imparted to
matter, hut wnat really makes it to be what it is j info-
much, that without it, it wnuld be nothing at all j
and as other philofophcrs have faid,—4 Take away fo¬
lidity, and matter vanilhes,’ fo I fay, 1 Take away at¬
traction and repulfion, and matter vaniffies.” If this
be admitted, the ingenious author hopes that we fliall
not confider matter with that contempt and difguft with
which, it has generally been treated, there being no-
thing in its real nature that can jullify fuch fentiments
0^5 refpedting it.
to beat- We know' not why, upon any hypothefis, mat-
furd. ter ffiould be viewed with contempt and dilguft. 
Whether penetrable or impenetrable, every confident
theift confiders it as one of the creatures of God, per-
fcdlly fitted to anfwer all the purpofes for which it was
intended : but were it really deftitute of folidity, and
endowed with the powers of attra&ion and repulfion,
we ffiould Hill be obliged to confider it as incapable of
the powers of i'enfation and thought. If wre have any
notion at all of what is meant by centres of attra&ion
and repulfion (of which indeed we are far from being
confident), it appears to us to be intuitively certain,
that nothing can be the refult of any poffible combina-
tion of fuch centres, but new and more enlarged fpheres
of attraction and repulfion. But furely confcioufnefs,
fenfation, and will, are as different from attraction and
repulfion, as a cube is from the found of a trumpet, or
as the fenfations of a felon in the agonies of death are
from the attraction of the rope by which he is hanged.
If this be admitted, and we are perfuaded it will be
denied by no man whofe underftanding is not clouded
by an undue attachment to paradoxes, the fentient prin¬
ciple cannot poffibly be matter ; for if, when the powers
of attraction and repulfion are taken away, matter vani¬
ffies } and if confcioufnefs and fenfation are not attrac¬
tion and repulfion j it is not more evident that three
and two are not nine, than that the fubftance which at¬
tracts and repels cannot be that which is conlcious and
percipient.
.Locke, who was certainly no materialift, as he re-
5
H Y S I C S. Part III.
peatedly affirmed, and indeed demonftrated, that Of the Sub.
thought could never be the reiult of any combinations ^ai>ce of
of figure, magnitude, and motion, was yet of opinion, l^e ^umaa
that God by his almighty power might endow fome » ^
fyitems of matter with the faculties of thinking 2yj
and willing. It is always with reluCtance that we^.ke’to-
controvert the opinions of fo great a man j and it is P111^haft?
with fome degree of horror that we venture in any
cale to call in cjueftion the power of Omnipotence.— *
But Omnipotence itfelf cannot work contradictions $
and it appears to us nothing (hort of a contradiction,
to fuppofe the individual power of perception inhe¬
ring in a fyftem which is itfelf. extended and made up
of a number of feparate and diftinCt fubltances. For
let us fuppofe fuch a fyftem to be fix feet long, three
feet broad, and two feet deep (and we may a- veil fup¬
pofe a fyftem of thefc dimenfions to be percipient, as
one that is fmaller), then it is plain, lhat every idea
muft be extended, and that part of it muft be in one
place, and part in another. If fo, the idea of a Iquare
inch will be fix feet long, three feet broael, and two
feet deep •, and what is ftill harder to be digeft-
ed, the feveral parts of this idea will be at a great
diftance from each other, without any bond of union
among them- The being which apprehends one ex¬
tremity of the idea, is, by the fuppolition, fix feet di-
ftant from the being which apprehends the other ex¬
tremity j and though thefe two diftinCt beings belong
to one fyftem, they are not only feparable, but actually
feparated from each other as all the particles of mat¬
ter are. What is it then that apprehends as one the
whole of this extended idea ? Part of it may be appre¬
hended by one particle of matter, and part of it by ano¬
ther j but there is nothing which apprehends, or can
apprehend, the whole. Perhaps it will be faid, the
power of apprehenfion is not divided into parts, but
is the power of the one fyftem, and therefore appre¬
hends at once the whole idea- But a power or facul¬
ty cannot be feparated from its fubjeCf, power which
inheres in nothing being confeffedly impoffible j and
a material fyftem is not one fubjeB in which any indi¬
vidual power or faculty can inhere. There muft,
therefore, be united to the fyftem feme one being,
which is the fubjeCt of thought, and which is unex¬
tended as well as indivifible. This, we fay, follows
undeniably. For, let us fuppofe, that an extended
being without feparable parts is poffibk, and that
fuch a being is percipient ; it is obvious, that the
whole of any one of its perceptions could not be in one
place. Now, though we ftiould grant to Dr Prieft¬
ley and other materialifts, that every idea of an ex¬
tended fubftance has itfelf three dimenfions, and is in¬
corporated and commenfurate with the whole perci¬
pient fyftem ; what, upon this fuppofition, ffiall we
think of confcioufnefs and of the perception of truth ?
Is confcioufnefs or truth extended ? If fo, one fide or
fuperficies of confcioufnefs, or of a truth, may be greater
or lefs than another, above or below, to the right or
to the left; and it will be very proper and philofophi-
cal to fpeak of the length, breadth, and depth, of con¬
fcioufnefs or of truth. But furely to talk of the
place or the extenlion of thefe things, is as abfurd
as to talk of the colour of found, or the found of
a triangle \ and we might as well fay, that confci-
euffiefe is green or red, as that it is an ell or an inch
long *
Chap. II. METAP
Of the Sub- long j and that truth is b uc, as that it has three
ftance ot dimenfions.
the Human reafonlng {$ fomewhat diflFerently dated by
uMim ~ , Cudworth j who obfcrves, that if the foul be an ex-
^ tended fubftance, “ it muft of neceffity be either a
hecaufc the piayfical point (i. e. the lead extenfion poffible, if there
femient be- |Je any fuch ieaft extenfion), or elfe it muft eonfift of
SexTeud- more fuch phyftcal points joined together. As for
td. the former of thefe, it is impoflible that one Jingle atom,
or fmallejl point of extenfion, Ihould be able to perceive
diftinftly all the vaneti/ of things, i. e. take notice of
all the diJHm'i and different parts of an extended objeSi,
and have a defcmvtion or delineation of the whole of
them upon itfelf (for that would be to make it the
leaft, and not the leaft, poffible extenfion at the fame
time : Befides, to fuppofe every foul to be but. one
physical point, or the fmalleft pojjible extenjion, is to
fuppofe fuch an effentral dirTerence in matter or exten¬
fion, as that fome of the points thereof Ihould be natu¬
rally devoid of all life, fenfe, and underjlanding ; and
Others again, natural.lv fenfitive and rational. And
even ihould this abfurdity be admitted, it would yet
be utterly inconceivable how there ihould be one, and
but owe, Jeiyitive and rational atom in every man } how
H Y s I C S. 653
this atom of fo ftnall dimenfions ffiould a&uate the
whole fyftem ; and how it ffiould conftantly remain the Human
the fame from infancy to old age, whilft all the other Mind.
parts of the fyftem tranfpire perpetually, and are fuc-\ 1
ceeded by new matter (H).
“ But if, according to the fecond hypothefis, fouls
be extended fubftances confifting of many points one
without another, and all concurring in every fenfa-
tion 5 then muft every one of thefe points perceive
either a point only of the object, or elfe the whole,
Now, if every point of the extended foul perceives, only
a point of the objeB, then is there no one thing in us
that perceives the whole, or that can compare one part
of the objedt with another. On the other hand, if
every point of the extended foul perceive the whole ob-
jeB at once, then would there be innumerable percep¬
tions of the fame object in every fenfation ; as many,
indeed, as there are points in the extended foul.-—
And from both thefe fuppofitions it would alike follow,,
that no man is one Jingle percipient or perfon, but that
in every man there are innumerable diftindt percipients
or peijons ; a conclufion diredtly contrary to the infal¬
lible evidence of confeioufnefs (1).”
Cogent as thefe arguments for the immateriality
fn') 'Should it be faid, that this efiential difference between the atoms of matter is not fortuitous 5 that fome of
them are created intelligent for the exprefs purpofe of animating fyftems of others which are unintelligent j and
that thefe intelligent atoms do not operate upon the fyftems with which they are united, by the ms inertia, foh-
dity, or extend on, of matter, but by the energies of underftandmg and will -.Should this (we fay) oe alleged,
furely it may be alked, for what purpofe they are conceived to have the quality of extenfion . , t.is evident y ot
no ufe ; and it has been already ffiov n, and ffiall be more fully ffiown afterwards, that by our notions of ccnfci-
oufnefs and underftanding, we are fo far from being led to fuppofe the fubjeft or thefe powers extended,, tha we
cannot fuppofe any relation whatever between them and extenfion. But if thefe intelligent atoms be diverted of
their quality of extenfion, they will be transformed from matter to mind, and become the very things for the ex-
iftehce of which we plead. . „ , . r j j r i u
Cl) As the materialifts endeavour to prejudice the public agamft the notion of an unextended foul, by re-
nrefenting it as a fiaion of Bes Cartes, altogether unknown to the ancients,, it may. not be improper to give
our readers an opportunity of judging for themfelves how far this reprefentation.is juft. Plotinus, reaionmg
rfbout the nature of the foul from its energies of fenfation, exprefles himfelf in thefe words nr; piXXu
mUrSctnirfai rm5, h ccvlo u Sue voXXav *,^(>>0, kXu*, rx ucrwl*, »
iroXXxi irtPi b xxt $1 bos TrtnuXov, iiov vpruxor xXXo pM uXXo h o$Q*Xpu*, xXXa rxvlov opov Trxvlmt
tl to u» h cptuiToiv ro h h ur-OK, ev n £0 « ctp-Vor « «y utcoi oh rxvlx, p, os rc xvlo epovrm,
mrbirtani iX6ov rm. “ That which perceives in us, muft of neceffity be one thing, and by one and the lame
indivifible perceive all : and that whether they be more things entering through feveral organs oi Jenle,
as the many qualities of one fubftance, or one various and multiform thing, entering throug.i the lame
oro-an, as the countenance and picture of a man. For it is not one thing in us that perceives the nofe, and
another thing the eyes : but it is one and the felf-fame thing that perceiveth all. And when one thing enters
through the eyes, another through the ears, both tbefe alfo muft of neceffity come at laft to one maivilible 5
other wife they eotild not be compared together, nor one of them be affirmed to be difterent nom she Other,
the feveral ideas of them meeting nowhere in one place.” Purfuing the lame argument, and having oolerved,
that if what pereeiveth in us be extended, then one of thefe three things muft m neseffity be affirmed, that enher
e-very part of this extended foul perceives a part only of the objett, or every part of it the whole ooject;
or elfe, that all comes to fome one point, which alone perceives both the feveral parts of ihe object and the
whole : he obferves of the firft of thefe fuppofitions,—ppjdu ovh to via, guppi^Jetlo uf ae-h xXXo xXXov pigos xeti
unit x ipav iXoo rov xtrtulov eiflMvJ/iv axrni^ xv ti eya piv xXXov’ <rv de xXXevxardoto : 4‘ If the foul be a magm-
Uide, then muft it be divided, together with the fenfible object, fo that one part of the foul muft perceive one part
of the objeiff, and another another j and nothing in it, the whole fenfible j juft as I ffioiild have the lenk ot
one thing, and you of another.” Of the fecond fuppofition he writes in this manner : s< cncv, xir^BIxi'
U( X7ruex hxteuetxi too ptytiovs Trtpvxolos xiri^ovs *xi xtrO^us ^xdlo, xMv rvpMxt yiyn^xi Uxcrla bo, rev xvlov
xorueovs IV T* lytuovovvh *pav uxovxs : “ But if every part of the extended kul perceive the whole fenfible objeft,
fince magnitude is infinitely divifible, there muft be in every man infinite ienfations and images ot one ofijcCt.-
—And as for the third and laft part of this disjunction, Plotinus by aliening the infinite divifibility of body, here
fhows that the fuppofition of any one phyfical point is in itfelf an abfurdity. But if it were not, he agm* with
** Tracis
Ethical,
Theologi¬
cal, and
Political,
vol. i.
^54- i M E T A P
tlie rfehtIent appear to be, they have been
the Human *at?^ treated wuh the moil Wertign contempt by a
Mind. writer who profeli'es to be a dii'cipie of Ur Pri< iiley’s,
but who feerns not to have learned the modeiiy c-r the
candour of his^ matter. Dr Prieitky labours to prove,
that to account for the phenomena of perception and
volition, &e. it is not neceliary to fuppofe an immaterial
principle in man. Mr Cooper with greater boldnefs
affirms, and undertakes to demonifrate with all the
parade of mathematical precifion *, that fuch a principle
is impoffible. Though the authority of this philofopher
in luch inquiries as depend not immediately upon the
retort and the furnace, is certainly not great, he yet
utters his dogmas with fuch confidence, that it may
not be improper to examine the chief arguments upon
239 which they reft.
to prove ^ U buppofe (fays he) the foul to have no common
the impofii-ProPerty with matter \ then, no thing can ad upon
bility of any other but by means of fome common property.
fubftaiumI ^ we have not only a11 tlie Pro°^ that indudion
1 d!Ke of known and acknowledged cafes can furniih, but
that additional proof alfo which arifes from the impof-
fibility of conceiving how the oppofite propofition can
be true. . But by the fuppofition, the foul has no
property in common with matter 5 and therefore the
foul cannot ad upon matter. But by the fuppofition
of every fyftem of immaterialifm (except thole of
Malebranche, Berkeley, and Leibnitz), it is deemed
an eflential property of the foul, that it ads upon the
body, or upon matter ; therefore the foul can and
cannot ad upon matter at the fame time, and in the
fame refped. But this is a contradidion in terms 5
and as two contradidions cannot both be true at the
fame time, the fuppolition of the exiftence of an im¬
material foul cannot be true ; that is, the foul does not
exift.”
This reafoning, the reader will obferve, is carried
on with all the pomp of mode and figure. The pro-
politions hang upon each other like the feveral fteps
of an algebraic procefs : but as in fuch proceffes one
error unwarily admitted produces a falfe refult, fo in
demonftrative reafonings one unfound argument admit¬
ted into the premifes is neceffarily produdive of error
in the conclufion. When the author affirms, “ that
no thing can ad upon any other but by means of fome
common property,” he affirms without the ffiadow of
proof what is certainly not felf-evident. He fays, in¬
deed, that of this we have all the proof that induc¬
tion of known and acknowledged cafes can furniih j
but unlefs confcioufnefs be calculated to deceive us,
this is unqueftionably a miftake. Matter, he repeat¬
edly affirms, has no other properties than thofe of at-
tradion and repulfion : but a man moves his arm by
a mere energy of will; and therefore, according to
this demonftrator, an energy of will muft be either
material attradion or material repullion. If fo, it is
reafonable to conclude, that when a man draws his
hand towards his head, the centre of his brain exerts
its power of attraBion ; and that when he extends his
H Y S I C S. -Partin.
arm at full length before him, the fame centre exerts Ot the Sub.
240
Shown to
Be futile.
its power of repulfion. We beg pardon of our readers for ^nc. of
detaining them one moment upon fuch abfurdities aslhe, .Hun,a»
thele : yet we cannot dilmils the argument without ta- < ^‘1(^
king the liberty to alk our all-knowing author, How it
comes to pals that the fame centre fometimes attrads
and fometimes repels the fame fubftance at the fame
diltance ; hay, that it both attrads and repels fubitan-
ces ot the lame kind, at equal diftances, and at the
very lame inllant ol time ? This muft be the cafe,
when a man puts one hand to his head, and thrufts
another from him 5 and therefore, if thefe operations
be the effed of attradion and repulfion, it muft be
of attradion and repuifion to which indudion of known
and acknowledged cafes furnilhes nothing fimilar or
analogous, i. e. of fuch attradion and repulfion as, ac¬
cording to Mr Cooper’s mode of reafoning, does not
cxilt. 1 he truth is, that we are not more certain that
we ourfclves exift, than that an energy of will is nei¬
ther attradion nor repulfion ; and therefore, unlefs
all matter be endued with will, it is undeniable, that,
whatever be the fubftance of the foul, one thing ads
upon another by a property not common to them both.
In what manner it thus ads, we pretend not to know :
but our ignorance of the manner of any operation is no
argument again!! the reality of the operation itfelf^
when we have for it the evidence of confcioufnefs and
Gaily experience ^ and when the author fhall have ex¬
plained to general fatisfadion how material centres at-
trad and repel each other at a diliance, Ave ftiall under¬
take to explain how one thing ads upon another with
which it has no common properties. 2^r
Sufpicious, as it ftiould feem, that this reafoning has A fecond
not the complete force of mathematical demonftration, atteraPt ^
the author fupports his opinion by other arguments,
“ Whatever we know (fays he), we know by means ‘
of its properties, nor do we in any cafe whatever cer¬
tainly know any thing but thefe ; and we infer in all
cafes the exiftence of any thing which we fuppofe to
exift from the exiftence of its properties. In ffiort,
our idea of any thing is made up of a combination of
our ideas of its properties. Gold is heavy, dudile,
tenacious, opaque, yellow, foluble in aqua regia, &c.
Now, let any one fuppofe for an inftant that gold is
deprived of all thefe, and becomes neither heavy, duc¬
tile, tenacious, opaque, yellow, foluble, &c. what re¬
mains, will it be gold i1 Certainly not. If it have other
properties, it is another fubftance. If it have no pro¬
perties remaining, it is nothing. For nothing is that
which hath no properties. Therefore, if any thing
lofe all its properties, it becomes nothing 5 that is, it
lofes its exiftence. Now, the exiftence of the foul is
inferred, like the exiftence of every thing elfe, from its
fuppofed properties, which are the phenomena of
thinking, fuch as perception, recolledion, judgment,
and volition. But in all cafes of perfeB lleep, of th*
operation of a ftrong narcotic, of apoplexy, of fwoon-
ing, of drowning where the vital powers are not ex-
tinguilhed, of the effeds of a violent blow on the
back
Ariftotle in alking vrus ru ctptgu r« psgterjer—thereby plainly indicating, that the fentient principle is totally fe-
parated from extenlion, and can neither be conlidered as extended like a fuperfieies or folid, nor unextended as a
phylical point.
Chap.
IT.
M E T A P
242
fcown to
be equally
eeeak.
Of the Sub-back part of the head, and all other leipothymic affec-
ftance of tions, tliere is neither perception, recolleftion, judge-
ment’ nor ? that is, all the properties of the
‘ ^ ‘ . foul are gone, are extinguiftied. Therefore, the foul
itfelf lofes its exiftence for the time. If any man {hall
fay, that thefe properties are only fufpended for the
time, I would defire him to examine what idea he an¬
nexes to this fufpenfion j whether it be not neither
more nor lefs than that they are made not to exijl for the
time. Either no more is meant, or it is contradi&ofy
to matter of fa<3: ; and moreover, if more he meant, it
may eafily be perceived to involve the archetypal exift¬
ence of abftraft ideas, and to contradift the axiom im-
pojjibi/e efl idem effe et non effed''
For the benefit of ftiort-fighted inquirers, it is to be
wifhed that the author had favoured the public with
this proof which might have been fo eafily brought;
for we can difcern no connexisn whatever between
the fufpenfion of the exercife of the powers of the
mind, and the archetypal exiftence of abftraft ideas,
or the abfurd propofition that it is pofjible for the fame
thing to be and not to be. We think, however, that we
underftand enough of this reafoning which he has given
us to be able to pronounce with fome confidence that
it is nothing to the purpofe. For, in the firjl place,
We beg leave to obferve, that between the properties
of gold and the powers of thinking, &c. there is no
fimilarity j and that what may be true when affirmed
of the one, may be falfe when affirmed of the other.
The powers of the mind are all more or lefs active }
the enumerated properties of gold are all pafiive. We
know by the moft complete of all evidence, that the
exercife of power may be fufpended, and the power it¬
felf remain unimpaired j but to talk of the fufpenfion
of the energies of what was never energetic, if it be
not to contradict the axiom impofjibile cjl idem effe et non
ejfe, is certainly to employ words which have no mean¬
ing. Yet even this argument from the properties of
gold might have led the author to fufpeCt that fome-
thing elfe may be meant by the fufpenfion of the ex¬
ercife of powers, than that thofe powers are made not to
exijl for the time. In a room perfectly dark gold is not
yellow j but does it lofe any of its effential properties,
and become a different fubftance, merely by being car¬
ried from light to darknefs ? Is a man while in a dark
room deprived of. the faculty of fight, and one of the
powers of his mind made not to exift for the time ?
The author will not affirm that either of thefe events
takes place. He will tell us that gold exhibits not its
yellow appearance, merely becaufe the proper medium
of light pafifes not from it to the eye of the percipi¬
ent, and that it is only for want of the fame medium
that nothing is feen by us in perfeCt darknefs. Here,
then, by his own confeffion, is a power of the mind,
and a property of an external objeCt, both fufpended
in their energies, without being annihilated j and no
proof has yet been brought that all the powers of the
mind may not in the fame manner be fufpended in
their energies without being made not to exift. As
o # o
light is ncceffary to vifion, but is not itfelf either the
thing which fees or the thing which is feen *, fo may
the brain be neceffary to the phenomena of thinking,
without being either that which thinks, or that which
is thought upon : and as aCtual vifion ceafes when light
is withdrawn, though the eye and the objeCt both con-
H Y S I C S. 655
tinue to exift; fo may the energy of thinking ceafe Of the Sub-
when the brain is rendered unfit for its ufual office,
though the being which thinks, and the power of Clinch"
thought, continue to exift, and to exift unimpaired, u—y——f
That this is aCtually the cafe every man mull be con¬
vinced who believes that in thinking he exerts the
fame powers to-day that he exerted yefterday ; and
therefore our author’s fecond demonftration of the
nonexiftence of mind is, like his firft, founded upon
affertions which cannot be granted. 243
Another of thefe pretended demonftrations is as A third at-
follows : “ If the foul exift at all, it muff; exift fome-^P^
where ; for it is impofilble to frame to one’s felf an ai
idea of any thing exifting, which exifts nowhere.
But if the foul exift fomewhere, by the terms it oc¬
cupies fpace, and therefore is extended; but whatever
has extenfion, has figure in confequence thereof. The
foul then, if it exift, hath the properties of extenfion
and figure in common with matter. Moreover, by the
fuppofition of every immaterial hypothefis (except
thofe of Malebranche, Berkeley, and Leibnitz), it
aCts upon body, i. e. upon matter ; that is, it attraCls
and repels, and is attracted and repelled, for there is
no conceivable affeCtion of matter but what is founded
on its properties of attraction and repulfion ; and if
it be attracted and repelled, its reaCtion mult be at¬
traction and repulfion. The foul then has the pro¬
perties of extenfion, figure, attraction and repulfion,
or folidity. But thefe comprife every property which
matter, as fuch, has ever been fuppofed to poffefs.
Therefore the foul is matter, or material. But by
the fuppofition it is immaterial; therefore it does not
exift. For nothing can exift whofe exiftence implies
a contradiction.” 244
Mr Cooper, we fee, ftill proceeds in the direCt. roadfhown to
of mathematical demonftration ; but in the prefent in-^0)It^ute ^
fiance we beg leave to flop him in the very beginning e
of his courfe, and to alk where the univerfe., exifts ?
When he {hall have given fuch an anfwer to this quef-
tion as men of common fenfe may be able to compre¬
hend, we may perhaps attempt to tell him where an
unextended foul exifts. If this demonftration be not
a collection of words without meaning, the exiftencs
of fpace as a real thing is taken for granted. Space,
therefore, has extenfion, and of courfe figure; but
we believe Mr Cooper will find fome difficulty in afcer-
taining the figure of infinite fpace. The mind certainly
aCts upon body. For this wTe have the evidence of
confcioufnefs and experience ; but we have no evidence
whatever that it mult therefore altraCt and repel, and
be attracted and repelled. It has been already ob-
ferved, that the mind, whatever be its fubftanee, aCts
upon the body by energies of will. What thefe are
every man know* with the utmoft certainty and preci-
fion ; whilft we may venture to affert, that no man
knows precifely what corpufcular attraction and repul¬
fion are, fuppofing the exiftence of fuch powers to be
poflible. When we fpeak of attraction and repulfion,
we have fome obfeure notion of bodies aCting upon
each other at a diftance; and this is all that we know
of the matter. But when wre think of an energy of
the human will, the idea of diftance neither enters nor
can enter into our notion of fuch an energy. Thefe
are faCts which we pretend not to prove by a mathe¬
matical or a chemical procefs. Every man muft be
convinced
655
0^ne convinced of tlieir truth by evidence more complete
tiie Ka;nan ^ian any Pr<)0^ V1Z- immediate confcioufnefs of his
'vi;nd. vwn thoughts and volitions. This being the cafe, v/e
< ii... v—,n ,j may turn Mr Cooper’s artillery againft himfelf, and,
becaufe mind ails upon body by powers different from
attraction and repuliion, argue that body neither at-
trails nor repels; and were it ‘true, as it is certainly
falfe, that nothing could ail upon another but by
means of fome property common to both, we might in¬
fer that every atom of matter is endowed with the
powers of volition and intelligence, and by confequence
that every man is not one but ten thoufand confcious
beings, a conclution which our philofopher feems not
,4,. inclined to admit.
Objections Having nnidled his demonftration?, the author dates
t° e of im" °^,ei °bjeilions to the doctrine of immaterialifm,
in at en ah fm vv^’c^’ as they are not his own nor new, liave greater
ftated and weight. “ It appears no more than reafonable (fays
anfwered. he), that if the doilrine of materialifm be rejected as
inadequate to explain the phenomena, thefe latter diould
at lead be explained in fome mariner or other better
•upon the fubjhtuted than the reje&ed hypothefis •, fo that
it is reafonable to require of an immaterialift that his
fuppofition of a didindl foul diould explain the ra~
■tionale of the phenomena of thinking. But, itrange
to fay*, fo far from attempting to explain thefe phe¬
nomena on the immaterial hypothefis, it is acknow¬
ledged on all hands that even on this hvpothefis the
phenomena are inexplicable.” This objeiffion it would
certainly be no difficult talk to obviate j but from that
trouble, fmall as it is, we are happily exempted by
the objector. “ I would have it underdood (fays he),
that no materialid ever undertook to fay kovj percep¬
tion refults from our organization. What a materi¬
al! • undertakes to affert is, that perception, w/ialever
it be, or however it refults from, does actually refult
from our organization.” According to Mr Cooper,
then, the r alien ale of thinking is equally inexplicable
by materialilts and immaterial ids; and the truth is,
that we know the rationale of hardly any one operation
in nature. We fee that the ffroke of a racket produces
motion in a billiard ball ; but how it does fo, we be¬
lieve no man can fay. Of the faft, however, we are
certain } and know that ihe motion is produced by
fome power, abeut the effects of which we can rea-
fon with precifion. In like manner we know with the
utmoft certainty, that we ourfelves have the powers of
perception and volition ; and that thefe powers cannot
be conceited as either an ell or an inch long. How
they refult fr-,m the mutual agenev of an immaterial
and material mbftance upon each other, we are in¬
deed profoundly ignorant *, but that fuch is the fa6I,
and that they are not the refult of mere organization,
we muft neceffarily believe, fo long as it is true that
the power of the entire fydem is nothing more than
the fum or aggregate of the powers of all its parts.
The immaterial hypothefis contains in it fomething
inexplicable by man : The material hvpothefis like-
wife contains, by the confeffion of i+s advocates, fome¬
thing that is equally inexplicable; and is over and
above burdened with this eontraduffion, that the whole
is fomething different from all its parts. It is there¬
fore no “ fingulai phenotoonon in literary hiftory,
that one hypothefb ffiordd ' <• rie<?ed as inadequate
to account for appearances, and that the hypothefis
METAPHYSICS, Part III.
fubftituted diould, even by the acknowledgment of Of the Sab.
its abettors, be fuch as not only not to explain the ltarHeof
rationale of the appearances, but from the nature of miR
it, to preclude all hopes of fuch an explanation.” ■ ^ ' j
This is exactly the cafe with refpebt to a vacuum in
adronomy. That hypothefis does not in the lead
tend to explain the rationale of the motions of the
planets j but yet it muft be admitted in preference
to a plenum, becaufe upon this laft hypothefts motion
is impoffible. .
“ Suppofing the exiftence of the foul, it is an un- Whether as'
fortunate circumftance (fays Mr Cooper), that wemanythings')
cannot properly affert pofitively any thing of it at^ay!)efa^'
all.” Were this the cafe, it would indeed be a verythefoulas
unfortunate circumftance-, but can we not affert po- of the bcxlp
fitively as many things of the foul as we can of the
body ? Can we not fay with as much propriety and
certainty, that the foul has the powers of perception
and volition, &c. as that the body is folid and extend¬
ed, or as that matter has the powers of attraction
and repulfion ? We know perfectly what perception
and volition are, though we cannot have ideas or men¬
tal images of them ; and if -our author knows what
attraction and repulfion are, Ave believe he will not
pretend to have of them ideas entirely abftradted from
their objefts. “ But granting the foul’s exiftence, it
may be alked (fays he), Of what ufe is an hypothefis
of Avhich no more can be afferted than its exiftenee ?”
We have juft obferved that much more can be afferted
of the foul than its exiftence, viz. that it is fomething
of which perception and will are properties ; and he
himfelf afferts nothing of matter but that it is fome¬
thing of which attraftion and repulfion are proper¬
ties.
“ This foul, of which thefe gentlemen (the imms-
terialifts) are confcious, is immaterial effentially. Now
I deny (fays our author), that we can have any idea
at all of a fubftance purely imtnaterial.” He elfe-
where fays, that nothing can exift which is not extend¬
ed, or that extenfion is infeparable from our ra tions
of exiftence. Taking the word idea in its proper
fenfe, to denote that appearance which external ob-
jecls make in the imagination, it is certainly true that
we can have no idea of an immaterial fubftance : but
neither have we, in that fenfe, any idea of matter ab-
ilracted from its qualities. Has Mr Cooper any idea
of that which attracts and repels, or of attra61ion and
repulfion, abftracted from their objects ? He may, per¬
haps, have, though we have not, very adequate ideas of
bodies afring upon each other at a diftance ; but as he
takes the liberty to fubftitute affertions for arguments*
tve beg leave in our turn to affert, that thofe ideas nei¬
ther are, nor can be, more clear and adequate than our
notion of perception, confcioufnefs, and will, united in
one being. hi
That extenfion is no otherwife infeparable from burExtenfioft
notions of exiftence than by the poAver of an early andnot 11
perpetual affociation, is evident from this circumftance,
that, had avc never poffeffed the fenfes of fight and 0f e3Utt-
touch, xve never could have acquired any idea at all ofence.
extenfion. No man, who has thought on the fubject,
will venture to affirm, that it is abfolutely impcffible
for an intelligent being to exift with no other fetofes
than thefe of fmell, tafte, and hearing. Now it is ob¬
vious that filch a being muft acquire {bare notion of ex-
iftence
Chap. II. META P
Of the Sub-iftence from his own confcioufnefs : but into that notion
ftanre of extenfion could not poffibly enter j for neither founds,
the Human ta^eSj fmell3, nor confcioufnefs, are extended ; and it is
LJVlind' , a fundamental article of the materialids creed, that all
U’’~v our ideas are relitls of fenfation. Since then exiftence
may be conceived without extenfion, it may be inferred
that they are not infeparable from each other; and fmce
cogitation cannot be conceived with extenfion, we may
reafonably conclude, that the being which thinks is not
extended.
Mr Cooper indeed, with his mailer, talks of extend¬
ed ideas and extended thoughts : but ive mud affert, in
the words of Cud worth, that “ we cannot conceive a
thought to be of fuch a certain length, breadth, and
thicknefs, meafurable by inches, feet, and yards ; that we
cannot conceive the half, or third, or twentieth part ot
a thought j and that we cannot conceive every thought
to be of fome determinatefuch as round or angu¬
lar, fpherical, cubical, cylindrical, or the like. Where¬
as if extenfion were infeparable from exitlence, thoughts
mull either be mere nonentities, or extended into length,
breadth, and thicknefs ; and confequently all truths in
us (being nothing but complex thoughts) mull be long,
broad, and thick, and of fome determinate figure. The
fame mull likewife be affirmed of volitions, appetites,
and paflions, and of all other things belonging to cogi¬
tative beings } fuch as knowledge and ignorance, wfif-
dom and folly, virtue and vice, &c. that thefe are ei¬
ther all of them abfolute nonentities, or elfe extended in¬
to three dimenfions, and meafurable not only by inches
and feet, but alfo by folid meafures, fuch as pints and
quarts. But if this be abfurd, and if thefe things belong¬
ing to foul and mind (though douhtlefs as great realities
at leall as the things which belong to body) be unex¬
tended, then mull the fubilances of fouls or minds be
themfelves unextended, according to that of Plotinus,
pan? av ^txfleci ettp tctvTov, and therefore the human foul
cannot be material.”
Thar4*!- Mr Cooper employs many other arguments to prove
tumar the materiality of the fentient principle in man ; but
mind can- the force of them extends no farther than to make it
not exert jn t]ie Inched degree probable, that the mind cannot
exert its faculties but in union with fome organized
nion with corporeal fyftem. This is an opinion which we feel
fome cor- not ourfelves inclined to controvert} and therefore we
pureal 1'yf- {ha]] not im1ce any particular remarks upon that part
tem, an o- ^ our aut]Kn-’s reafonings. That an immaterial and
%able and indifcerptible being, fuch as the foul, is not liable to
be diffolved with the body, is a fufl which cannot be
controverted : for what has no parts can perith only
by annihilation ; and of annihilation the annals of the
world afford no intlanee. That an immaterial being,
endowed with the powers of perception and volition,
&e. may he capable of exerting thefe powers in a llate
of fenaration from all bodv, and that at leall one im¬
material Being does aftually fo exert them, or other
powers analogous to them, are truths which no man
whofe arrogance does not furpafs his judgment will ven¬
ture to deny ; but the queffion at prefent between the
mod rigid immaterialifts aod their opponents, is, whe¬
ther there be ground to think that the human foul is
fuch a being ?
Now, when Mr Baxter and his followers confident-
lv affirm, that human perception muff neceffarily fubfift
after the diffolution of the prefent mortal and perifliable
Vol. XIII. Part II.
H Y S T C S. 657
fyftem j and that the foul, when difencumbered of0^.
all body, will have its faculties greatly enlarged ; ^y.T* Human
affirm what to us appears incapable of proof. 1 hat v!ind.
a difembodied foul tnuy perceive, and think, and '-v 1
aft, and that its powers ot intelleftion may have a
wider range than when they were circumfcribed by a
corporeal iyfeem, which permitted their aftii n upon
external objefts only through five organs of fenie, is
certainly pojjible ; and the argument by which the ma-
terialifts pretend to prove it not poflible, is one of the
moft contemptible fophifms that ever difgraced the
page of philofophy. I o affirm, that becaufe our in-
telleftual powers, in their embodied ilate, feem to ce-
cay with the fyflem to which they are united, the
mind, when fet free, muil therefore have no luch
powers at all, is equally abfurd as to fay, that beeaufe
a man fhut up in a room which has but one window
fees objefts lets and lefs diitinftly as the glafs becomes
more and more dimmed, he muff in the open air be
deprived of the power of viiion. But becaufe the hu¬
man foul may, for any thing that we fee to the con¬
trary, fubfift, and think, and aft, in a le par ate i ate,
it does not therefore neceffarily follow that it will do
fo •, and every thing that we know of its nature and
its energies leads us to think, that without fome kind
of bodv by which to aft as by an intirument, all its
powers would continue dormant. I here is not the tfia-
dow of a reafon to fuppofe that it exiiled and was con-
feious in a prior ft ate ; and as its memory at prefent
unqueftionably depends upon the ftate of the t rain,
there is all the evidence of which the cafe will aomit,
that if it fhould fubfift in a future ftate diveited of all
body, though it might be endowed with new and en¬
larged powers of perception, it could have no recodec-
tion of what it did and fuffered in this world, and there¬
fore would not be a fit objeft either of reward or of
punithment. This confideration has compelled many
thinking men, both Pagans and Chriftians, to lupp* fe
that at death the foul carries with it a fine material
vehicle, which is its immediate f nforium in this world,
and continues to be the feat of its rccolleftion in the
next. Such, as we have feen, was the opinion of Mr
Wollatlon and Dr Hartley ; it was likewife the opinion
of Cudworth and Locke, who held that the Supreme
Being alone is the only mind wholly feparated from
matter •, and it is an opinion which even Dr Clarke,
one of the ablefl advocates for immaterialifm, would not
venture pofitively to deny. 249
Nor is this opinion peculiar to a few moderns. Cud-ancient,
worth, after giving a vail number of quotations from
Pythagoreans and Platonifts, which prove to a demon-
ftration that they held the Deity to be the only mind
which perceives and afts without the inflrumentali-
ty of matter, obferves, “ from what hath been faid,
it appeareth, that the moll ancient affertors of the
incorporeity and immortality of the human foul, yet
fuppofed it to be always conjoined with fome body.”
Thus Hierocles plainlv : sj Aey;*)) 6v<nct, ervp.(f>vi? i-gootrx
caux, 7rx%x rov ^ypmv^yov £<? to uvxt vx^Stv, a>{
pyirt to traux uvxi xvlnv, unrs xviv rupctlos' oeAA xvhv ptv
uru/xxrev, x-xsttz^x rovcrSxi $z in; eo>ux to oAov xvlus £<^05.
Tie rationa nature having always a kindred body, fo
proceeded from the demiur^us, as that neither itfef is
body., nor yet can it be without body ; but though itfe/f
be incorporeal, yet its who!? form is terminated in a
4 O bodp^
*
<558 M E T A P
CLmceSof" h°d^ Agreea’oIy to this the definition which he gives
the Human 3 raan ^s> Aay<*<i ftp.x (rvft.pevs aduvciTov ircdftccloz,
Mind. a rational foul, together with a kindred immortal bodi/ ;
—v~‘—^an^ ho affirms, that our prefent animated terreftrial
body, or mortal man, is nothing but ’hWov x'd^uxov,
the image of the true man, or an acceffion from which
ii, may ce feparated. Neither does he affirm this only
of human fouls, but alfo of all other rational beings
whatioever below the Supreme Deity, that they always
naturally afruate fome body. Wherefore a demon or
angel (which by llierocles are ufed as fynonymous
words), is alfo defined by him after the fame manner,
' pdluveo e-aifixloz, a rationalfoul, together
•with a lucid body. And accordingly Proclus upon Pla¬
to s 1 "imams ajjinneth, -xctwot ocauova. ruv tiuijigay x.^t'loym
xxt '-xtiy, ^vzav, rmi cudi^tov: That
everij demon, fuperior to human fouls, ‘hath both an intel¬
lectual foul and an ethereal vehicle, the entirenefs thereof
being made up or compounded of thefe two thiugs. So
that there is hardly any other difference between de¬
mons or angels, and men, according to thefe philofo-
phers, bnt only this, that the former are lapfable into
aerial bodies only, and no further; but the latter into
terreftrial alfo. Now, Hierocles pofitively affirms this
to have been the true cabala, and genuine doftrine of
the ancient Pythagoreans, entertained afterwards by
Plato : X.C&1 tovto TUV Uvixyo^uuv daypu, o ck ITA ocrav
vrk(>av i%s<pyyiv, axziKxtrxz 'bwxpm vtcottU^ov
^syyiyj rs xxi vivurgcv j xxcx'/ duxv ts xxi xv6sei)xtvrl)i ••pogyiv.
jlnd tuis was the doctrine of the Pythagoreans, which
Plato afterwards declared; he refembling every both
human and divine foul (i. e. in our modern language,
every created rational being) to a winged chariot, ami a
driver or charioteer both together : meaning by the cha¬
riot, an animated body ; and by the charioteer, the in¬
corporeal foul actuating it.
ihat this Pythagorean opinion of the Deity’s being
the only mind which thinks and a£ts without material
organs, was very generally received by the ancient
Chriftians, might be proved by a thoufand quotations :
We Ihall content ourfelves with producing two from
the learned Origcn. “ Solius Dei (faith this philofophic
father of the church), id eft, Patris, Filii, et- Spiritus
Sancti, naturae id proprium eft, ut fine materiali
* _ . , fubftantia, et abfque ulla corporese adjedlionis focietate,
chonYdrr. ^e\%atur fubfiftere “ Materialem fubftantiam
cap. <5. opinione quidem et intelledlu folum feparari, a naturis
rationalibus, et pro ipfis, vel poll ipfas affedfam videri;
fed nunquam fine ipfa eas vel vixiffe, vel vivere: Solius
namque Trinilatis incorporea vita exiftere putabiturf.”
Should Mr Cooper and his friends alk, What is the ufe
of a foul which cannot aff without the inftrumentality
of matter ? or why we fliould fuppofe the exiftence of
fuch a fubftance i1 _we beg leave," in our turn, to alk
thefe gentlemen, What is the ufe of a brain which
cannot fee without eyes P and why they Ihould fuppofe
all our fenfations to terminate in fuch an internal
fyftem, fince the vulgar certainly fuppofe their fenfations
to fublift in.their refpeftive organs P How this ancient
notion, which makes body fo effential a part of man, is
confiftent with the immortality of the human foul, we
Ihall inquire in a fubfequent chapter; in which we
fhall endeavour to afeertain what kind of immortality
we have reafon to expefl, and upon what evidence our
5
f Lib. a.
cap. 2.
H Y S I C S. Part I1L
expectation mult reft. Previous to this inquiry, how- Of tvf0nai
ever, it is necelfary to enter upon another, which is of I^ctitity.
the firft importance, and which every matcrialift has ' 
endeavoured to perplex ; we mean that which concerns
perfonal identity; for if, as has been often faid, no man
is the fame perfon two days fucceffively, it is of no
importance to us whether the foul be mortal or im¬
mortal.
Ch.4p. III. O/Tersonal Identity.
Whether we are to live in a future Hate, as it is Peribaal
the moll .important queftion which can poffibly be identity,
alkcd, fo it is the moll intelligible one which can be
expreffe.d in language. \ et ftrange perplexities have
been raifed about the meaning of that identity or fame-
nefs of per Ion, which is implied in the notion of our liv¬
ing now and hereafter, or indeed in any two fucceffive
moments ; and the folution of thefe difficulties hath
been ftranger than the difficulties themfelves. To re¬
peat aft that has been faid on the fubjeCt ivould fwell
this chapter to a difproportionate bulk. We lhail there¬
fore content ourielves with laying before our readers
the fentiments of |Eiftiop Butler, and the fancies and
demonftrations of the philofopher of Manchefter. We
are induced to adopt this courfe, becaufe ivc think the
illuftrious bilhop of Durham has exhaufted the fubjeCf,
by Hating fairly the opinions which he controverts, and
by eftabliffiing his own upon a foundation which cannot
be.ffiaken, and which are certainly not injured, by the
objections of Mr Cooper. r
“ When it is afked (fays this philofophical prelate*) though it
in what perfonal identity confifts ? the anfvver Ihould be canot k®
the fame as if it were afked in what confifts fimilitude ea"
or equality r'—that all attempts to define would but
perplex it. . Yet there is no difficulty at all in afeer- afeertained
taming the idea or notion : For as, upon two triangles W confei-
being compared or viewed together, there arifes& tooufrefs snc-
the mind the notion of fimilitude ; or, upon twice two *
and four, the notion of equality: fo likewife, upon tionf,
comparing the confcioufnefs of one’s felf or one’s own fuhjoineil H
exiftence in any tivo moments, there as immediatelythe A”alo~
arifes to the mind the notion of perfonal identity
And as the two former comparifons not only give
the notions of fimilitude and equality, but alfo ffiow us
that two triangles are fimilar, and that twice two and
four are equal 5 fo the latter comparifon not only gives
us the notion of perfonal identity, but alfo ffiows us the
identity of ourfelves in thefe two moments—the
prefent, fuppofe, and that immediately paft, or the
prefent and that a month, a year, or twenty years paft.
In other words, by refleCling upon that which is myfelf
now, and that which was myfelf twenty years ago,
I difeern they are not two, but one and the fame
felf.
“ But though confcioufnefs of what is prefent and Thefe,"
remembrance of what is paft; do thus afeertain our per-however,
fonal identity to ourfelves; yet, to fay that remem-donot
brance makes perfonal identity, or is ncceffary to our™^^’
being the fame perfons, is to fay that a perfon has not tity.
exifted a tingle moment, nor done one aClicn, but what
he can remember; indeed none but what he refleCts
upon. And one fliould really think it felf-evident, that
confcioufnefs of perfonal identity prefuppofes and there¬
fore
Chap.
ITT. M E T A P
of Perlbfta! fore cannot conftitutc perfonal identity ; any more than
Identity, knovvledg-e, in any other cafe, can conftitute truth,
which it prefuppoles.
“ The inquiry, what makes vegetables the fame in
the common acceptation of the word, does not appear to
have any relation to this of perfonal identity ; becaufe
the word fame, when applied to them and to perfon, is
not only applied to different fubje&s, but is aifo ufed
in different fenfes. When a man fwears to the fame
tree, as having flood fifty years in the fame place, he
means only the fame as to all the purpofes of property
and ufes of common life, and not that the tree has been
all that time the fame in the Ariel philofophical fenfe of
the word: For he does not know whether any one par¬
ticle of the prefent tree be the fame with any one parti¬
cle of the tree which flood in the fame place fifty years
ago. And if they have not one common particle of
matter they cannot be the fame tree in the proper and
philofophic fenfe of the word fame ; it being evidently
a contradiction in terms to fay they are, when no part
of their fubftance and no one of their properties is the
fame •, no part of their fubftance, by the fuppofition •,
no one of their properties, becaufe it is allowed that
the fame property cannot be transferred from one fub¬
ftance to another : And, therefore, when we fay that
the identity or famenefs of a plant confifts in a con¬
tinuation of the fame life, communicated under the
fame organization to a number of particles of matter,
whether the fame or not •, the word fame, when applied
to life and to organization, cannot pofllbly be under-
ftood to fignify what it fignifies in this very fentence,
when applied to matter. In a loofe and popular fenfe,
then, the life, and the organization, and the plant, are
juftly faid to be the fame, notwithftanding the perpetual
change of the parts. But, in a ftrift and philofophical
manner of fpeech, no man, no being, no mode of being,
no any thing, can be the fame with that with which it
has indeed nothing the fame. Now famenefs is ufed in
this latter fenfe when applied to perfons. The identity
of thefe, therefore, cannot fubfift with diverfity of fub¬
ftance.
“ The thing here confidered, and demonftratively, as
I think, determined, is propofed by Mr Locke in thefe
words : Whether it (i. e. the fame felf or perfon) be the
fame identical fubjlance ? And he has fuggefted what is
a much better anfwer to the queftion than that which
he gives it in form : For he defines a perfon a thinking
intelligent being, &c. and perfonal identity, the famenefs
of a rational being ; and then the queflion is, Whether
the fame rational being is the fame fubftance ? which
needs no anfwer •, becaufe being and fubftance are in
this place fynonvmous terms. The ground of the
doubt, whether the fame perfon be the fame fubftance,
is faid to be this, that the confcioufnefs of our own ex-
iftence, in youth and in old age, or in any two joint
fucceftive moments, is not the fame individual ad ion,
i. c. not the fame confcioufnefs, but different fucceftive
confcioufneffes. Now it is ftrange that this (hould have
occafioned fuch perplexities : for it is fure.lv conceivable
that a perfon may have a capacity of knowing fome
objeft or other to be the fame now which it was when
he contemplated it formerly •, yet in this cafe, where,
by the fupnofition, the obje£t is perceived to be the
fame, the perception of it in any two moments cannot
be one and the fame perception. And thus, though
*53 .
What it is.
H Y S I C S. 6?9
the fucceftive confcioufneffes which we have of our Of Perio af
own exiftence are not the fame, yet are thev confcioui- 1
neffes of one and the fame thing or object ; of the fame
perfon, felf, or living agent. The perion of whofe ex¬
iftence the confcioufnefs is felt now, and was felt an
hour or a year ago, is difeerned to be, not two perfons,
but one and the fame perfon ; and therefore is one and
the fame. 254
“ Mr Locke’s obfervations upon this fubjeft appear Falfe no-
hafty ; and he feems to profefs himfelf diffatisfied withtion of
fuppofitions which he has made relating to it. ButPj'J^f1*
fome of thofe hafty obfervations have been carried to
a ftrange length by others •, whofe notion, when traced
and examined to the bottom, amounts, I think, to
this ‘ That perfonality is not a permanent but a
tranfient thing : That it lives and dies, begins and
ends, continually : That no one can any more remain
one and the fame perfon two moments together, than
two fucceftive moments can be one and the fame mo¬
ment : That our fubftance is indeed continually chan¬
ging : but whether this be fo or not, is, it feems,
nothing to the purpofe 5 fince it is not fubftance, but
confcioufnefs alone, which conftitutes perfonality ;
which confcioufnefs, being fucceflive, cannot be the
fame in any two moments, nor confequently the per¬
fonality conftituted by it Hence it muft follow, * Anfwer
that it is a fallacy upon ourfelves to charge our prefent fo Dr
felves with any thing we did, or to imagine our pre- Cla* ie's
fent felves interefted in any thing which befel us yef-
terday •, or that our prefent felf will be interefted t/)
in what will befal us to-morrow ; fince our prefent Mr Dod~
felf is not in reality the fame with the felf of yefter-w<r/7, 2d
day, but another felf or perfon coming in its room,
and miftaken for it ; to which another felf will fuc- ^ ’
ceed to-morrow. This, I fay, muft follow : for if the
felf or perfon of to-day and that of to-morrow are not
the fame, but only like perfons *, the perfon of to-day
is really no more interefted in what will befal the per¬
fon of to-morrow, than in what u ill befal any other
perfon. It may be thought, perhaps, that this is not
a juft reprefentation of the opinion we are fpeaking
of-, becaufe thofe who maintain it allow that a perfon
is the fame as far back as his remembrance reaches :
And indeed they do ufe the words identity and fame
perfon nor will language permit thefe words to be laid
afide. But they cannot, confiftently with themfelves,
mean that the perfon is really the fame : For it is felf-
evident, that the perfonality cannot be really the fame,
if, as they exprefsly affert, that in which it confifts is
not the fame. And as, confiftently with themfelves,
they cannot, fo I think it appears they do not, mean
that the perfon is realb/ the fame, but only that he is fo
in a fictitious fenfe, in fuch a fenfe only as they affert:
for this they do affert, that any number of perfons
whatever may be the fame perfon. The bare unfold¬
ing this notion, and laying it thus naked and open,
feems the beft confutation of it. However, fince
great ftrefs is faid to be put upon it, I add the follow¬
ing things: . 255
“ F/■-/?, This notion is abfolutely contradictory toover-
that certain conviftion, which neceffarily and every mo-thrown,
ment rifes within us, when we turn our thoughts upon
ourfelves, when we refleCt upon Avhat is paft, and look
forward to what is to come. All imagination, of a daily
change of that living agent which each man calls him-
4 O 2 felf
66o M E T A P
°iclent° ' ^ ^ |"',r mother, or of any fuch change throughout our
i , vvh°le prefent life, is entirely borne down by our natu¬
ral fenfe of things. Nor is it poflible for a perfon in his
wits to alter his condubl with regard to Ins health or
aftahs, from a fuipicion that though lie fhould live to¬
morrow' he Ihould not however be the fame perfon he is
to-day.
“ Secondly, It is not an idea or abftraft notion, or
quality, but a being only, which is capable of life and
a'tion, of happinefs and mifery. Now all beings con-
fciiedly continue the fame during the whole time of
their exiltence. Conllder then a living being now ex-
iiting, and which has exifted for any time alive : this
living being mult have dune, and fuffered, and enjoyed,
wuat it lias done, and fuffered, and enjoyed, formerly
(this living being, I fay, and not another), as really as
it does, and fullers, and enjoys, what it does, and fuffers,
and enjoys, this inflant. All thefe fucceffive aftions,
fufferings, and enjoyments, are adtions, enjoyments, and
fufferings, of the fame living being ; and they are fo
PJ ior to ail conliderations of its remembering or forget-
ting,. lince remembering or forgetting can make no al¬
teration in the truth of paft matter of fa£l. And fup-
pofe this being endued with limited powers of know¬
ledge and memory, there is no more difficulty in con¬
ceiving it to have a power of knowing itfelf to be the
fame being which it was fome time ago, of remembering
fome of its adfions, fufferings, and enjoyments, and for¬
getting others, than in conceiving it to know', or re¬
member, or forget, any thing elfe.
Thirdly, Every perfon is confcious that he is now
the fame perfon or felf he was as far back as his re¬
membrance reaches : fince when any one reflects upon
a paft adtion of his own, he is juft as certain of the
perfon w'ho did that adtion, namely himfelf (the per¬
fon who now refledts upon it), as he is certain that the
adtion was at all done. Nay, very often a perfon’s af-
furance of an adtion having been done, of which he is
abfolutely affured, arifes wholly from the confcioufnefs
that he himfelf did it : and this he, perfon or felf,
muft either be a fubftance or the property of fome fub-
ftance. If he, if perfon, be a fubftance ; then confci-
ouinefs that he is the fame perfon, is confcioufnefs that
he is the fame fubftance. If the perfon, or he, be the
property of a fubftance, ftill cohfcioufnefs that he is
the fame property is as certain a proof that his fub¬
ftance remains the fame, as confcioufnefs that he re¬
mains the fame fubftance would be •, fmee the fame
property cannot be transferred from one fubftance to
another.
“ But though w'e are thus certain that we are the
fame agents, living beings, or fubftances, now', which
we were as far back as our remembrance reaches j yet
it is alked, Whether we may not poffibly be deceived
in it ? And this queftion may be alked at the end of
any demonllration whatever ; becaufe it is a queftion
concerning the truth of perception by memory : and
he w'ho can doubt whether perception by memory can
in this cafe be depended upon, may doubt alfo whether
perception by dedudlion and reafoning, which alfo in¬
clude memory, or indeed whether intuitive perception
itfelf, can be depended upon. Here then w'e can go
no farther : for it is ridiculous to attempt to prove
the truth of our faculties, which can no otherwife be
4
H Y S I C S. part jjj
proved than by the ufe or means of thofe fufpe&ed fa-Of Perfonal
culties themlelves.” Identity
This reaiomng, which w'e believe will to moft men —1
appear unanfwerable, Mr Cooper hopes to overturn by oy;2;?
the following oblervaiions * : “ It all imagination of a to the fore,
daily change in us be borne down by our natural fenfe g«hig rea-"
of things, then (fays he) does our natural fenfe offoning-
things pofitively contradidl known fad 5 for a daily, * Trailst
a momentaneous, change in us, i. e. in our bodies* ^c*
does adlually take place.” True, a daily change in
our bodies does take place, and fo like wife does a
daily change. in our clothes ; but furely no man was
ever led by his natural fenfe of things to fuppofe, that
his limbs or external organs were the feats of fenfation
and will, any more than that his coat or his ffioes were
any real parts of his trunk or of his feet, Eut it is
only that which thinks and wills than any man con¬
siders in this cafe, as himfelf or his perfon 5 and if
our natural fenfe of things, or confcioufnefs, tell us,
that what thinks and wills has continued the fame
from a diftance of time as far back as w'e can remem¬
ber, it is certain, that W'hether it be material or imma¬
terial, it has continued from that period, otherwife we
can be certain of nothing. “ But (fays our philofo-
pher) other known and afeertained fads are frequent¬
ly borne down by our natural fenfe of things : for how
many thoufand years before the days of Copernicus Avas
the motion of the earth round the fun entirely borne
down by our natural fenfe of things, which made us
give full credit to the motion of the fun round the
earth ? Do not the generality of mankind believe, up¬
on the evidence of their natural fenfe of things, that
every part of their body remains exadly the fame to¬
day as it Avas yefterday ^
To the former of thefe queftions avc anfiver poll- Anfwere$.
tively, that before the days of Copernicus the motion
of the earth round the fun Avas not borne dowm by our
natural fenfe of things, but by ill-founded hypothefes
and inconclufive reafonings. By the natural" fenfe of
things, nothing can be meant, in this place, but the evi¬
dence of confcioufnefs or of external fenfation j but
the aClual motion either of the fun or of the earth is not
perceived cither by confcioufnefs or by fenfation. Of
confcioufnefs nothing is the objed but the internal
energies and feelings of our own minds ; and with re¬
gard to the motion of the fun or of the earth, nothing
is perceived by the fenfe of fight but that, after com
fiderable intervals of time, thele t\A'o great bodies have
repeatedly changed their places in the heavens with re-
fped to each other, ihis is all that on this fubjed
our natural fenfe of things leads us to believe 5 and is not
this infallibly true ? Aftenvards indeed, by taking for
granted the truth of propofitions, for which neither
fenfe nor confcioufnefs affords the fliadoAV of evidence 5
the vulgar noAV, and all mankind formerly, reafoned
themfelves into the opinion, that the earth Hands ftill,
and that the fun moves round it. In vulgar philo-
fophy it is taken for granted, that in the univerfe
there is not a relative but an abfolute upwards and an
abfolute downwards ; that our heads are abfolutely up-
Avard, and our feet doAvnward 5 and that were the earth
to revolve round its axis } thefe politicos would be re-
verfed, that our heads Avould be placed beneath our
feet, and that Ave ourfelves would fall from the earth
into
Chap. 1IT. „ M E T A P
of Perfonal into empty fpace. Upon tliefe falfe hypotheses the
Identity, ^i^ar reafon correftly. They know that bodies can-
not^change their place without motion ; they know
that in the time of their remembrance the fun and
the earth have been perpetually varying their places
with refpeft to each other ; they know that they them-
felves have never fallen, nor had a tendency to fall,
into empty fpace ; and hence they infer that it is the
fun and not the earth that moves (k). But will any
man fay that the abfurd fuppofitions from which this
conclulion is logically deduced, have the evidence ei¬
ther of fenfation or of confcioufnefs, as the perma¬
nency of that living agent which each man calls him-
felfhas? . .r .
To our authors fecond queftion we liken ne. reply
with confidence, that the generality of mankind do
not believe, upon their natural fenfe of things, that
every part of their body remains exaftly the fame
to-day as it was yefterday. It would be ftrange in¬
deed if they did, after having repeatedly experienced
the wafte of increafed perfpiration or fweating •, after
having witneffed men emaciated by lieknefs, and again
reftored to plumpnefs in health 5 and after having
perhaps loft whole limbs, which certainly their natural
fenfe of things teaches them to conllder as parts of
their body. In all thefe cafes, the generality of man¬
kind are as fenfible of changes having taken place in
their bodies as he who has attended ever fo clofely to
phyfiological inquiries, though not one of them has
the Icaft imagination of a change having taken place
in the living agent which each man calls himfelf.
Bilhop Butler obferves, that if the living agent be
perpetually changing, it is a fallacy upon ourfelyes to
charge our prefent felves with any thing w’e did,, to
imagine our prefent felves interefted in any thing which
befel us yefterday, or that our prefent felf will be in¬
terefted in what will befal us .to-morrow. To this ju¬
dicious obfervation our daring philofopher replies,
“ that as the man of to-morrow, though not in all
points the fame with, yet depends for his exiftence up¬
on, the man of to-day, there is fufficient reafon to care
himT Could he have faid that as the man of
to-day depends for his exiftence on the man of to¬
morrow, there is fufficient reafon for the prefent man
to care about the future man j or that as the man of
to-morrow depends for his exiftence on the man of to-
dav, there is to-day fufficient reafon for the future man
to care about the prefent man j we ffiould in either cafe,
if the anachronifm had been kept out of light, have
feen the force of his argument. Every man has .fuffi¬
cient reafon to care about the ox upon which he is to
be fed ; but we cannot fo clearly perceive what reafon
the ox has to care about the man.
Not fatisfied, it would feem, with this reply, our
author proceeds to affirm, il that the man of to-mor¬
row, polfeffing a reminifcence of the a6tions of the man
of to-day, and knowing that thefe adtions will be re¬
ferred to him both by himfelf and others (which is
H Y S I C S. 661
certainly knowing that both himfelf and others are 0[d^tr[°uai
moft iniquitous wretches), they cannot be indifferent, c lty/ J
to the man of to-day, who looks forward to the pro¬
perties of the man of to-morrow i. e. the remi¬
nifcence and knowledge of a future man conftitute all
the relation that fubfifts between a prefent man and his
aftions; a difcovery worthy of an original genius.
But as on the fubjedt of perfonal identity we pretend
to no originality, we ffiall leave this propofition to the
meditation of our readers, and take the liberty to afk
our author a queftion or two relpedling this fame re-
minifcence, which he is gracioully pleafed to acknow -
ledge for a property.
He defines identity, “ the continued exiftence of
any being unaltered in fubftance or in properties j
and he repeatedly acknowledges that no identical qua¬
lity or property can be transferred from one fubjedl to
another. Let us now fuppofe, that a man has a remi¬
nifcence of an individual adtion performed, a month
aoo, and that this reminifcence is accompanied with a
confcioufnefs that the adtion was performed by him¬
felf. This fuppofition, whether true or falfe, may cer¬
tainly be made ; for it implies nothing more than what
every man firmly believes of himfelf m every adt of re¬
membrance. Let us again fuppofe, that, at tne di-
ftance of ten or twenty years, the man known by the
fame name has a reminifcence of the fame adtion, with
a confcioufnefs that he himfelf performed it. . Is this
reminifcence the fame with the former ? 01 is it a dif¬
ferent reminifcence ? If it be the fame, either the per-
fon remembering at the diftance of ten or twenty years
is the fame with him who remembered at the diftance
of a month, or there is an identical, quality transferred
from one fubftance to another, which is admitted, to
be impoffible. If reminifcence be itfelf a real anc. im¬
mediate quality of any fubftance, and not the mere
energy of a power, and if the one reminifcence be
different from the other, the fubjedts.in which thefe
two different qualities inhere muft likewife be dif¬
ferent. Yet the man who has the reminifcence at
the diftance of a month, has the evidence of confciouf¬
nefs that the adtion was performed by him ; and the
man who has the reminifcence at the diftance of ten
or twenty years, has likewife the evidence of confci¬
oufnefs that the fame adlion was performed by him
and not by another. By the confeffion of Hume and
of all philofophers, confcioufnefs never deceives *, but
here is the evidence of one confcioufnefs in diredt op-
pofition to another ; and therefore, as two contradic¬
tory propofttions cannot both be true, either .the one
reminifcence is the fame with the other, or. reminifcence
is no real quality. That one adt of reminifcence ffiould
be numerically the fame with another, which followed
it at the diftance of twenty years, is plainly impoffible 5
whence it ffiould feem, that reminifcence itfelf is no
real and immediate quality of any fubftance. But if
this be fo, what is reminifcence ? We anfwer, it is
plainly neither more nor lefs than the energy of a power,
which
(k) This inference too has been fo often drawn, that it comes in time to coalefce. m the mind.with the
renfatLs, from which the motion either of the fun or of the earth is deduced with infallible certainty ; and
‘hence it is confidered as part of that truth which fenfation immediately difcovers. See our chapter of ASSOCI¬
ATION.
662^ M E T A P
Identity1 ^°11^ ^°]‘m3nt between its energies, remains
i / • unchanged from the one to the other, and which be¬
ing i lie It toe real and immediate quality of a fubjeef,
toat fubjeCt muft like wife remain unchanged. That
powers may remain dormant, and yet unchanged,
eveiy man muft be convinced 5 who having ftruck any
tiling with his hand, knows that he has power to re¬
peat. die ftroke, and yet does not actually repeat it.
I wo blows with the hand immediately following each
other are numerically different, fo that the one can¬
not with truth be faid to be the other ; but we have
the evidence of external ienfe, that they are both ftruck
b> the lame member. In like manner, tiro energies of
reminifcence direfled to the iame object:, and fueceed-
ing each other at any interval of time, cannot poffibly
be one and the fame energy ; but as the latter ener¬
gy may include in it the former as well as the ob-
je£t remembered by both, we have the evidence of con-
feioufnefs that both are energies of the fame power 5
and we have feen, that to fuppofe them any tiling elfe,
may be demonftrated to involve the groffelt abfurdities
and contradidlions.
Mr Cooper has other arguments to obviate the
force ^ of Bifhop Burnet’s demonftration of perfonal
identity 3 fueh as, that a “ high degree of Jimilarity
betumen the two fucceeding men is fufficient to make
the one care about the other 3” and, that “ a good
man, knowing that a future being will be punifhed or
rewaided as the addions of the prefent man deferve,
will have a fufficient motive to do right and to ab-
llain from wrong.” But if there be any one of our
readers who can fuffer bimfelf to be perfuaded by fuch
affeitions as thefe, that the living agent which he calls
himfelf is perpetually changing, and at the fame time
that fuch change is confiftent with the exportation of
future rewards and puniffiments, he would not be re¬
claimed from his error by any reafoning of ours. We
fhall therefore truft fuch trilling with every man’s
judgment, and proceed to examine our author’s de-
monjh at ion ^ that perfonal identity has no exiftence.
But here it is no part of our purpofe to accompany
him through his long chemical ramble, or to contro¬
vert his arguments for the nonidentity of vegetable
and animal bodies. I he only thing to which, after
Biffiop Butler, we have aferibed identity, is that which
in man B fentient and confcious ; and the nonidentity
of this thing, whatever it be, Mr Cooper undertakes to
demonftrate from the known properties of fenfations and
ideas.
This demonftration lets out with a very ominous
circumftance. I he author, after condurting impref-
ftons ab extra, from the extremities of the nerves to
the brain, aftirms, that fenfations and ideas are nothing
but il motions in the brain perceived i. e. when
a man thinks he is looking at a mountain, not only
at reft, but to appearance immoveable, he is grofsly
deceived : for he perceives nothing all the while but
motion in Jus brain ! Were not the defire of advancing
novelties and paradoxes invincible in fome minds, we
fhould be aftoniffied at finding fuch an affertion as
this fall from the pen of any man who had paid the
flighted: attention to the different energies of his ow;n
intellert. Motions in the brain, as we have repeatedly
obferved, are the immediate caufes of our fenfations 3
s 1 C S. Part nr.
ut is it conceivable, is it poffible, that any thing Of Perfonal
lOuld oe the caufe of itfell ? I he motion of a fword Identity.
*5S
A pretend¬
ed demon-
ftration
that per-
fonal iden¬
tity is im-
poffible.
II Y
but
ft   
through the heart of a man, is the immediate caufe of
that man s death ; but is the fword or its motion death
itfelf, or can they be conceived as being the fenfations
of the man in the agonies of dying? But fenfations and
ideas, whatever they be, exilt in luceeffion 3 and there-
fort, argues our demonltrator, no tw'o feniations or
ideas can be one and the fame fenfation or idea. The
conclufion is logically inferred 3 but what purpofe can
it poffibly ferve ? What purpofe ! why it feems “ fenfa¬
tions and ideas are the only exifences whofe exifence
we certainly know (a charming phrafe, the exiftence of
exif ences, and as original as the theory in which it
makes its appearance) 3 and, therefore, from the na¬
ture of fenfations and ideas there is no fuch thing as
permanent identity.” Indeed ! what then, we may be
permitted to afk, is the import of the word we in this
fentence ? Does it denote a feries of fenfations and ideas,
and does cadi fenfation and each idea certainly know
not only itfelf, but all its anceltors and all its defen¬
dants ? Unlefs this be admitted, we are afraid that fome
other exiftence befides fenfations and ideas muft be al¬
lowed to be certainly known, and even to have fome-
thing of a permanent identity. Nay, we think it has
been already demonftrated (fee Chapter of Time), that
were there not fomething permanent, there could be no
time, and of courfe no notion of a firft and laft, or in¬
deed of fucceffion, whether of fenfations or ideas. And
therefore, if we have fuch a notion, which the author
here takes for granted, and upon which indeed his de¬
monftration refts, it follows undeniably that there is
fomething permanent, and that we know there is fome¬
thing permanent, which obferves the fucceffion of fen¬
fations and ideas.
All this, indeed, Mr Cooper in effort grants; forshown^fo
lie is not much ftartled at the appearance of contradic- be abfurd
tions in his theory. “ I find (fays he), by perpetually an(l ridicu-
repeated impreffions which I perceive, that my hands, lous•
body, limbs, &c. are connefted, are parts of one
whole. I find, by perpetually repeated perceptions
3iiO, that the fenfations excited by them are conftantly
ftmilar, ano. conftantly different from the fenfations ex¬
cited by others.” He has then repeated perceptions :
but how can this be poffible, if he be not different
from the perceptions, and if he do no\. remain unchanged
while the perceptions fucceed each other at greater or
lefs intervals of time ? A ftriking objert paffing with
rapidity before the eyes of a number of men placed be-
fide each other in a line of battle, would undoubtedly
excite a fucceffion of fenfations 3 but furely that fuccef-
fton would not take place ih the mind of any individual
in the line, nor could any fngle man in tins cafe fay
Avith truth that he had repeated perceptions of the ob¬
jert. In like manner, were that which is fentient per¬
petually changing, no man could poffibly fay or fup¬
pofe that he had repeated perceptions of any thing;
for upon this fuppofition, the man of to-day would have
no more connexion with the man who bore his name
yefterday, or twenty years ago, than the man in the
line had with the firft.
Upon the whole, we cannot help thinking that Bi-
ftiop Butler’s demonftration of perfonal identity remains
unfliaken by the batteries of Mr Cooper.—It refts, in¬
deed,
Chap. III.
METAPHYSICS.
663
Of Pc rfon
Identity.
a 60
Adifficul'
removed.
I deed, upon the folid bafis of concioufnefs and memory j
and if implicit credit be not given to the evidence of
thefe faculties, tve cannot proceed a fiitgle Hep in any
inquiry whatever, nor be certain of the truth even of a
mathematical demonftration.
But as we have ourfelves fuppofed, that to fenfation,
reminifcence, and every actual energy of the mind of
man, the inilrumentality of fome material fyfiem is ne-
ceffary, it may perhaps be thought incumbent on us to
Ihow how the perpetual flux of the particles of matter
which compofe the brain, as well as all the other parts
of the body, can confift with the identity of the perfon
who perceives, remembers, and is confcious. If this
cannot be done, our hypothefis, ancient and plauflble
as it is, mult be given up ; for of perfonal identity it is
impoflible to doubt. In this cafe, however, we per¬
ceive no difficulty ; for if there be united to the brain
an immaterial being, which is the fubject of lenfation,
confcioufnefs, and will, &c. it is obvious, that, all the
intclleBualpowers which properly coriflitute the per¬
fon, mult be inherent in that being. The material fy-
ftern, therefore, can be neceffary only as an inllrument
to excite the energies of tliofe powers j and lince the
powers themfelves remain unchanged, why ffiould we
iuppofe that tlieir energies may not be continually ex¬
erted by fucceffive inflruments of the fame kind, as
well as by one permanent inftrument ? the powers of
perception and volition are not in the material fyftem,
any more than the fenfation of feeing is in the rays of
light, or the energy of the blackfmith in the. hammer
with which he beats the anvil. Let us fuppofe a man
to keep his eye for an hour fteadily fixed upon one ob-
jc£I. It will not furely be denied, that if this could
be done, he would have one uninterrupted and unvaried
perception of an hour’s duration, as meafured by the
clock. Yet it is certain that the rays of light which
alone could occalion that perception would be perpe¬
tually changing. In like manner, a blackfmilh, whilft
he continues to beat his anvil, continues to exert the
fame power whether he ufes one hammer all the time,
or a different hammer at each ftroke. The reafon is
obvious; the eye, with all its connexions of brain and
mind in the one cafe, and the perfon of the fmith in
the other, remain unchanged; and in them alone re-
fide the faculty of fenfation and the power of beating,
though neither the faculty nor the power can be ex¬
erted without material inftruments. But were it pof-
fible that millions of men could in the fpace of an
hour take their turns in rotation with each new ray
of light, it is felf-evident, that in this cafe, there
would be nothing permanent in fenfation ; and there¬
fore, there could not be one uninterrupted and unva¬
ried perception, but millions of perceptions, during the
hour, totally diflinft from and unconnefled with each
other. Let us now fuppofe a man to fix his eye upon
an objeft for the fpace of a minute, and at the diftance
of a day or a month to fix it upon the fame objeft a fe-
cond time. He would not indeed, in this cafe, have
one uninterrupted and unvaried perception, but he
would be confcious of the energy of the very fame fa¬
culty the fecond time as at the firff. Whereas were
one man to view an objeft to-day, and another to view
the fame objeft to-morrow, il is obvious, that he who
ffiould be lafi: in the fucceffion could know nothing of
the energy of that faculty by which the object was per¬
ceived the firft day, becaufe there would be nothing Of th? Im-
eommon to the two perceptions. ^h'e Soid
Thus then we fee, that perfonal identity may with . ‘ ^ ~.
truth be predicated of a compound being, though the
material part be in a perpetual flux, provided the im¬
material part remain unchanged; and that of fuch a
being only is a refurreftion from the dead poffibie.—
For Jince the motions of the brain do nothing more
than excite to energy the permanent powers of the
mind, it is of no fort of confequence to that energy
whether thefe motions be continued by the fame nu ¬
merical atoms, or by a perpetual fucceflion of atoms
arranged and combined in the very fame manner. We
fliall, therefore, be the fame perfons at the refurrec-
tion as at prefent, whether the mind be united to a
particular fyftem compofed of any of the numberlefs
atoms which have in fucceffion made parts of our pre¬
fent bodies, or to a fyftem compofed of totally dif¬
ferent atoms, provided that new fyftem be organized
in exactly the fame manner with the brain or material
vehicle, which is at prefent the immediate inftrument
of perception. This (we fay) is felf-evident; but
were the immaterial part to change with the changing
body, a refurredtion of the. fame perfons would be
plainly impoflible.
Chap. IV. Of the Immortality of the Soul.
o.6t
Wherever men have been in any degree civilized, T]ie;r
and in fome nations where they have been in the mufttality of the
favage Hate, it has been the general perfuaflon, that foul the ge
the mind or foul i'ubfills after the diffolution of the?er^belief
body. The origin of this perfuafion, about which na~
difputes have been raifed, no Chriftian heft tat es to
attribute to revelation. The Egyptians, from whom
the Creeks derived many of their theological and phi-
lofophical principles, appear to have taught the im¬
mortality of the foul, not as a truth difeovered by the
exertions of human reafon, but as a dogma derived
to them from the earlieft ages by tradition. This
indeed may be confidently inferred from the charac¬
ter and condu£l of their firfl Greek difciples. Thofe
early wife men who fetched their philofophy imme¬
diately from Egypt, brought it home as they found
it, in detached and independent plaeits. Afterwards,
when fehools were formed, and when man began to
philofophize by hypothefis and fyflem, it was eagerly
inquired upon what foundation in nature the belief of
the foul’s immortality could reft ; and this inquiry
gave rife to the various difquifitions concerning the
fuhfance of the foul, which have continued to exer-
cife the ingenuity of the learned to the prefent day.
It was clearly perceived, that it confcioufnefs, thought,
and volition, be the refult of any particular modifica¬
tion of matter and motion, the living and thinking
agent muft perifh with the diffolution of the fyftem;
and it was no lefs evident, that if the being which
perceives, thinks, and wills, be not material, the mind
of man may fubfift after the refolution of the body
into its component particles. The difeovery of the
immateriality of the mind was therefore one fep to-
%vards the proof of its immortality ; and in the opinion
of many philofophers, whole hopes ought to reft on a
furer balls, it was alone a complete proof.—“ They
who hold fenfative perception in brutes (fays a pious
writer)
wife in its
pre-exift-
ence
664 M E T A P
writer *) to be an argument for the immateriality of
"the Soul.° ^ie*r ^ou^s’ themfelves under the neceflity of allow-
».. !- ing thofe fouls to be immortal.”
* See the The philofophers of ancient Greece, however, felt
Procedure, not themfelves under any fuch neceflity. Whatever
were their opinions refpecring the fouls of brutes, they
the Under- clearly perceived that nothing which had a beginning
/landing, of exiftence could be naturally immortal, whether its
262 fubftance were material or immaterial.—“ There never
fo^hereof' WaS an^ ^ie anc^ents before Chriftianity (fays the
ancient accurate Cudworth), that held the foul’s future perma-
Greece be- nency after death, who did not likewife afiert its pre-
lieved like- exiftence ; they clearly perceiving, that if it were once
granted that the foul was generated, it could never be
proved but that it might be alfo corrupted. And,
therefore, the affertors of the foul’s immortality com¬
monly began here, firft to prove its pre-exiftence, pro¬
ceeding thence to eftablilh its permanency after death.
This is the method of proof ufed in Plato : H» ttov vpat
vi tt^iv iv ru 5s tu cev^UTrivu y-vteSxi, axrlt xai reiVTv)
x&xvocjov ti toiKiv >j •$/vg/n stvai. Our foul was fomewhere
before it came to exijl in this human form, and thence
it appears to be immortal, and as fuch will fubftf after
death.
To give this argument for immortality any ftrength,
it rnuft be taken for granted, not only that the foul
exifted in a prior ftate, but that it exifted from all
eternity; for it is obvious, that if it had a beginning
in any ftate, it may have an end either in that ftate
or in another. Accordingly, Plato aflerts in plain
terms its eternity and felf-exiftence, which, as we learn
from Cicero, he infers from its being the principle of
motion in man. “ Quin etiam cseteris, quas rooventur,
hie fons, hoc principium eft movendi. Principii autem
nulla ef origo. Nam ex principle oriuntur omnia : ip-
fum autem nulla ex re alia nafei poteft : nec enim eflet
id principium, quod gigneretur aliunde f.” This, it
muft be acknowledged, is very contemptible reafoning ;
but the opinion which it was intended to prove was
held by all the philofophers. They were unanimous in
maintaining the fubjlance of the foul, though not its
perfonality, to be eternal d parte ante as tv ell as ad par¬
tem pof ; and Cicero, where he tells us that this opi¬
nion palled from Pherecydes Syrus to Pythagoras, and
from Pythagoras to Plato, exprefles their notion of the
foul’s duration by the word fempiternus J, which, in its
original and proper fenfe, is applicable only to that
which has neither beginning nor end.
Indeed none of the philofophors of ancient Greece
appear to have believed a creation (fee Creation) pof-
lible; for it was a maxim univerfally received among
and abfo-
lute eter¬
nity.
f Titfcul.
lib. i.
«P- 23.
} fvfcul
lib. 1.
H Y S I C S. Part III.
them, De nihilo nihil ft, in nihilum nil poffe reverti; Of the
that nothing can come from nonentity, or go to non'entity. mortality 0f
This maxim, as held by the theiftical plnlofophers, the .ttie Soul-
learned Cudworth labours to interpret in a fenfe agree- ^
able to our notions of the origin ot the v/orld j but the
quotations urged by himfelf muft convince every com¬
petent reader that on this occalion he labours in vain.
For inftance, when Anftotle writes of Parmenides and
Meliffus, that ov^tv at>^2 yiwrbxi tyanv cobi (pOtigicQxt tui
ovlwv, they fay that no real entity is either made or de¬
frayed ; what can be his meaning, but that thofe phi¬
lofophers taught that nothing could be either created or
annihilated ? He teftities the fame thing of Xenophanes
and Zeno, when he fays that it was a fundamental prin¬
ciple of their philofophy—^>1 iv^^urixi ytvicrSxi prX.v ik
prftvos—that it is impofible that any thing Jhould be
made out of nothing. And of Empedocles, when he re¬
lates «flr«v7fls radix xaniivog ofioXoyii d]i ix rs p-ti olios
apnfcxvov in yivi<r6xi r« n ov d^ob.'kvetoxi xvnvwsov xxi x^x-
rov -—That he acknowledges the very fame thing with other
philofophers, viz. that it is impojjible that any thing Jhould
be made out of nothing, or perifh into nothing. But it is
needlefs to multiply quotations refpefting the opinions
of Angle philofophers. Of all the phyliologers before
himfelf and Plato, Ariftotle fays, without exception,
ttiqi txvtv,s op.oyvo;p.cvov<rt ^e|iu ai tti^i (pva-ias, on to
yiyvopivov ix p/i cvtuv ytyvurOxi x^vixtov f d hat they a- | Physic,;
gree in this opinion, that a is impofible that any thing lib. i.
Jhould be made out of nothing : and he calls this the caP' S’
common principle of naturalius ; plainly intimating,
that they conlidered it as the greateft abfurdity to fup-
pole that any real entity in nature could either be
brought from nothing or reduced to nothing.
I he author of the IntelleSluul System, in order, per¬
haps, to hide the impiety of this principle, endea¬
vours to perfuade his readers, that it was urged only
again!! the hypothefis of forms and qualities of bodies
confidered as real entities, dill in ft from matter. But
how it could be fuppofed to militate again ft that parti¬
cular opinion, and not againft the poflxbility of all
creation, is to us perfeftly inconceivable. The father
of the fchool which analyzed body into matter and
form, together with by far the greater part of his fol¬
lowers, taught the eternity of both thefe principles (l) ;
and therefore maintained, as ftrenuoufly as any atomift,
the univerfal maxim, De nihilo nihilft. Even Plato
himfelf, whofe doftrine of ideas is fuppofed to wear a
more favourable afpeft than Arillotle’s forms to the
truths of revealed religion, taught the eternity of mat¬
ter; but whether as a felf-exitting fubflance, or only
as an emanation from the Deity, is a queition which
has
(l) Xrifotelem, et plerofque Peripateticorum, in vulgus notum eft, in hac fuiffe fententia—nec natum efle,
nec interiturum imquam hunc mundum. Vid. PETRUS GASSENBUS Physic, feft. i. lib. i. cap. 6. JAC. ThOMA-
SIUS de Stoica mundi exufione, Diff. 4. et alii. Plures ita hand dubie fenferunt philofophorum veterum. Hinc
video ManILIUM m Afronomico, lib. i. inter pliilofophorum de mundo fententias hanc, ac li praecipua eflet,
primo commemorare loco:
i^nem five ex nullis repetentem femina rebus,
Natali g>UOQUE EGERE placet, femperque FUISSE,
Et FORE, PRINCIPIO par iter FATOQUE carentem.
Mofbeim's edition of Cudworth'1 s IntclleBual System, lib. i. cap. 3. feft. 33. note 60. On this fubjeft fee alfo Aft-
fiknt Metaphysics.
Chap. IV. M E T A P
Of the Im- has been difputed. That he admitted no proper crea-
mortahty of j_j()n? may confidently inferred from Plutarch ; who,
2, writing upon the generation of animals, according to
L’ ' the doftrine laid down in the Timceus, has the follow¬
ing paffage : BsAtjsv eyv, TlXoirun '/atSopivov; rov {*w xtur-
ftov vtto Siov ytyovwxi teyuv xcti cisav’ o {Aiv yxQ
T6t)]i yiycvdTtov ot<Si xqifo; tcov v.iTLOt') Tijy OTSIAN
TAHN e| ijj ysyavsv ey ysvOjitsvtry, ctXkx vtokuuzv/iv xzi tai
(irifxvovpyM s<? kxi ayrjjf, xxi wgaj zfytAMZxrii),
■a? dvvxrav »)v 7rx(>ci7%iiv' ay y«g sx. rov [Art evro; n yinn?,
«,\A’ sk rov f£Y) xxAag, firioi' txxvo)g E^evro?, ug o'.xixg km
% Pint- Op- iftxrioM, xm xv^^tcovrog *. It is therefore better for us to
torn. ii. follow Plato, and to fay and Jing that the world was
P- I0I4- made bij God. For as the world is the bsf of all works,
fo is God the befl of all caufes. Neverthelefs, the SUB¬
STANCE or MATTER out of which the world was made,
was NOT itfelf made, but tuns always ready at hand,
and fubjeEl to the artificer, to be ordered and difpofed by
him. For the making of the world was not the produc¬
tion of it out of nothing, but out of an antecedent bad
and diforderlyfate, like the making of a houfe, garment,
or fatue.
If, then, this be a fair reprefentation of the fenti-
ments of Plato, and furely the author underltood thofe
fentiments better than the moll accomplifhed modern
fcholar can pretend to do, nothing is more evident,
than that the founder of the academy admitted of no
proper creation, but only taught that the matter
which had exifted from eternity in a chaotic ftate, was
in time reduced to order by the Demmrgus or Supreme
Being. And if fuch were the fentiments of the divine
Plato, we cannot hefitate to adopt the opinion of the
excellent Moflaeim, which the reader will probably be
pleafed to have in his own words : a Si a Judaeis difee-
das, nefcio an ullus antiquorum philofophorum mundum
negaverit agternum efle. Omnes mihi aeternum profefli
videntur efle mundum : hoc uno vero disjunguntur,
quod nonnull: ut Arifloteles, formam et materiam fimul
hujus orbis, alii vero, quorum princeps facile Plato,
tnateriam tantum sternum, formam vero, a Deo com-
\ Notes on paratam, dixerunt f.'”
Cud-iuartb's Now, it is a faft fo generally known, as not to Hand
Intellectualin need of being proved by quotations, that there was
Syjlem. t amonp them a finoie man who believed in the
exiftence of mind as a being more excellent than mat-
ter, and eflentially different from it, who did not hold
the fuperior of at lead equal antiquity with the infe¬
rior fubftance. So true is this, that Synefius, though
a Chrittian, yet having been educated in one of the
fehools of philofophy, could not, by the hopes of a
bilhopric, be induced to diffemble this fentiment: api-
| Epifl.lc^. rv-v ■<pv%rli/ ovx oifyuru TCorz vreou-xrog vregsysvil
—I fball never be perfuaded to think my foul younger
than my body. This man probably believed, upon the
authority of the feriptures, that the matter of the vifi-
ble world was created in time 5 but he certainly held
with his philofophic mafters, that his own foul was
as old as any atom of it, and that it had confequently
exitled in a prior Hate before it animated his prefent
body.
Thofe who maintained that the world was uncreated,
maintained upon the fame principle that their fouls
Were uncreated likewife ; and as they conceived all bo¬
dies to be formed of one firft matter, fo they conceived
all fouls to be either emanations from the one fiift Mind,
VOL. XIII. Part II.
H Y S I C S.
or difeerpted parts of it. Ariftotle,
264.
They iup-
pofed all
fouls to be
emanations
from the
firft mind ;
665
who diffinguhtlfcs Of the Im -
between the intellectual and fenfitive fouls, fays exprefs-ir^a^.01
ly of the former, that it “ enters from without, and is ^
DIVINEadding this reafon for his opinion, that “ its
energy is not blended with that of the body—teinrxi
61 rew vow p-ovov Ovgx zv zirzirizvai, xxi 6ztov zivxt fxovov’ ovsz
yoi? avrov m etsgysix x.onMm trupanxvi zngyax*. As to the * De (pene~
Stoics, Cleanthes held (as Stobseus informs usf), that
“every thing was made out of one, and would be Animali-
again refolved into one.” But let Seneca fpeak for
them all: “ Quid eft autem, cur non exiftimes in eo |
divini aliquid exiftere, qui Dei pars eft ? Totum hoc, Thyf-c. 20.
quo continemur, et unum eft, et Dous: et focii ejus fu-
mus, et membra J—Why fhould you not believe fome-^ Epif- pi¬
thing to be divine in him, who is indeed PART OF GOD?
That WHOLE in which wc are contained is ONE, and
that one is GOD ; we being his companions and MEM¬
BERS. Epictetus fays, The fouls of men have the near-
ef relation to God, as being PARTS or FRAGMENTS of
him, DISCERPTED and TORN from his SUBSTANCE ;
-e-vvxipitg ro) 6zn, hrz xvrov po^ia ovrxt xxi x'xosnrxrp.xrx,,
Plato writes to the very fame purpofe, when, without
any foftening, he frequently calls the foul God, and part
of God. And Plutarch lays, that “ Pythagoras and
Plato held the foul to be immortal \ for that, launching
out into the foul of the univerfe, it returns to its parent
and original—Hv^Myo^xg, TIXxImv, xtpSx^lov uvxi mv fv%r,v"
z^iovcrxv yxo sig TTjv rov ttxvIog fv^qv, avxfcagziv irgog ro opo-
p-zng ||.” Plutarch declares his own opinion to be, that [I A? Pla-
“ the foul is not fo much the work and production 0{eitis Philo-
God, as a part of him 5 nor is it made BY him, but A AAap.
FROM him, and out of him : si 4/VX>i ovy- i^,yov 7.
siav, x'K'hx xxi fxz^og' ovb* Yn’ xvlov, xXX’ AD* xvrov, xx EE
avrov yiyrjzv §But it is needlefs to multiply quota- § Plato
tions. Cicero delivers the common fentiments of his%-,‘’i''/?-
Greek mafters on this head, when he fays f[, “ A na- in DiN-
tura deorum, ut doftiftimis fapientiffimifque placuit, ;
haustos animos et libatos habemus.” And again :
“ Humanus autem animus decerptus ex mente m-
VINA : cum alio nullo, nifi cum ipfo Deo (fi hoc fas ,eft
dhftu), comparari poteft.”
Whilft the philofophers were thus unanimous inEutdiffer-
maintaining the foul to be a part of thefelf-exiftente^inoP’-
Subftance, they differed in opinion, or at leaft expref-^AAdc cs
fed themfelves differently, as to the mode of its fepa- the;r repa.
ration from its divine parent. Cicero and the Stoics ration. '
talk as if the Supreme Mind were extended, and as if
the human foul were a part literally torn from that
mind, as a limb can be torn from the body. The Py¬
thagoreans and Platonifts feem to have confidered all
fouls as emanations from the divine Subftance rather
than as parts torn from it, much in the fame way as
rays of light are emanations from the fun. Plato, in
particular, believed in two felf-exiftent principles, God
and matter. The former he confidered as the fupreme
Intelligence, incorporeal, without beginning, end, or
change •, and diftinguifhed it by the appellation of ro
uyxdcv, the Good. Matter, as fubfifting from eternity,
he confidered as without any one form or quality what¬
ever, and as having a natural tendency to diforder. Of
this chaotic mafs God formed a perfeft world, after the
eternal pattern in his own mind, and endowed it with
a foul or emanation from himfelf. In the language of
Plato, therefore, the univerfe being animated by a foul
which proceeds from God, is called the yon of God;
4 P and
666
Of the Im-and feveral parts of nature, particularly the heavenly
H^the 'so"* l' bodies, are gods. The human foul, according to him,
l—‘ . is derived by emanatitm from God, through the inter¬
vention of this foul of the world ; and receding farther
from the firft intelligence, it is inferior in perfection
to the foul of the world, though even that foul is de-
bafed by fome material admixture. To account more
fully for the origin and prefent ftate of human fouls,
* Enfield's Plato fuppofes *, that “ when God formed the uni-
Abndge- verfe he feparated from the foul of the world infe-
Brucker's r'l0r fouls, equal m number to the liars, and affigned
Hiftory of to each its proper celeftial abode ; but that thofe
Philofopby. fouls, (by what means, or for what reafon, does not
appear), were fent down to the earth into human bo¬
dies, as into fepulchres or prifons.” He afcribes to
this caufe the depravity and mifery to which human
nature is liable •, and maintains, that it “ is only by
difengaging itfelf from all animal paflions, and rifing
above fenlible objedls, to the contemplation of the
world of intelligence, that the foul of man can be pre¬
pared to return to its original Hate.” Not incontin¬
ently with this doftrine, our philofopher frequently
fpeaks of the foul of man as cor,lifting of three parts :
or rather he feems to have thought that man has three
fouls ; the firft the principle of intelligence, the fe-
cond of paffion, and the third of appetite (m) ; and
to each he affigns its proper place in the human body.
But it was only the intellectual foul that he conlidered
as immortal.
Ariftotle taught, in terms equally exprefs, that the
human foul is a part of God, and of courfe that its fub-
ftance is of eternal and neceflfary exiftence. Some of
his followers, indeed, although they acknowledged tzvo
jirjt principles, the active and the paflive, yet held, with
the Stoics, but one fubjlance in the univerfe ; and to
reconcile thefe two contradictory propofitions, they
were obliged to fuppofe matter to be both aCtive and
paflive. Their doCtrine on this fubjeCt is thus deliver¬
ed by Cicero : “ De natura ita dicebant, ut earn divide-
rent in res duas, ut altera effet efficiens, altera autem
quali huic fc prsebens, ea quae efficeretur aliquid. Ineo,
METAPHYSICS. Part III.
quod efficeret, vim effe cenfebant •, in e.o autem quod effi- Ofthclm.
ceretur, materiam quandam ; in utroque tamen u-morta% of
trumque. Neque enim materiam ipfam coherere po-,tlie Sou*-
tuilTe, ft nulla vi contineretur, neque vim sine aliqua ' ^
materia ; nihil eft enim, quod non alicubi efle coga-
turfi.” They divided nature into two things, as thieJirJI \ Academi-
principles; one whereof is the efficient or artificer, the other cium, lib. i.
that which offers itfelf to him for things to be made out caP‘
of it. In the efficient principle, they acknowledged aBive
force ; in the pafjive, a certain matter ; but fo, that in
EACH BOTH OF THESE WERE TOGETHER : forafmuck
as neither the matter could cohere together unlefs it were
contained by fome aBive force, nor THE ACTIVE FORCE
SUBSIST OF ITSELF WITHOUT MATTER ; becaufe that
is tiothing which may not be compelled to be fomewhere.
Agreeably to this ftrange doCtrine, Arrian, the inter¬
preter of EpiCtetus, fays of himfelf, upi
rav TTeivlaiv, d; “ I am a man (a part of the
to ttxv or univerfef as an hour is part of the day.”
Ariftotle himfelf is generally fuppofed to have be¬
lieved in the external exiftence of two fubftances, mind
and matter ; but treating of the generation of animals,
he fays, t« tt&vU (kgptolvis as 7go7rov 7ivx ttxvIx
TpvZVf 'iho trvvm-rxrxi 7Xgti6)f osrorxv iftTrigiMCpfaX' f Gtnt-
In the univerfe there is a certain animal heat, fo as that ratlfine
after a manner all things are full of mind; wherefore
they are quickly completed (or made complete animalsX) IIt' U’ ^
when they have received a portion of that heat. This
heat, from which, according to Cicero |j, the Stagyritell Tufcul.
derived all fouls, has, it mult be confeffed, a very ma- f c’ 3*
terial appearance •, infomuch that the learned Molheim
feems to have been doubtful whether he admitted of
any immaterial principle in man ; but for this doubt
there appears to us to be no folid foundation. Ariftotle
exprefsly declares, that this heat is not fire nor any fuch
power, but a fpirit which is in the feeds or elementary
principles of bodies ; ravro es ov ttvq, ovdi 7oiccv7yi civvoipis
SVTtV, dXXx 70 ip.m^XctfivetVOpiVOV SV 76) <r7rlep.X7l KXl tv 70S
Trvivpci §. And as the excellent perfon himfelf § Be Gene-
acknowledges (n), that Ariftotle taught the exiftencen7^.0/2tf.
of two principles, God and matter, not indeed fubfift- um ^
ingc.3.
(m) “ Plato triplicem finxit animam ; cujus principatum, id eft, rationem, in capite, ficut in arce, pofuit: et
duas partes feparare voluit, iram et cupiditatem, quas locis difelufit; iram in peCtore, cupiditatem lubter praecor-
dia locavit.” Ciceronis Tufc. ^uefi. lib. i. cap. io.
This hypothefis has been adopted by the learned author of Ancient Metaphyfics : but it cannot be proved by
argument, and is in direCt oppoiition to confcioufnefs. Were there three diftincl minds in each man—the princi¬
ples of intelligence, of paflion, and of appetite, it is obvious that each man would be three perfons, and that none
of thefe perfons could know' any thing of the pow'ers and properties of the other two. The intelligent perfon could
not reafon about paffion or appetite; nor could the perfons who know nothing but paffion and appetite reafon
about intelligence, or indeed about any thing elfe. The very queftion at iffue, therefore, furnilhes the moft com¬
plete proof poffible, that the fame individual which each man calls himfelf, is the principle of intelligence, of
paffion, and of appetite ; for if the Platonic hypothefis were true, that queftion could never have been ftarted, as
no one individual of the human race could have underftood all its terms. It may be juft worth while to mention,
that the author of Ancient Metaphyfics, attributing all motion, and even the coherence of the minute particles
of body, to the immediate agency of mind, of courfe furnilhes every human body with at leaft four minds.
This fourth mind differs not from the plajlic nature of Cudworth, and is likew'ife a Platonic notion apparently
better founded. That there are in our bodies motions perpetually carried on by the agency of fomething which
is not the principle of either our intelligence, our paffions, or our appetites, is a faift which cannot be denied %
but if thofe motions proceed immediately from mind, it muft either be from the fupreme mind, or from fomey^^-
erdinate mind, acting under the fupreme, but wholly diJlinB from and independent of that which each man calls
himfelf.
(n) “ Non cum illis componi prorfus poteft Aristoteles, qui bina rerum feparataque ftatuunt principia,
Deum
Chap. IV. M E T A P
Of the Im- in o' feparately, but eternally linked together by the
mortality of cj0feft union ; we think it follows undeniably, that this
the Soul. ^ea{.^ from which he derived all foul*, muft be that
mind which he called God, and which he eonfidered as
the actuating foul of the univerfe.
Upon theie principles neither Aridotlenor the Stoics
could believe with Plato, that in the order of nature
there was firft an emanation from the Supreme Mind
to animate the univerfe, and then through this univer-
fal foul other emanations to animate mankind, i he
Stagyrite believed, that the Supreme Mind himfelf is
the foul of the world, and that human fouls are imme¬
diately derived from him. I he genuine Stoics, ac¬
knowledging but one fubftance, of neceflity confidered
both the fouls and bodies of men as portions of that
fubftance, which they called to u ; though (till they
affected to make fome unintelligible diftindtion between
body and mind. But however the various fchools dif¬
fered as to thofe points, they were unanimous as to the
foul’s being a part of the felf-exifting Subftance 5 and
Cicero gives their whole fyftem from Pacuvianus in
words which cannot be mifunderftood :
Quicquid eft hoc, omnia animat, format, alit, auget,
creat,
Sepelit, recipitque in fefe omnia, omniurtique idem
eft Pater :
Indidemque eadem, quee oriuntur de integro, atque
eodem occidunt.
Upon thefe To thefe verfes he immediately fubjoins the following
principles query : “ Quid eft igitur, cur, cum domus fit omnium
they main- una? eaque communis, cumque animi hominum SEMPER
tamed the FUER1N2\ FUTURIQUE SINT, cur ii, quid ex quoque
exiftetwe 0f eveniat5 et quamque rem fignificet, perfpicere non
the foul; poflint * ?” And upon the fame principle he elfewhere
* D' Divi- argues, not merely for the immortality, but for the
7iationc, eternity and neceffary exigence of the foul : “ Animo-
• *• P* 57- ram nulla in terris origo inveniri poteft : His enim in
naturis nihil ineft, quod vim memorite mentis, cogitati-
onis habeat; quod et pnet^rita teneat, et futura provi-
deat, et complebti poftit prsefentia 5 quae fola divina
funt. Nec invenietur unquam, unde ad hominem ve¬
nire poflint, nifi a Deo. Ita quicquid eft illud, quod
fentit, quod fapit, quod vult, quod viget, caelefte et di-
vinum eft j ob eamque rem sternum sit necesse
\ Frag, de EST f.” This was indeed fecuring the future perma-
Confola- nency of the foul in the moft effectual manner ; for it
tione- is obvious, that what had not a beginning can never
have an end, but muft be of eternal and neceflary exift-
267 encc-
but not in But when the ancients attributed a proper eternity
itsdiitindl to the foul, we muft not fuppofe that they underwood
and perfo- jt to eternal in its diJiinEl and perfonalexiftence. They
rial capa- beqeveq tpat it proceeded or was difeerpted in time from
the fubftanee of God, and would in time be again re-
fa Ived into that fubftance. This they explained by a
"elofe veffel filled with fea water, which fwimming a
while upon the ocean, does, on the veffel’s breaking, flow
H Y SICS.
667
in again, and mingle with the common mafs. riiey Of tbelm-
only differed about the time of this reunion; the^3^°
greater part holding it to be at death ; but the Pytha-1
goreans not till after many tranfmigrations. The Pia-
tonifts went between thefe two opinions ; and rejoined
pure and unpolluted fouls immediately to the Univeilal
Spirit; but\hofe which had contracted much defile-* Wa-bur-
ment, were fent into a fucceflion of other bodies, to be^A*
purged and purified, before they returned to their pa-
rent fubftance ^
A doCtrine fimilar to thi* of Plato has been held A fimilar
from lime immemorial by the Bramins in India, whofe^^™’6^
facred books teach, “ That intellect is a PORTION °f gramins.
the GREAT SOUL of the univerfe, breathed into all
creatures, to animate them for a certain time ; that af¬
ter death it animates other bodies, or returns like a
drop into that unbounded ocean from which it firft arofe ;
that the fouls of men are diftingunhed from thofe of
other animals, by being endowed with reafon and with
a confcioufnefs of right and wrong ; and that the foul
of him who adheres to right as far as his powers ex¬
tend, is at death absorbed into that divine es¬
sence, never more to re-animate flelh. On the other
hand, the fouls of thofe who do evil, are not at death
difengaged from all the elements ; but are immediate¬
ly clothed with a body of fire, air, and ahajh (a kind
of celeftial element, through which the planets move,
and which makes no refiftance) in which they are for a
time punilhed in hell. After the feafon of their grief t See Pfe-
is over, they reanimate other bodies: and when they
arrive through thefe tranfmigrations at a ftate of purity,^ t0
they are abforbed into God, "where all passions are ut- oow's Hif-
terly unknown, and where consciousness is lost tory 0/ I?i-
, ,, do/ian.
IN BLISS f.” _ . 26.
divinity and tranfmigration of fouls from the eaft, or trine in-
whether both they and the Bramins brought the fame compatible
doCtrines at different periods from Egypt, it is foreign
from the purpofe ot this article to inquire. Certain it rewarcjs
is, that the philofophers of Greece and India argued anci pUnifli-
in the very lame manner, and upon the very fame prin- ments, and
ciples, for the natural immortality of the foul; and
that the immortality whiQi they taught was w’holly
incompatible with God’s moral government of the
world, and with a future ftate of rewards and punifti-
ments. That this is true of the doCtrine of the Bra¬
mins, is evident from the laft-quoted fentence : for if
the foul, when abforbed into the Divine effence, lofes
all confcioufnefs of what it did and fuffered in the
body, it cannot pofiibly be rewarded for its virtues
praClifed upon earcb. That the philofophers of Greece
taught the fame ceffation of confcioufnefs, might be
inferred with the utmoft certainty, even though we
had not Ariftotle’s exprefs declaration to that purpofe :
For as they all believed their fouls to have exifted be¬
fore they were infufed into their bodies, and as each
muft have been confcious that lie remembered nothing
of his former ftate (o), it was impoflible to avoid con-
4 P 2 eluding,
Deum et materiam. ArCliflame enim utrumque hoc initium conjunxit Stagyrita, atque ip!a naturae neceffitate
Deum cohferere cum mole hac corporea putavit.” Cudworth's IntelleBual Syfem, xiook i. Chap. iv. Sect. 6.
(o) This is exprefsly acknowledged by Cicero, though he held with his Greek mailers the eternity of the fouL
* D-; Am¬
mo, lib. iii.
cap. 6.
270
Grofsly ab-
furd in it-
felf;
668 M E T A P
Of.-:™-cluiing, that in the future ftate ofhis foul as little would
the Soiii.° rclT)Crn')ei'(cl of the prefenf. Accordingly Ariftotle
teaclies, that “ the agent intclleft only is immortal and
c 1 c 11:. !, but the paflive corruptible,jtcvcv xSocvcilov
xxi cuo;ov a TTstOzlixos v«y; <p0xgjo{ *. Cudworth thinks
this a very doubtful and obfcure pafiage ; but Warbur-
ton, whole natural acutcnefs often difcovcred the fenfe
of ancient authors when it had efcaped the fagacity of
abler feholars, lias completely proved, that by the agent
intellect is meant the fubjlance of the foul, and by the
pa (Jive its particular perceptions. It appears therefore
that the Stagyrite, from the common principle of the
foul's being a part of the Divine fubftance, draws a con-
clufion againl! a future ftate of regards and punilhments ;
which though all the philofophers (except Socrates) em¬
braced, yet all were not fo forward to avow.
I hat the hypothecs of the foul’s being a part of the
Divine lubftanee is "a grofs abfurdity, we furely need
not fpend time in proving. The argument long ago
urged againft it by St Auftin muft ere now have occur¬
red to every reader. In the days of that learned father
of the church, it was not wholly given up by the philo¬
fophers ; and in his excellent work of the City of God,
he thus expofes its extravagance and impiety : “ Quid
infelicius credi poteft, quam Dei partem vapulare, cum
puer vapulat ? Jam vero partes Dei fieri lafcivas, ini-
qnas, impias, atque omnino damnabiles, quis ferre poteft
271 nili qui prorfus infanit ?
yet the on- Eut though this hypotbefis be in the hightft degree
from which abf’urd and untenible, we apprehend it to be the
the foul can on^7 principle from which the natural or effential immor-
be inferred tality of the foul can poflibly be inferred. If the foul had
to be eflen- a beginning it may have an end; for nothing can be more
mortal111' evddent llian that the being which had not exiftence of
itfelf, cannot of itfelf have perpetuity of exiftence. Hu¬
man works, indeed, continue in being after the power
of the workman is withdrawn from them *, but between
human works and the Divine there is this immenfe dif¬
ference, that the former receive from the artift nothing
but their form ; whereas the latter receive from the
Creator both their form and their fubftance. Forms
are nothing but modifications of fubftance 5 and as
fubftances depend upon God and not upon man, human
works are continued in being by that fiat of the Crea¬
tor, which made the fubftances of which they are com-
pofed fufceptible of different forms, and of fuch a nature
as to retain for a time whatever form may be impreffed
upon them. Human works therefore are continued in
being by a power different from that by which they
are finifhed ; but the works of God depend wholly
upon that power by which they were originally brought
into exiftence ; and were the Creator to withdraw his
fupporting energy, the whole creation would fink into
272 nothing.
Baxter’s ar- Self-evident as this truth certainly is, fome eminent
gument for philofophers feem to h ave queftioned it. “ No fub-
or^ffentiai bailee or being (fays Mr Baxter*) can have a natural
immortali¬
ty of the
H Y S I C S. Part III.
tendency to annihilation, or to become nothing. That Qfthelm.
a being which once exifts ftiould ceafe to exift is amortali(y'4'
real effedl, and muft be produced by a real caufe: ,the Soul-
But this caufe could not be planted in the nature of' "V—
any fubftance or being to become a tendency of its
nature j for it could not be a free caufe, otherwife it
muft be a being itfolf, the fob]eft of the attribute freer
dom, and therefore not the property of another being ;
nor a neceffary caufe, for fuch a caufe is only the effect
of fomething impofing that neceflity, and fo no caufe at
all.
ihat the author’s meaning in this argument is good, Incondu-
cannot, we think, be controverted ; but he has not ex-live,
preffed himfolf with hfoufoal accuracy. He feems to
confound caufes with the abfence of caufes, and the
ejfeiis of the former with the confequences of the latter.
1 he vilible world was brought into exiffence by the
actual energy of the power of God ; and as the vifible
world had nothing of itfelf, it can remain in exiftenca
only by a continuance of the fume energy. This energy
therefore is at the prefent moment as real a caufe as it
•was fix thoufand years ago, or at any period when it
may have been firft exerted 5 and the vifible world is its
real and permanent efccl. But would the ceafing of
this energy be likewife a caufe? It would certainly be
followed with the annihilation of the vifible world,
juft as the withdrawing of the fun-beams would be
followed with darknefs on tbe earth. Yet as no one
has ever foppofed that darknefs, a nonentity, is a po-
ftive eject of the fun or of his beams, but only a mere
negative confequence of their abfence ; fo, we think,
no one who believes in creation can confider that
deftruefion which would inevitably follow the with¬
drawing of the energy by which all things are fup-
piied, as the poftive effell of a contrary energy, or as
any thing more than a negative confequence of the ceaf¬
ing of that volition or energy of power by which
God at firft brought things into exiftence. For
“ where the foundation of exiftence lies wholly in the
power of an infinite Being producing, the ground of the
continuance of that exiftence muft be wholly in the fame
power conferving; which has, therefore, with as much
truth as frequency, been ftyled a continued crea¬
tion (r).”
The force of this reafoning Mr Baxter certainly faw, and ^4ef.
when he faid, that “ a tendency to perfevere in the fed given
fame ftate of nature, and a tendency to change it, are UP by IJnv
contradictories, and impoflible to be planted in the fame
fubjeCt at once : or, not to urge the contradiction, if
the laft prevailed, the remaining in the fame ftate for
any given time would be impoffible. We forget the
true caufe of all thefe tendencies, the will of God,
which it is abford to foppofe contrary to itfelf. The
tendency in matter to perfevere in the fame ftate of
reft or motion, is nothing but the will of the Creator,
who preferves all things in their exiftence and manner
of exiftence : nor can we have recourfe to any other
caufe
foul.
into \he ^ du an^ver to fome very foolifti affertions concerning the evil of death, he fays, “ Ita, qui nondum nati font, miferi
Nature of jam font, quia non font: et nos ipfi, ft poll mortem miferi futuri fomus, miferi fuimus antequam nati. Ego autem
the Human non cornmemtni, antequam fum natus, me mferum. Dufcul. lib. i. cap. 6.
Tci.^ 1 (p) Sec Stillingfleet’s Origines Sacra:, where this queftion is treated in a very xnaftcrly manner by one of the
'U' ableft metaphylicians of the 17th century. See alfo our article Providence.
Chap. V. M E T A P
Of die Im- caufe for the prefervation of immaterial fubftance in
mortality of exiftence. Therefore thefe tendencies are to be
the Soul. ^ a|-cribe(t tG) t]je wiH 0f God, and it is abfurd to fnppofe
^ ^, them contrary.”
Analogical All this is unqueftionably true. The exiftcnce or
evidence of nonexiftence of matter and of created fpirits depends
theimmor- wiloby upon the will of God 5 and we cannot fuppofe
him to be willing to-day the reverfe of what he willed
Ind a mo- yefterday, becaufe we know that all his volitions are
ral proof direfted by unerring wifdom. We have likewife the
of a future evidence of experience, that nothing is ever fuffered to
ftateof re- rbb bu^ particular fyftems, which perifh only as fy-
"unifli^ Pms b7 a decompolition of their parts. A being,
ments. which like the foul has no parts, can fuffer no decom-
pofition ; and therefore, if it perifti, it muft periflt by
annihilation. But of annihilation there has not hi¬
therto been a Angle inftance *, nor can we look for a
Angle inftance without fuppoAng the volitions of God
to partake of that unfteadinefs which is charafteriftic of
man. Corporeal fyftems, when they have ferved their
purpofe, are indeed refolved into their component parts j
but the matter of which they were compofed, fo far
from being becomes the matter of other fyjletns in
endlefs fucceffion. Analogy, therefore, leads us to con¬
clude, that when the human body is diftblved, the im¬
material principle by winch it ivas animated continues
to think and aft, either in a ftate of feparation from all
body, or in fome material vehicle to which it is inti¬
mately united, and which goes off with it at death •, or
elfe that it is preferved by the Father of fpirits, for the
purpofe of animating a body in fome future ftate. When
we conAder the different ftates through which that
living and thinking individual, which each man calls
himfelf, goes, from the moment that it Arft animates an
* embryo in the womb, to the diffolution of the man of
fourfeore ; and when we reflect likewife on the wifdom
and immutability of God, together wTith the various
diffolutions of corporeal fyftems, in which we know that
a Angle atom of matter has never been loft j the pre-
fumption is certainly ftrong, that the foul (hall fubftit
after the diffolution of the body. But when we take
into the eonAderation the moral attributes of God—
his juftice and goodnefs, together with the unequal
diftribution of happinefs and mifery in the prefent
■world •, this prefumption from analogy amounts to a
complete moral proof that there fliall be a future ftate
of rewards and punifhments (q_) (fee Moral Plulo-
fophi/ and Religion) : and if we eftimate the duration
of the rewards by the benevolence of Him by whom
they are to be conferred, ive cannot imagine them {hot¬
ter than eternity.
176
Freedom of
agency im¬
plied in ac-
countable-
uefs.
Chap. V. 0/Necessity and Liberty.
In the preceding chapter we have adverted to that
H Y S I C S: 6%
great moral proof for a future ftate, and tne iinmortaiity - ant
of the foul, ariftng from the relation in which man, as b(jbmy.
a being accountable for his condu<fr, ftands to a Gy d i in ,,1
of almighty power, inSnite wifdom, anci pf .ieft
juftice. But the circumftance of accountableneis im¬
plies freedom of agency j for it is contrary to all our
notions of right and wrong (fee Moral Philofophy),
that a man ftiould be either rewarded or pumftied lor
actions which he was neceffitated or compelled to
perform. 277
Human aftions are of three kinds : one, where we Every man
aft by inftinft, without any view to confequences; one, lias power
where we aft by will, in order to obtain fome end: ^ .
and one, where ive aft agamft will. It is the fecond
kind of actions only which confers upon the agent
merit or demerit. With refpecl to the Aril, he acts
blindly (fee Instinct), without deliberation or choice ;
and the external aft follows from the inftinftive
impulfe, no lefs neceffarily than a ftone by its gra¬
vity falls to the ground. With refpeft to the laft,
he is rather an inftrument than an agent; and it is uni-
verfally allowed, that were a ftrong man to put a
fword into the hand of one who is weaker, and then
to force it through the body of. a third perfon, he who
held the fword would be as guiltlefs of the murder as
the fword itfclf. fto be entitled to rewards, 01 liable-
to puniftiment, a man muft aft voluntarily ) or in other
words, his aftions muft proceed from that energy of
mind which is termed volition; and, ive believe, it
has never been denied, that all men have power to do
whatfoever they will, both with reipeft to the ope¬
rations of their minds and the motions of their bo¬
dies, uncontrouled by any foreign principle or caufe.
“ Every man (fays Prieftley) is at liberty to turn nis
thoughts to whatever fubjeft he pleafes, to conAder
the reafons for or againft any fcheme or propoftlion,
and to refleft upon them as long as he inall think
proper; as well as to walk wherever.he pleafes, and
to do whatever his hands and other limbs are capable
of doing.” Without fuch liberty as this, morality is
inconceivable. _ _ ^ 27.8
But though philofcphers have in general agreed But chfter-
with refpeft to the power which a man has to per- ^
form fuch aftions as he wills, they have differed wide- t?;r.cd of
ly in opinion refpefting the nature of his volitions. the free-
That thefe are the refult of motives, has feldom if everdomofvo-
been queftioned ; but whether that rcfult be neceffary litkn.
fo as that the agent has no felf-determining power to
decide detween different motives, has been warmly dif-
puted by men equally candid, impartial, and intelli¬
gent. The principal writers on the Ade of necemty
are, Hobbes, Collins, Hume, Leionitz, Lord Kamos,
Hartley, Edwards, Prieftley, and perhaps Locke. On
the other Ade are Clarke,'King, Law, Reid, Butler,
Price, Bryant, Wollafton, Horftey, Beattie, and Gre-
gory,
(o ) It was bv fuch arguments that Socrates reafoned himfelf into the belief of a future ftate of rewards and
punifhments. He was Angular, as we have already obferved, in this belief; and he was as Angular, in comm mg
bimftlf to the ftudy of morality. “ What could be the caufe of this belief, but this reftr.aint, oi which his bebei
was a natural confequence ? For having conAned himfelf to morals, he had nothing to nuflead him j whereas tns
reft of the philofophers, applying themfelves with a kind of fanaticifm to plyfes and metapliyfics, had drawn a
number of abfurd, though fubtle, concluAons, which dircftly oppofed the conltquenccs cf thole moral arguments..
0 Warburton's Div. Leg. vok iu
'670
Of Ne-
cefllfy and
Liberty
metaphysics.
579
Scheme of
neceffity,
according
to Lord
Karnes.
* Sketches
of the HiJ-
tory of
Man, Book
iii. Sketch
a. part 1.
fed. S.
To give a {hoi't view of this celebrated
quel lion, is all that our limits trill permit 5 and as
1 we do not think ourfelves competent to fettle the dif-
pute, it were perhaps a thing defirable to give the op-
pofite reafonings in the words of thofe eminent authors
themfelves. it muft, however, be obvious to the
reader, that the llyle and manner of fo many different
writers are extremely various, and that to introduce
them all into our abftratt, would make the whole a
mafs of confulion. We ihall, therefore, felect one wri¬
ter to plead the caufe of nectfifty, fupplying his defects
from thofe who, though inferior to him on the whole,
may yet have argued more ably on feme particular
points which the queftion involves 5 and to this com¬
bined reafoning we (hall fubjoin fuch anfwers as to us
appear molt conclufive. Hartley, Hume, and Prielt-
ley, are perhaps the molt profound reafoners on the
fide of ne ceflity 5 but there is fo much more perfpi-
cuity in the arguments of Lord Karnes, that we can¬
not help preferring them, as being on the whole bet¬
ter calculated to give the ordinary reader a fair view of
the fubject.
_ “ Into actions done with a vierv to an end (fays
his lordlhip *), defire and will enter : delire to ac-
complilh the end goes firlt •, the will to aft, in order
to accotnplilh the end, is next ; and the external aft
follows of courfe. It is the Avill then, that governs
every external aft done as a mean to accomplifh an
end ; and it is defire to accomplilh the end that puts
the will in motion ; defire, in this view, being com¬
monly termed the motive to aft. But what is it that
raifes defire ? The anfwer is ready : It is the profpeft
of attaining fome agreeable end, or of evading one
that is difagreeable. And if it be inquired," what
makes an objefl agreeable or diagreeable ? the anfwer
is equally ready : It is our nature that makes it fo.
Certain vifible objefts are agreeable, certain founds,
and certain fmells : other objefts of thefc fenfes are dif¬
agreeable. But there we mull Hop ^ for we are far
from being fo intimately acquainted with eur own na¬
ture as to aflign the caufes.
“ With refpefl to inftinflive affions, no perfon, I
prefume, thinks that there is any freedom. With re¬
fpefl to voluntary aflions, done in order to produce
fome effefl, the neceflity is the fame, though lefs appa¬
rent at firft view. rI he external aflion is determined
by the will : the will is determined by defire 5 and de¬
fire by what is agreeable or difagreeable. Here is a
chain of caufes and effefls, not one link of which is ar¬
bitrary, or under command of the agent: he cannot
will but according to his defire 5 he cannot defire, but
according to what is agreeable or difagreeable in the
objefts perceived : nor do thefe qualities depend on his
inclination or fancy ; he has no porver to make a
beautiful Avoman ugly, nor to make a rotten carcafs
fmell fweetly.
“ Many good men, apprehending danger to mora¬
lity from holding our aftions to be neceifary, endea¬
vour to break the chain of caufes and effefts above
mentioned ; maintaining, that whatever influence de¬
fire or motives may have, it is the agent himfelf who is
the caufe of every aftion 5 that defire may advife, but
cannot command 5 and, therefore, that a man is Hill
free to aft in contradiction to defire and to the Itrongelt
motives.
Part III.
That a being may exlft which in every cafe afts otNe
blindly and arbitrarily, Avithout having any end in ceffity and
vie a v, I can make a Ihift to conceive : "but it is diih- Libeity.
cult tor me even to imagine a thinking and rational ' 
being, that has affeftions and pafhons, that has a de¬
firable end in vieiv, that can eaiily accomplifh this
end ■, and yet after all can riy off or remain at reft,
without any caufe, reafon, or motive, to fway it. If
fuch a Avhimfical being can pofiibly exift, I am certain
that man is not that being. J. here is not, perhaps, a
perfon above the condition of a changeling, but can fay
w/iy he did fo and fo, Avhat moved him, Avhat he in¬
tended. Nor is a fingle faff Hated to make us be¬
lieve that ever a man afled againft his own will or
defire, Avho was not compelled by external force 
On the contrary, conftant and univeifal experience
proves, that human aflions are g'overned bv certain
inflexible laws j and that a man cannot exert his
felf-motive power but in purfuance of fome defire or
motive.
Had a motive always the fame influence, aflions
proceeding from it would appear no lefs neceffary
than the aftions of matter, Ike various degrees of
influence that motives have on different men at the
fame time, and on the fame man at different times,
occafion a doubt, by fuggefting a notion of chance.
Some motives, however, hav’e fuch influence as to
leave no doubt : a timid female has a phylical po\¥er
to throw her fell into the mouth of a lion roaring for
food but flie is withheld by terror no lefs effeflual-
ly than by cords : if fhe fhould rufli upon a lion, would
not every one conclude that the was frantic > A man,
though in a deep fleep, retains a phyfical poiver to
afl, but he cannot exert it. A man, though defpe-
rately in love,, retains a phyfical poAver to refufe the
hand of his miftrefs j but he cannot exert that power
in contradiflion to his oavu ardent defire, more than if
he Avere fall afleep. Nos\r, if a ftrong motive have a
neceffary influence, there is no reafon for doubting,
but that a weak motive muft alfo have its influence,
the lame in kind, though not in degree. Some ac¬
tions indeed are ftrangely irregular ; but let the wild-
eft aftions be ferutinized, there Avill always be dif-
cov'ered fome motive or dehre, Avhich, however whim¬
sical or capricious, was Avhat influenced the perfon to
aft. Of tivo contending motives, is it not natural to
expeft that the ftronger Avill prevail, hoAvever little
its excefs may be ? If there be any doubt, it muft
arife from a fuppofition, that a weak motive may be
refilled arbitrarily. Where then are avc to fix the
boundary between a weak and a ftrong motive ? If a
Aveak motive can be refilled, why not one a little
ftronger, and Avhy not the ftrongeft ? BetAveen tAvo
motives oppofing each other, however nearly balan¬
ced, a man has not an arbitrary choice but muft yield
to the ftronger. ilhe mind, indeed, fluftuates for
fome time, and finds itfelf in a meafure loofe : at laft,
hoAvever, it is determined by the more powerful mo¬
tive, as a balance is by the greater weight after many
vibrations.
u Such, then, are the laivs that govern our volun¬
tary aftions. A man is abfolutely free to aft accord¬
ing to his oAvn Avill ; greater freedom than Avhich is
not conceivable. At the fame time, as man is made
accountable for his conduft to his Maker, to his fel-
loAV
Chap. V. M E T A P
OfNc- low creatures, and io himfelf, be is not left to act ar-
ceffity and bitrarily ; for at that rate he would be altogether un-
Liberty. accountable : his will is regulated by defire ; and de-
fire by what pleafes or difpleafes him.—Thus, with
regard to human conduct, there is a chain of laws
eftablilhed by nature j no one link of which is left
arbitrary. By that wife fyllein, man is made ac¬
countable ; by it he is made a fit fubjedl for divine
and human government : by it perfons of fagacity
forefee the conduft of others •, and by it the prefcience
of the Deity with refpeet to human actions is clearly
efiablifiied.”
Of the doctrine of neceffity, a more perfpicuous
or plaufible view than this is not to be found in any
work with which we are acquainted. It is indeed
defective, perhaps, as his lordfhip only hints at the
nature of that relation which fubfifts between motive
and adtion ; but from his comparing the fluctuations
of the mind between two contending motives, to the
vibrations of a balance with different weights in the
oppofite fcales, there is no room to doubt but that
he agreed exadtly in opinion with Mr Hume and Dr
Prieftley. Now, both.thefe writers hold, that the
relation of motives to volition and aftion, is the very
fame with that which fubfifts between caufe and ef¬
fect in phyfics, as far as they are both known to us.
Mr Hume, “ It is univerfally allowed (fays Mr Hume *), that
and ’ matter, in all its operations, is adluated by a neceffary
* Inquiry force •, and that every natural effedt is fo precifely de-
cojiceming termjned by the energy of its caufe, that no other
^der/hnid"’ effe^l, in fuch particular circumftances, could poflibly
‘ilg, fe&. S. have refulted from it. The degree and diredlion of
every motion is, by the laws of nature, prefcribed
with fuch exadfnefs, that a living creature may as foon
arife from the ftiock of two bodies, as motion in any
other degree or direftion than what is adtually pro¬
duced by it. Would we, therefore, form a juft and
precife idea of necejfity, we muft confider whence that
idea arifes, when we apply it to the operation of bo¬
dies. But our idea of this kind of neceflity and cau-
fation arifes entirely from the uniformity obfervable
in the operations of nature, where fimilar objedts are
conftantly conjoined together, and the mind is deter¬
mined by cuftom to infer the one from the appear¬
ance of the other. Thefe two circumftances form
the whole of that neceflity which we aferibe to mat¬
ter. Beyond the conflant conjunElion of fimilar objedb,
and the confequent inference from one to the other, we
have no notion of any neceflity or connexion.” He then
gives a pretty long detail to prove a great uniformity
among the adtions of men in all nations and ages •, and
concludes that part of his argument with affirming,
“ not only that the conjundlion between motives and
voluntary actions is as regular and uniform as that
between the caufe and effedt in any part of nature ;
but alfo, that this regular eonjundlion has been uni¬
verfally acknowledged among mankind, and has never
been the fubjedi of difpute either in philofophy or
common life.” He afterwards obferves, “ That men
begin at the wrong end of this queftion concerning
liberty and neceflity, when they enter upon it by ex-
amining the faculties of the foul, the influence of the
underftanding, and the operations of the will. Let
them firft difeufs a more Ample queftion, namely, the
operations of body, and of brute unintelligent matter,
H Y S I C S. 671
and try whether they can there form any idea of cau- ,
fation and neceflity, except that of a conftant con-
jundtion of objedfs, and fubfequent inference of the ■ ^ ■
mind from one to another. If thefe circumftances
form in reality the whole of that neceffity which we
conceive in matter, and if thefe circumftances be alfo
univerfally acknowledged to take place in the opera¬
tions of the mind, the difpute is at an end; at leaft
muft be owned to be thenceforth merely verbal. When
we confider how aptly* natural and moral evidence link
together, and form only one chain of argument, we
(hall make no fcruple to allow that they are of the
fame nature, and derived from the fame principles.—
Between a connedled chain of natural caufes and vo¬
luntary adlions, the mind feels no difference in pal-
fing from one link to another 5 nor is lefs certain of
a future event which depends upon motives and voli¬
tions, than if it rvere connedted with the objedts pre-
fent to the memory and fenfes by a train of caufes,
cemented together by what we are pleafed to call a
physical neceflity. The fame experienced union has
the fame effedt on the mind, whether the united ob-
jedts be motives, volition and adtion, or figure and mo^
tion. We may change the names of things, but their
nature and their operation on the underftanding never
change.” 281
Dr Prieftley, in words a little different, teaches theDrPrieft-
very fame doctrine which was taught by Mr Hume.— ^'y-
“ In every determination of the mind (fays he *), ^ qng cf °C
or in cafes where volition and choice are concerned, phUofophi-
all the previous circumitances to be confidered are the cni Necef-
Jlate of mind (including every thing belonging to the will fity illuf-
itfclff and the views of things prefented to it ; the lat- tr cited
ter of which is generally called the motive, though un¬
der this term fome writers comprehend them both.
To diftinguiffi the manner in which events depending
upon will and choice are produced, from thofe in which
no volition is concerned, the former are faid to be pro¬
duced voluntarily, and the latter mechanically. But the
fame general maxims apply to them both. We may
not be able to determine d prion how a man will aft in
any particular cafe but it is becaufe we are not par¬
ticularly acquainted with his difpofition of mind, precife
filiation, and views of things. But neither can we tell
in which way the wind will blow to-morrow, though
the air is certainly fubjeft to no other than neceffary
laws of motion.
“ It is univerfally acknowledged, that there can
be no effeft without an adequate caufe. this is
even the foundation on which the only proper argu¬
ment for the being of a God refts. And the necef-
farian afferts, that if, in any given ftate of mind, with
refpeft both to difpofition and motives, two different
determinations or volitions be poffible, it can be fo
on no other principle, than that one of them ftiall
come under the defeription of an effeB without a caufe;
juft as the beam of a balance might incline either
way, though loaded with equal weights. It is ac¬
knowledged, that the mechanifm of the balance is of
one kind, and that of the mind of another } and,
therefore, it may be convenient to denominate them
by different words ; as, for inftance, that of the ba¬
lance may be termed a physical, and that of the mind
a moral mechanifm. But ftill, if there be a real me-
chanifn in both cafes, fo that there can be only one
refult
672
OfKc- refult from llie fame previou
ceffity atid • - 1
M E T A P
circumftances, there aviII
2S2
View of
human li¬
berty.
Liberty. ^,e a rea^ ncceJfit!Ji enforcing an abfolute certainty in.
  j tne event. For it muft be underftood, that all that is
ever meant by necejjity in a caufe, is that which pro-
du ces certainty in the ejj'cil.'1''
Such is the nature of human volitions, according to
every neccflarian of eminence who has written on the
fubjecl fince the days of Hobbes : and if this theory be
juft, if there be a conftant and infeparable conjunftion
of motives and aftions fimilar to that of caufe and effeft
in phyfics, it is obvious, that in volition the mind is as
inert as body is in motion.
T his confluence is indeed avowed and infifted upon
by Hume, Prieftley, and their adherents j whilft the ad¬
vocates for human liberty, on the other hand, contend
for an abfolute exemption of the will from all internal
neccjjity, arifing from its own frame and conftitution,
the impulfe of fuperior beings, or the operations of
obje&s, reafons, or motives, &c. By this they do not
mean, that between motives and volitions there is no
relations whatever, or that a man can ever choofe evil
as evil, or refufe good as good. Such an affertion
would be contrary to confcioufnefs and univerfal expe¬
rience. But what they endeavour to prove is, that
the conjunftion of motive and volition is not infepa¬
rable, like that of caufe and effedf in phyfics j that a
man may in moft cafes choofe according to any one of
two or more motives prefented to his view j that by
choofing any thing, he may make it in fome meafure
agreeable by his own a£l, or, to fpeak more properly,
may bend his defire to it; that in volition, the mind
js not inert; and that, therefore, wn are under no ne-
■cejjity to aft in a particular manner in any given cafe
whatever.
That the conjunftion of motive and aftion is not
conftant like that of caufe and effect in phyfics, and
that by confequence the mind in forming volitions is
not inert, has been evinced by Dr Gregory with the
force and precifion of mathematical demonftration.—
Former writers on the fide of liberty had often ob-
ferved, that upon the fuppofition of the inertia of
mind, a man, with equal and oppofite motives pre¬
fented at once to his view, wrould, during their conti¬
nuance, remain perfeftly at reft, like a balance equally
loaded in both feales. The obfervation is admitted to
be juft by all the advocates for neceflity 5 but they
contrive to evade its confequences, by denying that in
any given cafe a man can be at once affailed by two
equal and oppofite motives. Thus, when it is faid
that a porter, ftanding with his face due north, muft;
remain in that pofition at perfeft reft, as long as equal
motives fhall at once be offered to him for travelling
eaftward and weftward, the neceffarians admit the
force of the argument) but when it is added that a
guinea, offered for every mile that he fliould travel in
each of thefe oppofite direftions, ought therefore to
fix him at reft till one of the offers be withdrawn, they
deny that the defire of gaining the guineas is the
whole of the motives which operate upon his mind. He
may have, fay they, fome fecret reafon which we can¬
not difeern for preferring the one direftion to the
other; and that reafon, added to the guinea, will make
him go eaftward or weftward, juft as an ounce thrown
into either fcale of a balance poifed by equal weights
will make that fcale preponderate. Though we think
HYSICS. _ Part m.
•that this folution of the diiticulty can fatisfy no man Of Ne-
who is not already biaffed to the neceffarian fyftem j Cefl*uy ar.d
and though, even were it to be admitted, itfeems to , Llberty-
militate againft the conftant conjunftion of motives and
aftions, unlefs it can be proved that the porter muft
travel the road which he has been necefiitated to
choofe with reluftance and a heavy heart j yet as it
may admit of endlefs quibbling upon ambiguous words,
the philofophical world is much indebted to Dr Gre-, vrr
goryf for an argument which, in our opinion, can th/faia!
neither be overturned nor evaded, and which demon- tion be-
ftrates that the conjunftion of motive and aftion cannot Ma-
be conftant and infeparable, like that of caufe and ef- liAve an4
feft in phyfics. Adio^
His reafoning is to this purpofe : Suppofe a porter Demsnflu.
to be offered a guinea for every mile that he thall1'011 that
travel direftly eaftward. If there be no phyfical caufe lhe^on'
or moral motive to keep him at reft, or to induce him-J™^"^
to move in another direftion, there cannot be a doubt, aftion is
upon either hypothefis, but he will glady embrace the conftant.
propofal, and travel in the direftion pointed out to
him, till he Ihall have gained as much money as to fa¬
tisfy his moft avaricious defires. The fame thing would
have happened, if a guinea had been offered for every
mile that he fhould travel due fouth. In thefe two
cafes taken feparately, the relation between the man’s
motions and his aftions would be ftrikinglly analogous
to that between a fingle impulfe and motion in phyfics.
Let us now fuppofe the two offers to be made at the
fame inftant, and the man to be affured that if he tra¬
vel eaftward he can have no part of the reward pro-
mifed for his travelling to the fouth, and that if lie
travel fouthward he can have no part of the reward
promifed for his travelling to the eaft. What is he to
do in this cafe ? If his mind be inert in volition, and
if the two motives operate upon him with the fame
neceflity that caufes operate in phyfics, it is obvious
that the man could travel neither towards the eaft nor
towards the fouth, but in a diagonal direftion from
north-weft to fouth-eaft j and this he muft do willing¬
ly, although perfeftly fatisfied that he could gain no¬
thing by his journey. As this inference is contrary
to faft and univerfal experience, the doftor very
juftly concludes that the premifes, from which it is de¬
duced by mathematical reafoning, muft be falfe and
abfurd j or, in other words, that the relation between
motive and aftion cannot be that of conftant conjunc¬
tion, like the relation between caufe and effect in phy¬
fics.
Fie ufes many arguments of the fame kind, and
equally convincing, to prove the abfurdity of fuppof-
ing the inertnefs of mind, and only an occafional con¬
junftion of motives and aftions 5 but we forbear to
quote them, both becaufe we with his book to be read,
and becaufe v/e think the fingle argument which we
have borrowed from him fufficient to demolifh the
theory of Prieftley and Hume, which refts wholly up¬
on the hypothefis of the conjlant conjunftion of mo¬
tive and aftion.
But is it then not really true, that the external ac¬
tion is determined by the will, the will by defire, and
defire by what is agreeable or difagreeable ? That the
external aftion is univerfally determined by the will, is
certainly true j but that the will is neceffitated and uni¬
verfally determined by the defire is as certainly falfe. If
Potiphar’s
Chap. V. M E T A P
Of\re- Potiphar’s wife was liandfotne, and made her propofals
ofeffity and to Jofeph with any degree of female addrefs •, and if
Llberty- , his conltitution was like that of other young men *,
x ^ " there cannot be a doubt but that he felt a defire to do
what (he requeued of him : yet we know that he willed
to do otherwife, and in direft oppofition to his dejire
fled from the room. Perhaps it may be faid, thai his
volition to flee was the effe£ of a contrary and ftronger
dejire not to fin againft God ; but this is confounding
the reader, by calling two energies of mind, between
which there is little or no fimilarity, by the fame
name. He perceived, or knew, that to comply with
his mifirefi’s requeft would be to fin againlt God j he
knew that he ought not to fin againll God, and there¬
fore he chofe or determined himlclf not to do it. We
can ealily conceive how the prefence, attitudes, and
addrefs, of the lady might be agreeable to him, and
excite defire. There may very poflibly be more than one
of our readers, who, during the courfe of their lives, have
experienced fomething of the fame kind : but could ab-
flrai! truth be in the fame way agreeable, fo as to excite
in his mind a dejire of virtue fuftieient to annihilate or
banifli the dejire of the woman ? As well may it be faid
that one fenfation can annihilate another, that the
beautiful colours of the rainbow can remove the fenfa¬
tion of ftench from the mind of him who is plunged
into the midft of a dunghill, or that the fmell of a rofe
can make a man infenfible to the pain of a ftroke in-
flifled by a bludgeon. Senfitive defire, and the percep¬
tion of duty, are things fo totally different, that to con-
iider them as operating againft each other, like different
weights in the oppofite fcales of a balance, is as abfurd
as to fuppofe that found can operate againft colour, or
colour againft fmell. A man may prefer found to co¬
lour, or colour to fmell, and atft accordingly ; but the
determination muft be wholly his own, unlefs thefe two
fenfations be themfelves either agents or phyfical caufes
of the fame kind, like the weights in the oppofite fcales
of the balance.
Men do The advocates for liberty do not pretend, that in
wot always matter!.'of importance a man ever afls without fome
determr motJvc or reafon for his conduft. All that they infift
b^die ^ upon is, that between two or more motives of differ-
ftr*neeft ent kinds he has a liberty of choice, and that he does
motive. not always determine himfelf by that which he knows
to be the greateft. Without fuch freedom, they
think men might be often brought into fituations
where they could not a6! at all, and where inadion
would at the fame time be in the higheft degree ab¬
furd. Thus, were two bags of gold containing each
a thoufand or ten thoufand guineas, to be placed on
the fame table, before a man whofe family is perilhing
for want, and were the man to be told that he might
take either of them, but not both, is it conceiveable
that he would be held in perpetual fufperfe between
the two ? No; he would inftantly and with alacrity
take up one of them, without feeling the leaf! regret
for the want of the other. This a ft ion would, indeed,
be the consequence of a very powerful motive, the
de-re to obtain honeftlv that wealth of which he and
his family Hood fo much in need. That motive, how-
ev- r, being general, would draw him equally to both
bags ; and it remains with the neceffariam to fay by
what rife than a Self determining power he could take
either the me or 4he other. When it is affirmed, that
Vol. XIII. Part II.
H Y S I C S.
fuch felf-determination would be an cffeCf without a
caufe, the advocates for liberty cannot help thinking ‘
that their antagonifts are guilty of advancing as an ar „
gument a pehtio prinapii; for the affirmation is true,
only if the mind in volition be inert, and the inertia of
the mind is the foie queftion at iiiue. It the mind be
not inert, it is plain, that in confequence of a man’s
fell-determination, no effe£t would be produced without
a fufficient caufe. At any rate, motives cannot be
eauies. In i.he proper lenfe of the word, a caufe is
that which produces an effedl ; but the preduftion
of an etfcfl requires aclive power ; and power being
a quality, muft be the quality ot fume being by whom
it may be exerted. Power may be dormant, and
therefore power without will produces no efffft.
Are motives, then, real beings endowed with power
and will ? No } they are only views of things or
mental conceptions, winch in the ftricleft feme of the
word are paffive -, and between two motives the mind
determines itfelf, without receiving an impulfe ironx
either.
Nor is it only between motives of equal force that
men have the power of determining themfelves. Who¬
ever believes in a future ftate of rewards and puniftr-
ments, and yet a6ts in a manner which he knows to
be offenfive to Him who is to be the future and final
judge, unqueftionably prefers to the ftrongeft of all
motives, another which even to himfelf appears to
have comparatively but very little ftrength. Whether
there be men who occafionally a£t in this manner, is a
queftion which can be decided only by an appeal to
every one’s confcioufnefs. That there are, we can have
no doubt; for we never met with a fingle individual,
not biaffed by fyftcm, who was not ready to acknow¬
ledge, that during the covrfe of his Ufe he had done
many things, which at the time of aft ion he charly
perceived to br contrary to his true intereft. Without
a felf-determining power in the mind, this could never
be the cafe. Hid motives operate with the neeeffity
of phyfical caufes, it is obvious that in every poffible
fituation the ftrongeft muft conftanth prevail ; and that
he who in certain circumftanees had in time pail dune
any particular thing, would on a return of the fame cir-
cumftantes do the very fame thing in every time future.
Dr Prieftley, indeed, wiffies to perfuade his readers
that this is aftually the cafe. “ In every determination
of the mind (fays he), or in cafes where volition and
choice are concerned, all the previous circumftanees
to be confide'-ed are the fate of mind (including) every
thing belonging to the will itfelff and the various views
of things prefented to it j” and he affirms, that “ w !>en-
ever the fame precife circumftanees occur twice, the
very fame determination or choice will certainly be
made the fecond time that was made the firft.” ft his
is an affertion of which no man can controvert the
truth -, for it is an identical propofition. If in the
circumftances previous to the determination of the
mind, every thins: belonging to the vn/l itfelf muft be
included, it is felf-cvident that he who in any given
circumftances has aftrd a particular part, will on a re¬
turn of thefe circumftances aft the fame part a fecond
time ; for this h onlv faying, thal he who on two dif¬
ferent oecafions fhall exert volitions of the fame ten-
denev, will not on thrfe oecafions exert volitions of
which the tendencies are diflerent. But the queftion
4 Q,
673
Of Ke¬
enly nd
Liberty.
c7+ M E T A P
ceflir^qnH n° 'De 7''cpcc'1 Whether a man, in the fame general
Liberty. ^ate °f mind, poirefled of the fame degree of health,
v-.—and confcious of the fame appetites, mud, in external
circumdances perfectly alike, neeeiTarily exert at all
times the fame volitions, i. hat the human mind is
under no luch nccedity, we think every man’s confci-
oufiefs and experience may abundantly fatisfy him 5
for there are, perhaps, but very few who have not at
one time relifted temptations, to which at another they
2S5 have chofen to yield.
followed r iat therc ^ a relation between motives and aftions,
as merit ,T! be confelfed j but that relation is neither necejji-
and deme- tyi nor conftant conjunct:ion. If it were, all actions
rit would would be perfectly rational; and folly, as well as merit
fromTh^and demerit, would be baniftied from the conduft of
wOTld.ie Abatis the particular nature of that relation
which fubfifts between the voluntary actions of men,
and the motives from which they proceed, can be
known to every individual only by an attentive and
unbiafled reflection on the operations of his own mind.
Without this reflection, no man can be made to un-
derfland it by the reafonings of philofophers, and with
it no man can need the aid of thofe reafonings. That
a felf-determining power, fuch as that for which we
plead, contributes to the fum of human happinefs, has
been fhown by Archhifhop King and his ingenious
trannator } who have proved, with the force of demon-
ftiation, that the mind can take pleafure in the obieCt
of its choice, though that objeCt be in itfelf neither
agreeable nor difagreeable to our natural appetites j
and that if it could not, it would be in vain in fuch
a world as ours to hope for any portion of felicity.
Into teat detail our limits will not permit us to
enter : but to the reader who wifhes for further infor¬
mation, we beg leave to recommend the laft edition
of King’s Origin of Evil, by Dr Law late biftiop of
Carlifle; without, however, vouching for the truth
of all the opinions advanced by either of thofe learned
writers.
Before we conclude this chapter, it may be proper
to. obferve, that it is only in volition that we are con¬
fcious of any original a Clive powder in ourfelves, and
that without fuch confcioufnefs wre could never have
acquired the notion of aClive power. In our defires
and appetites, wre neither are aClive nor fuppofe our-
ielves aClive. Lord Karnes, and moft neeefiarians,
confound defire with volition ; but that they are per-
feClly diftinft is plain from this circumftance, that we
daily defire many things which we know to be wholly
* Reid's out of our own power*, whereas no man ever willed
7-[fays on what he did not believe to be in Ins own powrer. We
to-va^of ali deflre or tiiat ouf children may be virtuous,
Man 5 °J and. happy 5 and though we are confcious that
it is not in our power to make them fo, we cannot
banifli the defire from our breafts. But madmen only
have ever willed virtue, wifdom, and happinefs, to
any perfon ; and if there was ever a man fo extrava¬
gantly mad as to exert fuch a volition as this, he lias
at the time fancied himfelf a divinity, and therefore
believed that the objeCl of his volition depended upon
himfelf. When the aftronomer, whole charaCler is fo
admirably drawn by our great matter of moral wif-
f RaJjTelas dom f, fancied himfelf the regulator of the weather
Prince of and the diftributor of the feafons, he might will either
AbyJJima. or funfhine as he thought proper, becaufe he con-
H y s 1 c s. Part ni
fidered.the objeCl of his volition as depending upon a OftheBe-
power imparted to him from heaven; but though he inf and At.
might defire he could not will, the riling or the falling tributes of
of winds, for tliefe he confeffed were not fubje&ed to . G°dl
his authority.. In a word, without freedom in voli¬
tion, . power is inconceivable ; and therefore it is as
certain that , we are free agents, as, that we have any
notion of aClive powers.
Chap. VI. Of the Being and Attributes
of God.
1 It has keen already obferved, that as of bodies
tnere are various kinds, endowed with various proper¬
ties ; fo the probability is, that of minds endowed
with different powers, or different degrees of power,
the variety may be as great, or perhaps greater. The
exilic nee and powers of our own minds are made known
to us by confcioufnefs and reflection ; and from our de¬
pendent ft ate, and the mutability of the objeCts around
us, we are neceffarily led to infer the exiftenee of another
mind, which is independent, unchangeable, eternal,
and the cauie of ail things which have a beginning of
exiftence. . Between that mind and our own, we can
haidiy avoid believing that there are many orders of
“ thrones, dominations, princedoms, virtues, pmvers
but as we have no intuitive knowledge of fuch inter¬
mediate beings, and cannot from any thing which we
perceive difeern the necefity of their exiftence, they are
not properly the objeCl of fcience. The exiftence hoiv- *86
ever, and many of the attributes, of One Firft Caufe, TI>e exift-
are capable of the flriCleft demonftration ; “ for the in-ence of
vifible things of. Him from the creation of the world are d„
clearly feen, being underftood by the things which are monftra-
ffiade.” t;on>
Of this great truth, the moft important by far which
can occupy the mind of man, many demonftrations have
been given both by divines and by philofophers. We
lhall lay before our readers fuch a one as to us appears
perfectly conclufive, being founded on the intuitive
knowledge which we have of our oivn exiftence, and
therefore independent of all theories about the nature
and reality of the material world.
Every man, ivhether he adopt the common theory
or that of Berkeley refpeCting matter, is confcious
that he himfelf exifts, and muft therefore grant that
fomething now exifts. But, if any thing exifts now *, * See Notts
then muft fomething have always exifted ; otherwifet0 Kins's
that thing which now exifts, muft either have been Cf!ff °d
created.by nothing, i. e. have been caufed by no caufe, *\'s7
or elfe it muft have created itfelf aCling before it ex-Some one
ifted. Both thefe fuppofitions are fo palpably abfurd 'nckpend-
that no atheift has avowed them, either among the fnt £eiIlg.,
ancients or the moderns. We muft therefore admit, fenfeter-
either that there is foroe one independent being, which nity,
now exifts, and always has exifted ; or that the things
which we know to exift at prefent (every man’s felf
for inftancc), were produced by fomething which had
its ex if ence from fomething elfe, which alfo depended
uponyW other caufe, and fo on in an infnite fenes of
caufed or fuccefive beings. But this laft fuppofition,
though it has been often made, is as grofsly abfurd as
either of the two former. For of this infinite feries,
eitherone part has not been fueceffive to any other
or
$See an
Effay to¬
wards an
Gimp. VI. M E T A P
Of the Be- or elle a/l the feveral parts of it have been fucceflive.
ing and At- jf fome one part of it was not fucccjjkie, then it had
tnbGod a Pnrt > which deft toys the fuppofition of its infi-
, ' , nity (r). If all the feveral parts of it have been fuc-
ceffive, then have they all once been future ; but if they
have a//been future, a time may be conceived when none
of them had exiftence : and if fo, then it follows?, either
that all the parts, and confequently the of this in¬
finite feries, muft have arifen from nothing, which is ab-
furd; or elfe that there muft be fomething in the whole
befides what is contained in all the parts, which is alfo
abfurd.
As the poftibility or impoffibility of an infinite fe-
ries of dependent beings is the main queftion at iftue
between the atheifts and us, we fliall ftate the preced¬
ing reafoning in a manner fomewhat different. For
this purpofe, let us fuppofe fome one to affirm, that the
courie of generation has had no beginning, and confe¬
quently that the number of fucceftive births lias been
infinite. We would afk fuch a perfon, Whether be¬
fore the birth of Abraham, for example *, there had
paft an infinite feries of generations or not ? If not,
the courfe of generation rauft have had a beginning,
Erj:clion of Js (;]}e conclufion for which we contend. Hut
a'nd^Attri- ^ ^ie ^eries pa^ was infinite, then at the birth of Jo-
butes of feph the great-grandfon of Abraham, it is evident,
God, by that more generations were paft, and that the number
Seth IVatd then was greater than that which was fuppofed to be
Printed jnfmjte . f() tjiat Up0n this fuppofition we have a num¬
ber that is both infinite and not infinite, which is a
manifeft contradiction. Should it be faid that the
number of generations was infinite, as well at the birth
of Abraham as at the birth of Jofeph 5 it will then fol¬
low', that one infinite may be greater than another of the
very fame kind; and confequently that an infinite may be
bounded, i. e. be finite. But fliould it be alleged, that the
number of births at Abraham’s rvas finite, and became
infinite when it reached to Jofeph’s, it will then follow',
that one finite number added to another may make an
infinite number, which is direftly contrary to every pof-
fible notion of infinity. We might argue in the fame
manner againft an infinite feries of every kind, the very
fuppofition of which involves the moft palpable contra-
diftions. See Chap. 0/Infinity and Eternity.
From the impoffibility of an infinite feries it neceffari-
3y follows, that there exifts, and muft haveexifted from
eternity, fome one independent being, whofe duration
cannot be commenfurate with fucceffion, and to whom
the relation of time is not applicable. Here will fome
atheifts prefently imagine, that by the fame mode of rea¬
foning they may difprove the exiftence of God : for do
not they who thus deftroy the eternity of the world,
deftroy at the fame time the eternity of the Creator ?
If time itfelf be not eternal, how can the Deity or any
thing elfe be (o ?
In urging thefe queftions, it muft be taken for grant¬
ed that time is effential to all exiftence, and that God
cannot be eternal otherwife than by a fucceffive flux of
infinite time. But it has been already ftiown (N° 224.),
that fucceffive duration is not effential to exiftence ;
that we can even conceive exiftence without fucceffion 5
at Oxford,
1*55
288
whole du¬
ration is
not com-
merifurate
with fuc¬
ceffion,
and
H Y S I C S. 675
and it may here be added, that if We fuppofe a perfeft OftheEe-
being alone in nature, we fliall find it impoflible to of
imagine any fucceffion of ideas, any flux of moments, or Gocp
any alteration or increafe whatever in his knowledge and u—y—^
effence. Such duration as we are acquainted with can
have no relation to an immutable Being, while fuppofed
to exift alone *, but as foon as he determined to exercife
bis feveral attributes in the production of fomething di-
ftinct from himfelf, then, and not till then, have we
reafonto think that time, fuccef]ioh, and increafe, began.
Thefe atheiftieal queftions, therefore, inftead of contain¬
ing an objection to the exiftence of a Deity, afford aplain
demonftration of it: for finee it is not more evident that
fomething now exifts than that fomething muft have ex-
ifted from eternity ; and fince it has been ftiown, that
neither the world in its prefent ftate, nor time, nor any
thing capable of change or fucceffion, can poflibly be
eternal j it follows, that there muft neeeffarily be fome
Being who, in the order of nature, is before time, and
wffio, in the liability and immutable perfection of his own
intelligence, comprehends at once his yeflerday, to-day,
and for ever. 11 The atheifts (lays the excellent Cud-
worth*) can here only fmile, or make wry faces, and * Intellect
ffiow their little wit in quibbling upon nunc flans, or atual -
funding now of eternity; as if that funding eternity offp”^ u
the Deity (which with fo much reafon hath been con¬
tended for by the ancient genuine theifls') were nothing
but a pitifulflmall moment of time funding fill, and as if
the duration of all beings whatfoever muft needs belike
our own : whereas the duration of every thing muft of
neceftity be agreeable to its nature •, and therefore, as
that whofe imperfeB nature is ever f owing like a river,
and confifts in continual motion and change one after an¬
other, muft needs have accordingly n fucceflive zx\<\ flow¬
ing duration Hiding perpetually from prefent into pafl,
and always hailing on towards the future, expecting
fomething of itfeif which is not yet in being •, fo muft
that whofe perfect nature is efflntially immutable have
permanent and unchanging duration, never lofing any
thing of itfelf once prefent, nor yet running forward to
meet fomething of itfelf which is not yet in being.” 289
From the eternity of the Supreme Being we neceffa-is
rily infer his independence or felf-exiftente •, for that ^ Vcn 5
which never had a beginning of exiftence cannot poffi-
bly have any caufe of that exiftence, or in any manner
depend upon any other being, but muft exift of itfelf, or
be felf exiflent. 290
'Eternity ad partem pofl, or ncceffary ex fence, or the cannet
impoffibility of ever ceating to be, follows from inde-ceale ^ e”
pendence : For to the nature of that which exifts with¬
out any caufe, exiftence muft be effential. But a be¬
ing whofe exiftence is of itfelf and effential to its na¬
ture, cannot be indifferent to exiftence or nonexiftence,
but muft exift necejfarily. And here it may be proper
to obferve, that the word necefity, when applied to ex¬
iftence, may be taken in two acceptations very different
from each otherf *, either as it arifes from the relation | Notes to
which the exiftence of that being, of which it is affirm- King on
ed, has to the exiftence of other things ; or from the re- and
lation which the aclual exiftence of that thing has to s fn~
. & qinry into
the manner ot its own exiitence. t}ie pyieas
4 Q 2 In 0/ Space,
6cc.
(r) Tan- ovk ovciiv Trgdlov, Arif. Phyf lib. viii. cap. J. fe£l. 4.
God.
291
What is
meant by
neceffary
exiftence.
292
Only one
676 M E T A P
and At’ In. tllC forrner {’ei?fe’ w^en neceffity of exiftence has
tnbute. of~rflatl0n to the exiftence of other things, it denotes
^iiat the luppofition of tne wow-exiilence of that thing
. of which necedity is affirmed, implies the non-exiilence
of things which we know to exijl. Thus, fome inde¬
pendent being does neceJJarihj exijl; becaufe, to fup-
pofe ?io independent being, implies that there are no de¬
pendent beings ; tire contrary of which we know to be
true.
In the fecond fenie, when the neceffity of exiftence
arifes from the relation which the adfual exiftence of
any thing has to the manner of its own exiftence, ne-
ceffiiy means, that the thing, of which it is affirmed,
exifts after fuch a manner as that it never could in
time pajl have been nonexijleni, or can in time future
ceafe to be. Thus, every independent being, as it exifts
without a caufe, is necejfarily exifting *, becaufe exift¬
ence is ejfential to fuch a being \ fo that it never could
begin to exilt, and never can ceafe to be: For to fup-
pofe a being to begin to exift, or to lofe its exiifence, is
to fuppofe a change from nonentity to entity, or vice
verfa; and to. fuppofe fuch a change is to fuppofe a
caule upon which that being depends. Every being,
therefore, which is independent, i. e. which had no
caufe of its exiftence, muft exift neceffanly, and cannot
poflibly have begun to exift in time paft, or ceafe to be
in time future.
neceifan'y - '' two °f neceffity as applied to exiftence,
exiftent be,^inu^1 ^ave been often confounded, are in them-
iiw in the felves perfectly diftinff : For though a being cannot
former be neceffarily exiftent in the former fenfe without be-
ienfe; and ing fo in the latter alfo ; yet may it be neceffarily ex¬
iftent in the latter fenfe without being lo in the for¬
mer. For any thing that we know to the contrary,
tnere may be two or more being, exifting neceffarily
in the latter fenfe of the word tieceffitij, i. e. with re¬
gard to independence and the manner of their own exift¬
ence . but in the former tenfe of the word, i. e. in rela¬
tion 10 this fystem, there can be but one neceffarily ex¬
iftent being ; for it is obvious that no more arc neceffa¬
ry to account for the pruuucHon of the dependent beings
which we know to exift. To fuppofe the non-exiftence
of all independent beings, implies the non-exiftence of
all dependent beings, ourfelves, and every thing elfe ;
but to fuppofe the non-exiftence of all independent be¬
ings. except one, involves in the fuppofition no fuch ab-
293 furdity.
though Thus the phenomena of nature lead us, by the
bTmoTe2 ‘ ft.riaeft rea(onin.^ to. °ne firft caufe, which is fuffi-
than one cient for their production ; and therefore none but one
firft caufe can in this fenfe of the word be neceffary :
And thougn feveral more independent beings might pof-
fioly exift, yet they would be no gods to us : they
would have no relation to us demonftrable by reafon,
nor we any thing to do with them. For if the fup¬
pofition. of their exiftence were not requifite to the
production of this fyftem, which it obvioufiy would
not be, we could perceive no neceffity for it at all; we
could, never difeover it by our owTn faculties, and there-
lore it could be nothing to us. And though two or
three inch beings ffiould exift, and at in the formation
and government of their refpeBive fyftems, or agree in
one; yet till their exiftence and operations were made
known to us, and a natural relation difeovered, nothing
would be due from us to them. They would have no
3.
H Y S I C
religious or moral relations lo us ;
in the lat¬
ter, they
would be
no gods to
Part III.
, and we ffiould have Of the Be,
no reafon to call more than one of them our creator in£ and At'
preferver, and governor, which is the proper fenfe of the tnbutes of
word God. L G°d-
To ihow in this manner that there is only one eter-
nal felf-exiftent Being which bears the relation of God
to us, feems to.be going as far as is neceffary, or as Impofffble
natural light Avid lead us. Ihofe who endeavour tot0 demon-
demonflrute that there cannot pojfbly be more than oneltratt that
felf-exirtent Being, either reafon in a circle, or proceed *efe can
upon principles which their antagonifts cannot be fdf erilknr
compelled to grant. When they deduce the Divine Eeing,
unity from independence or omnipotence, they evi¬
dently prefuppofe it in their definition of thefe attri¬
butes : and when they infer it from the nature of Ipace
and duration, which they confider as modes of the
felf-exiftent Being, they take it for granted, that fpace
and duration have a real exiftence, independent of us
and our thoughts} and that the one is infinite and the
other eternal, contrary to what has been already prov¬
ed, avc think, with the force of demonftration. The
celebrated Dr Clarke made much ufe of fpace and du¬
ration in his attempt to demonftrate that there can be
but one felf-exiftent Being 5 but he argues for the
fame thing from the nature of neceffity as applied to
exiftence.
“ Neceffity (fays he *), abfolute in itfelf, is fimple cr tSke’s
and uniform and universal, without any poffible differ- firft demon-
ence, deformity, or variety, Avhatfoever : and all variety ftratio1)
or difference of exiftence muft needs arife from fome ex- tj1^)unity
ter nal caufe, and be dependent upon it, and proportionable'Jlratimof
to the efficieney of that caufe, Avhatfoever it be. Ab- the Being
folute necefjity, in Avhich there can be no variation in anyand Attri-
kind or degree, cannot be the ground of exiftence of a hvte!l °f
number of beings, however fmilar and agreeing: be-p^’
caule, without any other difference, even number is itfelf
a manifelt dfformity or inequality (if 1 may fo fpeak) of
efficiency or caufality.’1'1 ^
Such is this great man’s firft argument from necef- examined,
fity, to prove that there cannot be more than one felf-and fbown
exiftent Being. But Avhat is this nectfjity which proves1:0 be ln"
fo much ? It is the ground of exiftence (he fays) ofc0ncluftVe-
that w hich exifts of itfelfj and if fo, it muft, in the
order of nature, and in our conceptions, be antecedent
to that being of whofe exiftence it is the ground. Con¬
cerning fuch a principle, there are but three fuppofi-
tions which can poffibly be made 5 and all of them may
be ffiown to be abiurd and contradictory. We may
fuppofe either the fubfance itfelf, fome property of that
fubftance, or fomething extrinfc to both, to be this an¬
tecedent ground of exiftence prior in the order of nature
to the firft caufe.
One Avould think, from the turn of the argument
which here reprefents this antecedent neceffity as effi¬
cient and caufal, that it Avere confidered as fomething
extrinftc to the firft caufe f. Indeed if the Av ords have f TAJferta-
any meaning in them at all, or any force of argument,tion on tke
they muft be fo underiiood, juft as avc underftand them f sument
of any.external caufe producing its effeift. But as an added To
extrinftc principle is abfurd in itfelf, and is befiffes re- Law's In-
jecled by Dr Clarke, avIio fays exprefsly, that “ of the qciiy into
thing Avhich derives not its being from any other thing, thfIdens
this neceftity or ground of exiftence muft be in the thing
itfelf,” we need not fay a word more of the laft of thefe nienjity,
fuppofilions,. &.e.
Let
M E T A P
hap. VI-
Of the Be- Let us then confider the firft j let us take the fub~
mg and At-j}ance itfelf, and try whether it can be conceived as prior
tributes of or antece({ent to itfelf in our conceptions or in the order
| G^c 1 . 0f nature. Surely we need not obferve that. nothing
v can be more abfurd or contradictory than fuch a fup-
pofition. Dr Clarke himfelf repeatedly affirms, and it
Avould be (Irange indeed if he did not affirm, that no
being, no thing whatever, can be conceived as in any
refpedh prior to the firft caufe.
The only remaining fuppolition is, that fome attribute
or properti) of the felf-exiftent Being may be conceived
as in the order of nature antecedent to that being. But
this, if poffible, is more abfurd than either of the two
preceding fuppolitions. An attribute is attributed to its
JubjeB as its ground or fupport, and not the fibjeB to
its attribute. A property, in the very notion of it, is
proper to the fubtlance to which it belongs, and fubfe-
quent to it both in our conceptions and in the order of
nature. An antecedent attribute, or antecedent property,
is a folecifm as great, and a contradiction as flat, as an
antecedent fubfequent or fubfequent antecedent, underftood
in the fame fenfe and in the fame fyllogifm. Every
property or attribute, as fuch, prefuppofes. its fubjedt *,
and cannot otherwife be underftood. this is a truth
fo obvious and fo forcible, that it fometimes extorts
the affent even of thofe who upon other occafions labour
* Anhvtr 1° obAmre it. It is confeffed by Dr Clarke *, that
to the Sixth “ the fcholaftic way of proving the exijlence of the
Letter. felf-exiitent Being from the ablolute perfedtion of his
nature, is 7rg«T£g«v. For all or any perfections
(fays he) prefuppofe exiftence; which is a petitio
principal If therefore properties, modes, or attributes
in God, be confidered as perfections (and it is imppffible
to confider them as any tiling elfe), then, by this con-
feffion of the great author himfelf, they muft all or any
of them prefuppofe exiftence. It is indeed immediately
added in the fame place, “ that bare neceffity ot
exiftence does not prefuppofe, but infer exiftence \
which is true only if fuch neceffity be fuppofed to be a
principle extnnjic, the abfurdity of which has been
already fhown, and is indeed univerfally eonfeffed. If
it be a mode or property, it muft prefuppofe the exiftence
of its fubjedl, as certainly and as evidently as it is a
mode or a property. It might perhaps a pqfierion infer
the exiftence of its fubjedl, as effedls may infer a caufe -,
but that it ffiould infer in the other way a priori is
altogether as impoffible as that a triangle thould be a
fquare, or a globe a parallelogram.
A fecond ~ Doubtful, as it would feem, of the force cf his firft
demonttra- argument, which even thofe who pretend to be con-
t'on of the vinced by it acknowledge to be pbfeure, the doftor
krae au- ^jVt.s a fecond, which we muft confefs appears to us to
be ft ill more obfeure, and if poffible lefs concluiive.
“ To fuppofe two or more diJhnEl beings exifting. of
themfelves neceffarily and independent of each other, im¬
plies (he fays) this contradiction, that each of them be¬
ing independent from the other, they may either of
them be fuppofed to exift alone ; fo that it will be no
contradidlion to fuppofe the other not to exift • and
confequently neither of them will be neceflarily exifting.
Whatfoever therefore exifts neceffarily is the one fim-
ple effence of the felf-exiftent Being-, and whatfoever
differs from that is not neceffarily exifting, becaufe in
abfolute neceffity there can be no difference or diverfty
of exiftence.
H Y s i c s. 677
“Neceffity is ufed here in two different fenfes ^,01 Be-^
both as abfolute and relative. In the former, neiihri 0f
the two beings can exift without the other, i. e. with- Gocg
out our fuppofing the other to exift alto, fince that is v
equally neceffary. In the latter, either of them may
exift alone, i. e. as without the help of the other, or with-
out the fuppofition of the other as requiiite to its own
exiftenee. The confequence, therefore, that either ot\]iap, «
them may exift alone, and fo neither of them is necef- 2'-8
fary, is a mere equivocation on necefity, ufing it both in
an abfolute and relative fenfe at the fame time.” But*obeequaL
thor
as this is a queftion of the higheft importance, and as ^ .nconelu~
the author was a man of great worth, we ihall confider five,
his argument upon the fuppofition that the word ne¬
ceffity has from the beginning to the end of it the fame
invariable meaning.
It has been already obferved, that there are only two
fenfes in which that word can be applied to the exiu-
ence of any being} and whether it be here ufed in the
one or the other of thefe fenfes, the reafoning, if re-
folved into a fyllogifm, will appear to be inconeluhve.
If the word be taken in that fenie of neceffity which
arifes from the relation that dependent beings which
we know to exift bear to fome one independent Being,
the argument will ftand thus :
From a known effect no more caufes can be necefja-
rily inferred than what arc fufficient to account for
that effeCt 5 but _ _ .
One fclf-exiftent and independent Being is fufficient
to account for all the phenomena of nature ; there¬
fore, from the phenomena, &c.
JVo more than one fuch Being can be necefuniy infer¬
red to exift.
But though no more than one independent being,
can in this fenfe of the word ncceffarily exift, it by no
means follows from this fyllogifm, that two or more
fuch beings may not poffibly exift. It is, indeed, a plain
contradiction to fay, that two or more felt exiftent
beings are in this fenfe neceffary; but furely there is
no contradiction in faying, that two or twenty fuch
beings are pojjible. \ve could not, therefore, by this
argument conviCt a perion ot abfurdity, who fhould
affirm that two or more independent beings actually
exift. We might, indeed, deny the exiftence of them,
all but one, becaufe one is fufficient to account for-
thofe phenomena, from which alone we know that
amt independent being exifts 1 but became one of them,
might be fuppofed to exift alone, fo that it would, be
no contradiction to fuppole the other not to exift j
we know not how the doCtor came to affirm, in direCt
oppofition to his own demonftration, that not one oi
them would be neceffarily exifting,
Neceffity, as applied to exiftence, in the other fenfe
of the word, arifes, as we haveBeen, from the relation
which the aCtual exiftence of the being, of which it
may be affirmed, has to the manner of that being’s ex¬
iftence. It is the fame neceffity, we are told *, with * Anpwer
that which is the caufe of the unalterable proportion tc the Sixth
between two and four*, and it is confidered as the
formal caufe or ground of the exiftence of an independ- man ;n
ent bein'*. Were it not for the ftrange expreffions Glouceder-
formal caufe and ground of exijlence, we ffiould have no {hire,
objection to this account of that neceffiiy by which a
being independent undoubtedly exifts ; but this kind
2
6?8 ^ M £ T A P
inp and At /-^ llcce^'"y 15 a principle wilicli rviil not lupport the
tributes of uPer^rul^;uye Avliicli the learned author labours to
God. raife upon it. Ihe fame necejp.ty which is the caufe
^ie unalterable proportion between two and four,
is likewile the caule or the unalterable proportion be¬
tween and between four and eight, and be¬
tweenand ten, &c. But if it can be the caufe of
fo many different proportions of the fame kind, why
may it not be the formal caufe or ground of exiftence
to as many independent beings of the fame kind as well
as to one ? The following fyllogifm, we apprehend, to
be legitimate both in mode and figure, and its conclu-
fion is directly contrary to the proportion which the
doctor deduces from the fame notion of neceliity.
If neceffity, conlidered as a formal caufe or ground
of exifence, be in one injlance of its caufality the
formal caufe or ground of exiftence to many
things of the fame kind, it may likewife in even/
other viftance of its caufality, be the formal caufe
or ground of exiftence to many things of the fame
kind.
But fuch neceffity, in that inftance of its caufality
■where it is the formal caufe or ground of exift¬
ence to the unalterable proportion between two
and four, is the formal caufe or ground of exift¬
ence to many proportions of the fame kind.
Therefore, the fame neceffity in that other inftance
of its caufality, where it is faid to be the formal
caufe or ground of exiftence to one independent
being, undoubtedly may be the formal caufe or
ground of exiftence to many independent beings of
the fame kind.
^99
Neceffity, Thus it appears, that neceffity, in any fenfe in which it
ons^rm-- can b0,ProPerly affirmed of exiftence, cannot be the
ciple. foundation of any argument to prove the impoffibility
of more than one felf-exiftent being. It is indeed a prin¬
ciple from -which tve apprehend that no pofitive con-
clufion whatever can be deduced by reafoning a priori.
That neceffity of exiftence may be predicated of a
being which is independent and uncreated, is felf-evi-
dent j becaufe to the nature of fuch a being, exift¬
ence is effential. But whilft that nature itfelf remains
wholly incomprehenfible by us, it is impoffible that we
thould difeover, by our own unaffifted reafon, whether
it can be the nature of only one, or of more than one,
independent being. To argue from neceffity, as if it
were the caufe or ground of exiftence to fuch a being,
H Y S I C S, _ Part ln
is certainly abfurd, if it be not impious ; for if thatOf theBe-
to which cxiftence is effential, does not exift without “'S and At-
any caufe efficient or formal, we ffiall be obliged to tlll>ftes °£
inquire after a caufe or ground of this caufe, and thus. ^ .
be involved in all the abfurdities and contradictions of '' ^
an_ infinite feries. We have mfifted the longer on this
point, becaufe neccjpty, as the foundation of the argu¬
ment a priori, has fometimes been employed to very
bad purpofes. Attempts have been made from the no¬
tion of necejfary exiftence, to prove that the Supreme
Being cannot be a free agent, and to fet the firft prin¬
ciples of the religion of nature at variance with thofe
which are revealed in the Scriptures.
. But though we are firmly perfuaded that the di- TlJunii-
vine unity cannot be demonf rated a priori, we are far of God *
from thinking it incapable of any proof On the con-k’tftdy pro-
trary, the common arguments hpofteriori dix&ww frombablu‘
the order and harmony of the world, have always fa-
tisfied us, and in our opinion mult fatisfy every per-
fon capable of proportioning his aflent to evidence,
that the Creator and Preferver of fuch a fylrem has
but one will and one intelligence, and therefore is him-
felf but ovtf being. But proof h one thing, and demon-
f ration is, in the proper fenfe of the word, another (g).
And if we cannot arrive at abfolute certainty concern¬
ing this important truth by the light of nature, we
ought to be the more thankful for that revelation, which
has put the unity of God paft dilpute to all who believe
the holy Scriptures.
I he being which is felf-exifterit and independent Go/orem-
muil be alfo omnipotent. I hat fuch a being has aSlive potent.
power in fame degree, is fhown at the fame time and
by the fame medium that we prove his exiftence ;
and fmee he depends upon no caufe for his exiftence
or his power, he cannot depend upon any for the ex¬
ertion of that power, and confequently no limits can be
applied to it. Limitation is an effeB of fome fuperior
caufe, which in the prefent inftance there cannot be :
confequently to fuppofe limits where there can be no
limiter, is to fuppofe an effeB without a caufe. For a
being to be limited or deficient in any refpeef *, is * NoUt H
to be dependent in that refpeef on fome other being King on
which gave it juft fo much and no more ; confequent- Evil.
ly that being which in no refpeB depends upon any
other is in no refpeB limited or deficient. In all beino-s
capable of increafe or diminution, and confequently
incapable of perfeBion or abfolute infinity, limitation or
defcB is indeed a neceffary confequence of exiftence,
and
(G) J°hn Gerhard and John Voffius both cite Gabriel Biel as acknowledging the unity of God to be incapable
-*ff rigid demonftration j and with the fentiments of that fchoolman, thofe two learned divines profefs their own
to agree.
Sed Biel (x Sant. Dift. 2. Q. 10. Art. 3.), ftatuit “ quod tantum unum effe Deum, fit creditnm et non-demon-
firatum ratione natural! nobis in via poffibili.” Id nos ita interpretamur ; etiamfi ex naturce libro rationes non
contcmnendie pro unit ate divinae effentioe afferenda erui poffint, eas tamen ad fidei cordibus noftris in-
generandum, non fatis efficaces effe. Ergo mens prius confirmanda eft ex verbo Dei, et illuftribus teftimoniis in
quxbus fe Deus generi humano patefecit : Poftea utiliter poteft addi confideratio philofophicarum demonftrationurm
Gerhard. Loc. Comm. tom. i. p. 106.
Diffentit Gabriel Biel, qui ante annos hofee 140 Tubingenfi Gymnafio praefuit. Is cenfet probabiles magis ra-
tiones tffe. quam evidentes et certas.—\erum efto fane, ut lolae non fint a7sthiix.riy.u,i : At magnum iis pondus ad-1-
dit traditio vetus 5 turn autem quod argumenta ifthaec, fi non prorfus uTtbouy.-uyot,, faltem ufque adeo probabilia fint,
nt rjj? iroXvIkict; patroni nihil ullius momenti adferre valeantj cur plufquam unum ftatuere deum potius convcniat,
Gffl de Idolairia, lib. i. c, 2.
3
Chap. VI. M E T A P
Of the Be- and is only a negation of that perfection which is wholly
»ng and At- incnmpatible with their nature j and therefore in thcfe
,rilGodS 0t beings ^ requires no further caufe. But in a being
_ ‘^ ' i naturally capable oiperfeBion or abfolute infinity, all im-
perfeclion or finilencfs, as it cannot flow from the nature
of that being, feems to require fome ground or reafion ;
which reafon, as it is foreign from the being itfelf, mufl:
be the effeCt of fome other external caufe, and confe-
quently cannot have place in the firfi caufe. That the
felf-cxiftent being is capable of perfection or abfolute
infinity mu ft be granted, becaufe he is manifeftly the
fubjeft of one infinite cr perfect attribute, viz. eter¬
nity, or abfolute invariable exiitence. In this refpeft
his exiftence has been ftiown to be perfeCt, and there¬
fore it may be perfect in every other refpeCt alfo. Now
that which is the fubjeCt of one infinite attribute or
perfection, muft have all its attributes infinitely or in
perfection ; fince to have any perfections in a finite
limited manner, when the fubjeCt and thefe perfec¬
tions are both capable of ftriCt infinity, would be the
forementioned abfurdity of pofitive limitation without
a caufe. To fuppofe this eternal and independent
being limited in or by its own nature, is to fuppofe fome
antecedent nature or limiting quality fuperior to that be¬
ing, to the exiftence of which no thing, no quality, is
in any refpeCt antecedent or fuperior. And to fuppofe
that there is no fuch thing as aElive power in a being
which is evidently the fountain of all power, is the
grofleft of all abfurdities. The fame method of rea-
1'oning will prove knowledge and every other per-
feClion to be infinite in the Deity, when once we have
proved that perfection to belong to him at all; at leaft
it will fhow, that to fuppofe it limited is unreafonable,
lince we can find no manner of ground for limitation in
any refpeCt 5 and this is as far as wre need go, or per¬
haps as natural light will lead us.
Of the omnipotence of the fupreme Being fome
philofophers, as well theifts as atheifts, have talked very
abfurdly. Hobbes *, with a view to make this attribute
that God
30 z
Omnipo¬
tence can
do every
does^not;1 n aPPear impofllble and ridiculous, affirms
by his omnipotence or infinite power could turn a
tree into a fyllogifm.” And Des Cartes f, though
certainly no atheift, childifhly afferts, that all things
whatever, even abftraCl truth and falfehood, do fo de¬
pend upon the arbitrary will and power of God, as
that if he had pleafed, “ twice twm fhould not have been
four, nor the three angles of a plain triangle equal
to two right ones.” But the true notion of Omnipo¬
tence, fo far from implying a power to turn a tree into
a fyllogifm, or to make twice two not equal to four, im¬
plies only that the being poflefled of it can aClually
perform -whatever can be conceived by the; moft pcr-
feCt underftanding *, conception in this cafe being the
meafure of poflibilily. Now every thing may be con¬
ceived by a mind fufficiently enlarged which does not
involve in it a direCt contradiction ; but what wre clear¬
ly difcern to imply a contradiction, fueh as that a thing
may be and not be at the fame inftant, cannot be con¬
ceived by any intellect, or made to exift by any power.
imply a
contradic¬
tion.
* Lcviath
chap. 3.
t Refponf.
ad Objec-
ttones Sex-
tas, { 6.
H Y S I C S 679
And thus has this attribute of the Divinity been always ^ Be~
ftated, not only by the wifer Chriftians, but alfo by moft
of the ancient philofophers themfelves, who exprefsly
admit that “ nothing is exempted from the divine power, ’ ——y —n >
but only to make that which hath been done to be un¬
done (h).” 303
And here it may be afked, Whether creation, in Creation
the proper fenfe of the word (fee Creation), be poffild® t.0
within the compafs of infinite power. All the an- t(,.,cu;
cient philofophers, Avho were unenlightened by the * See Mo-
rays of divine revelation, held that it is not * j ground-Jheim's Dif~
ing their opinion upon this maxim, Ex mhilo nihil fit.firbatl0fi on
But the maxim will fupport no fueh conclufion.— vj; *
1 he ancients, or at leaft. the renpatetic ichooi, with tl-Qn on
the metaphyfics of which we are belt acquainted, con- Cudworth's
fidered four kinds of caufes, the efficient, the material. Intellectual
the formal, and the final; and though they extended Syste,n'
the maxim to the firft two, if not to all thefe caufes,
it is a felf-evident truth only when applied to the effi¬
cient caufe. Without the aClual exertion of power, it
is indeed moft certain that nothing could be brought
into exiftence ; but it is fo far from being clear that
pre-exiftent matter, or, as Ariftotle chofe to exprefs
himfelf, a material caufe, muft be fuppofed for infinite
power to operate upon, that, we think, every man
may find complete evidence of the contrary in him¬
felf. That fenfation, intelligence, confcioufnefs, and
volition, are not the refult of any modifications of fi¬
gure and motion, is a truth as evident as that confei-
oufnefs is not fwift, nor volition fquare. If then thefe
be the powers or properties of a being diftinCt from
matter, which we think capable of the completeft proof,
every man who does not believe that his mind has ex-
ifted and been confcious from eternity, muft be con¬
vinced that the power of creation has been exerted in
himfelf. If it be denied that there is any immaterial
fubfiance in man, Hill it muft be confeffed, that, as
matter is not eflentially confcious, and cannot be made
fo by any particular organization, there is fome real
thing or entity, call it what you pleafe, which has either
exifted and been confcious from eternity, or been in
time brought from non-entity into exiftence by an ex¬
ertion of infinite power.
To this perhaps fome one may objedl, that upon
our own fuppofition of the inability of the human
mind to exert its faculties but in union with fome
material and organized fyftem, the mind of every man
may have exifted from eternity without being confci¬
ous of its own exiftence 5 and that, therefore, we have
in ourfelves no evidence of creation, but only of the
union of two felf-exiftent fubftances, which, in their
prior ftate, had been diftinft and feparate from each
other. But fuch an objeftion as this, we beg leave
to reply, can arife from nothing but mifapprehenfion
of our hypothefis, and of the reafons by which we
think it fupported. We fuppofe, that to the exer¬
tion of the human faculties, a body of fome kind or
other may be neceffLy as an inftrument, not merely
from what we obferve of the dependence of percep¬
tion
(h) Ta ysyovaj ovtt ivliiyy.TM pr, ymtrSetC cho ciyaSu; AyuJav.
M«vev ya^ avrov text hog g-i^urxiTXi,
Ayiyr,Tx ttoiuv, carC xv v Tnor^xypo-vx. Arifi. ad Licotnach, lib. vi. cap. 2.
6So M E T A P
Pf ^ Be- tion and memory on the date of the brain, but be-
1 trib^nesof*cau^ We cannot conceive a Creator of infinite vvifdom
Go I. and goodnefs to immerfe in fyi ems of matter, minds
v— — to which he knows that fuch fyifems muc be always
ufelefs and often hurtful. We believe, therefore, that
our fouls and bodies w'ere created and formed for each
other but as our prefent adverlarits admit not of a
Creator, we mu? alii them, How their felf-exiirent
fouls have been dilpoled of from eternity, and by what
power they have all in due fucceflion been united each
to its proper body ? As before the union they were
not confcious, they could not unite themfelves ; and
to fuppofe them united by fome fuperior intelligence,
is to fuppofe them in fome refpedts dependent on that
intelligence, which feems not to accord with their
felf-exiltence. Whatever is felf-exiitent and eternal
mud be independent; and if poffeffed of any power,
cannot be conceived to have that power limited.—
We repeat, therefore, that every man has in bimfelf
fuflicient evidence that creation is pollibie j for if in¬
finite power can create an immaterial and percipient
being, it may furely be fuppofed capable of creating
dead and unintelligent matter.
But the creation of the material fyltem may be
fhown to be in the higheft degree probable bv other
arguments. Jhe fame reafoning which proves the
impoffibility of an infinite feries and of eternal time,
proves that the univerfe cannot have exifted from eter¬
nity in its prefent ftate. But if it has not exifted from
eternity in its prefent ftate, it belongs to the oppo¬
nents of creation to fay what was its former. We
talk indeed of chaos ; but fuch language, when a Crea¬
tor is not admitted, is molt unphilofophical trifling.
It appears from the molt accurate inquiries that have
* Baxters been made into the fubftance and eflence of body **
Inquiry m- that the atoms of which each mafs is compofed are
^uT/ofthe togetlier by a foreign force. If by chaos be
Human meant matter, when this force is fuppofed to be re-
Soul moved, we mu 1 beg leave to fay, that of fuch a fub¬
ftance we have neither idea nor notion, and cannot
diftinguilh it from nonentity. The original atoms
of matter, we believe indeed to require no other
agency to keep each entire than that Jiat by which
it was created } but ftill, as thofe atoms are conceiv¬
ed to be folid and extended, they mull be capable
of divifion by infinite power ; and if that Jut or influ¬
ence which makes them folid and extended were re¬
moved, thev would lofe folidity and extenfion, and of
courfe become nothing. So far is it, therefore, from
H ^ SICS. Part III
being true, that the creation of matter appears to be Of the Be.
impoffible, that we are compelled by every ihing that *nS a»d At.
we know of it to believe that matter cannot pcflibly tr ’: U of
be felf exiftent. , ^
“ Becaufe it is undeniably certain, concerning our-
felves (fays Cud worth f), and all imperfect beings, i r , „
tnat none oi Uieie can create any new fabjiatice, ivtw rual S jlem*
are apt to meafure all things by their own fcantling, I i ok i.
•and to fuppofe it univerfally impoflible for any powerchaPA>
whatever thus to create. But fince it is certain, that
impel feet beings can thentfelves produce fome things
out of nothing pre-exiding, as new cogitations, neim
local motion, and new modf cations of things corporeal,
it is furely rcafonable to think that an abli lutelj per¬
fect Being can do fomething more, i. e. create new fub*
/lances, or give them their whole being. And it may
well be thought as eafy for God or an Omnipotent
Being, to make a whole world, matter and all, f| ovk
evhuv, as it is for us to create a thought or to move a
finger, or for the fun to fend out rays, or a candle
light ; or laftly, for an opaque body to produce an
image of itfelf in a glafs or water, or to project a ftia-
dow : all thefe imperfect things being but the ener¬
gies, rays, images, or foadows, of the Deity. For a
fubflance to be made out of nothing by God, or a Be¬
ing infinitely perfieB, is not for it to be made out of no¬
thing in the impoflible ftnfe, becaufe it comes tiom
hipr who is all. Nor can it be faid to be impofilhle
for any thing whatever to be made by that r\ hich
hath not only infinitely greater perfetfion, but alfo infi¬
nite allive power. It is indeed true, that infinite
power itfelf cannot do things in their own nature im¬
poffible j and, therefore, thofe who deny creation,
ought to prove, that it is abfolutely impoffible for a
fubfiane'e, though not for an accident or modification, to
be brought from non-exiftenee into being. But no¬
thing is in itfelf impoffible, which does not imply a
contradiction : and though it be a contradiction for
a thing to be and not to be at the fame time, there
is furely no contradiction in conceiving an imperfeCt
being, which before was not, afterwards to be.” T®
call in queition the poffibility of creation, becaufe we
have no adequate conception how a thing can be brought
into exiltence, would be in the higheft degree ahfurd j
for it may be doubted, whether we have adequate con¬
ceptions of any thing except our own ideas and their
various relations (i).
The Being which is felf-exiftent, omnipotent, and free
omnifeient, is not a necejfiary, but a free agent j for ac- a^ent; but
live
(i) “ Ridicula foret et inepta ejus temeritas, qui corporum ideo creationem fit i duceret negandum effe,
quod ejus creationis durum et perfipicuam notionem effingere cogitatione nobis hand licet. Infinita enim eft rerum
copia, quarum perfpicuis et apertis caremus notionibus. Et fi omnia neganda continuo nobis effent, quorum
confrfam tantum et imperfeCtam confequi pofluthus notionem, omnia fere nobis efient neganda, exceptis re/a-
tionibus, quas inter notiones quafdam abftraCtas efle intt lligimuS. puis interiorem fibi naturam rerum, tarn cor¬
porum, quam fpirituum, cognitam efie di erit ? Et efle tamen has naturas, omni plane dubitatione vacat.
Oui quemadmodum altera harum najturarum aga' in alteram, fefe feire, affirmet ? Q^uis caufas fibi ratere^
propter quas hi vel illi effeftus, quos videmus quotidie contingere, h certis veniant corporibus, jure glorielur ?
Nec tamen quifquam e' , qui vel iftam animse in corpus operatinnem, vel hos effeCtus in dubium revocare aufit.
lenearous igitur ea. quae certo novimus, nec idcirco nos ab iftis dimoveri patiamur, quod multa rurfus runt,
quiirum naturam rgnorami s ; contra rr.ulta nos fegere et cognitionem noftram fuperare, aequo at t anouftlo fe-
ramiw amme Joannis Ciena contra cos qui negant, ex nihilo ulla ratione fieripofife aliquid, obfervationes ; in Mor-
Jhemn edit. Intdlec. Syst.
Chap. VI. M E T A P
of the Be- tive power implies freedom, and infinite power infinite
ing and At- freedom. What, therefore, hath no bounds fet to its
^God* Povver» w^at can have no oppofttion made to its will,
. ^ ' • nor reftraint laid on its aftions, muft both will and
aft freely. “ If the Supreme Caufe were not a be¬
ing endowed with liberty and choice, but a mere ne-
ceflary agent, then would it follow, as Dr Clarke well
* Demon- obferves *, that nothing which is not, could pofibly
Jlration of have been; and that nothing which is, could pofib/y
the Being not have been j and that no mode or circumltance of
Tuteflf'1' the exiftence of any thing could pofib/y have been in
Qud. any refpeft otherwife than it now aftualiy is. All
which being evidently moft falfe and abfurd ; it follows,
on the contrary, that the Supreme Caufe is not a mere
neceffary agent, but a Being endued with liberty and
choice.”
I; Cooper's -j-q reafoning it has been lately replied f, that
Tracts. Clarke muft have known, that all thofe who con¬
tend again ft the free agency of the Deity, do of courfe
acknowledge, that nothing could have happened, or
does happen, or will happen, but what aftualiy has
happened, or doth happen,' or will happen ; and that
it is moft falfe and abfurd to deny it.” It is, there¬
fore, according to the neceflarians, abfolutely impof-
fible, that at prefent there could exift upon this earth
more or fewer perfons than are now aftually alive ;
that the earth could move in any other direftion than
from weft to eaft •, or that there could be more or
fewer planets in the folar fyftem. Yet is it moft cer¬
tain, that there have been fewer perfons on the earth
than there are now ; that there is not a cultivated
country in Europe which could not contain more peo¬
ple than now inhabit it *, that the comets move in very
different direftions from that of weft to eaft \ and that
as, till very latelv, we conceived only fix primary pla¬
nets in the fyftem, it is evidently pofibleXh-eX the fyftem
might contain no more. Upon the fuppofition, there¬
fore, that the Supreme Being afts under a phyfical
neceflity, the fame things are poflible and not poflible
at the fame time, which is the groffeft of all abfurdities.
It might have been objefted with much more plaufi-
bilitv, that the Firft Caufe cannot poflibly be free, be-
caufe he muft needs do always what is beft in the
whole •, but it will be feen by and by, that among dif¬
ferent created fyftems, there is no reafon for fuppofmg
305 any one abfolutely bef.
himfwlf an- gut though this Being be free, and as fuch the au-
ohangeable. tjior cfwrtge }n other beings, yet he muft himfelf be
unchangeable ; for all changes have a beginning, and
confequently are effefts of fome prior caufes. But there
can be nothing prior to the exiftence of this Being,
as he is eternal; neither any caufe of it, as he is inde¬
pendent ; nor confequently any change in it, except we
could fuppofe him to change himfelf, which is the fame
abfurditv as to produce himfelf, i. e. to be at the fame
306 time both effeB and caufe.
Omnifcl- Omnifcience, as well as fome of the foregoing attri-
nrov rC" kutes of the Supreme Being, may perhaps be more
a different eafilv deduced thus if. We find in ourfelves fuch quali-
manner. ties as thought and intelligence, power and freedom, &c.
I Note> to for which we have the evidence of confcioufnefs as
jgf™ much as for our own exiftence. Indeed it i* only by
our confcioulpefs of thefe that our exiftence is known
to ourfelves. We know likewife that thefe are per-
feBions, and that to have them is better than 'to be
Vol. XIII. Part II.
H Y S I C S. C81
without them. We find alfo that they have not been Of
in us from eternity. They muft, therefore, have had l^bautes.Jf
a beginning, and confequently fome caufe, for the very Gwb
fame reafon that a being beginning to exift in time re- y—■■ ’
quires a caufe. Now this caufe, as it muft be fuperior
to its efeB, muft have thofe perfections in n fuperior
degree •, and if it be the frf cuufe, it muft have them
in an infinite or unlimited degree’ fince bounds, or limi¬
tation without a limiter, would, as we have already
ftiown, be an effect without a caufe.
It is indeed obvious, that the omnifcience of the Su¬
preme Being is implied in his very exiftence. “ For
all things being not only prefent to him, but alfo en¬
tirely depending upon him, and having received both
their being itfelf and all their powers and faculties/row
him, it is manifeft that as he knows all things that arc,
and penetrates every part of their fubftance with his all-
feeing eye, fo muft he likewife know all pofibilities of
things, that is, ail effefts that can be. For, being alone
felf-exiftent, and having alone given to all things all
the powers and faculties with which they are endued,
it is evident that he muft of neceflity know perfedlly
what all and each of thefe powers and faculties, which
are derived wholly from himfelf, can poflibly produce.
And feeing at one boundlefs view, or more proper¬
ly in his own ideas, all the poflible compofitions and
divifions, variations and changes, circumftances and
dependencies of things, all their poflible relations one
to another, and their difpofitions or fitneffes to certain
and refpedtive ends, he muft without poflibility of
error know exaftly what is beft and propereft in every¬
one of the numberlefs poffible cafes, or methods of dil-
pofing things $ and underhand perfeflly how to or¬
der and dire£l the refpedlive means to bring about
what he fo knows to be in its kind, or on the whole,
the beft and fitteft in the end. This is what is meant
by infinite wifdom, or omnifcience * •” and it has*Clarke^
been readily admitted by every man who has believed ftemonflnu-
in the exiftence of a God, as the creator and preferverti0n' &'c*
of all things. _ 307
Doubts, however, have been entertained by theifts, God fore-
and pious theifts, whether omnifcience itfelf can certain-knows the
ly foreknow what are called contingent events, fuch
as the a&ions of free agents *, and fome few there are ag
profefling to be even Chriftians, who have boldly pro¬
nounced fuch knowledge to be impoflible. That we
have no adequate notion how events, which are called
contingent, can be certainly foreknown, muft indeed
be granted ; but we are not, therefore, authorized to
fay that fuch knowledge is impoflible, unlefs it can be
clearly fhown to imply a contradiclion. T hey who
fuppofe that it implies a contradi&ion, muft likewife
fuppofe, that, where there is not a chain of neceffary
caufes, there can be no certainty of any future event 3
but this is evidently a miftake. “ For let us fuppofe
that there is in man a power of beginning motion, and
of acting with what has been of late called philofoplical
freedom ; and let us fuppofe farther that the a&ions of
fuch a man cannot poflibly be foreknown j will there
not yet be in the nature of things, notwitbftanding this
fuppofition, the fame certainty of event in every one of
the man’s a£Hons, as if they were ever fo fatal and ne¬
ceffary ? For inftance, fuppofe the man, by an internal
principle of motion, and an abfolute freedom of mind,
to do fome particular aft ion to day, and fuppofe it
4 R was
682
M E T A P
Of the Be- viras not pofTible that this aftion fhould have been fore-
'tnbutes^of i'een ycfterilay-> was there not neverthelefs the fame
God certainty of event as if it had been forefeen, and abfo-
t«—y—lutely necedary ? i hat is, would it not have been as
certain a truth yefterday, and from eternity, that this
a£tion was in event to be performed to-day, not withftand-
ing the fuppofed freedom, as it is now a certain and
infallible truth that it is performed ? Mere certainty of
event, therefore, does not in any meafure imply necef-
% Clarke's fty And furely it implies no contradi£lion to
Ttsmonjlra- iuppofe, that every future event which in the nature
of things is novo certain, may novo be certainly known
by that intelligence which is omnifeient. The manner
how God can foreknow future events, without a chain
of necejfary caufes, it is indeed impoffible for us to ex¬
plain : yet fome fort of general notion of it we may con¬
ceive. “ For, as a man who has no influence over an¬
other perfon’s affions, can yet often perceive before¬
hand what that other will do ; and a wifer and more
experienced man, with it ill greater probability will fore¬
fee what another, with whofe difpofition he is perfect¬
ly acquainted, will in certain circumitances do ; and
an angel, with ftill lefs degrees of error, may have a
further profpeCt into men’s future aCtions : fo it is
very reafonable to conceive, that God, without in¬
fluencing men’s wills by his power, or fubjedting them
to a chain of neceffary caufes, cannot but have a know¬
ledge of future free events, as much more certain than
men or angels can poilibly have, as the perfeclion of his
nature is greater that that of theirs. The diftinft man¬
ner how he forefees thefe things we cannot, indeed, ex¬
plain but neither can we explain the manner of num-
berlefs other things, of the reality of which, however,
f Clarke's no man entertains a doubt f.” We muft therefore
hemonjlra- admit, fo long as we perceive no contradiction in it,
non, See. t]iat q0(j always knows all the free aftions of men, and
all other beings endued with liberty otherwife he
would know many things now of which he was once
ignorant, and confequently his omnifcience would re¬
ceive addition from events, which has been already
fhown to be contrary to the true notion of infinity.—
In a being incapable of change, knowledge has no¬
thing to do with before or after. To every purpofe of
knowledge and power, all things are to him equally
prefent. He knows perfectly every thing that is, and
what to us is future he knows in the very fame manner
as he knows what to us is prefent.
God infi- Thus have we demonftrated the neceffary exiftence
nitely per- 0f a being who is eternal, independent, unchangeable,
feet, ail- omnipotent, free in his aBions, and omnifeient; and this
is the being whom we worfhip as God. Eternity, in¬
dependence, immutability, omnipotence, liberty, and om-
nfcicnce, which feem to be all the natural attributes
which we can difeover in the divine nature, as they are
conceived to be differently combined, make us fpeak of
him in different terms. His enjoying in an abfolute
manner every conceivable power or perfection, makes
us call him a Being infinitely perfeB. FI is being capa¬
ble of no want, defeCt, or unhappinefs of any kind, de¬
notes him to be all fufficient in himfelf and the unlimit¬
ed exercife of his knowledge and power, demonflrates
him to be omniprefent. That fuch a Being muft be in-
eomprehenfible by us, and by every creature, is a. truth
felf-evident $ and yet in all ages men of the beft inten¬
sions have been vainly attempting this impoffibility.
5
feed, ail-
fufficient,
and omni-
juefent.
HYSICS. PartlJI,
1 he manner of his omnifcience, for inftanee, has been Of the Be-
the lubjeCt of much difputation among thole who ouoht*n8 ar,d At-
to_ have reflected that they know not how their own uibutes ^
minds were prefent to their ©wn bodies.—The cele- . ^ ,
brated Dr Clarke and his adherents, who confidered
fpace as the fine qua non of all other things, infilled,
that God nrnft be infinitely extended j and that, as
wherever his fubftance is, there his attributes muft be,
it is thus that his knowledge and power are prefent
with every creature. But this notion labours under in-
fuperable difficulties.
For “ if the Divine fubftance be infinitely extended, Th/mn.
then will there be part of it in this place and part in ner °f th*
that. It muft be commenfurate with all particular d!vil7'ra'
beings, fo that fome will occupy more and feme lefs.nSpre!
of its dimenfions. By this account it will be very pro- henlibie.
per and philofophical to fay, that God is not in heaven,
but only a. part of him j and that an elephant or a
mountain, a whale or a wicked giant, have more of the
effence or prefence of God with them, than the holiejl
•or befi mzn in the world, unlefs he be of equal fl -e :
all which, as has been well obferved *, are at leaft harfti * Watt's
and grating expreffions. As the attributes of the Di- Effays, ani
vine Being muft be confidered in the fame manner with Lafsf-
his fubftance,. we Ihall Ukewife, upon this notion oifheVeal
omniprefence, have a part of his knowledge and power Space,
in this place, and a part of them in that j and of thefe Time, Im*
parts the one muft be greater or lefs than the other, ffnflth
according to the dimenfions of the place with which&C*
it is commenfurate ; which is a fuppofition that appear*
to us harffier, if poffible, than even the former.
“ Should it be faid that the divine attributes ar«
not to be confidered as having parts (though we fee
not how they can be confidered otherwife than as their
fubjeCt), they muft then exift completely in every point
of this immenfe expanfion. Be it fo ; and what
follows ? Why, every point of this infinitely expanded
being will be omnifeient and omnipotent by itfelf j
an inch of it will have as much wifdom and power as
a yard, a mile, or the whole ; and, inftead of one in¬
finite wifdom and power, we ftiall have millions : For
as thefe parts of the fubftance are conceived diJlinBly,
and one individual part is not another, fo muft the
attributes be likewife conceived, and the individual
power and knowledge of one part be diftimft from that
of another.” And if fo, it follow's, that one point of
this expanded being has equal power and intelligence
ivith the whole j fo that the notion of extenfion being
necejfary to God’s prefence with every creature, in¬
volves in it the moft palpable contradiftion. That
God is at all times and in all places fo prefent Avith
every ejeature as to have an abfolute knowledge of
and power over it, is indeed capable of the ftrhfteft
domonftration j but avc think it great prefumption to
affign the particular mode of his prefence, especially
fuch a one as is neither agreeable to the nature of an
abfolutely perfeft Being, nor in the leaft neceffary to
the exercife of arty one perfe&ion which he can be
proved to poffefs. Philofophers and divines have of¬
fered feveral names for the manner in which God is.
prefent Avith his works; but we ehoofe rather to con-
fefs, that the manner of his prefence is to us, and pro¬
bably to every creature, wholly incompreherfible. Nor
need we be be furprifed or ftaggered at this, when we>
refleft that the manner in which our own minds are
prefenfc
Chap.
Unity, Sec,
page no.
310
God's mo¬
ral attri¬
butes re-
.VI. M E T A P
the Be- prefent wltli our bodies is to us as incomprehenfible as
ing and At- the manner in which the fupreme Mind is prefent with
tributes ot evcry thing in the univerfe. That our minds have a
y ° ■ power over our limbs, we knotv by experience : but
that they are not extended or fubftantially diffufed
through them, is certain j becaufe men daily lofe arras
and legs, without lofing any part of their underftanding,
or feeling their energies of volition in the fmalleft de¬
gree weakened. But we need purfue this fubjeft no
farther. It has been confeffed by one of the molt ftre-
* Mr Jack- nuous advocates * for the extenfion of the Deity and all
fan's Exi/l- minds, that “ there is an incomprehenfiblenefs in the
ence and manner of every thing, about which no controverfy can
or ought to be concerned.1’
The moral attributes of God may be deduced from
his natural ones, and are immediate confequences of
them when exercifed on other beings. They may be
termed his fecondary relative attributes, as they feem
his natural to t^ie Perfe(^on °f bis external a&s rather than any
Ijerfe&ions. new internal perfections. And though the exilienee
of any moral quality or aciion is not capable of ftriCl
demonjfratian, becaufe every moral aCHon or quality, as
fuch, depends upon the will of the agent, which mull
be abfolutely free •, yet we have as great aiTurance that
there arc moral qualities in God, and that he will al¬
ways aCt according to thefe qualities, as the nature of
the thing admits ; and may be as well fatisfied of it, as
if it were capable of the moil rigid demonftration.
This important point, however, cannot be fo clearly
or fo firmly eftabliihed by abftraft reafoning as by tak¬
ing a feientific view of the works of creation, which
evince the goodnefs, holinefs, and juftice of their
Author, as well as his perfeCl wifdom and infinite
power. The confideration, therefore, of the moral
attributes of God, together with his providence, and
the duties thence incumbent on man, is the proper
bufinefs of other articles (fee Religion, Theology,
and Moral Philqfophy.
At prefent we fhall only obferve, that by reafoning
d priori from his exiftenee and his natural perfections,
we mud neceffarily infer that his aCtions are the refult
of unmixed benevolence. Every wife agent has fome
end in view in all his aCtions ; it being the very eiTence
of folly to aCt for no end : but there cannot be an end
of aftion which is not either felfilh or benevolent.
Selfilhnefs is the offspring of want and imperfection,
and is therefore the fource of mod human aCHons •,
becaufe men are weak and imperfeCt beings, capable
of daily additions to their happinefs. When the thief
plunders a houfe at midnight, when the highwayman
robs a traveller on the road, and even when the af-
faflln murders the man who never injured him ; it will
be found that their a Cl ions fpring not from an innate
defire to infiiCl mifery upon others, but from a pro-
fped of reaping advantage to themfelves. The objeCt
of the thief and the robber is obvious : it is to gain
money, which is the mean of procuring the comforts
of life. Even the affaflin has always the fame felfifli
end in view : either he is bribed to commit the murder,
or he fancies that his horrid deed will remove an ob-
jlacle from the way to his own happinefs. But they
are not vicious men only who aCl from felfifh confid*'ra¬
tions : much of human virtue, when traced to its
fource, will be found to have its origin in the defire
3”
How they
eught to
be conceiv¬
ed. •
H Y SICS. 68.?
of happinefs. WTien a man gives his money to feed
the hungry and to clothe the naked, he believes that^
he is aCling agreeably to the will of Him to whom he qoci.
and the poor Hand in the fame relation *, and he looks 1 »y ■■ ■ <
for a future and eternal reward. By continuing the
praClice, he foon acquires the habit of benevolence ;
after which, indeed, he looks for no further reward,
when performing particular aCtions, than the imme¬
diate pleafure of doing good. This felfilhnefs of man
is the neceffary confequence of his progreffive ft ate.
But the Being w'ho is independent, omnipotent, om-
nifeient, and, in a word, poffeffed of every poftible
perfection, is incapable of progreflion, or of having
any acceftion whatever made to his happinefs. He is
immutable j and mult of neceflity have been as happy
from eternity, when exifting alone, as after the crea¬
tion of ten thoufand worlds. When, therefore, he-
willed the exiftence of other beings, he could have no¬
thing in view but to communicate fome refemblance of
his own perfections and happinefs. That he had fome
end in view, foliowrs undeniably from his infinite w7if-
dom. That he could not have a felfflo end, follows
with equal certainty from his own infinite perfections ;
and as there is no medium, in the aCtions of a wife Be¬
ing, between felfiftinefs and benevolence, we muft ne¬
ceffarily conclude, that the creation was the refult of
unmixed benevolence or perfeCt goodnefs. The other
moral attributes of the Deity, his juftice, mercy and
truth, ought therefore to be confidered only as fo
many different views of the fame goodnefs in the
Creator, and various fources of happinefs to the crea~
ture. Thefe are always fubordinate to and regulated by
this one principal perfection and brighteft ray of the
Divinity.
“ Thus we conceive his jufice to be exerted on any
being no farther than his goodnefs neceflarily requires,
in order to make that being, or others, fenfble of the
heinous nature and pernicious effects of fn *, and there- * Notes it
by to bring them to as great a degree of happinefs as on
their feveral natures are capable of. His holinefs hates ^ll%
and abhors all wickednefs, only as its necefiary confe-
quences are abfoiute and unavoidable mifery ; and his
veracity or faithfulnefs feems to be concerned for truth,
only becaufe it is connected with and productive of the
happinefs of all rational beings ; to provide the propereft
means for attaining which great end, is the exercife of
his wifdomP Such is the view of God’s moral attri¬
butes, which the abftraCt contemplation of his natural
perfections neceffarily gives •, and whether this w'ay of
conceiving them be not attended with left difficulty than
the common manner of treating them under the notion
of two infinites diametrically oppofte, muft be left to^the
judgment of the reader.
But if the Creator and fupreme Governor of all The criguj
things be a Being of infinite power, perfeCt wifdom °l «vd.
and pure benevolence, how came evil into the works
of creation ? This is a queftion which has employed
the fpeeulative mind from the firft dawning of philo-
fophy, and will continue to employ it till cur facul¬
ties be enlarged in a future Hate, when philofophy
{hall give place to more per fed knowledge. To thefe 1 John/on's
meditations, as has been well obferved J, humanity is
not equal. Volumes have been written on the
jed} but we believe that the following extract from tbt Origin
4 R 2 / Dr oj Evil.
684
Of the Be¬
ing and At¬
tributes of
God.
f I)emon-
Jlration of
the Being
and Attri¬
butes of
Cod.
3M
Whether
the prefent
he the beft:
fyftem pof-
iible.
.3.14
Origin of
that que¬
stion.
Dr Clarke contains all that can be advanced with cer¬
tainty, and all that is neceffary to vindicate the ways of
God to man.
“ All that we call evil (fays that able reafoner
is either an evil of imperfeSiion, as the want of certain
faculties and excellencies which other creatures have ;
or natural evil, as pain, death, and the like; or moral
evil, as all kinds of vice. The frjl of thefe is not pro¬
perly an evil : for every power, faculty, or perfec¬
tion, which any creature enjoys, being the free gift
of God, which he was no more obliged to beftow
than he was to confer being or exiftence itfelf, it is
plain, that the want of any certain faculty or perfec¬
tion in any kind of creatures, which never belonged
to their nature, is no more an evil to them, than their
never having been created or brought into being at all
could properly be called an evil.” To this we may
add, that as no created being can be felf-exiilent and
independent, imperfedtion is unavoidable in the cre¬
ation, fo that the evil of defedt (as it is molt abfurdly
called) muft have been admitted, or nothing could
ever have exifted but God. “ The ftcond kind of evil
which vve call natural evil, is either a neceffary confe-
quence of the former, as death to a creature on whofe
nature immortality was never conferred; and then it is
no more properly an evil than the former : Or elfe it is
eounterpoifed in the whole with as great or greater
good, as the affliShons and Sufferings of good men : and
then alfo it is properly no evil. Or elfe it is a punifh-
ment; and then it is a neceffary confequence of the
third and lail: fort of evil, viz. moral evil. And this
arifes wholly from the abufe of liberty, which God gave
to his creatures for other purpofes, and which it -was
reafonable and fit to give them for the perfedtion and
order of the whole creation : only they, contrary to
God’s intention and command, have abufed what was
neceffary for the perfedlion of the wTole, to the cor¬
ruption and depravation of themfelves. And thus have
all forts of evils entered into the world, without any
diminution to the infinite goodnefs of its Creator and
Governor.”
But though evil could not be totally excluded from
the univerfe, are we not authorized to infer, from the
infinite power, wifdom, and goodnefs of the Creator,
that the prefent fyftem is upon the whole the very beft
fyftem poflible ? Undoubtedly we are, if of poflible
fyftems there can be a bef; but this is fo far from be¬
ing evident, that we think it implies a contradidtion.
A beft of beings there is, viz. God, who is poffefled
of infinite perfedtions j but there cannot be a beft of
creatures or of created fyftems. To prove this, we
need only refledt, that wherever creation flops, it
muft flop infinitely flrort of infinity ; and that how
perfedt foever we conceive any creature or fyftem
of creatures to be, yet the diftance between that
and God is not leffened, but continues infinite. Hence
it follows, that the nature of God and his omnipo¬
tence is fuch, that whatever number of creatures he
has made, he may ftill add to that number ; and
that however good or perfedd the fyftem may be on
the whole, he might ftill make others equally good and
perfea.
1 he dilpute, whether a being of infinite power,
wifdom, and benevolence, muft be fuppofed to have
created the bef p<fible fyfem. and the embarrafiinent of
METAPHYSICS.
Part III,
men s underltandings about it, feem to have arifen from Of the Be
their taking the words ^00^, better, and bef, for abfo- ing and At"
lute qualities inherent in the nature of things, whereas tributes of
in truth they are only relations arifing from certain ap- God-
petites. They have indeed a foundation, as all rela- '
tions have, in fomething abfolute, and denote the thincr
m which they are founded j but yet they themfelves
imply nothing more than a relation of congruity between
fome appetite and its objefts. This is evident; be-
caufe the fame objed, when applied to an appetite to
which it has a congruity, is good 5 and bad, when ap¬
plied to an appetite to which it has no congruity. Thus,
the earth and air to terreftrial animals are good elements'
and neceffary to their prefervation : to thofe animalr
the water is bad, which yet affords the beft recep¬
tacle . to fifties. Good, therefore, being relative to
appetite, that muft be reckoned the beft creature by
us w'hich has the lirongeft appetites, and the fureft
means of fatisfying them all, and fecuring its own per¬
manent happinefs. And though tiiefubfance of crea¬
tures is chiefly to be regarded as contributing to their
perfedion, yet w'e have no way of meafuring the per-
fedion of different fubftances but by their qualities,
i. e. by their appetites by which they are fenfible of
good and evil, and by their powers to procure thofe ob-
jeds from wdiich they receive that fenfe of things which
makes them happy.
It js plain, therefore, that whatever fyftem we fup- >7
pofe m nature, God might have made another equal abfolutely
to it; his infinite wifdom and power being able to beft.
make other creatures equal in every refped to any
that we know or can conceive, and to give them equal
or ftronger appetites, and as certain or more certain
wrays of fatisfying them. We fee in many cafes, that
very different means will anfwer the fame end. A cer¬
tain number of regular pyramids will fill a fpace ; and
yet irregular ones will do it as well, if what we take
from the one be added to another ; and the fame thing
may be done by bodies of the moft irregular and dif¬
ferent figures in the fame manner : and therefore we
may very well conceive, that the anfwering of appe¬
tites, which is all the natural good that is in the world,
may as well be obtained in another fyftem as in this ;
provided we fuppofe, that where the appetites of the
fentient beings are changed, the objeds are alfo fuited
to them, and an equal congruity among the parts of the
whole introduced. ’Ihis is fo eafily conceived, that in
an indefinite number of poflible worlds, we do not fee
why it may not be done in numberlefs ways by infinite
power and wifdom.
If then it be plain, that there might have been many Gocfnotne.
other worlds, or even but one, equal to this in allceffitated
refpeds as to goodnefs, there could be no neceflity,byhisSood'
either phyfical or moral, that God ftiould create the nffs cre'
one rather than the other; becaufe nothing could f^in pel
make the one better, or to him more agreeable, than ference to
the other but his own free choice. Either, there- ahotber
fore, God muft be poffeffed of abfolute freedom, or;world!'
among a number of poflibilities equally perfed, he
could not have made a choice, and fo nothing would
ever have been created. It is not, then, as Leibnitz
and others argue, the natural and neceffary goodnefs of
fome particular tilings, reprefented by the divine ideas,
which determines God to prefer them to all others, if
underftood of his frf ad of producing them; but it
Chap. VI. METAP
Of the Be-is his own free choice which, among many equal po-
ing and At- tential goods, makes fome things aB’ia/ly good, and de-
tribures of termjnes them into exiftence. When thofe are once
,_G°! ' . fuppofed to exiit, every thing or aftion becomes good
which tends to their happinefs and prefervation ; and
to fuppofe their all-perfeft Author to have any other
end in view than their prefervation and happinefs,
is the fame abfurdity as to fuppofe that knowledge
may produce ignorance j power, weaknefs j or wifdom
folly.
We have now finilhed what we propofed under the
article Metaphyfics. It has fwelled in our hands to
a large extent j and yet it can be confidered as little
H Y S I C S. 68
more than an introduftion to that fcience, which com- ©f the B<
prebends within its wide grafp every thing exiftmg.
The reader who willies to purfue thefe interefting Goj
fpeculations, Ihould ftudy diligently the authors whom i.„ y—J
we have confulted, and to whom we have been care¬
ful to refer in the margin. Were we to make a felec-
tion, we Ihould without helitation recommend Ariftotle
and Plato among the ancients; and Cudworth, Locke,
Hartley, and Reid, among the moderns. Thefe philo-
fophers, indeed, on many points, differ exceedingly
from one another; but he who wilhes not to adopt
opinions at random, Ihould know what can be faid on
both Tides of every queftion.
MET
Metaplaf- METAPLASMUS, in Grammar, a tranfmutatxon
mus or change made in a word, by adding, retrenching, or
II . altering a fyllable or letter thereof.
Metait.Tio. METAPONTUM, or Metapontium, in Ancient
Geography, a town of Lucania, on the Sinus Parenti-
nus, to the weft; of Tarentum ; built by the Pylians
who returned from Troy; and where Pythagoras is faid
to have taught in the time of Servius Tullius. Meta-
pontini, the people; who pretended to (how in a temple
of Minerva, the tools with which Epeus built the wood¬
en horfe, (Juftin). Now a tower, called Torre di Mare,
in the Bafilicata of Naples.
METASTASIO, L’Abbe Pierre Bonaven-
TURE, a celebrated Italian poet, whofe real name
was TrapaJJi, w'as born at Aflife, on January 3d,
1698. His talent for poetry ivas firft unfolded
by the reading of Taflb ; and he began to compofe
verfes at ten years of age. “ A prodigy of this
nature (fays Metaftafio) made fuch an impreflion on
my mafter, the celebrated Gravina, that he thence¬
forth confidered me as a plant worthy of being culti¬
vated by his own hands.” Metaftafio was only four¬
teen years of age when he compofed his tragedy en¬
titled II Giujlino ; in which he appears too clofe and
fcrupulous an imitator of the Grecian drama. Our
young poet unfortunately loft his patron in 1717 ;
' who left him his heir, “ as being a young man of the
moft promifmg abilities.” Metaftafio, at the age of
nineteen, being, in confequence of this inheritance,
fuperior to thofe rvants which reprefs the exertions of
genius, and to which men of abilities are too often
fubieft, gave full fcope to his inclination for poetry.
He began his dramatic career Avith the Didonne /Iban-
donnata, which Avas a£ted at Naples in 1724 } the mu-
fic Avas compofed by Sarro. He foon acquired fuch
celebrity, that in 1729 he Avas invited to Vienna by
the emperor Charles VI.; avIio appointed him impe¬
rial poet, and granted him a penfion of 4000 florins.
From that time fome of his Avorks xvere prefented at
every court feftival ; and notivithftanding the extreme
magnificence of thefe entertainments, they would noAV
be forgotten were it not for the verfes Avhich he com¬
pofed upon the occafion. The courts of Vienna and
Madrid vied with each other in the prefents which they
conferred upon him. From Maria Therefa he received
•a fnuff-box and a port-folio fet with diamonds, and
MET
a golden candleftick with a fcreen. Ferdinand VI. Metaftafc.
king of Spain, informed of the great merit of Meta- v-—y“—^
ftafio by Farinelli, of Avhom he was a paflionate ad¬
mirer, fent him a prefent of a calket mounted Avith
gold, and furniflied Avith the different implements of
Avriting. This favourite of kings and of the mufes
Avas of a cheerful temper, and ivas exceedingly tempe¬
rate : to this he was probably indebted for the unin¬
terrupted health Avhich he enjoyed, and for the entire
poffeflion of his fenfes and faculties to the moft advanced
period of old age. He took his meals, arofe, and went
to bed, always at ftated hours. This exa&nefs and
order were fcrupuloufly obferved even in the moft trif¬
ling a&ions of his life. He ufed to fay in jeft, that
he dreaded hell for no other reafon but becaufe it
Avas a place ubi nuilus ordo, fed fempiternus horror in-
habitat. He had even his ftated hours for making
verfes ; to which he fcrupuloufly adhered, Avithout
Avaiting for the moment of poetical enthufiafm. He
Avas equally regular in the duties of the Chriftian as in
the labours of the fcholar. His behaviour Avas that of
a true philofopher : his ambition extended no farther
than the attainment of literary fame ; and he defpifed
every civil mark of diftindlion. When Charles VI. of¬
fered him the title of Count or of Baron, Avhich add no
real xvorth or dignity to the poffeffor, but frequently
make him appear in a more ridiculous light, he inftanf-
ly begged the favour that he Avould alloAV him ftill to
continue Metaftafio. The emprefs Maria Therefa af-
terAvards wilhed to beftoAV upon him the fmall crofs of
St Stephen; but he excufed himfelf on account of his
age, Avhich Avould prevent him from aflifting at the fef-
tivals of the order. He Avas attacked by a fever on the
2d of April 1782; and he died on the 12th of the fame
month, at the age of 84. Before his death he received
the facrament according to the form of the Romifh
church ; and Pius VI. xvho Avas then at Vienna, fent
him his apoftolical benediftion in articulo mortis. He
left about 150,000 florins. He compofed a great num¬
ber of tragic operas, and feveral fmall dramatic pieces
Avhich have been fet to mufic. We have different edi¬
tions of them in 4to, 8vo, and i2mo; and M. Riche-
let has publilhed a tranllation of them into French, in
12 vols. fmall 1 2mo.
The greateft part of Metaftafio’s XArritings will con¬
fer immortality on their author. Hh dialogue is na¬
tural, ,
.. \JX
MET [ 686 ] MET
Metaftafio. tural, fimple, and eafy j his ftyle is always pure and
* elegant, and fometimes fublime and pathetic. His
fubje£ls are noble, interefting, and excellently adapt¬
ed for reprefentation. He was perfectly acquainted
with the refources of his art, and has fubjefted the
opera to rules. He {Hipped it of its machinery,
and of the marvellous, which was fitted to excite
the gaze of aftonifliment, but which gave no initruc-
tion to the underftanding, and made no imprefiion
on the heart. His defcriptfons are copied from na¬
ture } the fituations of his characters never fail to
raife an intereft in the reader, and often excite the
tear ot pity. His fables are celebrated •, his charac¬
ters are noble and well lupported ^ his plots are ex¬
cellently conducted, and happily unravelled-. “ 'I here
•are fcenes (fays Voltaire) worthy of Corneille when
he does not declaim, and of Racine when he is not
feeble.” His operas, in point of the pathetic, may
be compared with our fineit tragedies ; and may be
read with great pleafure, independent of the charms
of the mufic. We muft not, however, expert to find
dn Metaftafio that exact regularity, and that fertile
limplicity, which conftitutes the excellence of fome
of our tragic poets : But though he fometimes tranf-
grefles the unities of time and place, he always pre-
ferves the unity of intereft. Notwithftanding all
thefe advantages, fome critics will not allow him the
merit of invention, which is the firft qualification of
a poet. They confider him only as a fuccefsful imita¬
tor of the French tragic writers, from whom a great
part of his beauties are borrowed, and place him at
the head of the fineft wits in Italy, but deny that he
poffefled genius. He was a fond admirer of the an¬
cients ; and this admiration, increafing with the loli-
dity of his underftanding, continued to the laft period
of his life. He recommended reading them, as he
himfelf had done, in a chronological order. His me¬
mory was excellent, and continued unimpaired even in
old age. Horace was his favourite author, and he
could repeat almoft the whole of his verfei. Metaftafio,
who, as we have obferved, was the pupil of the cele¬
brated Gravina, added a gentlenefs of character pecu¬
liar to himfelf to the accuracy of thinking and great
erudition of his mafter. His abilities and fame were
refpe&ed by the critics in general 5 and whereas the
life of moft men of letters is one continued warfare,
his days happily glided away in tranquillity and peace.
The cireumitanee which occafioned the change of his
name is thus related in a late anecdote : “ Gravina’s
barber, who, like moft of his profeffkm, was a great
talker, one day informed him, that in the Place de la
Vihcella, where he had his {hop, a young boy came
every evening, and fung extempore verfes of his own
compofition, fo harmonious and elegant that all the
paiTengers flopped to liften to them. Gravina, upon
thik information, added one to the number of the
young poet’s audience, and found the verfes fo fupe-
rior to the idea which he had formed of them from
the account of the barber, and fo much above the ca¬
pacity of a child of ten or eleven years of age, that
he inftantly determined to undertake the cultivation of
fo prdmifing a plant. His firft care was to put the
young Trapujfi (which was the boy’s name) to fchooi j
but apprehending that the ordinary methods of edu¬
cation might check the progrefs of fo uncommon ta¬
lents, he took him home to his own houfe, and chan- Metallag,
ged his name into Metajlajlo, which fignifies the fame !!
thing in Greek. In fliort, by a plan of education and . Meteli»-
by inftru61ions fuited to his genius, Gravina laid the
foundation of that reputation which he predicted, and
which Metaftafio now enjoys.” Vies des Hommes II-
lujlres ‘'d'Italic, tom. i. p. 187.
METASTASIS, in Medicine, a tranfpofition or
fe-ttlement of fome humour or difeafe in fomc other
part ; and fometimes it fignifies fuch an alteration of a
difeafe as is fucceeded by a folution.
METATARSUS (fifi*, beyond, and T*g«ros, the
tarfus'), in anatomy, that part of the human Ikeletoft
containing the middle of the foot. See Anatomy
Index.
METATHESIS, in Grammar, a fpecies of the
metaplafmus \ being a figure whereby the letters or
fyllables of a word are tranfpofed, or ftrifted out of
their ufual fituations, as pijlris for firi/iis, Lybia for
Libya, &c.
This word is, by phyficians, ufed with refpedt to
morbific caufes, which when they cannot be evacuat¬
ed, are removed to places where they are lefs injuri¬
ous.
METELIN, the modern name of the ifland of Lef-
bos. See Lesbos and Mitylene.
In the Irifti Philofophical Tranfadftions for 1789,
we have a defcription of this ifland by the earl of
Charlemont, in which he fpeaks with raptures of its
beauties. “ The mountains, whofe rugged tops ex¬
hibit a pleafing interfperfion of rocks and fine groves,
have their green Tides, for many miles along the coaft,
covered with olives, whofe lefs agreeable verdure is
correfted, embellifhed, and brightened by a lively mix¬
ture of bays and laurels afpiring to the height of
foreft trees, of myrtles and pomegranates, of ar-
butes rich at once in blofiom and in berry, of mulber¬
ries growing wild and laden with fruit, &c. Winter is
here unknown, the verdure is perpetual, and the fre¬
quency of evergreens gives to December the colour of
June. The parching heat offumtner is never felt ; the
thick (hade of trees, and thoufands of cryftal fprings
which everywhere arife and form themfelves into un¬
numbered rivulets, joined to the refrefliing fea breeze,
the conftant corresftive and companion of noontide heat,
qualify the burning air and render the year a never-
ending May. The houfes are conftrufled in fuch a
manner as to have the beft view of thefe natural bf amies.
Each is a fquare tower neatly built of hewn ftone, fo
high as to overtop the trees, and to command a view of
the fea and neighbouring iflands. The lower ftories
are granaries and ftorehoufes ; and the habitable apart¬
ments are all at the top, to which you afetnd by a
ftone flair, built for the moft part on the outfide, and
furrounding the tower 5 fo that from the apartment the
trees are overlooked, and the whole country is feen \
while the habitations themfelves, which are very numer¬
ous, peering above the groves, add life and variety to
the enchanting profpefl, and give an air of human popu¬
lation to thefe woodlands, which might otherwife be
fuppofed the region of Dryads, of Naiads, and of
Satyrs.”
The moft: remarkable thing, however, in this ifland
is a cuftom by which the women have here openly
uiurped thofe rights of fovereignty which in other
countri#*
MET ' [ 687 ]
>Ietelin. countries are fuppofed to belong effentially to the men.
V — 1 “ Contrary (fays his lordfhip) to the ufage of all
other countries, the eldeft daughter here inherits } and
the fons, like daughters everywhere elfe, are por¬
tioned off with fmall dowers, or, which is ftill worfe,
turned out pennylefs to feek their fortune. If a man
have two daughters, the eldeft, at her marriage, is en¬
titled to all her mother’s poffeflions, which are by far
the greater part of the family eftate, as the mother,
keeping up her prerogative, never parts with the
power over any portion of ivhat the has brought into
the family, until Ihe is forced into it by the marriage
©f her daughter; and the father alfo is compelled to
ruin himfelf by adding whatever he may have fcraped
together by his induftry. The fecond daughter in¬
herits nothing, and is condemned to perpetual celi¬
bacy. She is ftyled a ca/ogria, which fignifies pro¬
perly a religious woman or nun, and is in effeft a
menial fervant to her lifter, being employed by her
in any office ftie may think fit to impofe, frequently
ferving her as waitingmaid, as cook, and often in em¬
ployments ftill more degrading. She wears a habit
peculiar to her fituation, -which Ihe can never change ;
a fort of monaftic drefs, coarfe, and of a dark brown.
One advantage, however, ftie enjoys over her After,
that whereas the elder, before marriage, is never allow¬
ed to go abroad, or to fee any man, her neareft re¬
lations only excepted, the calogria, except when em¬
ployed in domeftic toil, is in this refpetl at perfe£l
liberty. But when the fifter is married, the fituation
of the poor calogria becomes defperate indeed, and
is rendered ftill more humiliating by the comparifon
between her condition and that of her happy miftrefs.
The married fifter enjoys every fort of liberty *, the
whole family fortune is hers, and ftie fpends it as lire
pleafes ; her hulhand is her obfequious fervant, her fa¬
ther and mother are dependent upon her, fhe dreffes
in a moft magnificent manner, covered all over, ac¬
cording to the fafliion of the ifland, with pearls and
with pieces of gold, which are commonly fequins ;
thus continually carrying about her the enviable
marks of affluence and fuperiority, while the wretch¬
ed calogria follows her as a fervant, arrayed in Ample
homefpun brown, and without the moft diftant hope
of ever changing her condition. Such a difparity
may feem intolerable, but what will not cuftom re¬
concile ? Neither are the misfortunes of the family yet
at an end. The father and mother, with what little is
left them, contrive by their induftry to accumulate a fe¬
cond little fortune } and this, if they fhould have a
third daughter, they are obliged to give to her upon her
marriage ; and the fourth, if there (hould be one, be¬
comes her calogria, and fo on through all the daugh¬
ters alternately. Whenever the daughter is marriage¬
able, (he can by cuftom compel the father to procure
her a hufband •, and the mother, fuch is the power of
habit, is foolifh enough to join her in teafing him
into an immediate compliance, though its confequen-
ces mull be equally fatal and ruinous to bolh of them.
From hence it happens, that nothing is more common
than to fee the old father and mother reduced to the
utmoft indigence, and even begging about the ftreets,
while their unnatural daughters are in affluence ; and
* we ourfelves have frequently been Ihown the eldeft
daughter parading it through the town in the greateft
M E T
fplendour, while her mother and fifter followed her as _ Metella.^
fervants, and made a melancholy part of her attendant y ~
train.
“ The fons, as foon as they are of an age to gain a
livelihood, are turned out of the family, fometimes with
a fmall prefent or portion, but more frequently with¬
out any thing to fupport them; and thus reduced,
they either endeavour to live by their labour, or, which
is more ufual, go on board feme trading veffel as Tail¬
ors or as fervants, remaining abroad till they have got
together fome competency, and then return home to
marry and to be henpecked. Some few there arc who,
taking advantage of the Turkilh law, break through
this whimfical cuftom, who marry their calogrias, and
retain to themfelves a competent provifion : but thefe
are accounted men of a Angular and even criminal dif-
pofition, and are hated and defpifed as conformifts to
Turkifti manners, and deferters of their native cuftoms j
fo that we mav fuppofe they are few indeed who have
the boidnefs to depart from the manners of their coun¬
try to adopt the cuttoms of their detefted mailers, and
to brave the contempt, the derifion, and the hatred,
of their neighbours and fellow-citizens.
“ Of ail thefe extraordinary particulars I was in¬
formed by the French eonful, a man of fenfe and of
indifputable veracity, who had refided in this ifland
for ieveral years, and who folemnly affured me that
every circumftance w^as true : but indeed our own ob-
fervation left us without the leaft room for doubt, and
the Angular appearance and deportment of the ladies
fully evinced the truth of our friend’s relation. In
walking through the town, it is eafy to perceive, from
the whimfical manners of the female pafiengers, that
the women, according to the vulgar phrafe, wear the
breeches. They frequently flopped us in the ftreets,
examined our drefs, interrogated us with a bold and
manlv air, laughed at our foreign garb and appearance 5
and ihowed fo little attention to that decent modefty
which is or ought to be the true chara£leriftic of the
fex, that there is every reafon to fuppofe they AVould,
in fpite of their haughtinef®, be the kindeft ladies up¬
on earth, if they were not ftri£tly watched by the
Turks, who are here very numerous, and would be
ready to punifh any tranfgrcffion of their ungallant
laws with arbitrary fines. But nature and native man¬
ners will often baffle the efforts even of tyranny. In
all their cuftoros thefe manly ladies feem to have
changed fexes with the men. The woman rides
aftride, the man fits fideways upon the horfe; nay, I
have been affured that the hufbaud’s diftinguithing ap¬
pellation is his wife’s family name. The women have
town and country houfes, in the management of which
the huiband never dares interfere. Their gardens, their
fervants, are all their own*, and the hulhand, from eve¬
ry circumftance of his behaviour, appears to be no other
than his wifeV firft domeftic, perpetually bound to
her fervice, and Have to her caprice. Hence it is that
a tradition obtain« in the country, that this ifland was
formerly inhabited by Amazons •, a tradition, howr-
ever, founded upon no ancient hiftory that I know* of. ,
Sappho indeed, the moft renowned female that this-
ifland lias ever produced, is faid to have had manly
inclinations \ in which, as Lucian informs us, flic did*
but conform with the lingular manners of her country¬
women ; but I do not find that the mode in which
fire
MET [6
^g;e'‘n', ^ie cliofe to ihow thefe inclinations is imitated by the
prefent female inhabitants, who feem perfectly con¬
tent with the dear prerogative of abfolute fway, with¬
out endeavouring in any other particular to change
the courfe of nature ; yet will this circumftance ferve
to fliow, that the women of Lelbos had always fome-
thing peculiar, and even peculiarly mafculine, in their
manners and propenfiti.es. But be this as it may, it
is certain that no country whatfoever can afford a more
perfect idea of an Amazonian commonwealth, or bet¬
ter ferve to render probable thofe ancient relations
which our manners would induce us to efteem incre¬
dible, than this ifland of Metelin. Thefe lordly ladies
are for the moft part very handfome in fpite of their
drefg, which is Angular and difadvantageous. Down
to the girdle, which as in the ©Id Grecian garb is
raifed far above what we ufually call the Avaiff, they
wear nothing but a fhift of thin and tranfparent gauze,
red, green, or brown, through which every thing is
vifible, their breads only excepted, which they cover
with a fort of handkerchief j and this, as ato are in¬
formed, the Turks have obliged them to wear, Avhile
they look upon it as an encumbrance, and as no in-
conliderable portion of Turkifh tyranny. Long fleeves
of the fame thin material perfedlly fhow their arms
even to the fhoulder. d heir principal ornaments are
chains of pearl, to Avhich they hang fmall pieces of
gold coin. Their eyes are large and fine ; and the
nofe, Avhich Ave term Grecian, ufually prevails among
them, as it does indeed among the Avomen of all thefe
iflands. Their complexions are naturally fine j but they
fpoil them by paint, of Avhich they make abundant
ufe •, and they disfigure their pretty faces by {having
the hinder part of the eyebrow, and replacing it Avith
a ftraight line of hair neatly applied Avith fome fort of
gum, the broAV being thus continued in a ftraight and
narrow line till it joins the hair on each fide of their
face. They are Avell made, of the middle fize, and
for the moft part plump; but they are diftinguifhed
by nothing fo much and fo univerfally as by a haughty,
difdainful, and fupercilious air, Avith which they feem
to look down upon all mankind as creatures of an in¬
ferior nature, born for their fervice, and doomed to
be their Oaves j neither does this peculiarity of coun¬
tenance in any degree diminifh their natural beauty,
but rather adds to it that fort of bewitching attradlion
which the French call piquant.
His lordfhip has been at great pains to inveftigate
the origin of fuch a Angular cuftom •, but is unable to
find any other example in hiftory than that of the Ly-
eians, who called themfelves by the names of their
mothers, and not of their fathers. When afked by their
neighbours who they Avere ? they defcribed themfelves
by their maternal genealogy. If a gentleAvoman fhould
marry a flave, the children by that marriage Avere ac¬
counted noble ; but fhould the firft man among them
marry a foreign woman, the children Avould be ac¬
counted ignoble. This curtom is mentioned by feveral
ancient authors. A difficulty of no little magnitude
occurs, however, in accounting for the derivation of
the inhabitants of Lrfbos from the Lycians. This is
folved in the following manner : In times of the moft
remote antiquity, the ifland of Lefhos Avas peopled by
the Pelafgi, Avho, under their leader Xanthus, the fon
^f Trioppas king of Argos, firft inhabited Lefhos;
88 ] MET
previous to that time they had dAvelt in a certain part Meteliu
of Lycia Avhich they had conquered ; and in this coun- II
try we may fuppofe they had learned the cuftom in Me[emPfy*
queftion. ch<,fis-
ME1ELLUS, the furname of the family of the' ^ ~
Caecilii at Rome, the moft known of Avhom Avero
~ A general ay ho defeated the Achgeans, took
Thebes and invaded Macedonia, &c. O. Cceci-
lius? who rendered himfelf illuftrious by his ifucceffeg
againft Jugurtha the Numidian king, from which he
Avas furnamed Numidicus. Another who faved from
the flames the palladium, when Vefta’s temple Ava*
on fire. He was then high prieft. He loft his fight
and one of his arms in the adlion ; and the fenate, to
reward his zeal and piety, permitted him ahvays to
be drawn to the fenate houfe in a chariot, an honour
Avhich no one had ever before enjoyed. He alfo gained
a great viftory over the Carthaginians, &c.— C.J. Cge-
cilius Celer, another Avho diftinguiftied himfelf 'Ey his
Ipirited exertions againft Catiline. He married th&
After of Clodius, who difgraced him by her inconti¬
nence and lafcivioufnefs. He died 57 years before
Chrift. He Avas greatly lamented by Cicero, Avho
fhed tears at the lofs of one of his moft faithful and
valuable friends. L. Caecilius, a tribune in the civil
Avars of J. Caefar and Pompey. He favoured the caufe
of Pompey, and oppofed Csefar when he entered
Rome with a vidlorious army. He refufed to open
the gates of Saturn’s temple, in which were depofited
great treafures *, upon Avhich they were broke open by
Caefar, and Metellus retired when threatened with
death. Q. Caecilius, a warlike general who conquered
Crete and Macedonia, and was furnamed Macedonicus,
He had four fons, of whom three Avere confuls, and
the other obtained a triumph, all during their father’s
lifetime. A general of the Roman armies againft the
Sicilians and Carthaginians. Before he marched, he
offered facrifices to all the gods except Vefta ; for
Avhich negleft the goddefs was fo incenfed, that fhe
demanded the blood of his daughter Metella. When
Metella was going to be immolated, the goddefs placed
a heifer in her place, and carried her to a temple at
Lanuvium, of which fhe became the prieftefs. Ano¬
ther furnamed Dalmaticus from his conqueft over Dal¬
matia, A. U. C. 634.—Cimber, one of the confpira-
tors againft J. Caefar. It was he who gave the fignal
to attack and murder the diflator in the fenate houfe.
—Pius, a general in Spain againft Sertorius, on Avhofe
head he fet a price of 100 talents and 20,000 acres of
land.
METEMPSYCHOSIS, (formed of “ be¬
yond,” and eftrj/v%a>, “ I animate or enliven”), in the
ancient philofophy, the paflage or tranfmigration of
the foul of a man, after death, into the body of fome
other animal.
Pythagoras and his folloAvers held, that after death
men’s fouls palled into other bodies, of this or that
kind, according to the manner of life they had led.
If they had been vicious, they Avere imprifoned in the
bodies of miferable beafts, there to do penance for fe¬
veral ages : at the expiration whereof, they returned
afrefh to animate men. But, if they lived virtuoufly,
fome happier brute, or even a human creature, Avas to
be their lot. ,
What led Pythagoras into this opinion Avas, the
perfuafion
Metemp-
tofo.
MET [
Metenjiij- perfuafion he had that the f(jul was not of a perifhable
chofis, nature : whence he concluded that it muft remove in¬
to fome other body upon its abandoning this. Lucan
treats this dodtrine as a kind of officious lie, contrived
to mitigate the apprehenfion of death, by perfuading
men that they only changed their lodging, and only
ceafed to live to begin a new life.
Reuchlin denies this doctrine ; and maintains that
the metempfychofis of Pythagoras implied nothing
more than a fimilitude of manners, delires, and itudies,
formerly exifting in fome perfon dcceafed, and now
revived in another alive. 1 hus when it was faid that
Euphorbus was revived in Pythagoras, no more was
meant than that the martial virtue which had (hone
in Euphorbus at the time of the Trojan rvar, was now,
in fome meafure, revived in Pythagoras, by realon of
the great refpeft he bore the athletes. For thofe peo¬
ple wondering how a philofopher ffiould be fo much
taken with men of the fword, he palliated the matter,
by faying, that the foul of Euphorbus, i. e. his genius,
difpoiition, and inclinations, were revived in him. And
this gave occafion to the report, that Euphorous s foul,
who periffied in the Trojan war, had tranfmigrated into
Pythagoras.
Ficinus afferts, that what Plato fpeaks of the migra¬
tion of a human foul into a brute, is intended allegori¬
cally, and is to be underftood only of the manners,
affections, and habits, degenerated into a beaftly na¬
ture by vice. Serranus, though he allows fome force
to this interpretation, yet inclines rather to underftand
the metempfychofis of a refurreftion.
Pythagoras is faid to have borrowed the notion of a
metempfychofis from the Egyptians : others fay, from
the ancient Brachmans. It is ftill retained among the
Banians and other idolaters of India and China ; and
makes the principal foundation of their religion. So
extremely are they bigotted to it, that they not only
forbear eating any thing that has life, but many of
them even refufe to defend themfelves from wild beads.
They burn no wood, left fome little animalcule lliould
be in it \ and are fo very charitable, that they will re¬
deem from the hands of ftrangers any animals that they
find readv to be killed. See Pythagoreans.
METEMPTOSIS (from pojl, and -xiTCTco,
cado, “ I fall,”) a terra in chronology, exprefling the
folar equation, neceffary to prevent the new moon
from happening a day too late. By which it Hands
contradiftinguiffied from proemptojis, which fignifies the
lunar equation, neceffary to prevent the new moon from
happening a day too foon.
The new moons running a little backwards, that
is, coming a day too foon at the end of 312 years and
a half 5 by the proemptofis, a day is added every 300
years, and another every 2400 years : on the other
hand, by the metemptofis, a bifiextile is fuppreffed each
134 years •, that is, three times in 400 years. Thefe
alterations are never made but at the end of each cen¬
tury *, that period being very remarkable, and render¬
ing the praCIice of the calendar eafv.
There are three rules for making this addition or
fuppreffion of the biffextile day, and, by confequence,
for changing the index of the epaCts. 1. When there
is a metemptofis without a proemptofis, the next fol¬
lowing, or lower index, muft be taken. 2. V> hen
there is a proemptofis without a metemptofis, the next
You XIII. Part II.
689 ] MET
preceding or fuperior index is to be taken. 3. When
there are both a metemptofis and a proemptofis, or
when there is neither the one nor the other, the fame
index is preferved. Thus, in 1600, we had D : in
1700, by reafon of the metemptofis, C was taken :
in 1800, there was both a proemptofis and a me¬
temptofis ; fo the fame index was retained. In 1900,
there will be a metemptofis again, when B will be
taken : which will be preferved in 2000, bccaufe
there will then be neither the one nor the other. 1 his
is as far as we need compute for it: But Clavius has
calculated a cycle of 301,800 years j at the end of
which period, the fame indices return in the fame order.
See Epact.
METEOR, (by the Greeks called q. d.
fublima or “ high raifed j” by the Latins imprejjiones
as making figns or impreflions in the air), commonly
denotes any bodies in the air that are of a tranfitory
nature. Hence it is extended to the phenomena of
hail, rain, fnow, thunder, &c,} but is moft commonly
confined to thofe unufual and fiery appearances named
falling Jars, ignes fatui, aurora: bore ales, &c. See
Meteorology.
METEOROLITE. This term is derived from the
Greek a meteor, and >.<(!«? ^.fone ; and denotes
a ftony iubftance, exhibiting peculiar characters, and
whofe defeent to the earth is ufually accompanied by
the appearance and explofion of a fire-ball.
Luminous meteors have, in all ages, been obferved
in the atmofphere. It is alto well known that their
difappearance has frequently been attended with a loud
noife •, but that they ffiould moreover terminate in the
fall of one or more folid bodies to the earth’s furface,
is a pofition fo repugnant to our ordinary conceptions
of the tenor of phyfical events, that we cannot admit
it as a faCI on flight or fcanty evidence. With due de¬
ference, however, to fome philofphers of name, we
are not prepared to affert, that it implies impoffibility.
For who has explored the higher regions of the at¬
mofphere ? or who knows what may take place beyond
its precinfts ? If a folid refult from the combination of
two aeriform fubftances, as muriatic acid and ammonia-
cal gafes j if oxygen, the properties of which are moft
familiar to us in the Hate of gas, can undergo fixation,
and if fluids can pafs into cryftalline forms, is it too
bold to prefume, that the fame, or fimilar proceffes,
effeCIed in the grand laboratory of the atmofphere, may
be within the range of poffible occurrences ? At all
events, the fame Being who called into exiftence thofe
fublime and countlefs maffes of matter which revolve in
fpace, may, to ferve purpofes unknowm to us, create
bodies of dimenfions infinitely fmaller, and deftined to
impinge on fome planetary orb. .1 he reafoning of an
angel may not convince us, that a part is greater than
the whole, or that the value of two and two is equiva¬
lent to fix ; but a very ordinary logician may prove to
our fatisfaClion, that the contaft of particles of matter
in portions of fpace which lie beyond our globe, is no
chimerical fuppofition. Every thing around us pro¬
claims, that matter is fubjeCl to incefl'ant change. New
forms and new modifications are ever fpringing into be¬
ing : and can we doubt, that the fame particles, as
they may happen to be affeCIed or influenced by vari¬
ous circumftances, may exift in the ftateof gas, of aque¬
ous vapour, or of a concrete mafs ?
4 S Again,
Metem*
tolls
MET [ 690 ] MET
Again, it furely will not be lerioully maintained,
that, irom the rarity of a phenomenon, we are war¬
ranted to infer its non-exiftence. The appearance of a
comet is a rare, but not a fictitious, occurrence. Nay,
we may fafely advance a itep farther, and affert, with¬
out fear of confutation, that the exiftence of a pheno¬
menon, if otherwife well attelled, cannot be difproved
by our inability to explain it. How multiplied, in
fa<'t, are the fubjefts, even of our daily and hourly ob-
fervation, which we cannot fatisfaftorily expound ? We
cannot fay why a fmall feed ihould gradually unfold in¬
to a large tree, why flame fhould produce heat, why
the hand ihould act in immediate fubferviency to the
will, or why a contufion of the brain fhould induce
flupor, alienation of mind, or death. It is one thing
to prove a fa£t, and it is another to account for it.
From thefe premifes it follows in courfe, that we are
not entitled to rejedt the exiflence of meteoric ftones,
provided it be eftablifhed by valid teftimony. Should
the hiftorical evidence, on a fair and difpafiionate re¬
view, be deemed conclufive, we may afterwards ex¬
amine the theories which have been propofed for the
folution of the appearance.
From the Scriptures of the Old Teftament we are
not aware that any paffage can be cited in direffc cor¬
roboration of the defcent of ftones from the atmofphere.
The ingenious and fanciful Mr Edward King, indeed,
in his “ Remarks concerning ftones faid to have fallen
from the clouds, both in thefe days, and in ancient
times,” adverts to the 13th verfe of the 18th Pfalm.—
“ The Lord alfo thundered out of heaven, and theHigheft
gave his thunder : hail-ftones and coals of fire.'1'1 This
laft expreflion has, no doubt, been conjectured to de¬
note real hard bodies, in a ftate of ignition ; and the
term «£v0g&>csj, employed by the cautious Seventy, rather
favours fuch an interpretation. The fame expreffion,
however, occurs in the preceding verfe, without ad¬
mitting this interpretation •, and the phrafe feems to be
only a figurative mode of deferibing lightning. In the
fober latitudes of the north, and even in colloquial
language, we talk of balls of fire and thunderbolts,
without any reference to folid matter. Mr King like-
wife quotes the nth verfe of the 10th chapter of Jo-
fhua.—“ And it came to pafs, as they fled from before
Ifrael, and were in the going down to Beth-horon, that
the Lord call down greatfiones from heaven upon them
unto Azekah, and they died : there were more which
died with hail-ftones, than they whom the children of
Ifrael flew with the fword.” Here, the expreflion,
great fiones is lefs equivocal than coals offire ; yet the
context hardly allows us to doubt, that the great ftones
were really hail-ftones, or rather, perhaps, lumps of
ice, confolidated in the atmofphere, fuch as oecafional-
ly fall in hot countries, and fuch as alarmed the whole
of Paris and its neighbourhood in 1788. M any rate,
the daughter of the Canaanites is reprefented as refult-
ing from the fpecial interpofition of divine power 5
and the confideration of miracles is irrelevant to our
prefent purpofe.
If from facred, we turn to the early period of pro¬
fane hiftory, we flrall find the annals of public events
very copioufly interfperfed with notices of ftrange ap¬
pearances, many of which may be fafely aferibed to the
afeendency which fuperftition long obtained over the
human mind. The fcepticifm of the learned is, however,
fometimes not lefs injudicious and indiferiminate than Meteor®,
the credulity of the favage 5 and he who Ihould refolve Ike.
every extraordinary event, which is recorded by the ' v——
writers of Greece and Rome, into a “ cunningly devifed
fable,” would not be lefs reprehenfible for want of can¬
dour, than the untutored ruftic, who yields his aflent to
every alleged miracle, is to be taxed with want of dif-
cernment.
Although thefe general pofitions can fcarcely admit
of difpute, it becomes extremely difficult, after a lapfe
of many ages, and in the collation of marvellous
records, to feparate truth from falfehood. In our at¬
tempts to profecute this analytical procefs, we may
fometimes advance a certain length with perfect fecu-
rity, without being able to trace uniformly the precife
lines of demarcation. Thus, in regard to the topic
of our prefent difeuffion, we know, that in various pe¬
riods of the world the vulgar have aferibed a celeftial
origin to ftones of a peculiar configuration, as to certain
modifications of pyrites, to belemnites, orthoceratites,
&c. which the fubfequent obfervations of naturalifts
have proved to be of mineral formation, and to the
heads of arrows and fharpened flints, which have been
faftiioned by the hand of man, and which, accordingly
we are authorized to exclude from the ex-terreftrial ca¬
talogue. But when fubftances diffimilar from thefe,
and coinciding in any one charadler or circumftance
with modern fpecimens of atmofpheric ftone, are report¬
ed by the ancients to have fallen from the clouds, the
diftance of ages and the lamenefs of the documents
may powerfully affedt our appreciation of the reputed
evidence.
When, therefore, we ffiortly touch on a few of the
many inftances which might be quoted from the an¬
nals of antiquity, we mean not to vouch for the truth
even of thefe particular inftances ; but merely to admit
their probability, and the weight which the mention
of them may be confidered to add to that of fubfequent
and recent narrations.
Through the midft of fable which envelopes the hiftory
of the bee full, we difeern fome characters which corre-
fpond with thofe of meteorolites. Thus, in the Ai6ix.ee,
a poem falfely aferibed to Orpheus, the which
M. Falconet properly claffes with the bcetuli, is faid to
be rough, heavy, and black. Damafcius, in an extraCfc
of his life of Ifidorus, preferved by Photius, relates that
the baetuli fell on Mount Libanus, in a globe of fire.
A fragment of Sanchoniathon, preferved in Eufebius,
(Prsepar. Evangel, i. 10.), moreover informs us, that
thefe ftones were fabricated by the god Uranus (or
Heaven'), one of whofe four fons was named Bcetul.
May not this mythological genealogy be regarded as
merely emblematical of their defcent from the upper
regions of the atmofphere ? In the fame chapter we are
told that Aftarte found a filar which had fallen from
heaven, and honoured it with confecration in the city of
Tyre, The ftone denominated “ the mother of the
g ds,” if we can believe Appian, Herodian, and Mar¬
cel linns, /iV/ from heaven. Ariftodemus, cited by the
Greek fcholiaft on Pindar, aflerts that it fell encircled
bt/ fire, on a hill, at the feet of the Theban bard. It is
faid to have been of a black colour, and of an irregular
flume. Herodi-m (lib. v.') exprefslv declares, that the
Phoenicians had no flatue of the fun, poliflied by the
hand j but only a certain ftone, circular below, and
terminated
MET [69
Meteoro" terminated acutely above, in the form of a cone, of a
lite black colour, and that, according to report, it/// from
,JI * heaven, and was regarded as the image ot the fun.
Among various indances which might be felected
from Livy, is that of a thower of dones on Mount
Alba, in the reign ot Tullus Holtilius, or about
fix hundred and fifty-two years before the birth of
Chrilt. When the fenate were told, that it had r in-
ed Jfones, they doubted the faft, and deputed eommif-
fioners to inquire into the particulars. I hey were then
allured, that itones had really fallen, hand altir qu m
quum grandinem venti g/omeratam in terras agu t. On
this occafion, the hiftorian mentions, that fimilar events
were celebrated by a feftival of nine days. Inanjit fo-
lemnut quundocumque idem prodigium nuntiaretur,
fence per novem dies ageren'ur.
But one of the mod remarkable cafes which occurs
in the records of antiquity, is that which is mentioned
in the ^Sth chapter of the fecond book ot Pliny’s ISia-
tural Hi dory, of a large done which fell near Egofpo-
tamos, in Thrace, in the fecond year of the feventy-
eighth Olympiad, or, according to our chronology, about
four hundred and fixty-feven years before the Chridian
era. Pliny allures us, that this extraordinary mafs was
dill fhewn in his day ; and that it was as large as a
cart, and of a burnt colour. The Greeks pretended
that it had fallen from the fun, and that Anaxagoras
had predicted the day of its arrival on the earth’s
furface. According to Plutarch, in the life of Lyfan-
der, the inhabitants of the Cherlonefus held the 1 hra-
cian done in great veneration, and exhibited it as a
public (how. PI is account of its fird appearance is
chiefly extracted from the relation of Haimachus of
Platseae, and may be thus tranflated. “ During feventy-
five fucceflive days before the done fell, a large fiery
body, like a cloud of flame, was obferved in the hea¬
vens, not fixed to one point, but wandering about with
a broken, irregular motion. By its violent agitation,
feveral fiery fragments were forced from it, impelled in
various dire£Hons, and darted with the velocity and
brighinefs of fo many Ihooting dars. After this body
had’fallen on the Cherfonefus, and the people had af-
fembled to examine it, they could find no inflammable
matter, nor the flighted trace of combudion, but a real
done, which, though large, by no means correfponded
to the dimenfion of the flaming globe which they had
feen in the Iky, but feemed to be only a piece detached
from it.” Daimachus, it is true, may, on this occafion,
have given way to his reputed love of the marvellous j
and we can eafily believe that dhe feventy-fve continuous
days are either an error of the copvid, or an original
exaggeration j y®L from the marked coincidence of
fome of the circumdances with thofe more, fully de¬
tailed in the fequel, there arifes the prefumption that a
meteorolite really fell at the place and period above
afligned.
From this period, till near the clofe of the fifteenth
century, any hidorical notices which we have been en¬
abled to colleft, are fo vague and fcanty, that, in this
abridged view of the fubjed, we may pafs them over in
dllence.
Profeflbr Bantenfchoen, of the central fchool of Col¬
mar, fird direded the attention of naturalids to fome
of the old chronicles, which commemorate with much
naivete, and in the true fpirit of the times, the fall of the
i ] MET
celebrated done of Enfitheim. The tollowing account
accompanied this very unguiar mats, when it was fuf- ^
pended m the church.
“ In the year ot the Lord 1492, on Wednefday,
which was Martinmas eve, the 7ih of November, there
happened a angular miracle : tor, between eleven o’clock
and noon, there was a loud peal of thunder, and a
prolonged confuted noife, which was heard to a great
didance, and a done tell trom the arr, in the jurildidion
ot Eniiiheim, which weighed 260 pounds, and the
confuted noife was, moreover, much louder than here.
There a child faw it ilrike on a field, fituated in the
upper jurrfdiftion, towards the Rhine and Inn, near
the didrict ot Giigard, which was town with wheat,
and did it no harm, except that it made a hole there :
and then they conveyed it from that foot 5 and many
pieces were broken trom it, which the landvogt forbade.
They, therefore, caufed it to be placed in the church,
tvith the intention ot fufpending it as a miracle ; and
many people came hither to fee this done. So there
were remarkable converfations about this done : but the
learned laid, that they knew not w hat it was •, for it
was beyond the ordinary courle of nature, that li cb a
large mafs thould finite the earth from the height ot the
air-, but that it was really a miracle of God •, tor, bed re
that time, never any thing was heard like it, nor fecn,
nor deferibed. When the people found that Itone, it
had entered into the earth, to the depth of a man’s
dature, which every body explained to be the will of
God, ihat it thould be found, and the noife of it was
heard at Lucerne', at Villing, and in many other places,
fo loud, that it was believed that houfes had been
overturned : And as the king (Maximilian) was here,
the Monday after St Catherine’s day, of the fame year,
his royal excellence ordered the Hone which had fal¬
len to be brought to the cadle, and after having con-
verfed a long time about it with the noblemen, he faid
the people ot Enfiflieim ihould take it, and order it to
be hung up in the church, and not allow any body to
take any thing from it. However, his excellency took
two pieces of it, of which he kept one, and fent the
other to the duke Sigifmund of Auflria : and they fpoke
a great deal about this {tone, which they fufirended in
the choir, where it ftill is 5 and a great many people
came to fee it.”
Trithemius, in his Hirfaugienfian Annals, employs
language to this effe<3.—“ In the fame year, on the 7th
day of November, in the village of Suntgaw, near
the townlet of Enfiflieim, not far from Bafil, a city of
Germany, a {tone, called a thunder-ftone, of a prod/i-
ors fize, for we know from eye-w itnc ffes that it weighed
2?j pounds, fell from the- heavens. Its tall was fo
violent, thaf it broke into two pieces. The moft con-
fiderable R ftill exhibited at the door of the church, of
Enfiflieim, fufpended by an item chain, as a proof of
the fa£t which we have mentioned, and to preferve it in
the public recoiled ion.”—We learn alfo from Paul
Lang that there arofe a furious ftorm on the 7th of
November 1492, and that while the thunder roared,
and the heavens appeared all on fire, a ftone of enormous
fize fell near Enfiflieim. “ Its form was that of the
the Greek delta, with a triangular point. They ftill
(how it at Enfiflieim as an aftonifliing phenomenon.”
It is worthy of obfervation, that thefe chroniclers
lived at the period which they affigu to the defeent of
4 S 2 tHo
Meteoru-
lite
MET [ 69
the ftone ; and that, though their names are battening
^ to oblivion, J. rithemius yielded to few of his contem¬
poraries in labour and learning 5 while Lang, a Ger¬
man Benedictine as he was, travelled in learch of
hiltorical monuments, arraigned the licenfe of the
catholic clergy, and applauded the independence of
Luther and MelanCthon.
Of the Enfifheim done, which has been tranfported
to the national library at Colmar, and which, notwith-
ft anding various dilapidations, Itill weighs 150 pounds,
fome interefting fpecimens may now be feen in the
cabinets of the curious. Robert Fergufon, Efq. younger
of Raith, has, in the moft polite and obliging manner,
gratified us with the fight of a fmall fragment, which
belongs to his valuable collection of minerals at Raith
houfe in Fifefhire, Scotland.
We are fully aware, that M. Barthold has laboured
to convince his readers (Journal de Phylique, Ventofe,
year 8.) that the far-famed mafs of Enfifheim is
merely argillo-ferrugineous, of fecondary formation,
detached from an adjacent mountain, and conveyed to
the fpot on which it was found by fome torrent or
land-flood. In this opinion, we might partially acqui-
efce, did not the artleffnefs of contemporary and concur¬
ring records militate againfl; it, and had not the more
accurate analyfis of Vauquelin deteCled the fame con-
ffituent parts as in the other ftony and metalline fub-
ffances denominated meteoric. “ It is certainly com-
pofed of filica,” obferves this celebrated chemift, “ of
magnefia, of iron, of nickel, of fulphur, and of a fmall
quantity of lime.—Particular trials have convinced me
of the prefence of fulphur and nickel in the grains of
malleable iron, and in the pyrites, though in different
proportions. I his fione, then, in every refpeCt, re-
fembles others which have fallen from the atmo-
fphere.”
In the Commentary of Surius, a Carthufian monk of
Cologne, mention is made of a fhower of large Hones
in Lombardy, in 1510. Thefe Hones were harder
than flint, and fmelled of fulphur. The heavieft weigh¬
ed 120 pounds.—The fame event is more particularly
related by Cardan, in his work intitlcd de Rcrum Varie¬
gate (lib. xiv. c. 72.). According to this author, near
the river Adda, not far from Milan, and at five o’clock
in the evening, about 1120 ftones fell from the air, one
of them weighing 120 pounds and another 60 pounds.
Many were prefented to the French governor, and his
deputy. At three o’clock P. M. the Iky appeared as if
in a general blaze ; and the paflage, though fome-
wliat ambiguous, would lead us to infer, that the me¬
teor was vifible for two hours. Like many of the learn¬
ed and unlearned of his day, Cardan inftantly con¬
nects the extraordinary appearance with the political
tranfa&ions of his diftri'T.
We next pafs to an interefting extract from the me'-
moirs of the emperor Jehangire, written in Perfian, by
himfelf, and tranflated by Colonel Kirkpatrick.
u A 11 > 1030, or \6th year of the reign.—The fol¬
lowing is among the extraordinary occurrences of this
period.
2 ] M e T
“ Early on the. 30th of Furverdeen of the prefent
- ~  
year (1020), and m the eaftern quarter of the heavens
there arofe in one of the villages of the purgunnah of
Jalindher, fiich a great and tremendous noile, as had
nearly, by its dreadful nature, deprived the inhabitants
of the place of their fenfes. During this noife, a lu¬
minous body was obferved to fall from above, on the
earth, fuggefting to the beholders the idea that the fir¬
mament was raining fire.. In a ftiort time, the noife
having fubfided, and the inhabitants having recovered
from their alarm, a courier was difpatched to Mahom-
tned Syeed, the aumul of the aforeiaid purpunnah, to
advertife him of this event. The aumil, inftantly
mounting his horfe, proceeded to the fpot. Here he
perceived the earth, to the extent of a dozen of yards
in length and breadth, to be burned to fuch a degree,
that not the leait trace of verdure, or a blade of
grais remained ; nor had the heat yet fubfided en¬
tirely.
“ Mahommed Syeed hereupon directed the aforefaid
fpace of ground to be dug up ; when the deeper it
Mas dug, the greater was the heat of it found to be.
At length a lump of iron made its appearance, the heat
of which was fo violent, that one might have fuppofed
it to have been taken from a furnace. After fome time
it became cold : when the aumil conveyed it to his
own habitation, from whence he afterwards difpatched
it in a fealed bag to court.
Here I had this fubftance weighed in my prefence.
Its weight was 160 tolahs (a). I committed it to a Ikil-
ful artilan, with orders to make of it a fabre, a knife,
and a dagger. The workman reported, that the fub¬
ftance was not malleable, but fliivered into pieces under
the hammer.
u Upon this I ordered it to be mixed with other
iron. Conformably to my orders, three parts of the
non of lightning (b) were mixed wdth one part of com¬
mon iron; and from the mixture were made twro fabres,
one knife, and one dagger.”
Our limits will not permit us to give the whole of
the extra#, nor the remarks of the Right Hon.
Charles Greville and Colonel Kirkpatrick, which were
read before the Royal Society of London, on the 27th
January, 1803. We feel, how'ever, no hefitation in
attaching to this document fomething very nearly ap¬
proaching to direct evidence of the fa# in queftion.
The celebrated Gaffendi relates, that, on the 27th
of November, 1627, about 10 o’clock A. M. during
a very ciear fky, he faw a flaming ft one, of the appa¬
rent diameter of four feet, fall on Mount Vaifion, an
eminence fituated between the fmall towms of Perne and
Guillaumes, in Provence. This ftone was furrounded
by a luminous circle of different colours, nearly refemb-
ling tne rainbow, and its fall w'as accompanied with a
noife like the difeharge of artillery. It weighed 59
pounds; and its fpecific gravity was to that of common
marble as 14 to 11. It was of a dark metallic colour,
and extremely hard. Though it was not fubjefted to
chemical analyfis, and is not now to be found, the circum-
ftances which have been ftated by the philofopher are
fufficientlv
Meteor*.
file.
(a) A tolah is about 180 grains, Troy weight.
(b) I his expreftion js equivalent to our term thunder-holt.
M E T
[
Metcoro- fufficiently minute to operate on the eonviftion of thofe
lite. who are y/illing to be convinced.
From a curious book printed at Paris in 1672, and
now become very fcarce, entitled Converfations tire'es
ds PAcademic de M. PAbbe Bourdelot, contenant diver¬
ges recherches et obfervations phyjiques, par le Sieur
Lcgallois, we make the enfuing extraft.
“ A member prefents a fragment of two ftones which
fell near Verona, one of which weighed 300> and the
other 200 pounds. Thefe ftones,” fays he, “ fell dur¬
ing the night, when the weather wras perfectly mild and
ferene. They feemed to be all on fire, and came from
above, but in a flanting direftion, and with a tremen¬
dous noife. This prodigy terribly alarmed 300 or 400
eye-witneffes, who wrere at a lofs what to think ot it.
Thefe ftones fell with fuch rapidity, that they formed a
ditch, in w'hich after the noife had ceafed, the fpe&a-
tors ventured to approach them, and examine them
more clofely. They then fent them to Verona, where
they were depofited in the Academy, and that learned
body fent fragments of them to different places.”
That which accompanied the above intimation wras of
a yellowifti hue, very eafily pulverized, and fmelled of
fulphur.—In the courfe of examining one of thefe ftones,
M. Laugier, profeffor of pharmacy at Paris, has re¬
cently detedled the prefence of chrome, by means
of the cauftic alkali.—The date of the Verona
phenomena, if we have been correclly informed, is
1663.
In the Bornian colleflion there is a fubftanee which
is defignated Ferrum retraBorium, granuhs nitentibus,
matrice virefcenti immixtis (Ferrum virens Lin.), cujus
fragmenta ab unius ad viginti ufque librarum pondus,
cortice nigro fcoriaceo circumdata, ad P/ann, prope
Tabor, circuli Bechinenjis Bohemice, pajjim reperiuntar.
The following note is fubjoined. (-%>'<*' fragmenta
3 Julii anni 1753, inter tonitrua, e ccelo pluijfe credu-
liores qnidam offerunt). The expreflion creduhores
quidam, it may be alleged, at once deftroys the evi¬
dence of this memorandum. It deferves, howrever, to
be noted, that, in regard to our prefent fubjeft, what
wras formerly accounted the credulity of the vulgar, may
now, on feveral occafions, be conftrued into probabili¬
ty, if not into matter of fa<ft ; and that Mr Greville
has found the identical fragment to have the fame com-
pofition with other meteoric ftones. Hence, we are com¬
pelled either to admit its ex-terreftrial origin, or theex-
iftence of a fubftance, originally belonging to the earth,
and yet agreeing in ehara&er with thofe deemed at-
mofpheric. The former part of the alternative is per-
feclly confonant with well-authenticated fa els ; whereas
of the latter, we are not warranted to pronounce, that
a fingle cafe has hitherto been eftablifhed to the fatis-
faetion of any chemift or mineralogiit.
But we have now to turn our attention to a report of
M. de la Lande, inferted in the Hiftorieal Almanack
of Breffe, for 1756.
In the month of September 17535 about one o’clock
P. M. when the weather was very hot, and very fe¬
rene, without the leaft appearance of a cloud, a very
loud noife, like the difeharge of trvo or three cannons,
wTas heard within the circumference of fix leagues, but
wras of very ftiort duration. This noife was loudeft in
the neighbourhood of Pont-de-Vef!e j and at Liponas,
a village three leagues from the laft-mentioned place,
693 ] MET
it was even accompanied with a hilling, like that of a
cracker. On the fame evening there were found at
Liponas and at Pin, two blackilh maffes, of a form
nearly circular, but very uneven, which had tallen on
ploughed ground, and funk, by their own weight, to
half a foot below the furfacc. One of them weighed
about twenty pounds ; and a fragment of one of them
weighing n^lb- was preferved in the cabinet of M.
Varenne de Beoft, at Dijon. The bafis of thefe maffes
refembled a grayilh whinftone, and was very refra&ory *,
and fome ferrugineous particles were difleminated in
grains, filaments, or minute maffes, through the fub¬
ftance of the ftone, efpecially in its fiffures. This iron,
when fubjefted to a red heat, became obedient to the
magnet. The black coating on the furface, M. de la
Lande aferibes to fufion, induced by violent heat. This
gentleman’s acknowledged refpeftability and accuracy
of obfervation, combined with the circumitances which
he has adduced, circumdances, too, which, if miftated,
lay fo open to public inveitigation, powerfully plead in
favour of his teftimony.
On the 15th of September, 1760, according to the.
abbe Bachelay, about half paft four o’clock P. M.
there appeared near the chateau de Chevabrie, in the
neighbourhood of Luce, a fmall town of the province
of Maine, a ftormy cloud, from which proceeded a
loud peal of thunder, like the difeharge of cannon, and
followed by a noife which W'as miftaken by feveral
people for the lowing of oxen. This found was
heard over a fpace of about two leagues and a half,
but unaccompanied by any perceptible flame. The
reapers in the parilh of Perigue, about three leagues
from Luce, on hearing the fame noife, looked up, and
faw an opake body, which deferibed a curve, and fell
on foft turf, on the high road from Mons, near which
they were at work. They all quickly ran up to it,
and found a fort of ftone, nearly half of which was
buried in the earth, and the whole fo hot that it could
not be touched. At firft they ran away in a panic v
but on returning to the fpot fome time after, they found
the ftone precifely in the fame fituation, and fufficiently
cooled to admit of being handled, and narrowly ex¬
amined. It weighed feven ounces and a half, and was
of a triangular form, presenting, as it were, three
rounded horns, one of which, at the moment of the
fall, had entered into the ground, and was of a gray or
alh colour, while the reft, which was expofed to the
air, Avas very black. When the abbe prefented this
ftone to the academy, that body appointed three of its
number, namely, Meffieurs Lavoifier, Fougeroux, and
Cadet, to examine and analyfe it. This talk they
performed with more care and accuracy than M. de
la Lande had done on the preceding occafion ; but their
trial Avas confined to an integral part of the whole, con-
fidered as a homogeneous fubftance, in place of being
repeated on each of the conftituent parts. The fubftance
Avas of a pale cinereous hue, fpeckled Avith an infinite
number of fmall and ftiining metallic points, vifible
through a magnifying glafs. That part of the outer
furface Avhich remained above ground was incrufted Avith
a thin black coating, which feemed to have under¬
gone fufion, and Avhieh gave a few fparks when ftruck
Avith flee!. The fpecific gravity of the mafs Avas 3535.
 Two other ftones, nearly of the fame chara&ers,
the one reported to have fallen at Aire, in Artois, and
the
Mete«rt ■
lite.
MET
Metoro-
lite
tn.e other in the Cotentin, in Normandy, were prefent
; ^ to the academy in the courfe of the fame year by M.
Garfon de B >yaval, honorary lieutenant-general of the
bailliage oi Aire, and the younger M. Morand. Ac-
coming to the academical report, thefe three Hones,
when compared, prefented no diiference to the eve,
were of the fame colour, and nearly of the fame grain,
exhibiting metallic and pyritous particles, and covered
with a black and ferrugineous incruftation. Although
the coincidence of facts and circumftances, in three
places fo remote from one another, did not convince the
academy that thefe Hones had been conveyed to the
earth by lightning, yet it induced them to invite na-
turalifls to profecute the examination of the fubjeft.
On the 20th of November 1768, a Hone fell at
Mauerkircken near the Inn, in Bavaria, that weighed
38H). was of a triangular form, and only eight inches
in thicknefs. Its fall was accompanied by a hiding
noife, and great darknefs in tire atmofphere. This me-
teorolite penetrated two feet and a half into the foil.
Part of it is in the cabinet of the right honoura ‘;le
Charles Greville, which is now in the Britilh Mu-
feum ; and a fragment may be feen in Mr Fergufon’s
colleffion quoted above.
I he next remarkable cafe on record occurred on the
20th of Auguft 1789, at Barbotan, near Roquefort, in
the Landes of Bourdeaux, and is thus related by Citizen
Lomet, who was known to feveral members of the in-
ftitute, and happened to be at A gen when the meteor
appeared.
“ It was a very bright fire-ball, luminous as the fun,
of the fize of an ordinary balloon, and, after infpiring
the inhabitants with conilernation, buril and difappear-
ed.. A few days after, fome peafants brought Hones,
which they faid fell from the meteor ; but the philofo-
phers to whom they offered them laughed at their af-
fertions as fabulous. The peafants would have now
more reafon to laugh at the philofophers ”—One of
thefe Hones broke through the roof of a cottage, and
killed a herdfman and fome cattle. Vauquelin, who re¬
ceived a proces-verbat of the circumflances, alfo ex¬
amined one of the fpecimens. i'he fragment procured
by Mr Fergufon has viiibly all the characters of a ge¬
nuine meteorolite.
A much more remarkable phenomenon, however,
of the fame defeription, occurred near Agen, on the
24th of July 1790. An inhabitant of St Severe com¬
municates the following particulars to M. Darcet the
chemiH, who was then refdent at Paris.
“ Our towns-people were yeHerday very much alarm¬
ed, About a quarter pad nine o’clock, in the evening,
there fuddenly appeared in the air a fire ball, dragging
a long train, which diffufed a very vivid light over the
horizon. This meteor foon difappeared, and feemed to
fall at one hundred paces from us. It was quickly fol
lowed by an explofion louder than that of cannon or of
thunder. Every bodv dreaded being buried under the
ruins of his boufe, which ft-emed to give way from the
coneuffion. The fame phenomenon was feen, and the
report heard, in the neighbouring towns, as Mont de
Marfan, Tartas, and Dax. The weather in other re-
fpefls was very calm, without a breath of wind or a
cloud, and the moon fhone in all her brightnefs.”
M. Darcet’s brother, a clergyman in that part of the
country, fent him a fmall Hone, which was picked up on
[ 69+ ]
MET
the_ morning after the explofion, and the hiflory of Metea*
which he was fcrupuloufly anxious to invefligate. T>cxr.g lite.
faiisfied with reipect to all the particulars, he at length
difpatched it to Paris, accompanied with lome curious
remarks. “ When thefe Hones fell,’ lays he, “ they had
not their prefent degree ot hardneis. borne of them fell
on liraw, oits ot which ituck 10 the Hones, and incorpo¬
rated with them. I have feen one in this predicament.
It is at prefent at Ta i^altide j but I cannot periuaue the
owner to part with it* **. i hole which iell on the houles
produced a noile, not like that ot Hones, but rather of a
lubttance which had not yet acquired compa&nefs.”
We fubjoin the proces-verbui—a fimple but authen¬
tic document.
4‘ l11 tiie year one thoufand fevtn hundred and nine¬
ty, and the 30th day of tiie month ot Auguft, we, the
Sieur Jean jJuoy, mayor, and Bouis Mauilon, procura¬
tor or the commune ol the municipality ol La Grange
de Juillac, ana Jean JJarmite, relident in the paritli of
La Grange de juiilac, certiiy in truth and verity , that,
on Saturday the 24th ol July lait, between nine and
ten o’clock in the evening, there palled a gicat lire,
and alter it we heard in the air a very loud and extra¬
ordinary noife ; and, about two minutes after, there fell
Hones from heaven, but fortunately there fell only a very
few, and they fell about ten paces from one another in
fome places, and in others nearer, and finally, in fome
other places, farther, and falling, molt of them, of the
weight of about half a quarter of a pound each ; fome
of about halt a pound, like that found in our parilh
of La Grange j and on the borders of the parilh of
Creon, they were found of a pound weight; and in fall¬
ing they feemed not to be inflamed, but very hard and
black without, and within of the colour of Heel 5 and,
thank God, they occalioned no harm to the people, nor
the trees, but only to fome trees which were broken on
the houfes-j and moft of them fell gently, and others
fell quickly, with a hilling noife 5 and fome were found
which had entered into the earth, but very few. In
witnefs whereof we have written and figned thefe pre-
fents. (Signed) Duby, Mayor—Darmite.”
Monfieur Baudin mentions, that, as M. Carris of Bar¬
botan and he were walking in the court of the callle of
Mormes about half paft nine o’clock, in the evening of
the 24th of July 1790? when the air ivas perfectly calm,
and the Iky cloudlefs, they found themfelves luddtnly
furrounded by a pale clear light, which obfeured that
of the moon, though the latter wras nearly full. On
looking up, they obferved, almoft in their zenith, a fire¬
ball of a larger apparent diameter than that of the n oon,
dragging a tail, which feemed to be five or fix times long¬
er than the diameter of its body, and which gradually
tapered to a point, the latter approaching to blood red,
though the reft of the meteor was of a pale white. This
luminous body proceeded with great velocity from fouth
to north, and in two feconds fplit into portions of confi-
derable fize, like the fragments of a burfting bomb. Thefe
fragments became extinguilhed in the air, and fome of
them, as they fell, affumed that deep red colour, which
had been obferved at the point of the tail. Two or three
minutes after M. Baudin and hR friend heard a dread¬
ful explofion, like the fimultaneous firing of feveral
pieces of ordance j but they were not fenfible of any
tremulous motion under their feet, though the concuf-
MET
[ 69
ftfeteoro- fi0n of the atmofphere (hook the windows in tlieir
lite. frames, and threw down kitchen uteniils from their
-~v 1 Selves. When thefe gentlemen removed to the. gar¬
den, the noife Hill continued, and feemed to be direct¬
ly over their heads. Some time after it had ceafed,
they heard a hollow found rolling, in echoes, for iilty
miles, along the chain of the Pyrenees, and.at the end
of about four minutes gradually dying away in diftance.
At the fame time, a ftrong lulphureous odour was
diffufed in the atmofphere. The interval which occur¬
red between the difruption of the meteor, and the loud
report, induced M. Paudin to conjeCture, that this fire-
■ ball muft have been at leaft eight miles from the earth’s
furface, and that it fell about four miles from Mormes.
“ The latter part of my conjecture, fays he, was foon
confirmed by an account which we received of a great
many Hones' having fallen from the atmofphere at Juil-
lac and in the neighbourhood of Barbotan.” It ap¬
pears, indeed, from the concurring teilimony of intel¬
ligent perfons worthy of credit, that the meteor really
exploded at a little diftance from Juillac, and that its
fragments were found lying in an almoft circular fpace,
of nearly two miles in diameter. Some of them weigh¬
ed eighteen or twenty, and a few, it is alleged, even
fifty pounds. M. de Carris procured one of 18 lbs.
which he tranfmitted to the Parifian Academy of Sci¬
ences. That examined by M. Baudin was fmall, but
heavy in proportion to its fize, black on the outfide,
grayiflr within, and interfperfed with many minute,
fhining, metallic particles. Thefe lad circumflances
perfeClly accord with the fragment of a Barbotan Hone
preferved in IMr Fergufon's eolleClion.
In one of his letters to Profeffor St Amand, M. Goy-
on d’Arzas remarks, that thefe ftones, though generally
fmooth on the outfide, prefented fome longitudinal
cracks, or fifiures, while their interior parts exhibited
fymptoms of metallic veins, efpecially of a ferrugineous
complexion. When yet red hot, and fcattered in various
directions, they formed that magnificent fire-work, that
fiiower of flame, which enlightened the horizon over a
large traft of country •, for this extraordinary meteor
was feen at Bayonne, Auch, Pau, Tarbes, and even at
Bourdeaux and Touloufe. At the laft-mentioned place
it excited little attention, on account of its great di-
ifance, and its appearing only a little brighter than a
Ihooting Har. It, moreover, deferves to be noted, that
the meteorolites in queftion were found on a bare
moor, of an extremely thin foil, on which no fuch
ftones, or indeed ftones of any defeription, had been
obferved in the memory of man. They who are felici¬
tous of additional information on this part of our fub-
jeCt, may confult. N®s. 23 and 24 of the Journal des
Sciences Utiles of Montpelier, for 1790, and the De¬
cade Philofophujue for February 179^‘
When all the cireumftances of the cafe are duly con-
fidered, we need not be furprifed, that they ftiould pro¬
duce conviftion on the minds of many men of fcience,
who, till then, poffeffed “ an evil heart of unbelief.”
M. de St Amand ingenuoutly confeffed to M. PiClet of
Geneva, that he had treated this novel topic with un¬
merited contempt, and that the evidence deduced from
the fimilar charaflers of the ftones (hould not be rafhly
rejefted. The learned and the unlearned of the diftrift
in which the phenomenon is ftated to have occurred.
j 1 MET
atteft its exiftence 5 the profeffor of natural hiftory in Meteoro
the central Ichool of A gen renounces his former leepti- , j
cifm •, Vauquelin analyfes a fpecimen, and finds it to
contain the fame chemical fubftances as other meteoro¬
lites, and in nearly the fame proportions •, and fliall we
be fo unreafonable as to withhold our affent, merely be-
caufe we have not ocular demonjlrution of the alleged
particulars ?
Our chronological feries of cafes has now brought us
to the fall ot feveral meteorolites near Sienna, the parti¬
culars of which, as reported by the late earl of Briftol
and Sir William Hamilton, are recorded ili the firft
part of the Philofophical TranfaClions for 1795 (page
103). Mr King, likewife in the tract which ve have
already quoted, communicates fome intereiting circum-
flances relative to this phenomenon, chiefly extrae'ed
from an account of it publithed by Profefior Soldani.
While we refer our readers to thefe details, we cannot
omit mentioning that, in regard to afpeCf and compo-
fition, the Sienna ftones are perfectly analogous to others
already noticed, and very different from any that occur
in Tufcany. As the meteor from which they were dif-
charged appeared on the morning after a violent eruption
of Vefuvius, they were at firft fuppofed to he volcanic, till
cool reflection and examination betrayed the extrava¬
gance of fuch a hypothefis. The precife number of ftones
which were collected on this occafion is not fpecified,
but many of them were fmall, weighing from a quarter
of an ounce to two ounces. A pretty entire ipecimen
occurs in Mr Fergufon’s collection.—The date of the
Sienna meteor is the 16th of June, 1794.
On the 13th of December of the following year,
about three o’clock in the afternoon, another of thefe
Angular ftones, weighing 56 pounds, fell near the
country houfe of Captain Topham, in Yerkfhire The
captain’s report, which is inferted in the Gentleman’s
Magazine for 1796, is diixinCt and fatistaClory •, while
the chemical examination of the mals, detailed in
Mr Howard’s paper, in the Philofophical 1 ranfaCtions
for 1802, affords a ftill more decifive proof of its at-
mofpheric origin. M. de Dree, alfo, found it to corre-
fpond exaClly in afpeCt and charafter, with fragments of
meteor ftones from Benares and Ville franche. 'I he ori¬
ginal mafs is in the poffeflion of Mr Sowerby author of
Englilh Botany, &c. It is larger than a man’s head.
Mr Southey, in his le tters from Spain and Portugal,
tranferibes the authenticated relation of another inftance
of the defeent of a ft one from the clouds on the 19th of
February 1796. But we pafs to fome of the moft im¬
portant details relative to the ftone which is affirmed
to have fallen near Ville-franche, in the department of
the Rhone, on the 12th of March, 1798. W hen it
was tranfmitted to Profeffor Sage, member of the Na¬
tional Inftitute, he confidered it at firft, as only a
pyritous and magnetical ore of iron, although it bore no
refemblance to anv known fpecies of ore of that metal,
fince it contained nickel, ffiica, magnefia, and native
iron, which ihone like fteel when polithed. “ It is
of an alb gray colour, favs M. Sage, granulated and
fpeckled with gray, ffiining, and pyritous metallic
points. One of its furfaces is covered with a dingy
black enamel, about the third of a line in thicknefs.
This ftone aCls very powerfully on the magnetic needle.
When the fenator Chafiet tranfmitted it to me, it
Moteofd-
lite.
MET [ ^5 ] MET
was accompam^ with an hiftorical notice of fimilar gravity could not be eafily afcertained. One hundred Meteoro.
_ import with that which M. Delievre, of Ville-franche,
who faw and defcribed the phenomenon on the fpot.” ’
At fix o’clock in the evening, a round body, which
diffufed the moil vivid light, was obferved in the vicini-
ty of Ville-franche, moving wcftward, and producing
a luffing, like that of a bomb which traverfes the air.
i. his luminous body, which was feen at the fame time
at Lyons and on Mont-Cenis, marked its path by a
red track of fire, and exploded, about 200 toifes from
the earth with a tremendous report and concuffion.
One of the flaming fragments fell on the vineyard of
Peter Crepier, an inhabitant of Sales. On the fpot
where this portion of the meteor was feen to fall, and
m a freffi opening of about 20 inches in depth, and
18 in width, was found a black mals, ij inches in
diameter, and rounded on one fide.
An account of the fame meteor was publiffied in the
Journal de Phyfique, forFloreal, year 11, by M.de Dree,
from his minute and deliberate in veftigation, it appears
that the fire-ball had fcarcely fixed the attention of the
inhabitants of the Sales and of theadjacent villages, when
it5 xapid approach, accompanied by a terrible whizzing
noife, like that of an irregular hollow body, traverfing
the air with unufual velocity, infpired the whole com¬
mune with alarm, efpecially when they obferved it
paffing over their heads, at an inconfiderable elevation.
It left behind a long train of light, and emitted, with
an almofl unceafing crackling, fmall vivid flames, like
little liars. Its fall was remarked, at the diflance of
only 50 paces, by three labourers, one of whom, named
Montillard, let fall his coat and bundle of flicks that he
might run the fafter, while the other two, Chardon
and Lapoces, fled with equal precipitation to Sales,
where the alarm had become general.—Thefe three
witneffes atteft the aftoniffiing rapidity of the meteor’s
motion, and the hilling which pfoceeded from the fpot
where it fell. So terrified was Crepier at the explofion,
that he locked himfelf up with his family, firft in his
cellar, and then in his private apartment, nor ventured
abroad till next morning, when, in the company of M.
Blandel, Chardon, Lapoces, and many others, he
repaired to the opening which had been made by the
fire ball. At the bottom of this opening, which was
18 inches deep, including the entire thicknefs of the
mould, they found a large black mals, of an irregularly
ovoid form, having a fanciful refemblance to a calf’s
iiead. I hough no longer hot, it fmelled of gun-p»wder
and was cracked in feveral places. "When the oblervers
broke it, and difeovered nothing but ftone, indifference
fucceeded to curiofity, and they coolly aferibed its ap¬
pearance to caufes more or lefs whimlical and fupernatu-
ral.
The original weight of this ftone was about twenty
pounds. Its black vitrified lurface gave fire with fteel.
Its interior was hard, earthy, alh-coloured, of a granular
texture, prefenting different fubftanees fcattered through
it, namely, iron in grains, from the fmalleft fize to a
tine or even more in diameter, fomewhat malleable,
but harder and whiter than forged iron 5 white pyrites,
both lamellated and granular, and in colour approach¬
ing to nickel ; fome gray globules, which feemed to
prefent the charafters of trapp, and a very few and
tmall particles of fteatites, inclining to an olive hue.
On account of its heterogeneous compofition, its fpecific
parts of the mafs gave, according to Vauquelin, 46 of
fihea, 38 oxide of iron, 15 magnefia, 2 nickel, and'
2 lime.. The excefs of this refult was aferibed to the
abforption of oxygen by the native iron during the pro-
cels. A fmall fpecimen of this mals belongs to Mr
Fergufon’s collection.
On the 19th of December 1798, about eight o’clock
in the evening, the inhabitants of Benares and its
neighbourhood obferved in the heavens a very lumi¬
nous meteor, in the f^rm of a large ball of fire, which
exploded with a loud.noife, and from which a number
of Hones were precipitated near Krakhut, a village
about fourteen miles from the city of Benares. Mr
Davis, the judge and magiftrate of the diftridt affirmed
that its brilliancy equalled the brighteft moonlight.
Both he and Mr Erfldne, the affiftant colledtor, were
induced to fend perfons in whom they could confide to
the fpot where this ftiower of ftones was aflerted to have
taken place, and thus obtained additional evidence of
the phenomenon, and feveral of the ftones, which had
penetrated about fix inches into fields recently water¬
ed. Mr Maclane, a gentleman who refided near Krak¬
hut, prefented Mr Howard with part of a ftone, which
had been brought to him the morning after its defeent,
by the watchman irho was on duty at his houfe, and
through the roof of whofe hut it had pafled, and buried
itfelf feveral inches in the floor, which was of confoli-
dated earth. Before it was broken, it mull have weigh¬
ed upwards of two pounds.
At the time that this meteor appeared, the Iky was
perfedlly ferene ; not the fmalleft veftige of a cloud
had been feen fmee the nth of the month, nor was
any obferved for many days after.
“ Of thefe ftones (fays Mr Howard), I have feen
eight nearly perfea, befides parts of feveral others,
which had been broken by the pofiefibrs, to diftribute
among their friends. The form of the more perfeft
ones appeared to be that of an irregular cube, rounded
oft at the edges; but the angles ivere to be obferved
on moft of them. They were of various fizes, from
about three to upwards of four inches in their largeft
diameter ; one of them, meafuring four inches and a
quarter, weighed two pounds twelve ounces. In ap¬
pearance they were exafily fimilar ; externally they
were covered with a hard black coat, or incruftation,
which in fome parts had the appearance of varnifti or
bitumen ; and on moft of them were fradlures, which,
from their being covered with a matter fimilar to that
of the coat, feemed to have been made in the fall, by
the ftones ftriking againft each other, and to have
paffed through fome medium, probably an intenfe heat,
previous to their reaching the earth. Internally they
confifted of a number of fmall fpherical bodies, of *a
flate colour, imbedded in a whitifti gritty fubftance, in-
terfperfed with bright ftiining fpitulaq of a metallic or
pyritical nature. The fpherical bodies were much
harder than the reft of the flone : the white gritty
part readily crumbled, on being rubbed with a hard
body ; and on being broken, a quantity attached it¬
felf to the magnet, but more particularly the outfide
coat or cruft, which appeared almofl; wholly attra&able
by it.”
Here we are furnilhed with another circumflantial
and authenticated narrative, by individuals above the
rank
file.
MET
[ 697 ]
MET
rank of fufpicion, and who were prompted folely by
motives of curiohty, to examine with due deliberation
the particulars which they have reported.
The hiftory of the extraordinary (hower of ftones
which fell near I’Aigle, in Normandy, on the 26th of
April 1803, firft appeared in the enfuing artlefs letter,
addreffed by M. Marais, an inhabitant of the place, to
his friend in Paris.
“ At I'Aigle, the \^th Florecl, year 1 f.
“ An aflonifhing miracle has juft occurred in our
diftrift. Here it is, without alteration, addition, or
diminution. It is certain, that it is the truth itfelf.
“ On Friday laft, 6th Floreal (26th Aprilbetween
one and two o’clock in the afternoon, we were roufed
by a murmuring noife like thunder. On going out we
were furprifed to fee the Iky pretty clear, with the ex¬
ception of fome fmall clouds. We took it for the noife
of a carriage, or of fire in the neighbourhood. We
were then in the meadow, to examine whence the noife
proceeded, when we obferved all the inhabitants of the
Pont de Pierre at their windows, and in gardens,, in¬
quiring concerning a cloud, which palled in the direc¬
tion of from fouth to north, and from which the noife
iffued, although that cloud prefented nothing extraordi¬
nary in its appearance. But great was our aftonilhment
when we learned, that many and large ftones had fallen
from it, fome of them weighing ten, eleven, and even
feventeen pounds, in the fpace between the houfe of the
Buat family (half a league to the north-north-eaft of
I’Aigle) and Glos, palling by St Nicolas, St Pierre,
&c. which ftruck us at firft as a fable, but which was
afterwards found to be true.
“ The following is the explanation given of this ex¬
traordinary event by all who witneffed it.
“ They heard a noife like that of a cannon, then a
double report ftill louder than the preceding, followed
by a rumbling noife, which lafted about ten minutes,
the fame which we alfo heard, accompanied with hif-
fings, caufed by thefe ftones, which were counteradled
in their fall by the different currents of air, which is
very natural in the cafe of fuch a fudden expanfion.
Nothing more was heard ; but it is remarkable, that
previoully to the explofion, the domeftic fowls were
alarmed, and the cows bellowed in an unufual manner.
All the country-folks were much difmayed, efpecially
the women, who believed that the end of the world
was at hand. A labourer at la Sapee fell proftrate on
the ground, exclaiming, ‘ Good God ! is it poflible that
thou canft make me perifti thus ? Pardon, I befeech
thee, all the faults I have committed,’ &c. The moft
trifling objefts, in fa<ft, might create alarm, for it is
not improbable, that hiftory offers no example of fuch
a ftiower of ftones as this. The piece which I fend
was detached from a large one, weighing eleven
pounds, which was found between the houfe of the
Buats and le Fertey. It is faid, that a colleftor of
curiofities purchafed one of feventeen pounds weight,
that he might fend it to Paris. Every body in this
part of the country is defirous of poffefljng a whole
11 one, or a fragment of one, as an objeft of curiofity.
The largeft -were darted with fuch violence that they
entered at leaft a foot into the earth. Thev are black
<*n the outfide, and grayilh, as you fee, within, feeming
Vol. XIII. Part li.
to contain fome fpecies of metal and nitre. If you
know before us of what ingredients they are compofed, ^
you will inform us. One fell near M. Bois de la Ville,
who lives near Glos. He was much afraid, and took
ftielter under a tree. He has found a great numbes.'
of them of different lizes, in his court-yard, his w'heat
fields, &c. without reckoning all thofe which the
peafants have found elfewhere. Numberlefs ftories,
more or lefs abfurd, have been circulated among the
people. You know that our country is fertile in fucli
tales. Coufin Moutardier fends one of thefe ftones to
Mademoifelle Hebert 5 and he is not lefs eager than
we are, to know how thefe fubftances can be comprel*
fed and petrified in the air. Do try to explain the pro-
cefs.
“ The perfon who gave me the largeft ftone which
I fend to you, went to take it at the moment that it
fell, but it was fo hot that it burned him. Several of his
neighbours fhared the fame fate in attempting to lift it.
“ The elder Buat has juft arrived, and-delires us to
add, that a fire-ball was obferved to hover over the mea¬
dow. Perhaps it was wild-fire.”
At the fitting of the inftitute, on the 9th of May,
Fourcroy read a letter, addrefled from I’Aigle to
Vauquelin, and which fufficiently corroborates the pre¬
ceding ftatements. But we pafs to the lubftance of
M. Biot’s letter, addreffed to the minifter of the inte¬
rior, and publithed in the Journal des Debats, (14th
Thermidor, year 11.). The writer, who is advan-
tageoufly known for his fcientific attainments, was de¬
puted by government to repair to the fpot, and colledt
all the authentic fadts. The contents of his letter have
been fince expanded into the form of a memoir, which
manifefts the caution and good fenfe which guided his
inquiries, and which, we are furprifed to learn, has not.
appeared in an Englilh tranflation.
M. Biot left Paris on the 25th of June, and in place
of proceeding diredfly to I’Aigle, went firft to Alenyon,
which lies fifteen leagues to the weft-fouth-wTeft of it.
He was informed on his way, that a globe of fire had
been obferved moving towards the north, and that its
appearance was followed by a violent explofion. From
Alen^on he journeyed through various villages to
I’Aigle, being directed in his progrefs by the accounts
of the inhabitants, who had all heard the explofion on
the day and at the hour fpecified. Almoft all the in¬
habitants of twenty hamlets, fcattered over an extent of
upwards of two leagues fquare affirmed that they were
eye-witneffes of a dreadful ffiower of ftones which wa«
darted from the meteor. The following is his fummary
of the whole evidence.
“ On Tuefday, 6th Floreal, year 11, about one
o’clock, P. M. the weather being ferene, there was
obferved from Caen, Pont d’Audemer, and the environs
of Alen^on, Falaife, and Verneuil, a fiery globe, of a
very brilliant fplendor, and which moved in the at-
mofphere with great rapidity. Some moments after,
there was heard at I’Aigle, and in the environs of that
town, in the extent of more than thirty leagues in
every dire&ion, a violent explofion, which lafted five
or fix minutes. At firft there were three or four re-
poi-ts, like thofe of cannon, followed by a kind of
difeharge which refembled the firing of mulketry j
after which there was heard a dreadful rumbling like
4 T the
Me.teora-
lite.
M»laor#-
lite.
M E
the "beating of a drum.   
«_/ v ‘erene> except a lew clouds, fuch as are frequently
obferved. J
i ids nolle proceeded from a fmaU cloud which
Lad a rectangular form, the largeft fide being in a di-
lect'on from call to weft. It appeared motionkfs all
the time that the phenomenon lafted ; but the vapours
ot w hich it was compofed, were projected momentarily
ift/in different tides, by the effeCt of tire fucceflive e-x-
flohons. This cloud was about half a league to the
north-north-weft of the town of 1’AigJe. It was at a
guai elevation in the atmofphere, for the inhabitants
of two hamlets, a league diftant from each other, faw
it at the lame time above their heads. In the whole
canton over which this cloud was fufpended, there was
heard a hiding noife like that of a ftone difcharged
nom a fling, and a great many mineral maffes exa&ly
fimxlar to thofe diftinguilhed by the name of meteor-
Jlones were feen to fall.
^ ®ie diftrict in which thefe maffes were projected,
forms an elliptical extent of about two leagues and a half
m length, and nearly one in breadth, the greateft di-
meniion being in a direftion from fouth-eaft to north-
weft, forming a declination of about 22 degrees. This
direction, which the meteor mult have followed, is ex¬
actly that of the magnetic meridian, which is a re¬
markable refult. The greateft of thefe itones fell at
the fouth-eaftern extremity of the large axis of the el-
lipfe, the middle-fized in the centre, and the fmaller
at the other extremity. Hence it appears that the
largeft fell firft, as might naturally be fuppofed. The
largeft of all thofe that fell wreighs feventeen pounds
and a half. 1 he fmalleft which I have leen weighs
about two gros (a thoufandth part of the laft). The
number oj. all thofe which fell is certainly above two
or three thoufand.”
As we cannot make room for an analvfis of M. Biot’s
more extended communication, we fliall be contented
to feleCI only two fads.
xhe cure oi St Michael declared, that he obferved
one of the ftones fall, with a hiding noife, at the feet of
his niece, in the court-yard of his parfonage, and that
it rebounded upwards of a foot from the pavement.
He inftantly requefted his niece to fetch it to him ;
but as lire was too much alarmed, a woman who hap¬
pened alfo to be on the fpot, took it up ; and it was
found in every refpea to refemble the others.
As one Piche, a wbre-manufaClurer belonging to the
i illage of Artnees, was working with his men in the open
air, a ftone grazed his arm, and fell at his feet ; but
it was fo hot, that, on attempting to take it up, he in¬
ftantly let it fall again.
He who compares the various accounts of the 1’Aigle
meteor,, with a critical eye, may detea fome apparent
contradictions, which, however, on refteaion, are found
to be ftriCtly conformable to truth. Thus, according
to fome, the meteor had a rapid motion, others believed
it ftationary j fome faw a very luminous ball of fire,
others oniy an ordinary cloud. Spcaators, in faa,
viewed it in different politions with refpea to its direc¬
tion. They who happened to be in its line of march,
would fee .it ftationary, for the fame reafon, that we
fancy a fhip under full fail to be motionlefs, when we
are placed in its wake, or when we view it from the
harbour to which it is approaching in a ftraight line.
T f 69s I MET
l he air waj calm, and the They, on the other hand, tv ho had a fide view of the
meteor, would reckon its progrefs the more rapid, in
proportion as their pofition approached to a right angle
with its line of paffage. They, again, who faw it from
behind, as the inhabitants of 1’Aigle, would perceive
only the. cloud of vapour, which it left in its train, and
m inch, in the dark, would figure like a blazing tail, in
the fame , manner as the fmoke of a volcano appears
black during the day and red at night, Laftiy, they
who were placed in.front of the meteor, would reckon
it ftationary, but brilliant and cloudlels.
It deferves to be remarked, that the I’Aigle ftones
were very friable for fome days after their defcent,
that they gradually acquired hardnefs, and that after
they had loft the fulphureous odour on their furface,
they ftill retained it in their fubftances, as was found by
breaking them. Profeffor Sage fubmitted them to fe-
veral comparative trials with thofe of Ville-franche 5 and,
though the 1’Aigle fpecimens prefent fome globules of
toe iize of a fmall coriander feed, of a darker gray
than the mafs, and not attraClable by the magnet, yet,
in.ref.peCf of granular texture and general aipeCt, the
coincidence was fo ftriking as to lead one to fuppofe
that they were all parts of the fame mafs.
ihe.l Aigle ftones, according to Fourcrov, are ge¬
nerally irregular, polygonal, often cuboid, fometimes fub-
cuneiform, and exceedingly various in their diameter
and weight. All are covered with a black gravelly
cruft, confifting of a fufed matter, and filled with fmall
a§§^utjnated grains of iron, ft lie greater part of them
are broken at the corners, either by their fhock againft
each other, or by falling on hard bodies, ft'he inter¬
nal parts refemble thole of all the ftones analyzed by
Meflrs Howard and Vauquelin, being gray, a little
varied in their fhades, granulated, and as it were foaly,
fpl.it in many parts, and filled with brilliant metallic
points, exadfjy of the fame afpedl as thofe of other ftones
of a like defoription. 'The proportions of their con-
fhtuent materials are ftated as nearly, 54 filex, 36 oxi¬
dated iron, 9 magnefia, 3 nickel, 2 fulphur, and 1 lime,
the five per cent, of increafe arifing from the oxidation
of the metals produced by the analyfis.
Of the two fpecimens which M. Biot prefented to
the celebrated Patrin, one was lefs compaft, and of a
lighter gray than the other, and likewife prefented
fmall patches of a ruft colour. When immerfed in
water, it gave a hilling found, like the humming of a
fly, which is held by one wing. As it began to dry, it
w as obferved to be marked by curvilinear and parallel
layers, ft'he more compadt fpecimens, when moiftened,
prefented no fuch appearances, but afiumed the af-
pe£t of a gray porphyry, with a bafe of trap, mot-
tfod with fmall white fpots, and fpeckled with metallic
points.
ft'wo fine fpecimens of the P Aigle ftone, one of them
nearly entire, may be feen in Mr Fergufon’s colledtion,
which we have already repeatedly quoted.
Previoufly to the explofion of the 26th of April
1803, 110 meteorolites had been found by the inhabi¬
tants of the PAigle diftridl, nor in the mineralogical
colledlions of the department j nor the flighted mention
of them made in the geological documents of this por¬
tion of Normandy : the mines, founderies, and forges,
had produced nothing fimilar, in the form of drofs or
ore, nor had the country exhibited any trace of vol¬
canoes.
MET
ftfeteor#- canoes* The meteor at once appears, and a multitude
Kte. Qf ftones of the peculiar charafter noted above are feen
'““"’’V "l i Mattered on a determined fpace of ground, in a man¬
ner, and accompanied with eircumftances, which could
not formerly have efcaped obfervation. Let us like-
wife reflect, that the young and the old, fnnple peafants
dwelling at a dittance from one another, fugacious and
rational workmen, refpe&able eeclefiafties, young fol-
diers devoid of timidity, individuals, in {hurt, of vari¬
ous manners, profeflions, and opinions, united by no
common ties, all agree in attefting a faft, which con¬
tributed neither directly nor indire&ly to promote their
own intereft, and they all aflign the manifeftation of
this faft to the fame day and hour. They, more¬
over, point to exifting veitiges of the defeent of folid
fubftances, and they declare, in terms unfufceptible
of mifconftru&ion or ambiguity, that they faw the
maffes in queftion roll down on roofs, break branches
of trees, rebound from the pavement, and produce
fmoke where they fell. Thefe recitals, and thefe vef-
tiges, are limited to a trad of territory which has been
accurately defined *, while beyond the precin&s of this
traft, not a fingle particle of a meteorolite has been
found, nor a fingle individual who pretends that he faw
a {tone fall.
Having now, we prefume, advanced ample and fa-
tisfa&ory evidence of the exiftence of meteorolites, we
{hall forbear to enlarge this article by dwelling on in-
ftances of inferior notoriety to thofe which we have re¬
counted, and fliall merely note the dates of fubfequent
examples.
On the 4th of July 1803, a fire-ball {truck the
White Bull Inn at Eafl-Norton, and left behind it
feveral meteoric fragments.—-On the 13th of Decem¬
ber of the fame year, a fimilar phenomenon occurred
at the village of St Nicholas, in Bavaria.— At Poflil,
near Glafgow in Scotland, a meteor-ftone fell, with a
loud and hiding noife, on the 5th April 1804.—The
next inftance which we have to mention occurred near
Apt, in the department of Vauclufe, on the 6th of
October of the fame year ; and the laft which has come
to our knowledge happened at half paft five o’clock, in
the evening of the 15th March 1806, near Alais in
Languedoc.
It fee ms reafonable, however, to fuppofe, that the
fall of meteoric fubftances takes place more frequently
than is commonly fuppofed, fince feveral foreign col¬
lections of foflils contain fpecimens of reputed celeftial
origin, and exhibiting the genuine atmofpheric phyfi-
ognomy. It is likewife worthy of remark, that many
relations of the phenomenon may have funk into ob¬
livion, from the contempt with which they were heard
by the learned, and that on a fair computation of
chances, meteors may have fometimes exploded on de-
fert traCts of land, and (till more frequently over the
pathlefs expanfe of the waters.
That fome of the relations to which we have alluded
are vague and urtfatisfaClory, cannot be denied, but the
circumftantial teftimony conveyed by others is more
pointed and pofitive *, and the whole mafs of hiftorical
proof, efpecially when combined with the- argument
deduced from the identity of the phyfical and chemical
conftitution of the {tones, appears to us to be altogether
irrefiftible.
In the Courfe of our inquiry into this novel and inte-
M E T
refting fub]eCt, We have afeertained a variety of cimim-
fiances which render it highly probable, if not indubi- ia<;' ^,
table, that thole detached maffes of native iron, whole
hiftory has fo often fiaggered and perplexed the geolo-
gift, are only modifications of meteoric depofitions.
The Tartars, for example, aferibe the defeent of the
Siberian mafs deferibed by Chladni, Pallas, Patrin, &e.
to a period that is loft in the remotenefs of antiquity j
and while tradition thus favours our hypothefis, the ana¬
logy which is obvioufly obfervable in point of texture
and chemical characters with thofe of other folid bodies*
whofe fall is no longer queilioned, {Lengthens tradition.
According to the difeoveries of Prouft and Klaproth,
native iron, reputed meteoric, differs from that which
occurs in a foflil date by the prefence of nickel. 1 he
former of thefe celebrated analyfts obtained 50 grain#
of fulphate of nickel from 100 of the South American
mafs, and his refults are corroborated by Mr Howard
and the Count de Bournon.
Of the two pieces of Siberian iron poffeffed by Mr
Greville, one, which was tranfmitted by Dr Pallas,
weighs feveral pounds j and another prefents a cellu¬
lar and ramified texture, analogous to that of fome
very light and porous volcanic fcoriae. When atten¬
tively examined, there may be perceived in it not only
empty cells, but alfo impreflions or cavities of greater or
lefs depth, and in fome of which there remains a tranf-
parent fubftance, of a yellowilh green colour. The iron
itfelf is very malleable; and may be eafily cut with a
knife, or flattened under the hammer. The fpecific gra¬
vity is 6487, which is obvioufly inferior to that oi unfor-
g«d iron that has undergone fufion, and may be partly ow¬
ing to theoxidizement of the furface of the iron, and partly
to the many minute cavities in its fubftance, which are of¬
ten rendered vifible by fracture, and which have their fur-
face alfo oxidized. The fracture is thining and filvery,
like that of white call iron; but its grain is muchfmoother
and finer; and it is much more malleable when cold.
The heavier fpecimen is more folid and compadt, ex¬
hibiting no cavities or pores, though its furface is ra¬
mified and cellular. So blended and incorporated is
its compaft part with the yello-wilh-green fubftance
mentioned above, that if the whole of the latter could
be fubtrafted, the remainder would confift of iron in
the metallic ftate, and would difplay the fame cellular
appearance as the preceding fpecimen, or as the fuper-
ficial portion of that now deferibed. This ftony part
of the compofition ufually affumes the appearance of
fmall nodules, generally of an irregular ftiape, but
fometimes nearly globular, with a fmooth, {Inning, and
glaffv furface. This fubftance, which is always more
or lefs tranfparent, is hard enough to cut glafs, but
makes no impreffion on quartz. It becomes eledtric
by friction, is very refraftory, and varies in fpecific
gravity from 3263 to 3300. Of all fubftances hither¬
to known, it approaches molt to the peridot, or Wer¬
nerian chryfolite, which yielded to Klaproth nearly the
fame refults which this fubftance did to Howard. In
the mafs of iron, it is liable to decompofition, changing
to an opake white, and crumbling into a gritty dry
powder, when lightlv preffed or fqueezed between the
fingers.—“ I cannot help obferving (fays the count de
Bournon), that there appears to exilt a very interefting
analogy between thefo tranfparent nodules and the
globules I deferibed as makfoo- part of the {tones faid
4T a to
[ 699 1
Mcteoro-
lite.
MET
to have fallen on the earth. This analogy, though not
^ a very ftrong one, may lead us to fuppofe, that the
two fubftances are limilar in their nature, but that the
globules are lefs pure, and contain a greater quantity of
iron.”
The native iron from Bohemia is compaft, like the
large fpecimen from Siberia, in Mr Greville’s collec¬
tion, and like it contains nodules, but not fo numerous.
They are befides quite opake, and very much referable
the globules in atmofpheric ftones. This iron contains
nearly five per cent, of nickel. Between five and fix
per cent, of the fame metal feems to exifl: in a piece of
native iron brought from Senegal.
Though our limits will not permit us to dwell with
minutenefs on the phyfical and chemical charaders of
meteorolites, we {hall flhortly flate thofe which the
count de Bournon found to appertain to the fpecimens
from Benares, and which may ferve as no unfair ftandard
of the afped and compofition of the others.
Like all of the fame origin which were fubjeded to
the count’s examination, the Benares {tones are covered
over the whole extent of their furface, with a thin cruit,
of a deep black colour, fprinkled over with fmall afperi-
ties, which make it feel fomewhat like fhagreen or filh
Ikin. Their fradure exhibits a grayilh colour, and
a granulated texture, like that of coarfe grit-ftone.
By help of a lens, they are perceived to be compofed
of four different fubftances. One of thefe occurs in
great abundance, in the form of fmall bodies, fome of
which are perfe£tly globular, others rather elongated
or elliptical, and all of various fizes, from that of a
fmall pin’s head to that of a pea, or nearly fo. Thefe
fmall globules are ufually gray, fometimes inclining
much to brown, and always opake j they are eafily
broken in any diredion, have a conchoidal fradure,
and a fine, fmooth, compad grain, with a flight degree
of luftre, approaching to enamel •, laftly, they can de-
llroy the polifh of glafs witheut being able to cut it,
and fparkle faintly when ftruck with fteel. Another
of thefe fubftances is martial pyrites, of an indeterminate
form, and reddifh yellow colour, {lightly verging to
the nickel tint, or to that of artificial pyrites; of a
fomewhat loofely granulated texture, and irregularly
diftinguiftied in the mafs, being black when reduced to
powder, and not attradible by the magnet. The
third of thefe fubftances confifts of fmall particles of
iron, in a perfedly metallic ftate, fo that they may be
eafily flattened or extended under the hammer. Though
in a much fmaller proportion than the pyrites juft men¬
tioned, they impart the magnetic attradion to the
ftone. When a piece of the latter was pulverized, and
the particles of iron feparated from it as accurately as
poflible, by means of a magnet, they appeared to com-
pofe about 200 parts of the wreight of the ftone. Thefe
three fubftances are united by means of a fourth, which
is nearly of an earthy confiftency, and of a wLitifti gray
colour,—The black cruft, or outward coating, though
of very inconfiderable thicknefs, emits bright fparks
ivhen ftruck with fteel, may be broken by the hammer,
and feems to poffefs the fame properties with the black
wxide of iron, though, like the fubftance of the ftone,
it is occafionally intermixed with fmall particles of
iron in the metallic ftate. Thefe are eafily diftinguifti¬
ed, by palling a file over the cruft, which reveals their
luftre. The fpecific gravity of the Benares ftones is 335
I
700 ] MET
None of them, when breathed on, emit the argillaceous Meteor*,
odour. Ihe. '
In confequence of various experiments, M. SageV""' »
infers that meteorolites are compofed of native iron
fulphuret of nickel, quartz or filica, alumina, and mag-
nefia ; that the proportions of iron and nickel vary • that
the quartz feems to form at leaft the half of the ftone,
the alumina and magnefia the fixth, and the fulphur the
30th part. Thefe general refults pretty nearly accord
with the more fpecial reports of Howard and Vauquelin,
except that the latter makes no mention of alumina, the
exiftence of which in atmofpheric ftones is by no means
diftindfly afcertained.
We {hall only beg leave to add, on this part of our
fubjed, that Laugier, an ingenious chemift, by employ¬
ing the cauftic alkali, has deteded a fmall portion of
chrome. The refults of his experiments, which are
ftated in the 58th volume of the Annalcs de Cfiimie, are
ift, That the five ftones from Verona, Barbotan, En-
filheirn, 1’Aigle, and the neighbourhood of Apt, befides
the principles already recognized, contain about one
per cent, of chrome. 2dly, That it is very probable,
that all meteorolites contain this principle, fince they
all referable one another in their phyfical and chemical
properties, and have all, apparently, the fame origin j
and, 3dly, That in many cafes, the perfedion of
chemical analyfis requires, that the fame fubftance
fliould be treated both by acids and alkalies, fince
experience has fhown, that a principle which elud¬
ed the former method, has been revealed by the lat¬
ter.
Having now, as w'e apprehend, fufficiently eftabliftied
the exiftence and nature of meteorolites, we hope our
readers will excufe us from enlarging on the various
caufes which have been afligned for their origin, as ihefe
feem to lie beyond the reach of our prefent ftate of
knowledge. After a candid and patient review ef the
principal theories, we conceive that they are at beft
gratuitous, and that moft of them are open to many and
formidable objedions. ♦
The terrejlnal hypothefes, we believe, begin already
to be generally abandoned, as untenable. Until the
phenomenon of exploding meteors had been diftindly
obferved and recorded, Lemery and others could main¬
tain, with fome degree of plaufibility, that lightning-
might tear up the ground, and convert foil into a corn-
pad mafs. But the appearances of a thunder ftorm
and of a fire-ball are now afcertained to differ in
various important refpeds. Spedators worthy of credit
have feen the latter terminate in the fall of folid bodies;
and the coropofition of thefe folid bodies has been found
to differ from that of all the known foflil fubftance*
on the furface of the globe. It is in vain, then, to
allege, that they are formed on the ground by com¬
mon lightning, which has often produced very extraor¬
dinary effeds, but which never generated thoufands ©f
ftones in fine calm weather. The fuppofition, that
fuch ftones have been projeded from fome of our
volcanoes, is hardly lefs conceivable. The afhes which
accompany a violent eruption of iEtna or Vefuvius have,
from their levity, been carried to a very confiderable
diftance ; but we are totally unacquainted with any pro-
jedile force which could dart folid maffes many hundred
miles, through fuch a denfe medium as the atmofphere.
The compad lavas of burning mountains are never
found
Lite-
MET [7°
Meteoro- found remote from the fcene of their formation, and
none of them prefent the characters and afpeft of the
’ ftones which we have defcribed. M. Bory de St Vin¬
cent, indeed, in his Voyage dans les quatre Principales
jjles des Mers d'Afrique, very pompoufly expounds a
doCtrine, which, in our opinion, carries its confutation
along with it. According to this writer, meteorolites
were projefted from immenfe depths, in an early ftage
of the earth’s exiltence, when ignivomous mountains
were endued with propelling forces fufficient to drive
maffes of matter into the regions of fpace, where tney
were conftrained to obey, for ages, the combined laws
of impulfe and gravitation, until, in the progrefs or
time, their fpiral revolutions at length terminated on
the furface of their native earth. Before we can adopt
fuch an extravagant hypothefis, we muft be convinced,
that at one period of the hiftory of our globe, the
agency of fubterraneous fire was adequate to communi¬
cate planetary motion to fplinters of rock, without
heaving up the rocks themfelves, and that the rotatory
movement, though once eftablilhed, muft gradually, di-
mini fh and ceafe. The demonftration of thefe pofitions
is furely not lefs arduous than the explanation of the
phenomenon which they are intended to folve.
Of thofe who contend for the atmofpherical formation
©f meteorolites, fcarcely any two agree in regard to the
manner by which fuch formation is effe&ed. ^ Patrin,
who is felicitous to extend and illuftrate his darling
theory of volcanoes, labours at great length to main¬
tain the exiftence of a regular circulation of gafeous
fluids between the primitive fchiftofe ftrata of the globe,
and its firrounding atmofphere,. and, from this fancied
circulation, which he flatters himfelf he has demonfli a-
ted, he deduces, quite at his cafe, the occafional igni¬
tion and concretion of portions of thefe fluids in the
higher regions of the air. I his ingenious mineralogift
and geologift is fo extremely tenacious of thefe ideas
that we (hall not attempt to difturb his felf-compla-
cency •, but he will excufe us if we refufe our affent to
refults which reft on imaginary founuations. The ce¬
lebrated Mufchenbrqeck, in one part of his writings,
afcribes the defcent of ftones from the air to earth¬
quakes and volcanic eruptions, an opinion which later
obfervations have difproved. In other palfages, how-
he feems to incline to a modification of the atmo¬
fpherical hypothefis, and endeavours to trace the origin
of {hooting ftars to an accumulation of the volatile mat¬
ters which are fufpended in the air. It is extremely
probable, that (hooting ftars and fiery meteors have an
intimate relation to one another, if they are not identi¬
cal appearances; but it is certain that the former move
at a much greater diftance from our earth than fire¬
balls, and only occafion a tranfient luminous appear-
ance’in their paffage through the upper regions of the
atmofphere. Perhaps they are analogous to thofe telef-
copic fparks of light which were obferved by M. Schrd-
ter. Mufchenbroeck, however, adopts the vulgar no¬
tion of their falling to the earth, and feems to con¬
found their refidue with tremella nqftoc. M. Salverte
has given extenfion to the theory of formation from va¬
pours, bv having recourfe to the agency of hydrogen
gas. According to him, in confequence of the decom-
pofition of water, which i« conftantly going on at the
furface of the earth, immenfe quantities of hydrogen
gas are continually riling into the atmofphere, and af-
i ] MET
cending to its higher regions. As this gas is capable
of diffolving metals, it carries along with it a portion of
iron and nickel. During thunder-ftorms this gas is
kindled by eleftricity •, the metals are depofited, redu¬
ced, melted, and vitrified ; in other words, meteors
are produced and ftones formed. Ihis hypothefis is
fcarcely more fatisfaftory than the others. It does not
account for the prefence of magnefia and filica, nor
does it explain why the ftones are always compofed of
the fame materials. Befides, the exiftence of hydrogen
gas in the atmofphere has not been proved, far lefs that
it forms a feparate atmofphere, which is contrary to all
experience } and it is well known, that a little hydro¬
gen, mixed with a large portion of atmofpheric air,
cannot be fired by eleflricity. In general, we may
obferve, that, if the origin of meteorolites be really at¬
mofpherical, the matters of which they are compofed
muft have exifted in one of two ftates, namely, in very
attenuated particles or concretions of the matters them¬
felves volatilized and held in folution in the air, or
only in the elements of thefe matters. In the firft cafe,
when abandoned by their menftruum to their reciprocal
tendencies, they would unite by aggregation only ; in
the fecond, by chemical combination. Now, we can
hardly fuppofe that difengagement of light and violent
detonation fhould refult from the mere affinity of ag¬
gregation, whereas they are ftri&ly fymptomatic of the
affinity of compofition. This, and various other confi-
derations which might be ftated, if we could make
room for them, induce us to regard the doftrine of
combination as the moft plaufible. M. Izarn, who has
publiftied a treatife on Atmofpheric Lithology, has en¬
tered into a tedious and fomewhat obfcure expofition of
his own theory, founded on this principle. We {hall
give the fummary, as nearly as avc can, in his oAvn
words.
“ Gafeous fubftances, arranged in fpherical mafles
in the upper regions of the air, being admitted, the va¬
rious agitations of the atmofphere Ihould naturally waft
fome of thefe maffes from their infulating medium into
one capable of combining Avith them. If the combina¬
tion begins, the difengagement of light is explained.
In proportion as the combination advances, .the (pecific
gravities are changed ; and, confequently, a change^ of
place will commence, and that in the quarter which
prefents leaft refiftance, or where the medium is moft
rarefied, in courfe rather towards the fouth than the
north. Hence, moft fire-balls are obferved to move
from north to fouth, or from north-eaft to fouth-Aveft.
Motion being once imprefled, the mafs traverfes other
media, capable of fupplying new principles, Avhich
ft ill increafing the Aveight, determine the curve *, and
Avhen at length the principles Avhich are at Avork, and
which iffue in all directions, have attained the requifite
proportion for extinguifhing the elements in the birth
of the compound, the grand operation is announced by
the explofion, and the produCt takes its place among
the folids.”—That the ftones in queftion are produced
by chemical combination in the higher regions of the
atmofphere, and that they are thus formed from their
oato elements, are fuppofitions fully as probable as any
that have been advanced on the fubjeft ; but Avhether
the union of their parts be effefted in the manner de¬
tailed by M. Izarn, avc are unable to determine, both
becaufe we are uncertain if avc perfectly comprehend
his
M E T
Meteoro-
lire.
tas meaning, and becaufe our range of data is as vet too
circumfcribed, to warrant any fpecific or decifive con-
clufions.
A ranch bolder theory has been fuggefted, and its
poflibilitij demonitrated by the celebrated French ailro-
nomer, La Place, who iliews, that meteorolites tnay be
the products of lunar volcanoes. As this romantic
view of the fubjedt has obtained the fuffrages of fome
men of fcience, and has excited the ridicule of others,
we (hall prefent the reafoning on which it is founded
in the popular and perfpicuous language of Dr Hutton
of Woolwich.
“ As the attraction of gravitation extends through
the whole planetary fyftem, a body placed at the fur-
face of the moon is affedted chiefly by two forces, one
drawing it toward the centre of the earth, and another
drawing it toward that of the moon. The latter of thefe
forces, however, near the moon’s furface. is incomparably
the greater. But, as we recede from the moon, and ap¬
proach toward the earth, this force decreafes, while the
other augments 5 till at laft a point of flation is found
between the two planets, where thefe forces are exadlly
equal, fo that a body placed there muft remain at red •,
but if it be removed dill nearer to the earth, then this
planet would have the fuperior attradlion, and the body
mud fall towards it. If a body then be projedted from
the moon towards the earth, with a force fufficient to
carry it beyond the point of equal attradlion, it mud ne-
ceffarily fall on the earth. Such then is the idea of the
manner in which the bodies mud be made to pafs from
the moon to the earth, if that can be done, the poflibi-
lity of which is now neceflary to be confidered.
“ Now, fuppofing a mafs to be projedled from the
moon, in a diredl line towards the earth, by a volcano,
or by the production of deam by fubterranean heat; and
fuppofing for the prefent thefe two planets to remain at
red ; then it has been demondrated, on the Newtonian
edimation of the moon’s mafs, that a force projecting
the body with a velocity of 12,000 feet in a fecond,
would be fufficient to carry it beyond the point of equal
attraction. But this edimate of the moon’s mafs is
now allowed to be much above the truth 5 and on M.
la Place’s calculation, it appears that a force of little
more than half the above power would be fufficient to
produce the effedt, that is, a force capable of project¬
ing a body with a velocity of lefs than a mile and a
half per fecond. But we have known cannon balls
projedted by the force of gunpowder, with a velocity
of 2500 feet per fecond or upwards, that is, about half
a mile. It follows, therefore, that a projedtile force,
communicating a velocity about three times that of a
cannon ball, would be fufficient to throw the body
from the moon beyond the point of equal attraction, and
caufe it to reach the earth. Now there can be little
doubt that a force equal to tlrat is exerted by volcanoes
on the earth, as wrell as bv the production of deam bv
fubterranean heat, when we confider the huge mafies of
rock, fo manv times larger than cannon balls, thrown
on 'uch occasions to heights alfo fo much greater. We
may eafdy imagine, too, fuch caufe of motion to exid
in ^he moon as well as in the earth, and that in a fupe¬
rior degree, if we rnav iudge from the fuppofed fymp-
tom« of volcanoes recently obferved in the moon by
the powerful tubes of Dr Herfchtl 5 and dill more, if
[ 702 3
MET
we confider that all projections from the earth fuffer an
enormous refidance and diminution, by the denfe atmci-
phere of this planet ; while it has been rendered pro¬
bable, from optical confiderations, that the moon has
little or no atmofphere at all, to give any fuch refid¬
ance to projedtiles.
“ Thus then we are fully authorized in concluding,
that the cafe of pojjibilittj is completely made out ; that,
a known power exids in nature, capable of producing
the foregoing effed, of detaching a mafs of matter from
the moon, and transferring it to the earth in the form
of a flaming meteor, or burning done ; at the fame time
we are utterly ignorant of any other procefs in nature
by which the fame phenomenon can be produced. Ha¬
ving thus difcovered a way in which it is poffible to
produce thofe appearances, we diall now endeavour to
fliow, from all the concomitant circumdances, that thefe
accord exceedingly well with the natural effedts of the
fuppofed caufe, and thence give it a very high decree
of probability.
“ 'I'his important defideratum will perhaps be bed
attained, by examining the confequences of a fubdance
fuppofed to be projedled by a volcano from the moon
into the fphere of the earth’s fuperior attradlion 5 and
then comparing thofe with the known and vifible phe¬
nomena of the blazing meteors or burning done* that
fad through the air on the earth. And if in this com-
parifon a driking coincidence or refemblance fliall al¬
ways or modly be found, it will be difficult for the hu¬
man mind to refill the perluafion that the afifumed caule
involves a degree of probability but little ffiort of cer¬
tainty itfelf* Now the chief phenomena attending
thefe blazing meteors or burning Hones, are thefe :
I. That they appear or blaze out fuddenly. 2. That
they move with a furprifing rapid motion, nearly hori¬
zontal, but a little inclined downwards. 3. That they
move in feveral different diredlions with refpedi to the
points of the compafs. 4. That in their flight they
yield a loud whizzing found. 5. That they common¬
ly burd with a violent explofion and report. 6. That
they fall on the earth with great force in a doping di-
redlion. 7. That they are very hot at fird, remain hot
a confiderable time, and exhibit vifible tokens of fufion
on their furface. 8. That the fallen dony maffes have
all the fame external appearance and contexture, as
well as internally the fame nature and compofition.
9. That they are totally different from all our terredrial
bodies, both natural and artificial.
“ Now thefe phenomena will naturally compare with
the circutndance* of a fubdance projcfled by a lunar
volcano, and in the order in which thev are here enu¬
merated. And fird, with refpe<T to the leading cir-
cumdance, that of a fudden blazing meteoric appear¬
ance, which is not that of a fmall bright fpark, firb feen
at an immenfe didance, and then gradually increaling
with the diminution of its didance. And this circum-
danee appears very naturally to refult from the affumed
caufe. For, the body being projected from a lunar
volc ano, may well be fuppofed in an ignited date, like
inflamed matter thrown up by our terredrial volcanoes,
which paffing through the comparatively vacuum, in
the fpace between the moon and the earth’s fenfible at-
mofphere, it null pro1 al ly enter tbe fuperior parts of
this atmofphere with but little diminution of its origi¬
nal
MET r 7<
jfcteore- rial heat j from which circumflance, united with that
hte- 0f its violent motion, this being i o or 12 times that ot.
L“ T a cannon bail, and through a part of the aUnoiphere
probably coniiiting chiefly of the inflammable gas riling
from the earth to the top of the atmofphere, the body
may well be fuppofed to be fuddenly inflamed, as the
natural effedl of thefe circumftances indeed it would
be furprifing if it did not. From whence it appears,
tiiat the hidden inflammation of the body, on entering
the earth’s atmofphere, is exactly what might be ex-
pedted to happen.
“ 2. To trace the body through the earth’s at¬
mofphere } we are to obferve that it enters the top
of it with the great velocity acquired by dcfcending
from the point of equal attraction, which is luch as
would carry the body to the earth’s furface in a very
few additional feconds of time if it met with no obltruc-
tion. But as it enters deeper in the atmofphere, it
meets with Itill more and more reflltance from the in-
crealing denfity of the air, by which the great velocity
of fix miles per fecond muft foon be greatly reduced
to one that will be uniform, and only a fmall part of
its former great velocity. This remaining part of its
motion will be various in different bodies, being more
or lefs as the body is larger or Imaller, and as it is
more or lefs fpecifically heavy; but, for a particular in-
Itance, if the body were a globe of r 2 inches diameter,
and of the fame gravity as the atmofpheric Hones, the
motion would decreafe fo as to be little more than a
quarter of a mile per fecond of perpendicular defcent.
Now while the body is thus defcending, the earth itfelf
is affedled by a twofold motion, both the diurnal and
the annual one, with both of which the defcent of the
body is to be compounded. The earth’s motion of ro¬
tation at the equator is about 17 miles in a minute, or
two-fevenths of a mile in a fecond •, but in the middle
latitudes of Europe little more than the half of that,
or little above half a quarter of a mile in a fecond ; and
if we compound this motion with that of the defcending
body, as in mechanics, this may caufe the body to ap¬
pear to defcend obliquely, though but a little, the mo¬
tion being nearer the perpendicular than the horizontal
direction. But the other motion of the earth, or that
in its annual courfe, is about 20 miles in a fecond,
which is 80 times greater than the perpendicular de¬
fcent in the inftance above mentioned ; lb that, if this
motion be compounded with the defcending one of the
body, it muft neceffarily give it the appearance of a
very rapid motion, in a dire&ion nearly parallel to the
horizon, but a little declining downwards. A circum-
ftance which exaflly agrees with the appearances of
thefe meteoric bodies, as Hated in the fecond article of
the enumerated phenomena.
“ 3. Again, Avith regard to the apparent direftion of
the body } this will evidently be various, being that
compounded of the body’s defcent and the diredHon of
the earth’s annual motion at the time of the fall, which
is itfelf various in the different feafons of the year, ac¬
cording to the direflion of the feveral points ol the
ecliptic to the earth’s meridian or axis. Ufually, hoAV-
ever, from the great excefs of the earth’s motion above
that of the falling body, the diredtion of this muff ap¬
pear to be nearly oppofite to that of the former. And
in fad this exadly agrees Avith a remark made by Dr
:■ ] MET
Hal: v, in his account o. the meteors in his paper Meteoro-
above given, vhere he lays that the direction 02 the 1 e-
meteor s mouou war exadly oppoote to uiai o. cue
earth in her orbit. And 11 inis inaii generally ne round
to be the cafe, it Avili prove a poAvertul confirmation of
this theory of the lunar luoilances. Unfortunatery,
however, the obfervations on this point are very few,
and moflly inaccurate ; the angle or direction of the
fallen Hones has not been recorded j and that of i.h©
flying meteor commonly miffaken, all the various ob-
fervers giving it a different courfe, fome even diredly
the reverfe of others. In future, it will be very ad-
vifable that the obfervers of fallen Hones, oblerve and
record the diredion or bearing of the perforation made
by the body in the earth, which Avili give us perhaps
the courfe of the path nearer than any other obierva-
tion.
“ 4. In the flight of thefe meteoric Hones, it is com¬
monly obferved, that they yield a loud whizzing found.
Indeed it would be furprifing if they did not. For if
the like found be given by the fmooth and regularly
formed cannon ball, and heard at a confiderable dif-
tance, Hoav exceedingly great mult be that of a body
fo much larger, Avhich is of an irregular form and lur-
face too, and Hriking the air Avith 50 or 100 times the
velocity.
“ 5. That they commonly burff and fly in pieces in
their rapid flight, is a circumftance exceedingly likely
to happen, both from the violent ftate of fufion on their
furfaee, and from the extreme rapidity of their motion
through the air. If a grinding ftone, from its quick
rotation, be fometimes burft and fly in pieces, and if
the fiuTM* thing happen to cannon balls Avhen made of v
ftone and difeharged with confiderable velocity, merely
by the friction and refiftance of the air ; hoAv much
more is the fame to be expe&cd to happen to the at¬
mofpheric ftones, moving with more than 50 times the
velocity, and Avhen their furface may Avell be fuppofed
to be partly loofened or diffolved by the extremity of
the heat there.
“ 6. That the Hones ftrike the ground Avith a great
force, and penetrate to a confiderable depth, as is ufu¬
ally obferved, is a .circumftance only to be expected
from the extreme rapidity of their motion, and their
great weight, when we confider that a cannon ball, or
a mortar ihell, Avili often bury itfelf many inches, or
even fome feet in the earth.
“ 7. That thefe ftones, Avhen foon fought after and
found, are hot, and exhibit the marks of recent fufion,
are alio the natural confequences of the extreme degree
of inflammation in which their furface had been put
during their flight through the air.
“ 8. That thefe ftony maffes have all the fame ex¬
ternal appearance and contexture, as Avell as internally
the fame nature and compofition, are circumftances that
ftrongly point out an identity of origin, AA'hatever may
be the caufe to Avhich they oavc fo generally uniform a
conformation. And Avhen it is confidered,
“ 9. That in thofe refpe&s they differ totally from
all terreftrial compofitions hitherto knoAAm or difeover-
ed, they lead the mind ftrongly to aferibe them to lome
other origin than the earth avc inhabit; and none fo
likely as coming from our neighbouring planet.
“ Upon the ay hole then (continues Dr Hutton), it
appears
MET
Meteoro-
lite
[ 7°4 ]
MET
appears highly probable, that the flaming meteors, and
l the burning ftones, that fall on the earth, are one and
the fame thing. It alfo appears impoflible, or in the
extremeft degree improbable, to afcribe thefe either to
a formation in the fuperior parts of the atmofphere, or
to the eruptions of terrel'rial volcanoes, or to the gene¬
ration by lightning ttriking the earth. But, on the
other hand, that it is poflible for fuch maffes to be pro-
je£led from the moon fo as to reach the earth ; and that
all the phenomena of thefe meteors or falling ftones,
having a furprifing conformity with the circumftances
of mafles that may be expelled from the moon by na¬
tural caufes, unite in forming a body of ftrong evi¬
dence, that this is in all probability and aftually the
cafe.
M. Poiflbn, an ingenious French mathematician, has
fhown by an algebraical calculation, the poflibility of a
projectile reaching our planet from the moon. His
calculation, however, which may be found in the work
of Izarn, quoted above, (p. 238. et feq.) proceeds on
the fuppofition that our fatellite has no atmofphere, or
next to none. There are, no doubt, appearances which
feem to favour this fuppofition, but they do not amount
to pofitive proof of the fa£t. Even could the latter be
eftablifhed, the combullion of a volcano, without the
prefence of atmofpheric air, would remain to be explain¬
ed. But, granting this difficulty too to be furmounted,
there are other circumftances which we cannot eafily
reconcile to the lunar hypothefis. The occafional ar¬
rival of fragments of lava on the earth’s furface, would
argue, on a fair computation of chances, fuch a copious
difcharge of volcanic matters, that the moon, by this
time, would confift of hardly any thing elfe. Again,
if we may be allowed to reafon from analogy, the
volcanic produdlions of the moon ffiould exhibit varieties
of afpedft and compofition like thofe with which we are
acquainted, and not a definite and precife number of
the fame ingredients. We may alfo remark, that the
foft and incoherent ftate of feveral of the recent fpeci-
mens of meteorolites can ill accord with their fuppofed
paflage through any confiderable portion of fpace •, and
that the 1’Aigle phenomenon, which is fo diftindtly
recorded, evidently fuggefts the notion of inftantaneous
formation in the atmofphere. And, though this view
of the fubjeft may be regarded by fome as inexplicable,
we cannot conceive that it is more fo than the doflrine
of cryftallization, or than many of the refults of chemi¬
cal combination, whofe exiftence it is impoffible to
deny. Thefe and other arguments may, we apprehend,
be fairly urged againft any theory which attempts to
explain the hiftory of meteors by the agency of lunar
volcanoes.
The hypothefis of Dr Chladni, which likewife boafts
of its advocates, though ftill more extravagant than the
preceding, deferves to be ftated. As earthy, metallic,
and other particles form the principal component parts
of our planet, among which iron is the prevailing part,
other planetary bodies, he affirms, may confift of fimilar,
•r, perhaps, the fame component parts, though com-
logical.
bined and modified in a very different manner. There Meteore.
may alfo be denfe matters accumulated in fmaller maf- iite,
fes, without being in immediate connexion with the lar- fv1eteoro-
ger planetary bodies, difperfed throughout infinite ipace, 1
and which, being impelled either by fome projecting
power or attradftion, continue to move until they ap¬
proach the earth, or fome other body j when, being
overcome by attradlive force, they immediately fall
down. By their exceeding great velocity, ftill increaf-
ed by the attraction of the earth and the violent fridtion
in the atmofphere, a ftrong eledfricity and heat mutt
neceffarily be excited, by which means they are reduced
to a flaming and melted condition, and great quantities
of vapour and different kinds of gales are thus dilen-
gaged, which diftend the liquid mals to a monftrous
fize, till, by a ftill farther expanfion of thele elaftic
fluids, they mult at length difplude. That portions of
cofmical matter are allowed to revolve in fpace, and to
terminate their career on the furface of a planet, is n
pofition too gratuitous and vague, to be readily admit*
ted, but the belief of which involves no principle of
atheifm or impiety, as fome of Dr Chladni’s antagonifts
have very unhandfomely infinuated. If worlds difap-
pear and others fpring into exiftence, a fportive imagina¬
tion may be permitted to indulge in the innocent lup-
pofition, that fragments of their materials are detached
from their fractured maffes, and obey thofe laws of
attraftion which feem to extend their influence to th&
remoteft comers of the univerfe.
Such of our readers as are felicitous of obtaining
more ample information on the fubjefl of this article,
may confult I%arn's Lithologic Atmofpherique; Biot't'
Relation d'un Voyage fait dans le departement de POrne9
pour conjlater la reatite d'un Meteore obferve a I'Aigle;
Bdttiger's Obfervutions on the Accounts given by ancient
authors of Stones [aid to have jaiten from the Clouds;
Fulda's Memoir on Fire-balls; Cavatlo's Elements of
Natural Philofophy ; Klaproth on Meteoric Stones ; Sol-
dnni's Account of the Tufcan Meteor; ihladni's Treatife
on the Siberian Mafs of Iron ; Mr Edward King's
Remarks concerning Stones /aid to have fallen from the
Clouds; and feveral of the more recent tranladions of
learned focieties and periodical fcientific communica¬
tions, as thofe of the Royal Society of London, of the
Inftitute at Paris, the Journal de Phyfique, Annales de
Chimie, Bibliotheque Britannique, Decade Philolopbi-
que, Journal des Mines, Philofophical Magazine, Ni-
cholfon’s Journal, &c. &c.
METEOROLOGICAL, fomething belonging t®
meteors.
METEOROLOGICAL Journaly is a table recording the
daily ftate of the air, exhibited by the barometer,
thermometer, hygrometer, anemometer, and other me¬
teorological inftruments. We have many journals of
this kind, kept at the houfe of the Royal Society,
and by different obfervers in other places, in the Phi¬
lofophical Tranfaftions, the Memoirs of the Academy
of Sciences, and fimilar publications.
METEOROLOGY.
Jritr»(l sif¬
t-ion.
C 7°S ]
METEOROLOGY.
Introduc¬
tion.
INTRODUCTION.
i
Objedt of -Jl yiETEOROLOGY is that part of natural fcience
meteoro- XVI w’nich treats of the changes that take place in our
atmofphere, as they are perceptible to our fenfes, or as
they are indicated by certain inftruments which the in¬
genuity of man or accident has difcovered to anfwer
that purpofe. In as far as it defcribes the phenomena
produced by fueh changes, meteorology is a depart¬
ment of natural hiftory ; but in its attempts to account
for the appearances, it is almoft entirely dependent on
t Natural Philosophy and Chemistry.
Its connec- The connexion of METEOROLOGY with CHEMISTRY
lion with js fufiiciently evident to thofe who take only a fuper-
rfiemiftry. gcjaj vjew Qf tj}e fubjeft, though it has only of late at-
tracled the notice of rhilofophers. That the air is
fometimes hotter and fometimes colder than ufual j that
it is at one time much rarefied, and at another greatly
condenfed 5 now uncommonly dry, and now' furcharged
■with moifture—are circumftances that daily meet the
fenfes of the moft cafual obferver, as they are circum¬
ftances that powerfully, and often unplealantly, arreft
his attention. That thefe changes are the refult of de-
compolitions and combinations that are continually go¬
ing on in the atmofphere, and of new modifications of
its component principles, is manifeft to him who is ac¬
quainted merely with the firft elements of modern che-
miftry.
3 Indeed to modern chemiftry this fcience is indebted
for the progrefs it has made within the laft 50 years j
a period which may be confidered as the fecond epoch
of meteorology. In fa£t, this fcience is ftill in its in¬
fancy ■, but from the ardour with which it is now culti¬
vated, from the abilities of the philofophers who are en¬
gaged in the ftudy, and from the progrefs that is daily
making in the kindred feiences, we may reafonably
look forward to a period, at no great diftance, when it
ftiall pleafe the great Author of nature to unveil many
of thofe wonders which are now involved in darknefs
and obfeurity, and permit us to controul the jarring
elements, as lie has allowed us to exercife dominion over
the beafts of the earth, the fowls of the air, and the
fifties of the fea.
M 4 uf A late ingenious writer on the climate of Britain has
improving fuggefted fome ufeful hints for the improvement of me-
meteoro- teorulogy, which we (hall here extrafl. “ With this
fogy* view, our firft ftep muft be that recommended by Mr
Kirwan and others, to eftablifti correfponding focieties
in different parts of the world j thefe focieties muft be
furnithed with fimilar apparatus, equally adjufted, mid
graduated in their conftruftion, for making obfervations
on the weather. In our own ifland it will be necefiary
to procure regifters, carefully kept, from the different
parts of the fea coaft, and from thofe parts of the coun¬
try fituated in the interior. The various ftates of the
barometer, thermometer, hygrometer, and ele&rofcope,
fhould be carefully noted j with the variations and the
degrees of wind, as well as the diurnal and nocturnal
Tol. XIII. Part II.
afpeft of the heavens diferiminately marked ; the ap¬
pearance of the fky ; and in familiar language, fuch as
might be underftood by the refpeftive and diftant ob-
fervers 5 for inftance, whether the fun is totally or par¬
tially obfeured by vapour ;—whether the clouds are
mottled, or fleaky 5—whether they affume the appear¬
ance of horizontal ftreaks, or appear in radii apparently
from a centre—or in maffes of denfe vapour—or
loofe and fleecy—or thofe familiarly known by the
name of mare-tail clouds.—with any other new or ac-
cuftomed phenomena. The common terms/«/;*, cloudy,
or wet, are infufficient for forming a judgment of the
weather 5 as the term fair is generally at prefent ex-
preffed only in oppolition to rain, without diftinguifh-
ing whether the atmolphere is obfeure, dull, or bright.
The appearance of the ftratum of air on the earth’s fur-
face, that is, the /pace between the clouds and the earth,
fhould be always accurately deferibed. Is there a blue
haze, white miff, and denfe fog ? or is the air tranfpa-
rent ? which is the cafe when diftant objefts appear
more than commonly diftincl and near to the eye of the
obferver : the temperature of the ocean at/?/// tide fhould
be frequently afeertained, as it wrill be found to have
confiderable influence in thefe refpecls on an infular coun¬
try. By the remarks of obfervers, ftationed in various
parts of our coafts, we fhould foon be enabled to difeo-
ver when vapour is wafted in from the fea, or genera¬
ted by the aqueous and vegetable furface of our ifland.
During a north-weft wind, which is frequently attend¬
ed with ft or ms of hail and rain, and ufually experienced
in the fpring, an obferver ftationed on the coaft of Sligo
in Ireland, or Denbighfhire in Wales, might afeertain
whether the difpofition of the atmofphere to ftorm and
cloud came in with the air from the Atlantic ocean,
or was generated by the vapours of our own ifland. It
would be defirable alfo again, that the temperature and
blue hazy appearance of the atmofphere curing the
north-eaft winds, fo common in May and June, fhould be
noticed by obfervers on the north-eaft coaft, in the coun¬
ties of York, Lincoln, Effex, and Kent; and by others,
on the oppofite weftern coafts of Pembroke, Devon, and
Cornwall, fo as to determine what changes in tempera¬
ture this w ind undergoes in its paffage over the ifland j
and wrhether or not the degree of haze increafes or dir
minilhes by its progrefs from either quarter *, and whe¬
ther the vapour is more or lefs difpofed to produce florms ?
By fuch comparative obfervations on the coaft, con¬
joined with thofe made by others in the central parts
of the kingdom, we might rapidly proceed in meteo¬
rological fcience, or, as it is commonly called, a know¬
ledge of the weather. The obfervations made in the
interior of the country would enable us at all times to
trace the origin and progrefs of ftorms : in fituations
where tillage or pafturage is moft attended to, the ef-
fedls of fpring frofts and blights ftiould be particularly
noticed, as well as the firft appearance of the aphis and
coccus, the caterpillar and larvae of other infedts, on
fruit trees, and particularly thofe peculiar to the hop
plantations. The firft opening of the vernal foliage on
4 U trees
c
^ Williams
on the Cli¬
mate of
Britain.
5
Importance
of the fci-
M E T E 0
trees and hedges in the fpring, fhould likewife be re-
marked, and compared with the ftarting up grafs on the
highly manured paitures in the neighbourhood of towns,
and on thofe alio affilted with manure, as well as the na¬
tural herbage on the commons and waftes. Some at¬
tention fhould be paid to the effects of thunder florms,
in deflroying the aphis and other deflrudlive infedls, the
peft of fruit and hop plantations; and the firft appear¬
ance ot the mildew or ruft on wheat fhould be particu¬
larly obferved, and remarks made to afcertain, whether
or not the moifture, w'hich occafions the difeafe in its
commencement was attended with wind and rain, or a
clofe damp hate of the air. The different kinds of foil,
where the crops, from the difeafe, fuffered moff, fhould
be noticed, and the fituation of the land for ventilation,
with the height of the fences, fize of inclofures, and vi¬
cinity to coppices, trees, or hedge-rows
The importance of the fludy of meteorology requires
little elucidation. In climates where the fucceflion of
feafons is nearly dated and regular, where the periods
of parching drought or deluging torrents, of the tempef-
tuous hurricane or the refrefhing breeze, are fixed and
afcertained, mankind has little to do, but expeft the
dreaded changes, and provide againft their devaftations j
but in countries like our own, where all the viciflitudes
of feafons may take place in the courfe of a few hours,
it is of the higheft confequence to invefligate the nature
of the change, and the circumflances that precede or
accompany it. I o the farmer, the mariner, the tra¬
veller, the phyfician, meteorology is in fome meafure a
lludy of necellity 5 to the philofopher it is a ftudy of in-
tereft and delight ; and to the obferver of nature it af¬
fords objects of grandeur and fublimity not to be found
in any other department of his favourite fcience. Surely
nothing can contribute more to elevate the mind of man,
to raife it “ from nature up to nature’s God,” than the
contemplation of the fweeping whirlwind, the dazzling
lightning, or the awful thunder.
Our limits wdll not admit of our entering into a hif-
torical detail of the progrefs of meteorology; but it
may be proper in this place to enumerate the principal
writers on this fcience both in our own country and on
the continent.
In this country, we may reckon Dr Kirwan, (in his
“ Eftimate of the Temperature of different Climates”),
R O L O G Y.
his “ Elfay on the Variations of the Atmofphere,” and lufred^
in the Infh I ranfa&ions”, Mr John Dalton (chiefly tion.
m the “ Manchefter Memoirs”), Col. Capper (in his  ^
“ Obfervations on the Winds and Monfoons”), Mrw/’
Williams (in his “ Climate of Great Britain”), an<WoL“
Mr Luke Howard (in the Philofophieal Magazine),Jogy.
as the principal cultivators of meteorological know¬
ledge j and on the continent, the names of Cotte
( Traite de Meteorologies and Journal de Physique}
Sauffure C“ Ejfaifur l'Hygrometrie” and Voyage aux
Alpes”\ De Luc (a) Recherches fur les Modifica¬
tions de VAtmofphere f “ Idees fur la Meteorologie f and
other works), and Lamarck (fee Journ. de Rhijf paf-
fim) ft and moft confpicuous in this branch of natural
fcience.
In confidering the fubjea of meteorology, we may y,
properly divide it into feven general heads : 1. Of the
changes which take place in the gravity of the air ♦,
2. Of the changes of the temperature of the air ; 3. Of
the changes produced by evaporation and rain ; 4. Of
the changes produced by winds 5 5. Of atmofpherical
elefliicity j 6. Of meteors, or thofe vifible phenomena
accompanied with light, which take place in the atmo¬
fphere or near the furface of the earth ; and, 7. The
application of the principles of meteorology to the ufe-
ful purpofes of life. Of thefe heads, the fifth has been
already fully confidered under Electricity, and much
of the fixth has been exhaufted under Meteorolite.
The remaining circumftances will form the fubjeds of
the following chapters.
Chap. I. Of the Changes which take place in the
Gravity of the Air.
Many of the fads relating to this part of our fubjed
have been already anticipated under the article Baro¬
meter, and feveral circumftances fall to be confidered
more properly under Pneumatics than in this place.
We lhall here confine ourfelves to a general view of the
changes in the gravity of the atmofphere, as indicated
by the barometer, in various fituations on or near the
furface of the earth, and briefly examine the conclufions
that may be drawn from them.
The moft general fad indicated by the barometer is, Mercury
that this inftrument ftiews us the weight of a column offtands ’
air higheft at
the level of
 ———     the fea.
(a) In again mentioning the name of a philofopher fo refpedable as M. de Luc, we embrace the firft oppor-
tumty of doing him juftice, and of vindicating his charader againft an unfortunate mifconception of the late Pro-
ieilor Robifon, a miftake which we have inadvertently contributed to difleminate, by quoting Dr Robifon’s ftate-
ment in our account of Dr Black, where M. de Luc is accufed of having arrogated to himfelf Dr Black’s difeo-
very of latent heat.
M. de Luc’s vindication of himfelf (as printed in the I2th number of the Edinburgh Review) is before the
public. We owTe it to candour and jultice to acknowledge our convidion that Dr Robifon was too hafty in his af-
jertion, and that M. de Luc, fo far from arrogating to himfelf the dodrine of latent heat, has, in various parts of
ms numerous writings, exprefsly mentioned Dr Black as the auTior of that dodrine. This will appear from the
following citations. In his “ Introdudion a la Phyfique terreftre,” p. 102, M. de Luc thus expreffes himfelf. “ Ne
connoiflant point \e feu latent, dans la vapeur a toute temperature, dont la premiere decouverte ef due uu Dr Black,
&c. Again, p. 232. of the fame work. “ Ce qui developpoit 1’idee de chaleur latente par laquelle le Dr Black
avoit dejigne ce phenomenef—and at p. 385, “ Le Dr Black ayant decouvert qu’une certaine quantile de chaleur
dilparoit quand la vapeur de I’eau bouillante fe forme, nomma ce phenomene chaleur latente dans la vapeur.”
We trull that thefe quotations, with M. de Luc’s own jullification of himfelf above referred to, will be fufficient
to exculpate him from the charge of literary felony fo warmly brought againft him by Profeffor Robifon; and we
have no doubt the Profeffor himfelf, were he ftill alive, would under fuch evidence retrad his accufation.
Ciiap.I. METEOR
Gravity of air wliofe bafe is “equal to tbe diameter of the mercury
the Air. jn tube, and whofe height is equal to the extent
 ()f the atmolphere above the place of obfcrvation. As
the height of this column muft vary in different fitua-
tions, and muft, cceteris paribus, be greateft at the level
of the fea, the mercury in the tube will, under the
9 fame circum fiances, ftand higheft in fuch a fituation.
Medium The medium height of the barometer at the level ot
height 30 fea is 30 inches, as has been found by obfervations
inches- in the Britifh channel, and in the Mediterranean fea,
at the temperatures of 550 and 6o° on the coaft of
Peru at the temperature of 84°, and in latitude 80 .
As we afcend above the furface of the earth, the me¬
dium height of the mercury diminifties *, and fome late
obfervations made in balloons at a confiderable diftance
above the tops of the higheft mountains, have fhewn
that in the higher regions of the air, the column o
mercury is very confiderably fhortened. This facl, as
we have feen (fee Barometer), has been uieiully at-
plied to the meafuring of heights and depths that can¬
not be afcertained by the ufual geometrical methods.
As the abfolute gravity of the atmofphere is conftantly
varying even in the fame place, the column of air pref-
fmg on the furface of the mercury without the_ tube,
muft prefs with more or lefs force, in proportion as
thefe changes are greater; and hence the barometer
points out thefe variations, falling when the atmofphere
is lighter, and rifmg when it is heavier than ufual.
For an account of the obfervations that were made on
the rife and fall of the barometer by the earlier philofo-
phers, and the attempts which were made by them to
explain thefe phenomena, fee Barometer.
It will be of advantage here to confider the varia¬
tions of the barometer, as they take place in different
fituations, in order, if poflible, to point out the caufe
by which thefe variations are produced, as this came
muft have confiderable influence on the changes of the
io weather. . . .
Variation It is found, that between the tropics the variations
of the baro- 0f the barometer are exceedingly fmall, and it is re-
metor be- markablei tbat in that part of the world it does not de-
troD^cs verv ^end above half as much for every 200 feet of elevation
fball as it does beyond the tropics *. In the. torrid zone,
* your, de t00j the barometer is elevated about ^ of a line twice
Phyf iypo. every. day . and this elevation happens at the fame time
^ Ibid with the tides of the feaf.
As the latitude advances towards the poles, the range
®f the barometer gradually increafes, till at. laft it
amounts to two or three inches. This gradual increafe
* Kirw. will appear from the following table.
Irijh Tranf.
vol. iii. 47.
I Afiatic
Rcjearchci,
vol, ii. Ap¬
pendix.
$ Mancl eft.
Mem. vol.
iv.
J Edin
Tr anf vol.
ii.
U Tranf
Philadelph.
vol. ii.
** Edtn.
Tranf vol.
H. p. iifj.
Table of the Range of the Barometer.
Latitude.
0°
22 22'
40 55
51 8
53 *3
53 23
59 56
Places.
Peru
Calcutta
Naples
Dover
Middlewick
Liverpool
Peterfburgh
Range of tbe Barometer.
Grerteft
0.20 *
O.77 f
I.OO t
2- 47 §
3- co §
2.89 ||
3-45
Annual.
1.8©
I.94
1.96
2.77
o L O G Y. . 1%
There is, however, fome exception to this general ^ravit^of
rule, as in North America the range of the barometer . , '
is much lefs than in the correfponding European lati¬
tudes. . 111
The range of the barometer is greater at the level
of the fea than on mountains, and in the fame degree
of latitude the extent of the range is in the inverfe
ratio of the height of the place above the level of the
fea.
It appears probable that the barometer has a ten¬
dency to rife during the day from morning to evening,
and that this tendency is greateft between 2 and 9
P. M. the greateft elevation being at this laft period.
The elevation at 2 differs from that at 9 by A, while
that at 2 differs from the morning elevation only by
' ■. and that in certain climates the greateft elevation
takes place at 2 o’clock *. _ . . , Phyf ^19^
The range of the barometer is greater m winter than^ ^ /v
in fummer, as appears from fome obfervations made at
Kendal during five years 5 the mean range from Octo¬
ber to March being 7.982, and that from April to
September being only 5.447 t*
When the atmofphere is ferene and fettled the mer-^
cury is generally high 5 and in calm weather, when it
is inclined to rain, the mercury is low. _ On the ap¬
proach of high winds it finks, as it does with a foutherly
wind, but rifes very high on the approach of eafterly
and northerly winds. It is found, however, that at Cal¬
cutta the mercury is higheft with north-wefteily and
northerly, and loweft with fouth-eafterly winds.
The mercury fuddenly falls on the approach of tem-
nefts. and during their continuance undergoes great of-
CllTo<thefe general fads that have been obferved on
the rife and fall of the barometer, we (hall annex the
following axioms by M. Cotte. 1*
j. The greateft changes of the barometer commonly Cotte’s axi-
take* place during clear weather, with a north wind
and the fmall rilings during cloudy, rainy, or windy
weather, with a fouth, or nearly fouth wind.
2. The ftate of the mercury changes more in the
winter than in the fummer months j fo that its greateft;
rifing and falling takes place in w'inter f but its mean
elevation is greater in fumroer than in winter.
3. The changes of the ftate of the barometer are
nearly null at the equator, and become greater tha.
more one removes from it towards the poles.
4. They are more confiderable in valleys than on
mountains. k
5. The mote variable the wind, the more changeable.
the ftate of the barometer.
6. It is lower at midnight and noon than at other
periods of the day ; its greateft daily height is towards
evening.
7. Between 10 at night and 2 in the morning, and
alfo in the day, the rifing and falling of the mercury
are lefs; the contrary is the cafe between 6 and IO nt
the morning and evening. . 4
8. Between 2 and 6 in the morning and evening it
rifes as often as it falls ; but in fuch a manner that it
oftener rifes about that time in the winter months, and
falls oftener in the fummer months.
9. The ofcillations are lefs in fummer, greater m
winter, and very great at the equinoxes,
4 U 2 io, They
708
Gravity of
the Air.
*3
Atmo-
fphere
forms two
inclined
planes
meeting at
the equa¬
tor.
M E T E O
10. They are greater alfo in the daytime than durino-
, the mo-ht. °
mmJ
11. The higher the fun rifes above the horizon, the
Ids are the ofcillations j they increafe as he approaches
the weftern fide of the horizon, and are exceedinofy
great when he comes oppofite to the eaftern part of the
horizon.
12. They are, to a certain degree, independent of
the changes of temperature.
13. The mercury generally rifes between the new
and the full moon, and falls between the latter and the
new moon.
. I*- rj^es more in the apogee than the perigee:
it ufually rifes between the northern luniftice and the
louthern, and falls between the fouthern luniftice and
the northern.
15. In general, a comparifon of the variations of
the mercury with the pofitions of the moon gives nothing
certain, j the refults of N* 13. and 14. are the moft
conftant.
16. In the neighbourhood of Paris the barometer ne¬
ver continues 24 hours without changing.
- *7- The barometers in the weftern diftrifts rife and
tall looner than thofe in the more eaftern.
18* When the fun pafles the meridian, the mercury
if falling, continues to fall, and its fall is often haftened. ’
. *9- When the mercury at the fame period is rifing
it falls, remains ftationary, or rifes more flowly.
. 2°- When the mercury, under the fame circumftances
is ftationary, it falls, unlefs before or after it becomes
.ftationary, it has been in the a& of rifing.
21. The above changes commonly take place between
2 x in the morning and 1 in the afternoon, but oftener
before than after noon.
22. Before high tides there is almoft alw'ays a great
fall of the mercury j this takes place oftener at the full
than the new moon.
. Sucl1 is a general view of the variations in the gra¬
vity of the air, as far as they have been obferved by the
barometer ; and we (hall now endeavour to give fome
plaufible theory of them.
It is evident that the denfity of the atmofphere is
of   J   , n . .1 , 1 „
E ° L O G Y. Chap. 1.
lefs inclined j while that of the fouthern hemifphere, Gravity 0f
^ Tn'/b
Tranf. vol.
h- p. 43,
&c.
leaft at the equator, and greateft at the poles ; for at
the equator the centrifugal force, the diftance from
the centre of the earth, and the heat (all of which
tend to diminifh the denfity of the air), are at their
maximum, while at the poles they are at their mini¬
mum. The mean height of the barometer at the level
of the fea, all over the globe, is 30 inches ; the weight
of the atmofphere, therefore, is‘the fame all over the
globe. This weight depends on the denfity and height
of the air; where the denfity is greateft, its height
muft be leaft ; and on the contrary, where its denfity is
leaft, its height muft be. greateft. The height of the
atmolphere, therefore, muft be greateft at the equator,
and leaft at the poles ; and it muft decreale gradually
between the equator and the poles, fo that its upper
furface will refemble tw7o inclined planes, meeting above
the equator their higheft part*.
During fummer, when the fun is in our hemifphere,
the mean heat between the equator and the pole does
not differ fo much as in winter. Hence the rarity of
the atmofphere at the pole, and confequently its height,
will be increafed. The upper furface of the atmo¬
fphere, therefore, in the northern hemifphere, will be
from contrary^ caufes, will be much more inclined. the Air.
-Lhe reverfe will take place during our winter. 1 v—
Ihe denfity of the atmofphere depends in a frreat
meafure on the preffure of the fuperincumbent column,
and therefore decreafes according to the height, as the
preiiure of the fuperincumbent column conftantly de¬
creafes.. But the denfity of the atmofphere in the torrid
zone will not decreafe.fo faft as in the temperate and
ingid zones, becaufe its column is larger, and becaufe
there is a greater proportion of air in the higher part
ivr ^column. This accounts for the obfervation of
Mr Caffon, that the barometer finks only half as much
for every 200 feet of elevation in the torrid as in the
temperate zones. The denfity of the atmofphere at
the equator, therefore, though at the furface of the earth
it is lefs, muft at a certain height equal, and at a Hill
greater muft exceed, the denfity of the atmofphere in
the temperate zones and at the poles.
. faa1} Patently endeavour to prove, that a quan-t,r,
tity of air is. conftantly afoending at the equator, andmerLr/i*
that pait of it at leaft reaches and continues in the high-higheft in
er parts of the atmofphere. From the fluidity of air, w‘nter in
it is evident that it cannot accumulate above the equa,n0lt^ern
tor, but muft roll down the inclined plane which thelatitudGS*
upper furface of the atmofphere affumes towards the
poles. As the furface of the atmofphere of the
northern hemifphere is more inclined during our winter
than that of the fouthern hemifphere, a greater quan¬
tity of the equatorial current of air muft flow over upon
the northern than upon the fouthern hemifphere; fo
that the quantity of our atmofphere will be greater du¬
ring ivinter than that of the fouthern hemifphere; but
during fummer the reverfe will take place. Hence
the gieateft mercurial heights take place during winter,
and the range of the barometer is lefs in fummer than
m Avinter.
I he denfity of the atmofphere is in a great meafure
legmated by the heat of the place ; AA'herever the cold
is greateft, there the denfity of the atmofphere will be
greateft, and its column fliorteft. High countries, and
ranges of lofty mountains, the tops of Avhich are covered
with fnoAV the greateft part of the year, muft be much
colder, than other places fituated in the fame degree
of latitude, and confequently the column of air over
them much fliorter. The current of fuperior air Avill
linger and accumulate over thefe places in its paffage
towards the poles, and thus occafion an irregularity in
its motion, which will produce a fimilar irregularity in
the barometer. Such accumulations Avill be formed
over the north-weftern parts of Afia, and over North
America; hence the barometer ufually Hands higher,
aiid varies lefs there, than in Europe. Accumulations
alfo are formed upon the Pyrenees, the Alps, the
mountains of Africa, Turkey in Europe, Tartary, and
1 ibet.. When thefe accumulations have gone on for
fome time, the denfity of the air becomes too great to
be balanced by.the furrounding atmofphere; it nifties
down on the neighbouring countries, and produces cold
winds which raife the barometer. Hence the rife of
the barometer which generally attends north-eaft winds
in Europe, as they proceed from accumulations in the
north-Aveft of.Afia, or about the pole; hence, too, the
north-weft Avind from the mountains of Tibet raifes the
barometer at Calcutta.
We
Chap. I- METEOR
r vitv of We (hall nrefently endeavour to (hew, that confider-
S’Sr able quantities of air ace occaiionally deftroyed tn the
 ' north polar regions. When this happens, the atmofphere
to the fouth rulhes in to fupply the deficiency. Hence
fouth-weft wind* take place, and the barometer falls.
As the mean heat of our hemifphere differs in dif¬
ferent years, the denfity of the atmofphere, and come-
qucntly the quantity of equatorial air which flows to¬
wards the poles, muff alfo be variable. Does this
range correfpond to the mean annual heatj that is to
fay0 Is the range greateff when the heat is leaft, and
leaf! when the heat is greateft ? In fome years greater
accumulations than ufual take place in the mountainous
parts in the fouth of Europe and Afia, owing, perhaps,
to earlier falls of fnow or to the rays of the fun having
been excluded by long-continued fogs. When this
takes place, the atmofphere in the polar regions will
be proportionably lighter. Hence the prevalence of
foutherly winds during fome winters more than others.
As the heat in the torrid zone never differs much,
the denfity, and confequently the height, of the atmo¬
fphere, Avill not vary much. Hence the range of the
barometer within the tropics is comparatively fmall 5
and it increafes gradually as we approach the poles,
becaufc the difference of the temperature, and confe¬
quently of the denfity, of the atmofphere, increafes with
the latitude. . .,
The diurnal elevation of the barometer in the torrid
zone correfponding to the tides, obferved by Mr Caffon
and others, muff be owing to the influence of the moon
on the atmofphere. This influence, notwithftanding
the ino-enious attempts of D’Alembert and feveral other
philofophers, feems altogether inadequate to account
for the various phenomena of the winds. It is not fo
eafy to account for the tendency which the barometer
has to rife as the day advances. Perhaps it may be ac¬
counted for by the additional quantity of vapour added
to the atmofphere, which by increafing the quantity
of the atmofphere, may poflibly be adequate to produce
fclic
The falls of the barometer which precede, and the
ofcillations which accompany, violent ftorms and hurri¬
canes, fliew us that thefe phenomena are produced by
very great rarefactions, or perhaps deflruCtions 01 air,
in particular parts of the atmofphere. 1 he falls of the
barometer, too, that accompany winds, proceed from
the fame caufe. The obfervation made by Mr Cop¬
land, that a high barometer is accompanied by a tem¬
perature above the mean, will be eafily accounted for
by every one acquainted with Dr Black’s theory of la¬
tent heat. The higher the mercury Hands, the denfer
the atmofphere muff be} and the denfer it becomes,
the more latent heat it muft give out. It is w ell knoryn
that air evolves heat when condenfed artificially. The
falling- of the barometer, which generally precedes ram,
remains ftill to be accounted for •, but we know too lit¬
tle about the caufes by which rain is produced, to be
able to account for it in a fatisfaclory manner.
It has been for fome time fufpecled that the varia¬
tion of the barometer is affecffed by the changes of the
moon. The theory of lunar influence has been difcuf-
fed on the continent chiefly by Lamarck and Cotte,
(fee Journal de Phyfique, pajjim); and in this country
by Mr Luke Howard. Mr Howard’* fufpicionsof this
influence on the barometer were firll conceived, in con-
4.
O L O G Y.
fequence of the printed charts, of which he made ufe
in keeping a regifter of the barometer, haying the, ^ j
phafes of the moon marked on them, and of his obfery-
incr a remarkable coincidence between thefe and certain
Hates of the mercury. This coincidence confiffsin the
depreflion of the barometrical line on the approach of
the new and full moon, and its elevation on that of the
quarters. In above 30 out of the 50 lunar weeks in
the year 1798, the barometer was found to have chan¬
ged its general dire&ion once in each week, in Inch a
manner as to be either rifing or at its muxitnutn^ for tiic
w^eek preceding and following, about the time of each
quarter j and to be either falling or at its initutnutu^ for
the two weeks, about the new and full. It is remark¬
able, that the point of greateH. depreflion during the
year, viz. to 28.67, was f°unfl about 12 hours after
the new moon on the 8th of November j and, that at
its greateH and extraordinary elevation to 30.89, on
the 7th of February, at the time of the lad quarter.
Moreover, this coincidence appeared to take place moff
regularly in fair and moderate weather j and, in gene¬
ral, when the barometer fell, during the interval oe-
tween the new or full moon and the quarters, an evi¬
dent perturbation in the atmofphere accompanied j of
which may be inflanced February 15- t° ^3* when the
barometer, after an uncommon rife, continued to fall
rapidly after the new moon, with fevere cold, which
ended fuddenly in flormy and wet weather: again,
June 13. to 20. when two weeks of fair weather ended
in a thunder Horm. In the greater part of December
the ufual coincidence difappeared, and the converfe
took place the barometer being low at the quarter
and high at the full, amidff continual alternations of
rain, frofl, and fnow, and, for part of the time, high
winds. On the two days preceding the lafl quartei,
the barometer rofe rapidly, and rain followed.
On the whole, Mr Howard thought there appeared
fufficient ground, on the evidence of the year 1798, to
fuppofe that the gravity of our atmofphere, as indicated
by the barometer, may be fubjedt to certain periodical
changes, effeaed by a caufe more Heady and regular
than either change of temperature, currents, or folution
and precipitation of water, to which he believes the
whole variation has been heretofore attributed.
The mean of the regifler at large appeared to be
29.89, whence it appears that the depreflion at toe new
and full moon either amounted to more, on the whole,
than the elevations at the quarters, or that they fell
out nearer to the time. He was quite fatisfied, in pal¬
ling through this regifler, that if he had allowed him-
felf to chqofe the higher rotations about the quarters, and
the lower about the new and full, with a latitude of 24
or 36 hours, it would have made the refults as much more
favourable to his conclufions as in her former cafe.
Now, to omit the confideration of other proofs for
the prefent, it appeared to him evident, that the atmo¬
fphere is fubjeft to a periodical change of gravity,
whereby the barometer, on a mean of ten years, is de-
prefled at leafl one-tenth of an inch while the moon is
palling from the quarters to the full and new j and ele¬
vated, in the fame proportion, during the return to the
quarter. To what caufes lhall we attribute this perio¬
dical change, other than the attradlion of the fun and
moon for the matter compofing the atmofphere ?
The atmofphere is a gravitating fluid, differing, in a
phyfical
Phil.
Mug vol.
vii* P 355
710 M E T E O
phylical fenfe, from the water, chiefly in poffefling left
the Air. gravity > and ^ is demonftrated a priori on the princx-
U--Y PIes.of the Newtonian philofophy, that it ought to have
its tides as well as the ocean, although in a degree as
much lefs perceptible as is its gravity.
He fuppofes, therefore, that the joint attra&ions of
the fun and moon at the new moon, and the attraction of
the moon predominating over the fun’s weaker attrac¬
tion at the full, tend to deprefs the barometer, by tak¬
ing off from the gravity of the atmofphere, as they
produce a high tide in the waters, by taking off from
their gravity; and, again, that the attra&ion of the
moon being djminilhed by that of the fun at her quar¬
ts rs, this diminution tends to make a high barometer,
together with a low tide, by permitting each fluid to
prefs with additional gravity upon the earth
'Chap. II. Of the Changes which take place in the
‘Temperature of the Air.
It is obvious to the mofl: carelefs obferver, that the
temperature of the air varies confiderably even in the
fame place, and at the fame feafon. This conftant va¬
riation muft be attributed to the reflefted rays of the
fun, which communicate heat from the furface of the
earth to the furrounding atmofphere. As from this
eaufe the heat of thofe places which are fo fituated as
to be mofl: warmed by the fun’s rays is always greateft,
and as this temperature varies in every place with the
feaion of the year, and diminifties according to the
height of the ajr above the furface ; and as the earth
ac the equator is expofed to the mofl: perpendicular rays
of the fun, the. earth is there hotteft, and its heat dimi-
niflies gradually from the equator to the poles. Of
courfe, the temperature of the air muft vary in the fame
manner, being hotteft over the equator, and diminifti-
ir.g in temperature towards the poles, where it is cold-
eft. Though it is hotteft at the equator, its heat, as
in all other fituations, gradually diminifties there, as wre
afeend above the furface of the earth.
R O L 0 G Y- Chap. n.
1 hough there is a confiderable difference in every Temper-
part of the w orld between the temperature of the at- of
mofphere in fummer and in winter; though in the fame ike Air-
feafon the temperature of almoft every day, and even
every hour, differs from that which precedes and fol¬
lows it; though the heat varies continually in the moft
irregular and feemingly capricious manner ftill there
is a certain mean temperature in every climate, which
the atmolphere has always a tendency to obferve, and
which it neither exceeds nor comes Ihort of beyond a
certain number of degrees. What this temperature is,
may be known by taking the mean of tables of obferva-
tions kept for a number of years ; and our knowledge
of it muft be the more accurate the greater the number
of obfervations is.
The mean annual temperature is greateft at the equa- Meant*
tor (or at leaft a degree or two on the north fide of it),nual tem!
and it diminiflies gradually towTards the poles, where itpefature
is leaft. This diminution takes place in arithmetical ?reateftat
progrefiion, or, to fpeak more properly, the annual!hc c<ltla'
temperatures of all the latitudes are arithmetical means ‘
between the mean annual temperature of the equator
and that of the pole. This was firft afeertained by Mr
Meyer ; and Dr Kirwan improving on Meyer’s hint
has calculated in the following table the mean annual
temperature of every latitude between the equator and
the pole. It muft be remarked, however, that this
table is calculated only for a particular part of the
earth s furface, viz. that part of the Atlantic ocean
which lies betAveen the 8o* of northern, and the 450 of
fouthern latitude, extending weftward as far as the Gulf
ftream, and to within a few leagues of the coaft of A-
merica, and for all that part of the Pacific ocean thait
reaches from 450 of north latitude to 4c1* of fouth lati¬
tude, and extending between the 20th and 275th de¬
gree of longitude eaft from London. This part of the
ocean is called by Dr Kirwan the ftandard, and was
beft fuited to his purpofe, as the reft of the ocean is
fubjedl to irregularities, which will be noticed prefent-
ty (D)-
Lat.
90
89
88
87
86
85
84
83
82
81
80
79
78
Temper,
31*
31.04
21.10
S'-H
31.2
3i-4
3M
3i-7
32.0
32.2
32.6
33.9
33-2
Lat
77
76
75
74
73
•7 2
7i
70.
69
68
67
66
65
Temper.
Lat.
33- 7
34*1
34- 5
35- o
35*5
36.0
36.6
37-2
37-8
38.4
39*1
39-7
40.4
64
63
62
61
60
59
58
57
56
5?
54
53
52
Temper.! Lat.
41.2
4I*9
42.7
43- 5
44- 3
45- °9
45-8
46.7
47-5
48.4
49.2
50.2
51*1
51
5°
49
48
47
46
45
44
43
42
4*
40
39
Temper.
52-4
52-9
53.8
54*7
5 5-6
56.4
57-5
58.4
59-4
60.3
61.2
62.0
63.0
Lat.
38
37
36
35
34
33
32
31
30
29
28
27
26
Temper.
Lat.
63.9
64.8
65-7
66.6
67.4
68.3
69.1
69.9
70.7
71- 5
72- 3
72.8
73- 8
25
24
23
22
21
20
J9
18
x7
16
!5
M
*3
Temper.
74- 5
75- 4
75- 9
76- 5
77.2
77.8
78- 3
78.9
79- 4
79-9
80.4
80.8
81.3
Lat,.
12
II
10
9
8
7
6
5
o
T
emper
81.7
82.0
82.3
82.7
82.9
83.2
83-4
83.6
84.0
Dr
(d) In calculating this table, Dr Kirwan proceeded on the following principle. Let the mean annual heat at
the equator be m and at the pole w—« ,• put (p for any other latitude ; the mean annual temperature of that lati¬
tude will be *»--« xfin. . If, therefore, the temperature of any two latitudes be known, the value of m and n
mzj be found. Now, the temperature of north latitude 40° has been found by the beft obfervations to be 62. i°,
5 and
and that of latitude 50°, 52.90. The fquare of the fine of 40° is nearly 0.419, and the fquare of the fine of 50*
is nearly 0.586. Therefore,
m—0.41 «=62.i, and
tn—0.58 »—52.9 $ therefore, '
62.1 -f-0.41 «=52.9-)-058 «,
as each of them, from the two firft equations, is equal to m. From this laft equation the value of n is found to
be nearly 53 •, and tn is nearly equal to 84. The mean temperature of the equator, therefore, is 84°, and that of
the pole 3 To find the mean temperature for every other latitude we have only to find 88 arithmetical means
between 84 and 31.
(e) In calculating the table of mean monthly temperature. Dr Kirwan proceeded on the following principles.
The mean temperature of April feems to approach very nearly to the mean temperature of the whole year, and
as far as heat depends on the adion of the folar rays, the mean heat of each month may be confidered as propor¬
tional
712
Tenoera-
ture of
the \ ir.
METEOROLOGY.
Latit.
Jan.
Feb.
March
April
May
une
July
Auef.
Sept.
oa.
Nov.
Dec.
23
t)8.
72.
75-
7?-9
78.5
79-
79-
79-
78-5
75-
74-
71-
22
69.
72-5
75-5
76.5
79-5
79-5
79-5
79-5
79-
75-5
74-5
7I-5
21'
20
71*
74*
76.
77.2
80.
80.
80.
80.
79-5
77-
75-
72.
72.
74-
77-
77.8
180.5
180.5
iSo.?
80.5
:8o.
78.
75*5
72-5
72.5
76.
77-5
78.3
81.
81.5
81.5
81.5
81.
79-
76.
73-
18° 170 16°
73-
76.5
78.
78.9
81.5
82.
82.
82.
81.5
80.
77-
74-
173-5
77-
78.5
79-4
82.
82.5
82.5
82.5
82.
81.
78.
75-
74- 174-5
77-5 78.
79- 79-5
79-9 80.4
82.5 83.
83-
S3-
S3-
82.5
81.5
78-5
75-5
83.5
83.3
83-5
83-
82.
79-
76.
75-
78- 5
80.
80.8
S3-
83.8
83.8
83.8
3-
2-5
79- 5
76.5
76.
79-
80.8
81.3
83-5
84.
84.
84.
83-5
83-
80.
77-
12
76- 5
79-5
81.
81.7
84.
84-3
84-3
84-3
84.
83-5
80.5
77- 5
77-
79.8
81.5
82.
84.
84.6
84.6
84.6
84.3
83.8
80.8
78.
ioL
77-5
80.
81.8
82.3
84-3
84.8
-4.8
84.8
84.6
84.
T.
8.5
Chap. II,
i empera-
ture of
the Air.
if It appears from the above table that January is the
coldeft month in every latitude 5 that July is the warm-
eft month in all latitudes above 48° j that in lower
latitudes Auguft is generally the warmeft month ;
that the difference between the hotted: and coldeft
months increafes according to the diftance of the place
from the equator. All habitable latitudes are found
to enjoy a medium heat of 6o° for at leaft 2 months,
which is a very favourable circumftance, as probably no
corn could be produced under a lower medium tempera¬
ture. The temperatures within io° of the poles differ
very little, nor do they differ much within io° of the
equator. Hence it was unneceffary t© note thefe lati¬
tudes in the table. The temperatures of different years
vary but little near the equator, but this difference in¬
creafes more and more as the latitudes approach the
poles.
Tempera- It is well known that the temperature of the at-
ture de- mofphere gradually diminifhes according to the height
V* i And ^ie place above the level of the fea. It was found
in the air. by Dr Hutton of Edinburgh, that a thermometer kept
on the top of Arthur’s feat, a height of about Soo feet,
ufually flood 30 lower than one kept at the foot of this
hill; and Bougucr obferved that on the top of Pinchin-
cha, a height of about 15564 feet, a thermometer flood
540 lower than it did at the level of the fea in the fame
latitude.
We are indebted to Dr Kirwan for a very ingenious
method of determining the rate of the diminution in the
temperature in particular cafes, having the temperature
of the furface of the earth given. The temperature of
the atmofphere conftantly diminilhing as we rife above
the level of the fea, we muft at a certain height arrive
at a point where a perpetual congelation takes place.
This point muft vary in height according to the la¬
titude, being higheft at the equator, and coming gra¬
dually nearer the earth as we approach the poles; it
muft vary aifo with the feafon, being higheft in fummer, jg
and loweft in winter. The cold on the top of Pin- Term of*
chincha was found by M. Bouguer to extend from 70 perpetual
to 9® below the freezing point every morning juft c?nSe^a"
before funrife j hence he concluded that between thetlon'
tropics the medium height of the term of congelation
(where it freezes at fome part of the day all the year
round) Ihould be fixed at 15577 ^eet above the level
of the fea ; but in latitude 28°, and during the fummer,
at 13440 feet. If we take the difference between the
temperature at the equator, and the freezing point, this
difference will bear the lame proportion to the term of
congelation at the equator, thatthe difference between the
medium temperature at any other latitude and the freez¬
ing point bears to the term of congelation at that lati¬
tude. Suppofe the medium heat at the equator to be
84°, the difference between which and 3 2° is 520 ; and
fuppofe the medium heat of latitude 28° to be 72T^°,
the difterence between which and 3 2° is 40°Ty>* Then
by the following proportion, 52015577“ 40^5 : 12,72°
gives us the term of congelation at 28°. In this way
Dr Kirwan proceeded in calculating the following
tional to the mean altitude of the fun, or rather to the fine of that altitude. If, therefore, we have the mean
heat of April, and the fine of the fun’s altitude given, the mean heat of May may be found by the following pro¬
portion :
As the fine of the fun’s mean altitude in April : the mean heat of April s: the line of the fun’s mean altitude
in May : mean heat of May,
In the fame manner the mean heat of June, July, and Auguft may be found $ but for the temperature of the*
fucceeding months we muft take into confideration another circumftance, linc« the above rule would make the
temperature of thefe months too low, as it does not take in the heat derived from the earth, which is nearly equal
to the mean annual temperature. The real mean beats of thefe months muft be confidered as an arithmetical
mean between the aftronomical and terreftrial heats. Thus, for latitude 51°, the aftronomica! heat of September
being 44.6°, and the mean annual heat 52.4®, the real heat of September ought to be — 48.5. Dr
Kirwan, however, after going through a tedious calculation, found the refults to correfpond fo little with aflu&l
obfervation, that he drew up the table partly from calculating from principles, and partly from an examination of
feveral fea journals.
.Chap. II.
Tempera¬
ture of
the Air.
Lat.
Ou
5
io
20
25
3°
35
40
Mean height
of the term of
congelation,
in feet.
,5577
J5457
15067
14498
I3719
13050
11592
10664
9016
Lat.
45
5°
55
60
6 5
70
75
80
METEOROLOGY.
From the modes of eftimating the diminution of tem¬
perature now given, which agree extremely well with
Mean height
of the term of
congelation,
in feet.
7658
6260
4912
3684
2516
*557
748
120
7r3
Tempera¬
ture of
the Air.
This laft height of 120 feet M. Bouguer called the
lower term of congelation. He alfo diilinguilhed an¬
other term of congelation above which no vifible va¬
pour rifes, and this he called the upper term of congela¬
tion. This line is confidcred by Kirwan as much lefs
variable during the fummer months than the lower line,
and it has therefore been adopted by him to determine
the rate of diminution in the temperature as we
afeend into the atmofphere. He has calculated its
height for every degree of north latitude in the follow¬
ing table.
\r. Lat,
O
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
*3
*4
*5
16
*7
18
*9
20
21
22
23
24
25
Feet.
2800 c
27731
27649
275°j
27364
27224
2708
26880
26676
26472
26268
26061
25781
>55°*
25.221
24941
24661
24404
24*47
23890
23633
23425
N. La-
26
27
28
29
3°
3*
32
33
34
35
S6
37
38
39
40
4*
42
43
44
45
46
47
I eet.
22906
22389
21872
2*3 55
20838
2049 2
20146
19800
*9454
19169
18577
17985
*7393
168' 1
16207
*57*2
15217
14722
14227
*3730
*323 :
12740
4. Lai.
4"
49
50
5*
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
Feet.
12245
II750
**253
10124
8965
7806
6647
56*7
5933
5439
5345
5251
5*48
5068
4989
49*01
483*:
47 5 2!
46841
4616;
4548'
4480!
N. Lat
70
7*
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
Feet.
44*3
4354
429 5
4236
4177
4*'9
4067
40*5
3963
39**
3861
38.5
3769
3723
3677
3631
3592
3 3 93
35*4
1475
34321
(F)
obfervation, we find that the temperature diminiihes in
arithmetical progreffion, and hence we infer that the 19
temperature of the air at a diftance from the earth Fempera-
is owing to the conducing power of the air, and not^®®^®
to the afeent of hot air from the furface of the the earth
earth. * owing to
It is however found that in winter the upper flratathe con-
of the air are often warmer than the lower •, and this
fuperior heat, almoft conftantly obferved in winter, is^e
attributed by Hr Kirwan to a current of warm air from
the equator, rolling towards the north pole during our
winter *.
Irijh
VOL. XIII. Part 11.
We have now given the general method of finding
the medium annual temperature all over the globe 5 but^ ^75.
there are feveral exceptions to our general inferences
which mull be particularly mentioned. 20
That part of the Pacific, ocean which lies between Tempera-
north latitude 52° and 66° is no broader at its northern
extremity than 42 miles, and at its fouthern extremity c^c ocean.
its breadth fcarcely exceeds 1300 miles : it is reafon-
able to fuppofe, therefore, that its temperature will be
confiderably influenced by the furrounding land, which
confifls of ranges ol mountains, covered a great part of
the year with fnow 5 and there are befides a great many
high, and confequently cold, iflands leattered through it.
For thefe reafons Hr Kirwan concludes, that its tempe¬
rature is at leaf! 40 or 50 below the ftandard. Bui we
are not yet furnilhed with a fufficient number of obfer-
vations to determine this with accuracy. 2I
It is the general opinion, that the fouthern hemi-Ofthe
fphere beyond the 40° of latitude is confiderably colder 0; tbt'rn
than the correfponding parts of the northern hemifphere. ''uu 'l- ‘clc
See America. 22
Small feas furrounded with land, at leaf! in temperate Of fmall
and cold climates, are generally warmer in fummer andiea8<
colder in winter than the flandard ocean, becaufe
they are much influenced by the temperature of the ^
land. The gulf of Bothnia, for inftance, is for the
mofl part frozen in winter •, but in fummer it is feme-
times heated to 70°, a degree of heat never to be found
in the oppofite part of the Atlantic. 1 he German fea
is above 30 colder in winter, and 50 warmer in fummer,
than the Atlantic. The Mediterranean fea is, for the
greater part of its extent, warmer both in fummer and
winter than the Atlantic, which therefore flows into it.
The Black fea is colder than the Mediterranean, and
flows into it.
The eaftern parts of North America are much colder
than the oppofite coalt of Europe, and fall Ihort of the
4 X ftandard
(f) Hr Kirwan has given us the following rule for afeertaining the temperature at any required height, fup-
pofing we know the temperature of the furface of the earth.
For the temperature obferved at the furfaee of the earth, put m ; for the given height h, and t for the height
of the upper term of congelation at the given latitude 5 then    — — the diminution of temperature for
100
every ICO feet of elevation 5 or it is the common difference of the terms of the progreffion required. Let this
common difference thus found be denoted by c ; then cX 7^ gives us the whole diminuTon of temperature
from the furface of the earth to the given height. Let this diminution be denoted by d, then m—d is obvioufly,
the
/
7H
Tempera¬
ture ef
the Air.
,.33
Of iflands.
2*
C-'otfe’s axi
om . re-
fpefting
tempera¬
ture .
ftandard by about lo° or i 2°, as appears from Ame¬
rican meteorological tables. The caufes of this re-
mJ roarkable difference are many. The highefl: jiart of
North America lies between 40° and 50° of north lati¬
tude, and ioo° and iio° of longitude weft from Lon¬
don, for there the greateft rivers originate. The very
height, therefore, makes this fpot colder than it would
otherwife be. It is covered with immenfe forefts, and
abounds with large fwamps and morafles, which render
it incapable of receiving any great degree of heat ; fo
that the rigour of winter is much lefs tempered by the
heat of the earth than in the old continent. To the
eaft lie a number of very large lakes, and farther north,
Hudfon’s bay ; about 50 miles on the fouth of which
there is a range of mountains which prevent its receiv¬
ing any heat from that quarter. This bay is bounded
on the eaft by the mountainous country of Labrador and
by a number of iflands. Hence the coldnefs of the
north-weft winds and the lownefs of the temperature.
But as the cultivated parts of North America are now
much warmer than formerly, there is reafon to expect
that the climate will become ftill milder when the coun¬
try is better cleared of woods, though perhaps it will
never equal the temperature of the old continent.
Iflands are warmer than continents in the fame de¬
gree of latitude ; and countries lying to the windward
of extenfive mountains or forefts are warmer than thofe
lying to the leeward. Stones or fand have a lefs capa¬
city for heat than earth has, which is always fomewhat
moift ; they heat or cool, therefore, more rapidly and
to a greater degree. Hence the violent heat of Arabia
and Africa, and the intenfe cold of Terra del Fuego.
Living vegetables alter their temperature very {lowly,
but their evaporation is great; and if they be tall and
clofe, as in forefts, thev exclude the fun’s ravs from
the earth, and {belter the winter fnow from the wind
and the fun. Woody countries, therefore, are much
colder than thofe which are cultivated.
We fhall conclude this chapter with a feries of meteo¬
rological axioms refpefting the temperature of the air,
by M. Cotte.
. 1. The extreme degrees of heat are almoft every¬
where the fame ; this, however, is not the cafe in re¬
gard to the extreme degrees of cold.
2. The thermometer rifes to its extreme height
oftener in the temperate zones than in the torrid zone.
3. It changes verv little between the tropics *, its
variations, like thofe of the barometer, are greater
the more one proceeds from the equator towards the
poles.
4. It rifes higher in the plains than on mountains.
5. It does not fall fo much in the neighbourhood of
the fea as in Inland parts.
6. The wind has no influence on its motions.
METEOROLOGY. Chap. Hi.
7. Moifture has a peculiar influence on it, if follow- Evapora¬
tion and
Rain.
ed by a wind which difperfes it.
8. The greateft heat, and the greateft cold, take
place about fix weeks after the northern or fouthern —J
folftice.
g. I he thermometer changes more in fummer than
in winter.
10. The coldeft period of the day is before fun-
rife.
11. The greateft heat in the fun and the {hade fcl-
dom takes place on the fame day.
12. The heat decreafes with far more rapidity from
September and Oftober, than it increafed from July to
September.
13. It is not true, that a very cold winter is the
prognoftic of a very hot fummer.
Chap. III. Of the Changes which take place in the
Air with refpeB to Evaporation and Rain.
There feems no reafon to doubt that water exifts in Qualities of
the atmofphere in an intermediate ftate between that ofvai)0ur.
a fluid and that of abfolute fteam. This is the ftate of
vapour, of the qualities of which it is proper that we
fliould here take a general view.
We are indebted to the experiments of Sauflure and
de Luc for much of our knowledge of the qualities of
vapour. It is an elaftic invilible fluid like common
air, but lighter j being to common air, according to
Sauflure, as 10 to 14, or, according to Kirwan, as 10 to
1 2$ it cannot pafs beyond a certain maximum of denfity,
otherwife the particles of water which compofe it unite
together, and form fmall, hollow, vifible veficles, cal-
ed vejicular vapour; which is of the fame fpecific
gravity with atmofpherical air. It is of this vapour
that clouds and fogs are compofed. This maximum
increafes with the temperature ; and at the heat of boil¬
ing water is fo great, that fteam can refift the whole
preflure of the air, and exift in the atmofphere in any
quantity.
After what has been ftated under Chemistry with
refpeft to the nature and properties of vapour, wre have
nothing here to add on that fubjedt, except to give the
refult of obfervations that have been made on the ftate
of vapour in the atmofphere. ^
It is found that the evaporation of water into the airEvapora-
is confined entirely to the furface, and hence it is alwaystior -onfin.
proportional to the furface expofed to the adlion of the ed t0 the
air. Accordingly, obfervation {hows that in maritimefuiface'
countries, and in marfliy fituations in the neighbour¬
hood of lakes, rivers, &c. the evaporation is much
greater than in inland countries, and dry fituations.
It is found that evaporation is greateft in hot weather; Proportion-
whence it muft depend, m fome degree, on the tempera- ai to the
ture tempera¬
ture of the
the temperature required. An example will make this rule fufficiently obvious. In latitude j6° the heat below
being 94°^ required the temperature of the air at the height of 803 feet?
Here ^= 54, /=5533,
22 , h
-^-^=0404=^ and cX —=0.404x8.03 = 3.24 = 0?, and m — d —
100
54—--50.75. Hence we fee that the temperature of the air at the height of 803 feet above the furface
1550°.75.
Chap. HI
Evapora- ture of the air. This was afcertained by Mr Dalton
tion and from actual experiments, the refult of which was, that
^a^n‘ the quantity evaporated per minute from a given furface
,lJ"' v of water at a given temperature, is to the quantity
evaporated from the furface at 212°, as the force of
vapour at the given temperature is to the force of va¬
pour at 212°. By means of the table exprefling the
force, of vapour at various temperatures given under
Chemistry, p. 468, we may difcover by the above
rule the quantity of water at a given temperature loft
by evaporation.
There are feveral circumftances that affect the quan-
715
tity of vapour rifing from water, even at the fame tem- Evapora-
perature. Thus, we find that evaporation is leaft in
calm weather, increafes when there is wind, and is
greater in proportion as the wind is ftronger. This
evidently arifes from the agitation of the water, by
which a new furface is perpetually expofed to the a&ion
of the air.
We (hall here infert a table by Mr Dalton, exprefs-
ing the quantity of vapour raifed in various atmofpheric
temperatures, from a circular furface fix inches in dia¬
meter.
METEOROLOGY.
Tempe¬
rature.
212
20°
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
3°
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
5°
51
5 2
Force of
vapour in
inches.
3°
.129
•I34
•I39
•I44
.150
.156
.162
.168
.174
.180
.186
•'93
.200
.207
.214
.221
.229
•237
•245
•254
.265
•273
.283
.294
•3°5
.216
•327
•339
•35i
•363
•375
.388
.401
Evaporating force in grains.
Tempe¬
rature.
•5 2
•54
•56
•58
.60
.62
•65
.67
.70
.72
•74
•77
.80
.83
.86
.89
.92
•95
.98
1.02
1.05
1.09
1.18
1.22
1.26
1-31
1.36
1.40
I-45
1.50
I-55
1.60
154
.67
.69
•71
•73
•77
•79
.82
.86
.90
•93
•95
•99
1.03
x.c7
1.11
1.14
1.1 8
1.22
1.26
I*3I
I-35
1.40
I,45
I-5I
1-57
1.62
1.68
I-75
1.80
1.86
1.92
1.99
2.06
189
.82
.85
.88
.91
•94
•97
1.02
1.05
1.10
1.17
1.21
1.26
1.3°
I-35
I-39
i-45
1.49
I-54
1.60
1.65
1.71
1.78
1.85
1.92
1.99
2.06
2.13
2.20
2.28
2.36
2.44
2.Cl
21 2C
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
7T
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
Force of
vapour in
inches.
3°
A15
.429
•443
•458
•474
.490
•5°7
•524
•542
. c6o
•578
•597
.616
•635
•655
.676
.698
.721
•745
•77°
.796
.823
.851
.880
.910
.940
•971
1.00
1.04
1.07
1.10
1.14
1.17
Evaporating force in grain.
1.66
1- 7I
1.77
1.83
1.90
1.96
2.03
2.10
2.17
2.24
2.31
2- 39
2.46
2- 54
2.62
2.70
2.79
2.88
2.98
3.08
3.18
3- 29
3-40
3-52
3-65
3- 76
3.88
4.00
4.16
4.28
4.40
4- 56
4.68
r54
2.13
2.20
2.28
2-35
243
2-52
2.61
2.70
2-79
2.88
2- 97
3- °7
3.16
3-27
3-37
347
3-59
3-7°
3-83
3- 96
4*°9
4- 23
4-37
4- 52
4.68
4.83
4.99
5- I4
5-35
5-5°
5.66
5.86
6.07
189
2.61
2.69
2.78
2.88
2.98
3-°8
3il9
3-3°
341
3-52
3-63
3-76
3-87
3- 99
zj.* 12
4.24
4- 38
4- 53
4.68
4.84
5.00
i-1?
5- 34
5-53
5-72
5- 91
6.10
6.29
6- 54
6.73
6.91
7*I7
7.46
The firft column of the above table expreffes the tem¬
perature •, the fecond, the correfponding force of va¬
pour ; the other three columns give the number of
grains of water that would be evaporated from a fur¬
face of fix inches in diameter in the refpeftive tempe¬
rature,s, on the fuppofition of there being previoufly no
aqueous vapour in the atmofphere. Thcfe columns
prefent the extremes and the mean of evaporation likely
to be noticed, or nearly fuch *, for the firft is calculated
upon the fuppofition of 35 grains lofs per minute from
the veffel of three inches and a quarter in diameter }
the fecond 45, and the third 55 grains per minute.
As yet we have ftated only the degree of evapora¬
tion that would take place under various circumftan¬
ces, provided that the atmofphere were, at the time,
entirely free from moifture ; but as this can fcarcely
happen, it becomes neceffary to afcertain the rate of
evaporation when qualified by the vapour already exift-
ing in the atmofphere. This is readily done by firft
finding the force of the vapour already in the atmo¬
fphere, as above directed, and fubtrafting it from the
force of vapour at the given temperature. The re¬
mainder is the actual force of evaporation, from which,
by the laft table, we find the required rate of evapora-
4X2 tion.
716
Evapora¬
tion and
Ham.
Uefult.
M E T E O
tion. Suppofe, for inftance, it be required to know the
rate of evaporation at the temperature of 590. From the
, latl table we fee that the force of vapour at 590 is
about 0.5 or ^ its force at 21 20. Now, luppofe that by-
trials we find the force of the vapour which already
exiifs in the atmofphere to be 0.25 or of
Subtrafling the latter from the former, we have for a
remainder o.25=the force of evaporation required,
which is therefore juft the half of what it would be if
the almofphere were entirely free from vapour.
The force of vapour exifting in the atmofphere is
fcarcely ever equal to the force of vapour of the tempe-
rainre of the atmofphere. Hence evaporation may,
with a few exceptions, be confidered as going on with¬
out intermiffion. Attempts have been made to afcer-
tain the quantity of evaporation that takes place in the
courfe of a year } but the inveftigation of this problem
is fo duficult, that thefe attempts have fucceeded only
in obtaining approximations towards the truth. Mr
Dobfon of Liverpool, from a courfe of experiments made
in 1772, 1773, 1774, and 1775, concludes that the
mean annual evaporation from the furface of Avater,
amounted to 36.78 inches. The proportions for each
month are as follows.
January
February
March
April
May
June
Inches.
I.50
1-lhI
2.64
3-3°
4*34
4.41
July
Auguft
September
O&ober
November
December
Inshes.
5.01
3*i8
2*51
M1
I*49
The experiments of Mr Dalton fhew that the evapo¬
ration from the furface of water in a very dry and hot
fummer day, was rather more than two tenths of an inch.
Several experiments have been made on the quantity
of evaporation from lane}, efpecially by Mr Williams in
America, and Dr Watfon, Mr Dalton and Mr Hoyle
in Britain.
Mr Williams’s experiments appear to fhew that the
evaporation from the furface of fuch land as is covered
with trees and other vegetables is about one third
greater than the evaporation from the furface of wa¬
ter, though much reliance is not laid on thefe experi¬
ments.
R O LOGY. Chap. 111.
From an experiment made by Dr Watfon during Evapora-
fuminer, when the earth had been parched by a month’s lion and
drought, it appeared that 1600 gallons of water were , Rain-
evaporated from a fingle acre in 12 hours *. Dr Wat-
fon’s experiment, however, was of a nature that did not Evapora-
admit of great precilion. tion from
The experiments made by Mr Dalton and Mr Hoyle la, d;
in the years 1796, 1797, and 1798, are the moft exad chl^l'
that have been made on this fubjeft, and we ftiall there- Ejfay,^.
fore eonfider them more at large. They were made hi. 54’
with the following apparatus. Having procured a cy-
lindrical veflel made of tin plate, three feet deep and
ten inches in diameter, they inferted into it two pipes Dalton and
dire&ed downwards, fo that water might pafs through Hojle.
them into two bottles. One pipe was fixed near the
bottom of the veffel, and the other about an inch from
the top. I he vefiel was filled up for a few inches with
gravel and land, and all the reft with good frefti foil.
It was then put into a hole in the ground, and the
fpace around filled up with earth except on one fide, for
the convenience of putting bottles to the two pipes 5
then fome water was poured on the earth to fadden it,
and all that would drain off was fuffered to efcape.
Hence the earth may be confidered as faturated with
moifture. The foil was kept for fome weeks above the
level of the upper pipe, but after that it was conftantly
allowed to be a little below it, thus preventing any wa¬
ter from running off through that pipe. The top of
the foil for the firft year was bare ; but for the two laft
years it was covered with grafs like other turf. The
apparatus being thus prepared, a correft regifter was
kept of the quantity of rain water which ran off from
the furface of the earth by the upper pipe, as long as
that was below the earth, and alfo of the quantity of
water which paffed through the three feet of earth, and
ran off by the lower pipe ; and a rain gauge of an equal
diameter with the cylinder was kept near it, for the,
purpofe of meafuring the quantity of rain which fell in
any correfponding time. Then, by fubtra&ing the
quantity of water which paffed through the pipes from
that in the rain gauge, the remainder was confidered as
equal to the quantity evaporated from the furface of the
earth in the cylinder. The mean annual refult of thefe
experiments is Ihewn in the following table.
Water through the two pipes.
January
February
PTarch
April
May
June
July
Auguft
September
G<ftober
November
December
Rain
Evap.
1796-
Inch.
1.897—
1.778—
♦431—
.220—
2.027—
.171—
.200
6.877-
30.629-
23-723-
1797.
Inch.
.680—
.918—
.070—
.295—
2- 443 +
.726
.025
.976
.680
1.044
3- °77
1798.
Inch.
I-774+
1.122
•335
.180
.010
■5°4
I-594
1.878 +
Mean.
10.934—
38.791 —
1+57—
7-379
3I-259
23.862
Inch.
I-45° +
x-273
.279
.232
1 -493 +
.299
•o>9
.168
•325
.227
.879
1 • 718 +
8.402
Mean
Rain.
Mean
Evap.
Inch.
2- 458
1.801
902
1.717
4-x77
2.483
4-154
3- 554
3-279
2.899
2-934
3.202
3 3-5 60
Inch.
1.008
.528
.623
1.485
2.684
2.184
4-°95
3-386
2-954
2.672
2-055
1-484
25-158
It
METEOROLOGY.
3‘
Mean an¬
nual eva¬
poration
over the
globe.
3*
33
Clouds al¬
ways form
at fome
height.
It appears from lliefu experiments, that at Man-
chelter the mean annual evaporation of water is above
25 inches 5 and if we add to this with Mr Dalton 5
inches for the dew which falls, the whole quantity eva¬
porated in a year will be 30 inches. On the whole,
we may perhaps eftimate the mean annual evaporation
from the whole furfaee of the globe at 35 inches from
every fquare inch of furface, making the whole water
annually evaporated over the whole globe equal to
94.450 cubic miles.
Were this prodigious mafs of water all to fubfift in
the atmofphere at once, it would increafe irs mafs by
about tV, and raife the barometer nearly 3 inches.
But this never happens 5 no day paffes without rain in
fome part of the earth ■, fo that part of the evaporated
water is continually precipitated again. Indeed it would
be impoffible for the whole of the evaporated water to
fubfift in the atmofphere at once, at leaft in the Hate of
vapour.
The higher regions of the atmofphere contain lels
vapour than the ftrata near the furiace of the eaith.
This was obferved both by M. de Sauifure and M.
de Luc. - .
At fome height above the tops of mountains the at-
mofphere is probably ftill drier, for it was obferved by
Sauffure, that on the tops of mountains the moifture of
the air was rather lefs during the night than the day.
And there can be little doubt that every ftraturn of air
defeends a little lower during the night than it was
during the day, owing to the cooling and condenftng of
the ftratum neareft the earth. Vapours, however, mull
afeend very high, for we fee clouds forming far above
the tops of the higheft mountains.
Rain never begins to fall while the air is tranfparent 5
the invisible vapours firlt pafs their maximum, and are
changed into veftcular vapours } clouds are formed,
and thefe clouds gradually dilfolvc in rain. Clouds,
however, are not formed in all parts of the horizon at
the formation begins in one particular fpot,
once
* be Luc
la Mete-
oral. vol. ii,
100.
The forma¬
tion of
cloudi and
rain as yet
unexplain-
while the reft of the air remains clear as before 5 this
cloud rapidly increafes till it overfpreads the whole
horizon, and then the rain begins.
It is remarkable, that though the greateil quantity
of vapour exifts in the lower ftrata of the atmofphere,
clouds never begin to form there, but always at fome con-
fiderable height. It is remarkable too, that the pait of
the atmofphere at which they form has not arrived at
the point of extreme moilture, nor near that point, ev en
a moment before their formation. They are not formed
then becaufe a greater quantity of vapour had got into
the atmofphere than could remain there without pat mg
its maximum. It is ftill more remarkable, that \\ uen
clouds are formed, the temperature of the fpot m which
they are formed is not always lowered, though tins
may fometimes be the cafe. On the contrary, the neat
of the clouds themfelves is fometimes greater than tnat
of the furrounding air *. Nor is the formation^ of
clouds owing to the capacity of air for combining
with moifture being leflfened by cold j fo far trom that,
we often fee clouds which had remained in the atmo¬
fphere during the heat of the day,, difappear m the
■ night, after the heat of the air was diminished.
The formation of clouds and rain cannot be account¬
ed for by a fmgle principle with which we are acquaint¬
ed. It is neither owing to the faturation of the at-
3
mofphere, nor the diminution of the heat; nor the ■
mixture of airs of different temperatures, as Dr Hut¬
ton fuppofes : for clouds are often formed without any ,
wind at all either above or below them ; and even if
this mixture conftantly took place, the precipitation,,
inftead of accounting for rain, would be almoft imper¬
ceptible.
It is a very remarkable fact, that evaporation often
goes on for a month together in hot weather without
any rain. This fometimes happens in this country •, it
happens every year in the torrid zone. Thus at Cal¬
cutta, during January 1785, it never rained at all j
the mean of the thermometer for the rvhole month
Avas 6610 } there Avas no high Avind, and indeed during
great part of the month little Avind at all.
The quantity of water evaporated during fuch a
drought mult be very great; yet the moifture of the
air, inftead of being increafed, is conftantly diminifli-
ing, and at laft difappears almoft entirely. For the
dew, Avhich is at firft copious, diminifhes every night;
and if Dr Watfon’s experiment formerly mentioned
be attended to, it Avill not be objected that the quan¬
tity of evaporation is alio very much diminiftied. Of
the very dry ftate to Avhich the atmofphere is reduced
during long droughts, the violent thunder-ftorms Avith
Avhich they often conclude is a very decifive proof.
Now Avhat becomes of all this moifture ? It is not ac¬
cumulated in the atmofphere above the country from
Avhich it Avas evaporated, otherwife the Avhole atmo¬
fphere would in a much lefs period than a month be
perfectly faturated with moifture. If it be carried up
daily through the different ftrata. of the atmofphere,
and Avafted to other regions by fuperior currents of air,
how is it poflible to account for the different electrical
ftate of the clouds fituated betAveen different ftrata,
Avhich often produces the molt violent thunder-ftorms ?
They could not have remained in the lower ftrata of
the atmofphere, and been daily carried off by Avinds to
other countries •, for there are often no A\Tinds at all
during feveral days to perform this office $ nor in that
cafe Avould the dews diminiih, nor could their prefence
fail to be indicated by the hygrometer.
It is impoffible for us to account tor this remarkable
faft upon any principle Avith Avhich avc are acquainted.
The Avater can neither remain in the atmofphere, noi
pafs through it in the ftate of vapour. It muft there¬
fore affume fome other form } but Avhat that form is,
or how it aftumes it, avc know not. 1 here are, therefore,
tAVo fteps of the procefs Avhich takes place between eva¬
poration and rain, with Avhicli avc are entirely unac¬
quainted ; firft, the ftate of the vapour after it enters
into the atmofphere, and fecond, the cautc by Avhich it
is made to lay afide the nerv form which it affuroed, re¬
turn to its Hate of vapour, and defeend in form of rain.
Several theories have been contrived to account for
this phenomenon, but they are all untenable on the pre-
fent knoAvn laws of chemical action.
The mean annual quantity of rain is greateft at the
equator, and decreafes gradually as we approach the poles.
Thus at Granada, Antilles, 1 2° N. Lat, it is 126 inches.
717
vapora-
ion and
Rain.
Cape Francois, St Doming© 19'
Calcutta - * 22
Rome - - " 41
England - - 33
Peterfburgh , - - 59
46'
23
54
o
16
120
81
39
16
On
„ • ,5
Ilainy days
often more
numerous in
'winter.
71B M E T E O
^rnnTnd ^lc contral7> the number of rainy days is fmall-
Kaiii at efluat°r» and incrtafes in proportion to the
< diftance from it. From N. Lat. 1 20 to 430 the mean
number of rainy days is 78 ; from 430 to 46° the mean
number is 103 5 from 46° to 50° it is 134 ; from 510
to 6o°, 161 days.
I he number of rainy days is often greater in winter
than in fummer y but the quantity ot rain is oreater m
fummer than in winter. At Peterfburgh, the number
of rainy or fnowy days during winter is 84, and the
quantity which falls is only about 5 inches ; during
fummer the number of rainy days is nearly the fame&
but the quantity which falls is about 11 inches.
More rain falls in mountainous countries than in
plains. Among the Andes it is faid to rain almoft
perpetually, while in Egypt it fcarcely ever rains at all.
If a rain-gauge be placed on the ground, and another
at fome height perpendicularly above it, more rain will
be colle&ed into the lower than into the higher ; a
proof that the quantity of rain increafes as it defeends,
owing perhaps to the drops attra&ing vapour during
their paiTage through the lower ftrata of the atmofphere
where the greatell quantity refides. This, however,
is not always the cafe, as Mr Copland of Dumfries
difeovered in the courfe of his experiments. He ob-
ferved alfo, that when the quantity of rain colleaed in
the lower gauge was greateft, the rain commonly con¬
tinued for fome time ; and that the greatell; quantity
■was collefled in the higher gauge only either at the end
of great rains, or during rains which did not halt long.
Thefe obfervations are important, and may, if followed
out, give us new knowledge of the caufes of rain.
I hey feem to Ihow, that during rain the atmofphere
is fomehow or other brought into a Hate which induces
it to part with its moifture 5 and that the rain continues
as long as this Hate continues. Were a fufficient
number of obfervations made on this fubjedl in different
places, and were the atmofphere carefully analyfed du¬
ring dry weather, during rain, and immediately after
rain, we might foon perhaps difeover the true theory of
rain.
Rain falls in all feafons of the year, at all times of
day than in the daf> and durir>g the night as well as the day j
the night, though, according to M. loaldo, a greater quantity
falls during thesday than the night. The caufe of rain,
then, whatever it may be, mutt be fomething which
operates at all times and feafons. Rain falls alfo du¬
ring the continuance of every wind, but ofteneft when
the wind blows from the fouth. Falls of rain often
37 happen likewife during perfedt calms.
Mean an- It appears from a paper published by M. Cotte in
thy'T^n the Jrj“rna/ de Physique (or Odlober 1791, containing
m <>o r» n 11 f-»Fir 11 ... _ a. ■« —
36
More rain
fa 1 is in the
R ° L ° G Y- Chap. m.
bable therefore, if the imperfeaion of our data warrant
any conclufion, that fome of the vapour is adlually de- tioil and
compofed in the atmofphere, and converted into oxygen llain-
and hydrogen gas. J 6 '
The dry land amounts to 52,745,253 fquare miles :
the quantity of ram falling on it annually therefore
will amount to 30,960 cubic miles. The quantity of
water running annually into the Iba is 13,140 cubic
miles ; a quantity of water equal to which muft be fup-
plied by evaporation from the fea, otherwife the land
would foon be completely drained of its mofture.
.The quantity of rain falling annually in Great Bri¬
tain may be feen from the following table :
:ity 01 ram ^ / . r ... ~ ty-i —““““***!
in (ireat the mean quantity of rain falling at 147 places, fitua-
Ikitain ted between N. Lat. ii° and 6o°, deduced from tables
kept at thefe places, that the mean annual quantity of
rain falling in all thefe places is 34.7 inches. Let us
fuppofe then (which cannot be very far from the truth),
that the mean annual quantity of rain for the whole is
34 inches. The fuperficies of the globe confifts of
170,981,01 2 fquare miles, or 686,401,498,47 1,475,200
fooare inches. The quantity of ram, therefore, falling
annually will amount to 23,337^50,81 2,030,156,800
cubic inches, or fomewhat more than 91,751 cubic miles
of water. This is ■ 6.191 cubic miles of water lefs
than ihe quantity of water evaporated. It feems pro-
Years of
obfervation.
8
8
45
5
8
18
7
5
H
10
5
5
20
8
Places.
Rain in
Inches.
Dover
Ware, Hertfordfhire
London
Kimbolton
Lyndon
Chatfworth, Derbyfhire
Mancheiler
Liverpool
Lancatier
Kendal
Dumfries
Branxholm, 44 miles S. W. of
Berwick
Langholm
Dalkeith
G lafgow
Hawkhill
Mean
37-52
23.6
17-5
23-9
22.21
27.865
43-i
34-41
4°-3
61.223
36.127
3r-26
36.73
25.124
31-
28.966
32.532
Mr Dalton has eftimated the quantity of rain that
falls in England at 21 inches j but as no account is ta¬
ken of what falls in Wales and Scotland, this eftimate
probably falls much fhort of the real annual quantity.
In this country it generally rains lefs in March than in
November, in the proportion at a medium of 7 to 12.
It generally rains lefs in April than Oaober, in the
proportion c>f 1 to 2 nearly at a medium. It generally
rains lefs in May than September j the chances that
it does fo are at leaf! as 4 to 3 : but when it rains plen¬
tifully in May, it generally rains but little in Septem¬
ber ; and when it rains one inch or lefs in May, it rains
plentifully in September.
The degree of moifture that is prefent in the atmo¬
fphere at any given time, is meafured by the hygrome¬
ter. Under the article Hygrometer we have amply
deicribed feveral of the moft important inftruments of
that kind; but there is one hygrometer, viz. that of
My Lefiie, which remains to be delcnbed in this place.
Figures of the inftrument are given in Plate CCLXXVI.
%• I3, I4-
T he principal part of the inftrument is compofed of Leflie,8s hy-
two glafs tubes terminated by hollow balls, one tranf-grometer.
parent and the other opaque. The tubes are fele&ed, as
regular as. poffible, from 4 to 8 inches long, and about
of an inch thick, or as {lender as thofe employed
for
Chap. HI.
Evapora- for thermometers, but with a much wider bore. This,
tion and in one tube, mult be from ^ to the of an inch in
Rain- diameter, and an exad calibre, at leaft not differing
v by T'o between both its extremities. To the end of it
a frnall piece of black enamel is attached, and blown
into an opaque ball, from 4 to of an inch diameter.
The correfponding tube may have its bore of the fame,
or rather a greater width, but its uniformity is not at
all effential. Near the extremity it is fwclled out into
a thin cylinder, almoft To an and from
To to T6o l°ng > inner cavity only being enlarged,
without altering the exterior regularity of the tube.
The Ihort bit of glafs where this cylinder terminates,
is now blown into a thin pellucid ball, as nearly of
the fxze of the former as the eye can judge. The ex-
aft equality of the balls would be unattainable, and
fortunately the theory of the inftrument does not re¬
quire it. When a dark and a bright objeft are viewed
together, the latter, from an optical deception, appears
always larger than the reality ; and for this reafon, fays
Mr Lellie, I prefer making the clear ball a flight de¬
gree fmaller than the black one. In the mean time
a coloured liquor is prepared by diffolving carmine in
concentrated fulphuric acid, in a phial with a ground
Hopper, taking care to avoid heat, as by this the colour¬
ing-matter would be charred, and the beauty of the
liquor deftroyed.
The tubes are now cut to nearly equal lengths, and
the end of each fvvelled out a little, to facilitate their
junftion. Clofe to the black ball, the tube is bent by
the flame of a candle into a fhoulder, fuch, that the
root of the ball fhall come into a line with the inner
edge of the tube. This ball, being then warmed, the
end of the tube is dipt into the acid liquor, and as
much of it allowed to rife and flow into the cavity, as
may be gueffed fufficient to fill both tubes, excepting
the cylinder. The two tubes are then, by the help of a
blow-pipe, folidly joined together in one ftraight piece,
without having any knot or protuberance. About
half an inch from the joining, and nearer the cylinder,
it is gently bent round by the flame of a candle, till
the clear ball is brought to touch the tube ^ inch
direftly below the black one. The inflrument is now
to be graduated ; and the fcale chofen by Mr Leflie is
that which correfponds to the centigrade thermometer.
Mr Leflie thus deferibes the mode of graduating the
inffrument.—The inftrument is held in an oblique
pofition, that the coloured liquor may colleft at the
bottom of the black ball, into which a few minute
portions of air mull, from time to time, be forced
over, by heating the oppofite ball with the hand.
In this way, the interpofed liquid will gradually be
made to defeend into the tube, and affume its pro¬
per place ; and it fhould remain for a week or two
in an inclined pofition, to let every particle drain
out of the black ball. If any trace of fluid collefts in
rings within the bore, they are eafily difpelled with
a little dexterity and manipulation, which, though it
would be difficult to deferibe, is moil readily learnt
and praftifed. The fmall cavity at the joining facili¬
tates the reftification, by affording the means of fend¬
ing a globule of air in either direftion. In fixing the
zero of the fcale, Mr Lellie fet the inftrument in a re¬
mote corner of the room, or partly clofed the window-
719
fhutters. When completely adjufted, the top of the Evapora-
coloured liquor, if held upright, fhould Hand nearly
oppofite to the middle of the cylindrical refervoir.
In this ftate of preparation, the inilrument is ready
for being graduated, i he clear bail and the conti¬
guous part of the parallel tube are therefore covered
with two or three folds of thin bibulous paper, moiilen-
ed with pure water, to make it aft as a hygrometer j
and there is attached to the fame tube a temporary
fcale, by means of a foft cement compofed of bees-wax
and rofin. A flat round piece of wood being provided
with four or five pillars that ferew into it, the inflru¬
ment is fixed to one of them in an ereft pofition, and
on each fide is difpofed a fine correfponding thermome¬
ter, inverted, and at the fame height, the one having
its bulb covered with wet bibulous paper. Then half
a yard of flannel is dried as much as poffible without
fingeing, before a good fire, and rolling it up like a
fleeve, it is lapped loofely round the lower part of the
pillars, and the whole is inclofed under a large bell-
glafs. The flannel powerfully abforbs moiliure from
the confined air, and creates an artificial drynefs of 80
or 100 degrees. In the fpace of a quarter or half an
hour, the full effeft is produced, and the quantities
being noted at two or three feparate times, the mean
refuits are adopted. The defeent, meafured by the
temporary fcale, being then augmented in the propor¬
tion of ten to the difference of the two thermometers,
will give the length that correfponds to too0. After
the ftandard inftrument is conftrufted, others are thence
graduated with the utmoft eafe > the firft being planted
in the centre, and the reft, with their temporary feales,
ftuck to the encircling pillars. For greater accuracy,
the obfervation fhould be made in a room without a
fire, or a fereen ought to be interpofed between the
fire and the apparatus.
The flips of ivory intended for the feales are divided
into equal parts, and fhould contain from loo° to 150°.
The edges are filed down and chamfered, to fit eafily
between the parallel tubes-, and they are fecured in
their place by a ftrong folution of ifinglafs. The
lower ball and its annexed cylinder, are covered with
thin filk of the fame colour as the upper ball, and a
few threads are likewife lapped about that part of the
tube which it touches. The inftrument is laftly ce¬
mented into a piece of wood, either end of which ad¬
mits a cylindrical cafe that ferves equally to proteft or
to hold it. On other occafions, the hygrometer is in-
ferted into the focket of a round bottom-piece where it
Hands vertical.
The above defeription refers particularly to fig. 14.
Fig. 13. differs from this, only in having the balls of an
equal height, and bended in oppofite direftions, which
Mr Leflie confiders as more convenient for fome purpofes
to which the inftrument is applied, to be mentioned
hereafter, but which renders the inftrument lefs portable.
The aftion of this hygrometer depends on the follow- Theory of
ing principle; That the cold produced by evaporation the inltru-
wlll accurately denote the degree of drynefs of the air, ment.
or its di/lance from the point of futuration. To difeover
the drynefs or humidity of the air, therefore, we have
only to find the change of temperature induced in a
body of water infulated, or expofed on all tides to eva¬
poration. The fteps which led Mr Leflie from thefe
Ample
METEOR OLOG Y.
4
METEOROLOGY.
filnple principles to the cohftru61ion of the prefent in¬
genious inftrument, are detailed by him in a paper
publithed in Nicholfon’s Journal for January 1800, to
which we mud refer our readers for the particulars,
contenting ourfelves with the following fummary
Chap. IV. Of the Changes produced in the Air by
Winds.
ring fummary
view.
It two thermometers be filled with any expanlible
fluid, and having the bulb of the one wet and the
other dry, they will, by their difference, denote the
ilate of the air in relpeil to humidity. Pvlr Leflie’s
obj'-cfl was to combine two fuch inflruments, fo that
they Ihould indicate merely their difference of tempera¬
ture-, and this objecl he has completely attained by the
prefent inffrument. Inordinary cafes, the intermediate
liquor would continue flationary ; for the air in both
bails having the fame temperature, and confequently
the fame elaflicity, the oppofite preffures would precifely
counteracf each other ; but if, from the a<9ion of the
external air on the moittened furface, one ball became
colder, it is manifed the liquor would be pufhed to¬
wards it by the fuperior eladieity of the air included in
the other ball, fo as to mark, by the fpace of its ap¬
proach, the depreflion of temperature induced by eva¬
poration.
This indrument does not merely point out the drynefs
-of the air •, it enables us to determine the abfolute quan¬
tity of moidure which it is capable of imbibing : for
the converfion of water into fleam is found to confume
5240 of the centigrade divifion 5 and evaporation, ana¬
logous in its effects, may be prefumed to occafion the
fame wade of heat. If, therefore, air had the fame
capacity as water, for each degree of the hygrometer
it would depofit as much heat as it would abflradl by
diffolving the ])art its weight of humidity.
But the capacity of air is to that of water as 11 to fix,
and confequently it rvould require in that proportion a
greater evaporation to produce the fame effeft. We
may hence conclude, that, for each hygrometric degree,
the air -would require V X xvao or Wyg- Part by
weight of water to effedl faturation.
Stridlly ipeaking, the degrees marked by this hygro¬
meter do not meafure the drynefs of the air at its adlual
temperature, but only its date of drynefs when cooled
down to the dandard of the wet ball. The law, how¬
ever, being known of the diffolving power of air as
affefled by heat, it is eafy, from the difpofition of the air
with refpeft to humidity at one temperature to derive
that at any other. It will fuffice to mention the refult
of a number of careful experiments :—Suppofing air at
the freezing point to be capable of holding jo parts
of mohiure ; at io° centigrade, it will hold ico ; at
20°, 200 at 30°, 400 \ thus doubling at each increafe
of io°. Hence a table may be conflrudted by which
thefe converfions will be eafily made.
To omit nothing that tends to elucidate the theory
©f the indrument, we mud obferve that the air in its
contact with the humid furface is not abfolutely cooled
to the fame temperature j the air and water really
meet each other at an intermediate point determined
by their compounded denfity and capacity. Con¬
fequently the indications of the hygrometer ought to
ne augmented by the part, or V -j-
But this quantity is too fmall in any cafe to be re¬
garded.
40
In confidering the fubjedt of winds, we fhall firff
briefly detail their natural hiffory, fo far as it has not
been already anticipated, and flrail then endeavour to
trace the laws by which they are regulated, or explain
the manner in which their varieties are produced. As
the diredlion of the winds is of the greatefl confequence,
efpecially in a commercial view, we thall firfl point out
the direction of the mod prevalent winds in various
quarters of the world.
Between the tropics the winds are the mod regular,
In thofe parts of the Pacific and Atlantic oceans which winds,
lie neared the equator, there is a regular wind during
the whole year called the trade-windi On the north
fide of the equator it blows from the north-eaft, varying
frequently a point or two towards the north or eafl •,
and on the fouth fide of it, fiom the fouth-ead, chan¬
ging fometim.es in the fame manner towards the fouth or
ead. The fpace included between the fecond and fifth
degrees of north latitude is the internal limit of thefe
two winds. There the winds can neither be faid to
blow from the north nor the fouth ; calms and violent
dorms are frequent. This fpace varies a little in lati¬
tude as the fun approaches either of the tropics. In
the Atlantic ocean the trade-winds extend farther north
on the American than on the African coadj and as w e
advance wed ward, they become gradually mere eafler-
ly, and decrcafe in drength. Their force diminiftres
likewife as we approach their utmofl boundaries. It
has been remarked alfo, that as the fun approaches the
tropic of cancer, the fouth-eafl w inds become gradually
more foutherly, and the north-eaft winds more eafterly :
exadlly the contrary takes place when the fun is ap¬
proaching the tropic of capricorn.
The trade-wind blows conftantly in the Indian ocean ;yfonfoons.
from io° fouth latitude to near 30°5 but to the north¬
ward of this the winds change every fix months, and
blow diredlly oppofite to their former courfe. Thefe
regular winds are called motifuons, from the Malay
word moojfin, which fignifies a feafon. When they
drift their diredfion, variable winds and violent dorms
fucceed, w hich lad for a month, and frequently longer 5
and during that time it is dangerous for veffels to con¬
tinue at fea.
The monfoons in the Indian ocean may be reduced
to twTo 5 one on the north and another on the fouth fide
of the equator ; which extend from Africa to the lon¬
gitude of New Holland and the eaft coaft of China,
and which differ partial changes in particular places
from the fituation and infiedlion of the neighbouring
countries.
Between 30 and io° of fouth latitude the fouth-ead
trade-wind continues from April to October; but dur¬
ing the reft of the year the wind blow's from the north-
wed. Between Sumatra and New Holland this
monfoon blows from the fouth during our dimmer
months, approacbh g gradually to the fouth-eaft as we
advance towards the coaft of New Holland ; it changes
about the end of September, and continues in the op¬
pofite diredtion till April. Between Africa and Mada-
gafear its diredlion is influenced by the coaft ; for it
blows
the
the
METEOR
north-eaft from October to April,
reft of the year
from the fouth-
Indian ocean to the northward of the
44
Of mon-
faons.
Chap. IV.
Winds, blows from
—V““'' and during
weft.
TV edt’on Over all the
third degree of fouth latitude, the north-eaft trade-wind
trade-wind' blows from Oftober to April, and a fouth-weft wind from
throughout to October. From Borneo, along the coaft of
the year. Malacca an^ as far as China, this monfoon in fummer
blows nearly from the louth, and in winter from the
north by eaft. Near the coaft of Africa, between Mo¬
zambique and Cape Guardafeu, the winds are irregular
during the whole year, owing to the different monioons
which furround that particular place.—Monfoons are
likewife regular in the Red fea} between April and
October they blow from the north-weft, and during the
other months from the fouth-eaft, keeping conftantly
parallel to the coaft of Arabia.
Monfoons are not altogether confined to the Indian
ocean j pn the coaft of Brazil, between Cape St Au-
guftine and the ifland of St Catharine, the wind blows
between September and April from the eaft or north-
eaft, and between April and September from the fouth-
weft:. The bay of Panama is the only place on the
weft fide of a great continent where the wind Ihifts
regularly at different feafons: there it is eafterly
between September and March ; but between March
and September it blows chiefly from the fouth and
fouth-weft.
Such in general is the dire&ion of the winds in the
torrid zone all over the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian
oceans j but they are fubjeft to particular exceptions,
which we fliall now endeavour to enumerate. On the
coaft of Africa, from Cape Bayador to Cape Verde,
the winds are generally north-weft j from thence to
the ifland of St Thomas near the equator they blow al-
moft perpendicular to the fliore, bending gradually as
we advance fouthwards, firft to the weft and then to
the fouth-weft. On the coaft of Ncav Spain likewife,
from California to the bay of Panama, the winds blow
almoft conftantly from the weft or fouth-weft, except
during May, June, and July, when land-Avinds prevail,
called by the Spaniards Popogayos. On the coaft of
Chili and Peru, from 20° to 30° fouth latitude, to the
equator, and on the parallel coaft of Africa, the wind
blows during the whole year from the fouth, varying
according to the direftion of the land towards which
it inclines, and extending much farther out to fea on
the American than the African coaft. The trade-
winds are alfo interrupted fometimes by wefterly
winds in the bay of Campeachy and the bay of Hon¬
duras.
As to the countries between the tropics, we are
too little acquainted with them to be able to give a
fatisfaftory hiftory of their winds.
In all maritime countries betsveen the tropics, of any
extent, the wind blows during a certain number of
hours every day from the fea, and during a certain
number towards the fea from the land •, thefe winds are
called the fea and land breezes. The fea breeze ge¬
nerally fets in about 10 in the forenoon, and blows till
fix in the evening •, at feven the land breeze begins and
continues till eight in the morning, when it dies away.
During fummer the fea breeze is very perceptible on all
the coafts of the Mediterranean fea, and even fometimes
as far north as Norway.
Vol. XIII. Part II.
„ 45 ,
Of fea and
land
fcreezes.
46
O L O G Y.
In the ifland of St Lewis on the coaft of Africa, in
16° north latitude, and 160 weft longitude, the wind
during the rainy leafon, which lalls from the middle of
July to the middle of October, is generally between
the fouth and the eaft : during the reft of the year it is
for the moft part eult or north-caft in the morning j but
as the fun rifes, the wind approaches gradually towards
the north, till about noon it gets to the weft of north,
and is called a fea breeze. Sometimes it fluffs to the
eait as the fun defcends, and continues there during the
whole night. In February, March, April, May and
June, it blows almoft conftantly between the north and
weft. In the iliand of Bulama, which likewife lies 011
the weft coaft of Africa, in ll° north latitude, the wind
during nine months of the year blows from the fouth-
weft ; but in November and December, a very cold
wind blows from the north-eaft.
In the kingdom of Bornou, which lies between 160
and 20° north latitude, the warm feafon is introduced
about the middle of April by fultry winds from the fouth-
eaft, which bring along with them a deluge of rain. In
Fezzan, in 250 north latitude, and 350 eaft longitude,
the wind from May to Auguft blows from the eaft
fouth-eaft, or fouth-weft, and is intenfely hot.
In Abyffinia the winds generally blow from the winds in
weft, north-weft, north, and north-eaft. During the Abyffinia.
months of June, July, Auguft, September and October,
the north and north-eaft winds blow almoft conftantly,
efpecially in the morning and evening 5 and during the
reft of the year they are much more frequent than any
other winds. ^
At Calcutta, in the province of Bengal, the wind At Calcut-
blows during January and February from the fouth-ta.
weft and fouth ; in March, April, and May from the
fouth ; in June, July, Auguft, and September, from
the fouth and fouth-eaft ; in October, November, and
December, from the north-weft. At Madras the moft
frequent winds are the north and north-eaft.—At Ti¬
voli in St Domingo, and the ifles des Vaches, the wind
blows ofteneft from the fouth and fouth-eaft. From
thefe faffs it appears, that in moft tropical countries
with which we are acquainted, the wind generally
blows from the neareft ocean, except during the coldeft
months, when it blows towards it. ,
In the temperate zones the direffion of the wind is In t^e temi!
by no means fo regular as between the tropics. Evenperate
in the fame degree of latitude, we find them often zones,
blowing in different direffions at the fame time, while
their changes are often fo hidden and capricious, that
to account for them has been hitherto found impoflible.
When winds are violent and continue long, they ge¬
nerally extend over a large tract of country \ and this
is more certainly the cafe when they blow from the
north-eaft, than from any other points. By the multi¬
plication and comparifon of meteorological tables, fome
regular conneffion between the changes of the atmo-
fphere in different places may in time be obferved,
which will at laft lead to a fatisfaffory theory of the
winds. It is from fuch tables chiefly that the following
faffs have been colleffed.
In Virginia, the prevailing winds are between the in Virginia,
fouth-wef, 'weji, north, and north-wefl; the moft fre¬
quent is the fouth-wejl; which blows more conftantly
in June, July, and Auguft, than at any other feafon.
The north-weft winds blow moft conftantly in Novem-
4 Y . ber,
5°
In Egypt.
51
In the Me
diterra-
r.ean.
52
la Syria.
53
In Italy.
ber, December, January, and February. At Ipfwieli
in l\ew England, the prevailing winds are alfo be¬
tween the fouth-weft, weft, north, and north-eaft ; the
moft frequent is the north-weft. But at Cambridge, in
the fame province, the moft frequent wind is the fouth-
eaft. The predominant winds at New York are the
north and weft. Tn Nova Scotia north-weft winds
blow for three-fourths of the year. The fame wind
blow's moft frequently at Montreal in Canada, but at
Quebec the wind generally follows the direction of the
river St Lawrence, blowing either from the north-eaft
or fouth-weft. At Hudfon’s bay wefterly winds blow
for three-fourths of the year j the north-weft wind oc-
eafions the greateft cold ; but the north and north-eaft
are the vehicles of fnow.
It appears from there fads, that wefterly winds are
moft; frequent over the whole eaftcrn coaft of North
America 5 that in the fouthern provinces fouth-weft
winds predominate, and that the north-weft become
gradually more frequent as we approach the frigid
zone.
In Egypt, during part oi May, and during June,
July, Auguft, and September, the rvind blow7s almoft
conftantly from the north, varying fometimes in June
to the weft, and in July to the weft and the eaft j dur¬
ing part of September, and in Odober and November,
the winds are variable, but blow more regularly from
the eaft than any other quarter } in December, January,
and February, they blow7 from the north, north-weft,
and wrnft } towards the end of February they change to
the fouth, in which quarter they continue till near the
end of March ; during the laft days of March and in
April they blow from the fouth-eaft, fouth, and fouth-
weft, and at lafl from the eaft ; and in this diredion
they continue during a part of May.
In the Mediterranean the w'ind blowrs nearly three-
fouitns of the year from the north 5 about the equi¬
noxes there is always an eafterly w'ind in that fea,
which is generally more conftant in fpring than in au¬
tumn. Thefe obfervations do not apply to the gut of
Gibraltar, where there are feldom any vdnds except
the eaft and the weft. At Baftia, in the ifland of Cor-
fica, the prevailing wind is the fouth-weft.
In Syria the north wind blows from the autumnal
equinox to November j during December, January,
and February, the winds blow from the weft and fouth-
weft ; in March they blow from the fouth, in May
from the eaft, and in June from the north. From this
month to the autumnal equinox the wind changes
gradually as the fun approaches the equator ; firft°to
the eaft, then to the fouth, and laltly to the rveft. At
Bagdad the moft frequent winds are the fouth-weft and
north-weft 5 at Pekin, the north and the fouth 5 at
Kamtfchatka, on the north-eaft coaft of Afia, the pre¬
vailing winds blow from the weft.
In Italy the prevailing w'inds differ confiderably ac¬
cording to the ntuation of the places where the obfer¬
vations have been made. At Rome and Padua they
are northerly, at Milan eafterly. All that we have
been able to learn refpeding Spain and Portugal is,
that on the weft coaft of thefe countries the weft is by
far the moft common wind, particularly in fummer ;
and that at Madrid the wind is north-eaft for the
greateft part of the fummer, blowing almoft conftantly
from the Pyrenean mountains. At Berne in Switzer-
METEOROLOGY.
Chap. IV,
land, the prevailing winds are the north and weft j at Winds.
St Gothard, the north-eaft ; at Laufanne the north-weft ' J
and fouth-w7eft.
M. Cotte has given us the refultof obfervations madeRefu5It4of
at 86 difterent places of Irance, from which it ap-M. Cotte’s
pears, that along the whole fouth coaft of that empire obferva-
the wind blows moft frequently from the north, north-tions 011 the
v'eft, and north-eaft : on the weft coaft, from the weft^J0";1*
fouth-weft, and north-weft j and on the north coaftinFranc*.
from the fouth-weft. That in the interior parts of
Irance the fouth w'eft wind blows moft frequently in 18
places ; the weft wind in 14 ; the north in 13 ; the
fouth in 6; the north-eaft in 4; the fouth-eaft in 2 ; the
eaft and north-weft each of them in one. On the weft
coatt of the Netherlands, as far north as Rotterdam,
the prevailing winds are probably the fouth-weft ; at
leaft this is the cafe at Dunkirk and Rotterdam. It is
probable alfo, that along the reft of this coaft, from
the Hague to Hamburgh, the prevailing winds are the
north-weft, at leal) thefe winds are molt frequent at
the Hague and at Franeker. The prevailing wind at
Delft is the fouth-eaft, and at Breda the north and the
eaft.
In Germany the eaft wdnd is moft frequent at Got- Direction
tingen, Munich, \v eiilemburg, Dufteldorft, Saganum, of the winds
Erford, and at Buda in Hungary; the fouth-eaft atinGerma-
Prague and Wirtfburg; the north-eaft at Ratifbtm,ny*
and the weft at Manheim and Berlin. ^
From an average of 10 years of the regifter kept by At London.
01 dei of the Royal Society, it appears, that at London
the winds blow in the following order :
Winds.
South-weft
North-eaft
North-weft
Weft
Days.
I I 2
58
5©
53
Winds.
South-eaft
Eaft
South
North
Days.
32
26
18
16
It appears from the fame regifter, that the fouth-weft
wind blows at an average more frequently than any
other wind during every month of the year, and that it
blows longeit in July and Auguft ; that the north-eaft
blows moft conftantly during January, March, April,
May, and June, and moft feldom during February, Ju¬
ly, September, and December ; and that the north-weft
wind blows oftener from November to March, and
more feldom during September and Odober, than any
other months. I he fouth-weft winds are alfo moft
frequent at Briftol, and next to them are the north-
eaft.
The following table of the winds at Lancafter has Xabl^of
been drawn up from a regifter kept for feven years at winds at
that place.
Winds. Days. Winds.
South-weft 92 South-eaft
North-eaft 67 North
South jr North-weft
Weft 41 Eaft
Lancafter.
The following table is an abftratft of nine
fervations made at Dumfries by Mr Copland.
Days.
35
3©
26
years ob-
58
At Dum¬
fries.
Winds.
South
Weft
Eaft
South-weft
Days.
824-
69
68
5°2-
Winds,
North
North-weft
South-eaft
North-eaft
Days.
36-J
254-
184
144
The
Chap. IV.
METEOR
Winds.
59
At Cam-
Bullang.
The following table is an abftraft of feven years ob-
fervations, made by Dr Meek at Cambuflang, near
Glafgow.
Winds. . Bays. Winds. Days.
South-weft 174 Norlh-eaft 104
North-weft 40 South-eaft 47
It appears from the regifter from which this table
was extracted, that the north-eait wind blows much
more frequently in April, May, and June, and the fouth-
weft in July, Auguft, and September, than at any other
period. We learn from the Statillical Account of Scot¬
land, that the fouth-weft is by far the moft frequent
wind all over that kingdom, efpecially on the weft coaft.
At Saltcoats in Ayrihire, for inftance, it blows three-
fourths of the year ; and along the whole coaft of Mur¬
ray on the north-eaft fide of Scotland, it blows for two-
thirds of the year. Eaft winds are common over all
Great Britain during April and May; but their influ-
tnce is felt moft feverely on the eaftern coaft.
The following table exhibits a view of the number
of days during which the wefterly and eafterly winds
blow in a year, at different parts of the ifland. Under
the term wefterly are included the north-weft, weft,
fouth-weft, and fouth ; the term eafterly is taken in
the fame latitude.
Years of
obferva-
tion.
10
7
51
9
10
7
8
Places.
Wefterly Eafterly
London
Lancafter
Liverpool
Dumfries
Branxholm
Cambuflang
Hawkhill near Edin.
Medium
Wind.
233
2x6
190
227-5
232
214
229.5
132
149
175
I37-5
*33
I5I
'35-5
220.3
143.7
»ire<ftion In Ireland, the fouth-weft and weft are the grand
the winds trade-winds, blowing moft in fummer, autumn, and
in Ireland, winter, and leaft in fpring. The north-eaft: blows
moft in fpring, and nearly double to what it does in au¬
tumn and winter. The fouth-weft and north-weft are
nearly equal, and are moft frequent after the fouth-weft
6l and weft.
At Copen- At Copenhagen the prevailing winds are the eaft
hagen, and a„d fouth-eaft ; at Stockholm, the weft and north. In
SnKuffia. Ru{pia? from an average of a regifter of 16 vears, the
winds blow from November to April in the following
order.
W. N.W. E. S.W. S. N.E N. S.E.
Days 45 26 23 12 20 19 14 12
And during the other fix months,
W. N.W. E. S.W. S. N.E. N. S.E.
Days 27 27 19 24 22 15 32 18
The weft wind blows during the whole year 72 days-,
the north-weft 53, the fouth-weft and north 46 days
each. During fummer it is calm for 41 days, and du¬
ring winter for 21. In Norway the moft frequent
6l
O L O G Y.
winds are the fouth, the fouth-we ft and fouth-eaft. The
wind at Bergen is feldora diredtly well, cut generally
fouth-weft or fouth-eaft ; a north-weft, and elpecially a
north-eaft wind, are but little known there.
From the whole of thele fads, it appears that the
moft frequent winds on the fouth coai s of Em ope are
the north, the nurth-eaft and north-weft, and on the
weftern coa the fouth-weft 5 that in the interior parts
which lie moft contiguous to the Atlantic ocean, fouth-
weft winds are alfo moft frequent j but that ealierly
winds prevail in Germany. Vveiietly winds are alfo
moft frequent on the north-ea- coaft of Afia.
It is probable that the winds are more conftant in
the fouth temperate zone, which is in a great meafure
covered with water, than in the north temperate zones,
where their diredion mull be frequently interrupted and
altered by mountains and other caufes.
M. de la Bailie, who was fent thither by the French Main winds
king to make aftronomical obfervations, informs us, that ^ ^^ape
at the Cape of Good Hope the main winds are the^^
fouth-eaft and hoith-weft ; that other winds feldom laft
longer than a few hours -, and that the eaft and north-
eaft winds blow very feldom. The fouth-eaft wind
blows in moft months of the year, but chiefly from
Odober to April -, the north-weft prevails during the
other fix months, bringing along with it rain, and tem-
pefts, and hurricanes. Between the Cape of Good
Hope and New Holland the winds are commonly
wetterly, and blow in the following order : north-weft,
fouth-weft, weft, north. 63
In the great South fea, from latitude 30° to 40° In the Pa-
fouth, the fouth-eaft trade-wind blows moft frequently,ede ocean,
efpecially when the fun approaches the tropic of Capri¬
corn -, the wind next to it in frequency is the north-
weft, and next to that is the fotlth-weft.
Thus it appears that the trade-winds fometimes ex¬
tend farther into the fouth temperate zone than their
ufual limits, particularly during fummer-, that beyond
their influence the winds are commonly wetterly, and
that they blow in the following order: north-weft,
fouth-weft, weft. ^
We have now confidered pretty much at large the Theory of
dire dion of the winds in different parts of the earth’s the winds,
furface. Another very curious part of the hiftory of
the winds relates to their violence, and the effeds with
which they are attended, or to the hiftory of hurricanes,
whirlwinds, tornadoes, &c. Of fome of thefe we have
already treated under the articles Hurricane and
Harmattan -, and the confined limits of this article
oblige us to refer eur readers for more particulars to
Capper’s Obfervations on the Winds and Mon-
foons. _ 53
As to the velocity of the wind, its variations are al- Velocity of
moft infinite, from the gentleft breeze, to the hurricane the winds
which tears up trees and blows down houfes. Our moll '‘i; olt in*!-
violent winds take place when neither the heat nor the^® y
cold is greatelt 5 violent winds generally extend over a
large trad of country, and they are accompanied with
hidden and great falls in the mercury of the barometer.
The wind is fometimes very violent at a diftance from
the earth, while it is quite calm at its furface. On
one occafion Lunardi went at the rate of 70 miles an
hour in his balloon, though it was quite calm at Edin¬
burgh when he afeended, and continued fo during his
whole voyage.
4 Y 2 A.
724 M E T E O
. Wm:!s- . _ A pretty good idea of the velocity of the wind, under
55 ' different circumftances, may be formed from the follow-
Velocity of table, which was drawn up by Mr Smeaton.
the winds.
61
Miles
per
Hour
1
2
3
4
5
10
20
25
30
35
40
45
5°
60
80
100
Feet
per
Second,
I.47
2-93
4.4
5-87
7-33
14.67
22.
29-34
36.67
44.01
5'-34
58.68
66.01
73-35
88.02
117.36
146.J
Perpendicular force on one fquare foot,
in Avoirdupois pounds and parts.
.005
.020
.044
.079
.123
•49 2
1.107
1.968
3-°75
4.429
6.027
7-S73
9-963
12.300
I7-7I5
35 -49°
49.200
/ Hardly perceptible,
f lull perceptible.
j- Gently pleafant.
^ Pleafant, brilk.
Very brifk.
High wind.
Very high wind.
Storm or tempeft.
Great ftorm.
Hurricane.
{Hurricane that tears up trees
and carries buildings before
it.
For the means of afcertaining the velocity of the
winds, fee Anemometer and Anemoscope.
We {hall now endeavour to explain the phenomena
that we have been defcribing, or to form a plaufible
theory of the winds.
The atmofphere is a fluid furrounding the earth, and
extending to an unknown height. Now all fluids tend
invariably to a level : if a quantity of water be taken
out of any part of a veffel, the furrounding water will
immediately flow in to fupply its place, and the furface
will become level as before -, or if an additional quan¬
tity of water be poured into any part of the veffel, it
will not remain there, but diffufe itfelf equally over the
whole. Such exactly would be the cafe with the at¬
mofphere. Whatever therefore deflroys the equilibrium
of this fluid, either by increafing or diminifhing its
bulk in any particular place, muff at the fame time
occafion a wind.
Air, befides its qualities in common with other fluids,
is alfo capable of being dilated and compreffed. Sup-
pofe a veffel filled with air : if half the quantity which
it contains be drawn out by means of an air-pump, the
remainder will ftill fill the veffel completely ; or if
twice or three times the original quantity be forced in
by a condenfer, the veffel will ftill be capable of hold-
ingit.
Rarefied air is lighter, and condenfed air heavier
than common air. When fluids of unequal fpeeific
gravities are mixed together, the heavier always deft end
and the lighter afcend. Were quickfilver, water,
and oil, thrown into the fame vefftl together, the quick-
filver would uniformly occupy the bottom ; the water
the middle, and the oil the top. Were water to be
thrown into a veffel of oil, it would immediately
defcend, becaufe it is heavier than oil. Exaftly the
fame thing takes place in the atmofphere. Were a
R O L O G Y. Chap. IV.
quantity of air, for inftance, to be fuddenly condenfed Winds,
at a didance from the furface of the earth, being now '
heavier than before, it would defcend till it came to
air of its own denfity; or, were a portion of the
atmofphere at the furface of the earth to be fuddenly
rarefied, being now lighter than the furrounding air, i’t
would immediately afcend.
If a bladder half filled with air be expofed to the c
heat of a fire, the air within will foon expand, and trade6- 9
diftend the bladder } if it be now removed to a cold winds,
place, it will foon become flaccid as before. This
fhews that heat rarefies, and that cold condenfes air.
1 he furface of the torrid zone is much more heated by
the rays of the fun than the frozen or temperate zones,
becaufe the rays fall upon it much more perpendicularly.
This heat is communicated to the air near the furface
of the torrid zone, which being thereby rarefied, afcends,
and its place is fupplied by colder air, which ruflies in
from the north and fouth.
The diurnal motion of the earth is greateft at the
equator, and diminifhes gradually as we approach the
poles, where it ceafes altogether. Every fpot of the
earth’s furface at the equator moves at the rate of 15
geographical miles in a minute j at 40° of latitude it
moves at about 11 miles and a half in a minute, and at
the 30° at nearly 13 miles. The atmofphere, by mov¬
ing continually round along with the earth, has ac¬
quired the fame degree of motion, fo that thofe parts
of it which are above the equator move falter than
thofe which are at a diftance. Were a portion of the
atmofphere to be tranfported in an inftant from latitude
30° to the equator, it would not immediately acquire
the velocity of the equator; the eminences of the earth,
therefore, would ftrike againft it, and it would affume
the appearance of an eaft wind. This is the cafe in a
fmaller degree with the air that flows towards the equa¬
tor, to fupply the place of the rarefied air which is con¬
tinually afeending ; and this, when combined with its
real motion from north to fouth, muft caufe it to affume
the appearance of a north-eafierly wind on this fide the
equator, and of a fouth-eafterly beyond it.
The motion weftward occafioned by this difference
in celerity alone, would be very fmall; but it is in-
creafed by another circumftance. Since the rarefa&ion
of the air in the torrid zone is owing to the heat de¬
rived from the contiguous earth, and fince this heat is
owing to the perpendicular rays of the fun, thofe parts
muft be hottefl where the fun is adtually vertical ; and
confequently the air above them muft be molt rarefied j
the contiguous parts of the atmofphere will therefore be
drawn moft forcibly to that particular fpot. Now, fince
the diurnal motion of the earth is from eaft to weft, this
hotteft fpot will be continually fhifting weftwards, and
this will occafion a current of the atmofphere in that
direftion. That this caufe really operates, appears
from a circumftance already mentioned : When the
fun approaches either of the tropics, the trade-wind on
the fame fide of the equator affumes a more eafterly di-
reftion, evidently from the caufe here mentioned, while
the oppofite trade-wind being deprived of this additional
impulfe, blows in a direflion more perpendicular to the
equator. What in-^
The wefterly dire61ion of the trade-wind is ftill we{terly di
farther increafed by another caufe. Since the attrac- reftiwi of
tion of the fun and moon produces fo remarkable antl,e tra£fr-
effe&wind"
Chap
Winds.
. IV. ' M E T E O
effeft upon the ocean, we cannot but fuppofe that an
effect equally great, at leaft, is produced ^ upon the at-
mofphere. Indeed as the atmofphere is nearer the
moon than the fea is, the effefts produced by attraction
upon it ought to be greater. When we add to this
the elafticity of the air, or that difpofition which it has
to dilate itfelf when freed from any of its preffure, we
cannot but conclude, that the tides in the atmofphere are
eonfiderable. Now fince the apparent diurnal motion
of the moon is from eaft to weft, the tides muft follow
it in the fame manner, and confequently produce a^con-
ftant motion in the atmofphere from eaft to weft. This
reafoning is confirmed by the obfervations of feveral
philofophers, particularly of M. Caflon, that in the tor¬
rid zone the barometer is always two-thirds of a line
higher twice every 24 hours than during the reft of the
day •, and that the time of this rife always correfponds
with the tides of the fea 5 a proof that it proceeds from
the fame caufe.
All thefe different caufes probably combine in the
produftion of the trade-winds •, and from their being
fometimes united, and fometimes diftinft or oppofite,
arife all thofe little irregularities which take place in
the direction and force of the trade-winds.
Since the great caufe of thefe winds is the rarefaftion
of the atmofphere by the heat of the fun, its afcenfion
and the confequent rufhing in of colder air from the
north and fouth, the internal boundary of the trade-
winds muft be that parallel of the torrid zone which
is hotteft, becaufe there the afcenfion of the rarefied air
muft take place. Now fince the fun does not remain
ftationary, but is conftantly ftiifting from one tropic
to the other, we ought naturally to expedt that this
boundary would vary together with its exciting caufe j
that therefore, when the fun is perpendicular to the
tropic of Cancer, the north-eaft trade-wind would extend
no farther fouth than north latitude 230 30^ } that the
fouth-eaft wind would extend as far north j and that,
when the fun wras in the tropic of Capricorn, the very
contrary would take place. We have feen, howrever,
that though this boundary be fubjedf to confiderable
changes from this very caufe, it may in general be con-
fidered as fixed between the fecond and fifth degrees of
north latitude.
Though the fun be perpendicular to each of the
tropics during part of the year, he is for one half of it
at a confiderable diftance, fo that the heat which they
acquire, while he is prefent, is more than loft during
his abfence. But the fun is perpendicular to the equa¬
tor twice in a year, and never farther diftant from it
than 23^° •, being therefore twice every year as much
heated, and never fo much cooled as the tropics, its
mean heat muft be greater, and the atmofphere in
confequence generally moft rarefied at that place.
Why then, it will be 'alked, is not the equator the
boundary of the two trade-winds ? To fpeak more
accurately than we have hitherto done, the internal li¬
mit of thefe winds muft be that parallel where the mean
heat of the earth is greateft. This would be the
equator, were it not for a reafon that ftiall now be ex¬
plained.
It has been fhewn by aftronomers, that the orbit
of the earth is an ellipfis, and that the fun is placed in
one of the foci. Were this orbit to be divided into two
parts by a ftraight line perpendicular to the tranfverfe
R O L O G Y.
axis, and pafling through the centre of the fun, one of
thefe parts would be lefs than the other ) and the earth
during its paffage through the fmall part of its orbit,
would conftantly be nearer the fun than while it moved
through the other portion. The celerity of the earth’s
motion in any part of its orbit is always proportioned
to its diftance from the fun } the nearer it is to the fun
it moves the fafter ; the farther diftant, the flower.
The earth paffes over the fmaller portion of its orbit
during our winter, which muft therefore be ftiorter
than our fummer, both on account of this part of the
orbit being fmaller than the other, and on account of
the increafed celerity of the earth’s motion. I he dif¬
ference, according to Caflini, is 7 days, 23 hours, 53
minutes. While it is winter in the northern, it is fum¬
mer in the fouthern hemifphere 5 wherefore the fum¬
mer in the fouthern hemifphere muft be juft as much
ftiorter than the winter, as our winter is ihorter than
our fummer. The difference, therefore, between the
length of the fummer in the two hemifpheres is almoft
16 days. The fummer in the northern hemifphere
confifts of ipo^ days, while in the fouthern it confifts
only of 174^. They are to one another nearly in the
proportion of 14 to 12.8 j and the heat of the two
hemifpheres may probably have nearly the fame pro¬
portion to one another. The internal limit of the
trade-winds ought to be that parallel w'here the mean
heat of the globe is greateft ; this would be the equa¬
tor, if both hemifpheres were equally hot 5 but fince
the northern hemifphere is the hotteft, that parallel
ought to be fituated fomewhere in it ; and fince the-
difference between the heat of the two hemifpheres is
not great, the parallel ought not to be fo far diftant from
the equator.
The trade-wind would blow regularly round the
whole globe if the torrid zone were all covered with
water. If the Indian ocean were not bounded by land
on the north, it would blow there in the fame mannep
as it does in the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. . The
rays of light pafs through a tranfparent body without
communicating any, or at leaft but a fmall degree of
heat. If a piece of wood be inclofed in a glafs veffel,
and the focus of a burning-glafs diredled upon it, the
wood will burn to alhes, while the glafs through which
all the rays paffed is not even heated. When an opaque
body is expofed to the fun’s rays, it is heated in pro¬
portion to its opacity. If the bulb of a thermometer
be expofed to the fun, the mercury will not rife fo high
as it would do if this bulb were painted black. Land
is much more opaque than water ; it becomes therefore
much warmer when both are equally expofed to the in¬
fluence of the fun. For this reafon, when the fun ap¬
proaches the tropic of Cancer, India, China, and the
adjacent countries, become much hotter than the ocean
which w'afties their fouthern coatls. The air over them
becomes rarefied, and afcends, while colder air rufhes
in from the Indian ocean to fupply its place. As thi*
current of air moves from the equator northward, it
muft, for a reafon already explained, affume the ap¬
pearance of a fouth-weft wind ; and this tendency eaft-
ward is increafed by the fituation of the countries to
which it flows. 'Phis is the caufe of the fouth-weft
monfoon, which blows during fummer in the northern
parts of the Indian ocean. Between Borneo and the
coaft of China, its diredion is almoft due north, be-
cauf*.
72.
Wirds
726
Winds.
M E T E O
^ cauie the country to winch the current is dirt-died lies
rather to the welt of north 5 a ciicumdance which
countera&s its greater velocity.
In winter, when the fun is on the fouth fide of the
equator, thefe countries become cool, and the north-call
trade-wind refumes its courfe, which, had it not been
for the interference of thefe countries, would have con¬
tinued the whole year.
As the fun approaches the tropic of Capricorn, it be¬
comes almo t perpendicular to New Holland ; that
continent is heated 111 its turn, the air over it is rareiied,
and colder air rallies in from the north and well to fup-
ply its place. 1 his is the cauie of the north-weft mon-
foon, which blows from Odlober to April, from 30 to
lO° fouth 1 titude. Near Sumatra its diredlion is regu¬
lated by the coalt ; this is the cafe alfo between Africa
and Madagafcar.
I he fame caufe which occafions the monfoons, gives
rife to the winds which blow on the weft coafts of
Africa and America. The air above the land is hotter
and rarer, and confequently lighter than the air above
the fea j the fea air, therefore, Hows in, and forces the
lighter land atmofphere to afcend.
I he fame thing will account for the phenomena of
the fea and land breezes. During the day, the cool
air of the fea, loaded writh vapours, flows in upon the
land, and takes the place of the rarefied land air. As
the fun declines, the rarefadlion of the land air is dimi-
nifhed j thus an equilibrium is reftored. As the fea is
not fo much heated during the day as the land, neither
is it fo much cooled during the night, becaufe it is con-
ftantly expofing a new furface to the atmofphere. As
the night approaches, therefore, the cooler and denfer
air of the hills (for w here there are no hills there are
no fea and land breezes) falls down upon the plains,
and prefling upon the now comparatively lighter air of
the fea, caufes the land breeze.
I he rarefied air which afcends between 2° and j°
north latitude, has been ftiewm to be the principal
caufe of the trade-winds. As this air afcends, it muft
become gradually colder, and confequently heavier ; it
would therefore defcend again if it were not buoyed up
h>y the conftant afcent of new rarefied air. It muft
therefore fpread itfelf to the north and foul h, and gra¬
dually mix in its paffage w ith the lower air ; and the
greater part of it probably does not reach far beyond
go0, which is the external limit of the trade-wind.
Thus there is a conftant circulation of the atmofphere
in the torrid zone ; it afcends near the equator, diffufes
itfelf towards the north and iouth, defcends gradually
as it approaches 30°, and, returning again towards the
equator, performs the fame circuit. It has been the
opinion of the greater part of thofe who have eonfider-
ed this fubjedf, that the whole of the rarefied air
which afcends near the equator, advances towards the
poles and defcends there. But if this were the cafe, a
conftant wind would blow from both poles towards the
equator, and the trade wind'- would extend over the whole
earth ; for otherw'ife the afcent of air in the torrid zone
would very foon ceafe. A little refledlion muft con¬
vince us that it cannot be true. Rarefied air differs in
nothing from the common air, except in containing a
greater nuantit-y of heat. As it aft ends, it gradually
lofes this fuperfluous heat. What then 1! ould hinder it
from defcending, and mixing with the atmolphere be-
H O L O G Y. Chap, IV,
low ? That there i- a conftant current of fuperior an, Winds,
however, towards ihe poles, cannot uc doubted ; out it •—
coulhts principally oi hydrogen gas. Wc lhali imme-
diat ly attempt to aftign the realon why its accumula¬
tion at the pole is not always attended with a north
wind.
it the attraction of the moon and the diurnal motion
of the fun have any efieft upon the atmofphere and
tnat they have fome effect can hardly be dil uted, there
muft be j real motion of the aii weft ward , within the
limits of the trade-winds. When this body of air
reaches America, its further paffage weft wards is iiopt.
by ;he mountains which extend from one extremuy of
that continent to the other. From the momentum of
this air, w hen it ftrikes againft the fides of theie moun¬
tains, and from its elafticity, it muft acquire from ih. m
a confiderable velocity, in a diredion contrary to the
firft, and would therefore return call wards again if this
were not prevented by the trade-winds. It muft there¬
fore ruih forwards in that diredion where it meets vvhh
the leaft refiftance ; that is, towards the north and
fouth. As air is nearly a perfedly elaftic body, when
it ftrikes againft the fides of the American mountains,
its velocity will not be perceptibly diminifhed, though
its diredion be changed. Continuing to move, there¬
fore, with the velocity of the equator, when it arrive*
at the temperate zones it will affume the appearance of
a north-eaft or fouth-eaft wind. To this is to be af-
cribed the frequency of fouth-weft winds over the At¬
lantic ocean and weftern parts of Europe. Whether
thefe winds are equally frequent in the northern Pacific
ocean, we have not been able to afeertain ; but it is
probable that the mountains in Alia produce the fame
effed as thofe in America.
It is not impoflible that another circumftance may
alfo contribute to the produdion of thefe winds. The
oxygen, which is rather heavier than common air, may-
mix with the atmofphere j but the hydrogen (a cubic
foot of which weighs only 41.41 grains, while a cubic
foot of oxygen, weighs 593.32 grains) may afcend to
the higher regions of the atmofphere.
By what means the decompofition is accomplilhed
(if it takes place at all) we cannot tell. There are
probably a thoufand caufes in nature of which we are
entirely ignorant. Whether heat and light, when long
applied to vapours, may not be able to decompound
them, by uniting with the hydrogen, which feems to
have a greater attradion for heat than oxygen has, or
whether the eledrical fluid may not be capable of pro¬
ducing this effed:, are queftions which future obferva-
tions and experiments muft determine. Dr Franklin
filled a glaf- tube with water, and paffed an eledrical
ftioek through it 5 the tube was broken in pieces, and
the whole water difappeared. He repeated the experi¬
ment with ink inftead of water, and placed the tube
upon white paper : the fame effeds followed, and the
ink, though it difappeared completely, left no ftain on
the paper. Whether the water in thefe cafes wras de-
compofed or not, it is impoflible to fay ; but the fuppo-
fition that it wras, is not improbable. An experiment
might eafily be contrived to determine the point.
This decompofition would account for the freouency
of fouth-wei winds, particularly in fummer ; for this
new' air is furniftied to fupply "the place of that which
is forced northwards by the caufes already explained.
Perhaps
Chap. IV. M E T E O
Winds. Perhaps it may be a confirmation of this conjefture,
' '' that the fouth weft winds generally extend over a great¬
er tract of country than nioft other winds which blow
in the temperate zones. What has been faid of fouth-
•weft winds holds equally with regard to north-weft
winds in the fouth temperate zone.
After fouth-weft winds have blown for fome time, a
great quantity of air will be accumulated at the pole,
at leaft if they extend over all the northern hemifphere j
and it appears, from comparing the tables kept by iome
of our late navigators in the northern Pacific ocean with
fimilar tables kept in this illand, that this is fometimes
the cafe fo far as relates to the Atlantic and Pacific
oceans. When this accumulation becomes great, it
muft, from the nature of fluids, and from the clafticity
of the air, prefs with a confiderable and increafing force
on the advancing air ; fo that in time it becomes ftrong-
er than the fouth-weft wind. This will occafion at firft
a calm, and afterwards a north wind, which will be¬
come gradually eafterly as it advances foutlwards, from
its not afluming immediately the velocity of the earth.
The mafs of the atmofphere will be increafed in all thofe
places over which this north-eaft wind blowrs 5 this is
confirmed by the almoft conftant rife of the barometer
during a north-eaft wind.
Whatever tends to increafe the bulk of the atmo¬
fphere near the pole, muft tend alfo to increafe the fre¬
quency of north-eaft rvinds } and if there be any feafon
when this increafe takes place more particularly, that
feafon will be molt liable to thefe winds. During win¬
ter the northern parts of Europe are covered with fnow,
■which is melted in the beginning of fummer, when the
heat of the fun becomes more powerful. Great quanti¬
ties of vapour are during that time raifed, which will
augment both the bulk and weight of the atmofphere,
efpecially if the conjetture about the converfion of va¬
pour into air has any foundation. Hence north-eaft
winds are moft prevalent during May and June.
But it will be faid, if this hypothefis were true, the
fouth-weft and north-eaft winds ought to blow alter¬
nately, and continue each of them for a ftated time ;
whereas the fouth-weft wind blows fometimes longer
and fometimes fhorter, neither is it always followed by
a north-eaft wind.
If the conjefture about the decompofition of vapour
in the torrid zone be true, the hydrogen which formed
a part of it will afcend from its lightnefs, and form a
ftratum above the atmofpherical air, and gradually ex¬
tend itfclf, as additional hydrogen rifes, towards the
north and fouth, till at laft it reaches the poles. The
lightnefs of hydrogen is owing to the great quantity of
heat which it contains •, as it approaches the poles it
muft lofe a great part of this heat, and may in confe-
quence become heavy enough to mix with the atmo-
f >here below. Oxygen makes a part of the atmo-
fphere ; and its proportion near the poles may fome¬
times be greater than ordinary, on account of the addi¬
tional quantity brought thither from the torrid zone.
Mr Cavendilh mixed oxygen and hydrogen together in
a glafs jar and upon making an electrical fpark pafs
through them, they immediately combined and formed
water.
That there is eleftric matter at the poles, cannot be
doubted. The abbe Chappe informs us, that he faw
thunder and lightning much more frequently at Tobol-
R O L O G T. 727
Iki and other parts of Siberia, than in any other part Winds.
of the world. In the nonh oi Europe, the air, during 1
very cold weather, is exceedingly elefiric ; iparks can
be drawm from a per Ion’s hands and face, by combing
his hair, or even powdering him with a puff. Aipinus
was an eye-witnefs to this laft, and to Itill more afto-
nifhing proofs of the eleftricity of the atmofphere during
great colds.
May not the appearance of the aurora borealis be
owing to the union of oxygen and hydrogen by the in¬
tervention of the eleftrie fluid ? Thai it is an eleftrieal
phenomenon, at leaft, can hardly be doubted. Artifi¬
cial eleftricity is much ftrengthened during an aurora,
as M. Volta and Mr Canton have obferved 5 and the
magnetic needle moves wflth the fame irregularity dur¬
ing an aurora that has been obferved in other eleftrical
phenomena. This faft we learn from Bergman and
De la Lande. Many philofophers have attempted to
demonftrate that aurorae boreales are beyond the earth’s
atmofphere 5 but the very different refults of their cal¬
culations evidently prove that they were not pofieffed of
fufficient data.
If this conjefture be true, part of the atmofphers
near the poles muft at times be converted into water.
This would account for the long continuance of fouth-
weft vdnds at particular times ; when they do fo, a de¬
compofition of the atmofphere is going on at the pole.
It would render this conjefture more probable, if the
barometer fell always when a fouth-weft wind continues
long. 79
If this hypothefts be true, a fouth-w’eft wind ought South-weft
always to blow after aurorae boreales 5 and we are Jn. winds very
formed by Mr Winn, that this is aftually the cafe. ^Turora;"
This he found never to fail in 23 inftances. He ob- boreales.
ferved alfo, that when the aurora wTas bright, the gale
came on within 24 hours, but did not laft long : but if
it was faint and dull, the gale was longer in beginning,
and lefs violent, but it continued longer. This looks
like a confirmation of our conjefture. Bright aurorae
are probably nearer than thofe which are dull. Now,
if the aurora borealis be attended with a decompofition
of a quantity of air, that part of the atmofphere which
is neareft muft firft rufh in to fupply the diftant parts.
Juft as if a hole were bored in the end of a long vefiel
filled with water, the water neareft the hole would flow
out immediately, and it would be fome time before the
water at the other end of the veffel began to move.
The nearer w'e are to the place of precipitation, the
fooner will we feel the fouth-weft wind. It ought
therefore to begin fooner after a bright aurora, becaufe
it is nearer than a dull and faint one. Precipitations
of the atmofphere at a diftance from the pole cannot be
fo great as thofe which take place near it ; becaufe the
cold will not be fufficient to eondenfe fo great a quantity
of hydrogen ; fouth-weft winds, therefore, ought not
to laft fo long after bright as after dull aurorae. Winds
are more violent after bright aurorse, becaufe they are
nearer the place of precipitation ; juft as the water near
the hole of the veffel runs fwifter than that which is at
a confiderable diftance.
If thefe eonjeftures have any foundation in nature, Probable
there are’two fources of fouth-weft winds 5 the firft has caufes of
its origin in the trade-winds, the fecond in precipita-^
lions of the atmofphere near the pole. When they ori-w u 5‘
ginate from the firft caufe, they will blow in countries
farther
7*
Winds com.
moniy be¬
gin at the
place to¬
wards
which they
blow.
METRO
farrier foutli for fome time before they are felt in tho!^
which are farther north; but the contrary will take
place when they are owing to the fecond caufe. In
this lail cafe, too, the barometer will link confiderably ;
and it adtually does fo conilantly after aurorae, as we
are informed by Mr Madifon, who paid particular at¬
tention to this fubjeft. By keeping accurate meteoro¬
logical tables in different latitudes, it might eafily be
difeovered whether thefe confequenees be true, and of
courfe whether the above conjectures be vrell or ill
grounded.
It appears that winds generally commence at that
point towards which they blow •, and hence they muff
arife from a rarefaction and confequent difplacing of the
air in fome particular place, by the aCtion of heat, or
fome other caufe. Perhaps, according to the idea of
Mr Williams, this caufe may be an increafed precipita¬
tion of the fuperior ftrata of air, rendered unufually
denfe from its being furcharged with moilture in the
place where the wind begins to blow, or from an in¬
creafed evaporation from a humid furface in the oppo-
fite direction.
Hurricanes are conftantly preceded by a great de-
preffion of the thermometer; and in thefe cafes the
wind often feems to blow from every direStion towards
the quarter where this fall of the barometer is ob-
ferved.
Violent winds from the north-ealt have repeatedly
been obferved to begin at the quarter towards which
they blow. In 1740 Dr Franklin was prevented from
obferving an eclipfe of the moon at Philadelphia by a
north-eaft ftorm, which came on about feven o’clock
in the evening. He was furprifed to find afterwards
that it had not come on at Bofton till near x 1 o’clock;
and, upon comparing all the accounts which he recei¬
ved from the feveral colonies of the beginning of this
and other ftorms of the fame kind, he found it to be
always an hour later the farther north-eaft, for every
100 miles. “ From hence (fays he) I formed an idea
of the courfe of the ftorm, which I will explain by a
familiar initance. I fuppofe a long canal of water flop¬
ped at the end by a gate. The water is at reft till the
gate is opened ; then it begins to move out through the
gate, and the water next the gate is firft in motion,
and moves on towards the gate, and fo on fucceflively,
till the water at the head of the canal is in motion,
which it is laft of all. In this cafe the water moves
indeed towards the gate ; but the fuceeflive times of
beginning the motion are in the contrary way, viz.
from the gate back to the head of the canal. Thus to
produce a north-eaft ftorm, I fuppofe fome great rare-
fadlion of the air in or near the gulf of Mexico j the
air rifing thence has its place fupplied by the next more
northern, cooler, and therefore denfer and heavier
air ; a fucceflive current is formed, to which our coaft
and inland mountains give a north-eaft direftion.”
Several inftances of a fimilar kind have occurred.
In 1802, Dr Mitchell obferved a ftorm which began
at CharleftoAvn on the 21ft of February, at two o’clock
P. M. but was not obferved at Waftiington, feveral
hundred miles to the north-eaft, till five o’clock ; at
New York till 10, nor at Albany till daybreak of the
following morning. Hence it appears that it muft have
moved at the rate of 1100 miles in 11 hours, or 100
miles an hour.
R O L O G Y. Chap. IV.
A remarkable ftorm of this kind, in which the wind Winds.
was eaftcrly, and attended with a heavy fall of fnow, ' v 1
was obferved in Scotland on the 8th of February 1799 ;
but the motion of the wind was much flower. It began
to fnow at Falkirk on the 7th of February at fix in the
evening, but at Edinburgh not till one o’clock A. M.
on the 8th } and the fnow was not obferved at Dunbar
till feven hours after. The ftorm continued 11 hours,
during which time it did not travel more than 100
miles.
Currents of air from the poles naturally affume a
north-eaft diredlion as they advance fouthwards, be-
caufe their diurnal motion becomes leis than that of the
earth. Various circumftances, however, may change
this diredtion, and caufe them to become north, or even
north-weft winds. The fouth-weft winds themfelves
may often prove fufficient for this ; and violent rains,
or great heat, by leftening or rarefying the atmofphere
in any country, will produce the fame effedt in coun¬
tries to the weftwards, when north winds happen to be
blowing.
In North America, the north-weft winds become
gradually more frequent as we advance northwards.
The eaft coaft of this continent, where the obfervations
were made from which this conclufion was drawn, is
alone cultivated; the reft of the country is covered
with wood. Now cultivated countries are generally
confidered as warmer than thofe'which are uncultivated,
though Mr Williams is of a different opinion 5 and on
this circumftjmce founds his hypothefis of the climate
of Britain being much deteriorated during the laft 50
years. The air, therefore, in the interior parts of the
country Ihould be conftantly colder than the eaft coaft.
This difference will fearcely be perceptible in the fouth-
ern parts, becaufe there the influence of the fun is very
powerful; but it will become gradually greater as we
advance northwards, becaufe the influence of the fun
diminifties, and the continent becomes broader. Hence
north-weft winds ought to become more frequent upon
the eaft coaft as we advance northwards ; and they
will probably ceafe to blow fo often as foon as the
whole continent of North America becomes cultiva¬
ted.
There is one curious circumftance which deferves at- Different
tention. One current of air is often obferved to blow at currents of-
the furface of the earth, while a current in the contrary ^ aPPear
direction is flowing in a fuperior part of the atmofphere. 0*
Dr Thomfon on one occafion obferved three currents theTame
of this kind blowing all at the fame time in contrary time,
dire&ions. It has been affirmed that changes of wea¬
ther commonly commence in the upper ftrata, and that
they are gradually extended by the current of air that
commences above, proceeding towards the lower parts
of the atmofphere.
Befides thefe more general winds, there are others Partial
which extend only over a very fmall part of the earth, winds.
Thefe originate from many different caufes. The
atmofphere is principally compofed of three different
kinds of air, oxygen, azote, and carbonic acid, to which
may be added water. Great quantities of each of thefe
ingredients are conftantly changing their aerial form, '
and combining with various fubftances ; or they are
feparating from other bodies, affuming the form of air,
and mixing with the atmofphere. Partial deficiences,
therefore, and partial accumulations, muft be continu¬
ally
Chap. V METEOR
Me;eon ally taking place in different parts ot the atxnofphere,
'•'““’V ■'*“*' which will occafion winds varying in dire6tion, violence,
and continuance, according to the fuddennefs and the
quantity of air deitroyed or produced. Belides thefe,
there are many other ingredients conftantly mixing
with the atmofphere, and many partial caufes of conden-
fation and rarefadlion in particular places. 1 o thefe,
and probably to other caufes hitherto unknown, are to
be afcribed all thofe winds which blow in any place
befides the general ones already explained } and which,
as they depend on caufes hitherto at leatt reckoned
contingent, will probably for ever prevent uniformity
and regularity in the winds. All thefe caules, how¬
ever, may, and probably will, be difcovered : the cir-
cmnitances in which they will take place, and the ef-
fedls they will produce, may be knowm ; and when¬
ever this is the cafe, the winds of any place may in
fome meafure be reduced to calculation.
7*9
Meteors.
75
Metaors,
Chap. V. Of Meteors.
The principal luminous phenomena denominated
meteors, have been fully confidered under Atmo¬
spheric Electricity. Thofe meteors that burft in
the air, and are followed by the falling of ftones or
other mineral fubftances, have been fully defcribed and
accounted for under Meteorolite. We have here
only to notice briefly the meteors ceXitA. falling Jiars^
and i^nes fatm.
Falling The falling or (hooting ftar is a very common pheno-
ftar. menon, and takes place more efpecially at thofe fea-
fons and in thofe fituations where the aurora borealis is
mod frequently obferved. Indeed they are confidered by
mod philofophers as modifications of the lame pheno¬
menon, and depending on the fame caufe. We have
feen good reafon to conclude that the aurora borealis is
an electrical meteor; and if the falling flar is fo nearly
allied to the aurora as is fuppofed, it mud alfo be pro¬
duced by electricity. Mr G. Morgan feems to have
no doubt of the eleCtrical nature of this meteor, and
remarks that if u'hat appears as an undulating flaih in
the aurora, could be concentrated or confined within
fmaller dimenfions, it would probably affume the ap¬
pearance of a falling flar. He founds this opinion
chiefly on the following experiment.
Into a tube 48 inches long, and \ inch diameter,
Mr Morgan conveyed as much air, as, under the com¬
mon preflure of the atmofphere, would fill two inches in
length of the fame tube. (The tube we prefume
was previoufly exhaufted of air.) One extremity of
the tube he connected with the ground by means of
good conductors, and faftened to the other a metallic ball.
Through the tube thus filled with rarefied air, he fent
eleftric fparks of different magnitudes, bv bringing the
ball within the ftriking diftance of different fixed con-
duftors. When the fparks were fmall, a flafli like that
of the aurora borealis, feemed to fill the whole tube •,
but when the fpark was what might be made to ftrike
through 10 inches in the open air, it appeared to ftrike
through the whole length of the tube, with all the
brilliancy and ftraightnefs of a falling ftar. If, how¬
ever, he extrafted part of the air out of the tube, by
the air-pump, he could never make the eleftric fluid
•affiime anv form excepting that of a flafti; but by
exchanging the tube for another with a thermometrical
V-OL. XIII. Part II.
O L O G Y.
ball, and treating it in the fame manner as the preced¬
ing, the flaih never appeared, but the fluid in its pallage ^
affumed all the brilliancy of a tailing ftar.
It is eafy to trace the iimilarity of circumftances that
take place in this experiment, ami in the natural pheno¬
menon of the falling ftar. Both take place in rarefied
air; both are remarkable for the brighenefs of their
light, and for the ftraightnefs of their direflion. That
falling liars are frequently, if not always, the concen¬
tration of an aurora borealis, may be inferred from
their being the conftant attendants of a very electrical
ftate of the atmofphere-, and from their frequent appear¬
ance near that portion of the heavens which is illu¬
mined by the northern lights at the time of their ap¬
pearance.
Mr Morgan was riding towards Norwich late at
night, when to the north-eaft of the town he beheld a
fine conical ftream of the aurora borealis. The whole
body every now and then flaftied, as if an additional
quantity of eleftric fluid were thrown into it, and
nearly at the fame inftant he perceived what is vulgarly
called a falling ftar, darting from its fummit. This
appearance he obferved twice fuccefiively. 77
The ignis fatuus, or will-with-tke-wifp, that appears Ignis fa
fo often in boggy, marihy and damp fituations, decoy-tuus*
ing the unwary traveller, and terrifying the fuperfti-
tious vulgar, feems to be rather of a phofphoric than an
eleftric nature, fimilar to the light which is emitted
by ftale fifti, rotten wood, and other putrefeent fub¬
ftances. Sir Ifaac Newton defined it to be a vapour
fliining without heat.
A remarkable ignis fatuus was obferved by Mr
Derham, in fome boggy ground, between two rocky
hills. He was fo fortunate as to be able to approach it
within two or three yards. It moved with a brifle and
defultory motion about a dead thiftle, till a flight agita¬
tion of the air, occafioned, as lie fuppofed, by his near
approach to it, oecafioned it to jump to another place j
and as he approached, it kept flying before him. He
was near enough to fatisfy himfelf, that it could not be
the (Inning of glow-ivurms or other infedts—it was one
uniform body of light.
M. Beccaria mentions two of thefe luminous appear¬
ances, which were frequently obferved in the neigh¬
bourhood of Bologna, and which emitted a light equal
to that of an ordinary faggot. Their motiom were
unequal, fometimes rifing, and fomedmes finking to¬
wards the earth ; fometimes totally difappearing, though
in general they continued hovering about fix feet from
the ground. They differed in fize and figure and in¬
deed, the form of each was flutluating, fometimes
floating like waves, and dropping fparks of fire. He
was affured there was not a "dark night in the whole
year in which they did not appear nor was their appear¬
ance at all affedled by the weather, whether cold or
hot, fnow or rain. They have been known to change
their colour from red to yellow and generally grew
fainter as any perfon approached, vanifliing entirely
when the obferver came very near to them, and appear¬
ing again at fome diftance.
Dr Shaw alfo deferibes a Angular ignis fatuus^
which he faw in the Holy Land. It was fometimes
globular, or in the form of the flame of a candle and
immediately afterwards fpread itfilf fo much, as to
involve the whole company in a pale inoffenfive light,
4 Z and
730 M E T E 0
.Weather;. and then was obferved to cbntraa itfelf again, and fud-
^ denly difappear. In lefs than a minute, however, it
would become vifible as before, and run along from one
place to another ; or would expand itfelf over more
tnan three acres of the adjacent mountains. The atmo-
fphere at this time was thick and hazy.
All thefe luminous appearances are probably owing
to the extrication of hydrogen gas fo llightly impreg¬
nated with phofphorus as to continue emitting a faint
light, without producing that brilliant flalh which
follow s the fudden extrication into the air, of the com¬
mon phofphorated hydrogen gas obtained in the ufual
chemical experiment of throwing phofphuret of lime
into water.
Chap. VI. Of the Application of Meteorology to
Prognojlicating the Weather.
Ir has ever been a principal object among mankind,
to fore tel the changes of weather that are likely to fol¬
low particular appearances in the Iky, among the
heavenly bodies, &c.; and it has been often alleged,
that in this refpeft the philofopher is far behind the
hulbandman and the Ihepherd. Were the former, how¬
ever, to add to his fcientific refearches the obfervations
to w Inch the latter are indebted for their judgment of
the weather, he would foon be far fupericr to them in
*79 this refpeft.
Kirwan s Dr Kirwan has lately endeavoured to difcover pro-
®n the vvea-ra^e rides ^or Prognofticating the weather in different
than lealons, as far as regards this climate, from tables of
obfervation alone j and from comparing a number of
thefe obfervations made in England, from 1677 to 1789,
he found,
1. I hat when there has been no ftorm before or after
the vernal equinox, the enfuing fummer is generally
dry, at lead five times in fix.
That when a ftorm happens from an eafterly
point, either on the 19th, 20th, or 21ft of May,
the fucceeding fummer is generally dry four times in
five.
3. That when a ftorm arifes on the 26th, 27th, or
29th of May (and not before), in any point, the fuc¬
ceeding fummer is generally dry four times in five.
4. If there be a ftorm at fouth-weft or weft-fouth-
weft on the 19th, 20th, 21ft, or 2 2d of March, the
fucceeding fummer is generally wet five times in fix.
In this country winters and fprings, if dry, are rnofl
commonly cold ; if moift, warm : on the contrary, dry
fummers and autumns are ufually hot, and moift fummers
cold. So that if we know the moiftnels or drynefs of
a feafon, we can judge pretty accurately of its tempera¬
ture. r
from a table of the weather kept by Dr Rutty, in
Dublin, for 41 years, Dr Kirwan endeavoured to cal¬
culate the probabilities of particular feafons being fol¬
lowed by others. I hough his rules relate chiefly to
the climate of Ireland, yet as probably there is not
much difference between that ifland and Britain, in the
general appearance of.the feafons, v/e ftiall mention his
conclufions here.
In 41 years there were fix wet fprings, 22 dry, and
13 variable; 20 wet fummers, 16 dry, and five varia-
3
R ° L 0 G Y. chap. VI
ble ; 11 wet autumns, 11 dry, and 19 variable. A Weather
ieaion according to Dr Kirwan, is counted wet, when ' v—^
it contains two wet months. In general, the quantity
of ram which falls in dry feafons is left than five inches *
m wet feafons more. Variable feafons are thofe in which
there falls between 30 and 36 pounds, a pound being-
equal to .157637 of an inch. & g i
1 he order in which the different feafons fucceeded Probable
each other, was as in the following table. fafceflioa
of feafons,
A dry fpring
A wet fpring
A variable fpring
A dry fummer
A v-et fummer
A variable fummer
A dry fpring and dry \ p;
fummer 1 ^
L c
A dry fpring and w-et f
fummer , ^
A w!et fpring and dry C
fummer 1
A vret fpring and vret
fummer
1
1
{
1
1
1
{:
-O
"C
u
£
A wet fpring and va¬
riable fummer
A dry fpring and va
riable fummer
A variable fpring and
dry fummer
A variable fpringand
wet fummer
{
1
{
1
{
A variable fpring and C
variable fummer l
C dry
wet
variable
dry
wet
variable ^ £
dry
wet
variable
dry
wet
variable
dry
wet
variable
dry
wet
variable
dry
| wet
variable
dry
wet
variable
dry
wet
variable
dry
wet
variable
dry
wet
variable
dry
wet
variable
dry
wet
variable
dry
wet
variable
dry
wet
variable
Time:
. S
c
11
8
3
o
.5
1
5
7
1
5
5
6
5
3
12
1
3
1
3
4
4
2
o
6
o
o
o
2
1
2
1
O
o
o
2
1
2
O
2
I
I
5
o
1
o
Proba
bility
8
T-g-
5
TT
1
tt
IT
J>
1 o
J
■s
6
ITS
S
To"
3
To-
1 z
Vo-
I
T
3
T
O
TT
O
. Hence Dr Kirwan deduced the probability of the Buie! for
kind of feafons which would follow others. This pro-Pro§noft!'
bability is expreffed in the laft column of the table, and catinf th*
is to be underftood in this manner. The probabilityWe&
that
Chap. VI.
Weather
82
Signs of
rain from
birds.
METEOR
that a dry Cummer will follow a dry fpring is 44} that
a wet Cummer will follow a dry fpring, that a va¬
riable Cummer will follow a dry fpring, 4t, and Co on.
This method of Dr Kirtvan, if there is fuch a con¬
nexion between the different Ceafons that a particular
kind of weather in one has a tendency to produce a par¬
ticular kind of weather in the next, as it is reafonable
to expe£l from theory, may in time, by multiplying ob-
fervations, come to a great degree of accuracy, "and
may at laft, perhaps, lead to that great defideratum,
a rational theory of the weather. As we wifh to throw
as much light as pollible on this important Cubjeft, we
(hall add to thefe a few maxims, the truth of which
has either been confirmed by long obfervation, or
which the knowledge we have already acquired of the
caufes of the weather has eftablilhed on tolerably good
grounds.
1. A moill autumn with a mild winter is generally
followed by a cold and dry fpring, which greatly retards
vegetation. Such was the year 1741.
2. If the fummer be remarkably rainy, it is proba¬
ble that the enfuing winter will be fevere; for the un-
ufual evaporation will have carried off the heat of the
earth. Wet Cummers are generally attended with an
unufual quantity of feed on the white thorn and dog-
rofe bu'hes. Hence the unufual fruitfulnefs of thefe
fhrubs is a fign of a fevere winter.
q. The appearance of cranes and birds of paffage
early in autumn announces a very fevere winter •, for
it is a fign it has already begun in the northern
countries.
4. When it rains plentifully in May, it will rain but
little in September, and vice verfa.
5. When the wind is fouth-weff during fummer or
autumn, and the temperature of the air unufually cold
for the feafon, both to the feeling and the thermo¬
meter, with a low barometer, much rain is to be ex¬
pelled.
6. Violent temperatures, as ftorms or great rains,
produce a fort of crifis in the atmofphere, which pro¬
duces a conllant temperature, good or bad, for feme
months.
7. A rainy winter prediiffs a fteril year : a fevere au^
tumn announces a windy winter.
To the above we Ihiall add the following maxims,
drawn from obfervation, and with thefe fhall conclude this
article.—Sea and frelh water-fowls, fuch as cormorants,
fea-gulls, muir-hens, &c. flying from fea, or the frefh
waters, to land, Ihew bad weather at hand : land
fowls flying to waters, and thefe {baking, wafhing, and
noify, efpecially in the evening, denote the fame;
geefe, ducks, cats, &c. picking, (baking, wafhing,
and noify •, rooks and crows in flocks, and fuddenly
difappearing; pyes and jays in flocks, and very noify ;
the raven or hooded-crow crying in the morning, with
an interruption in their notes, or crows being very
clamorous at even •, the heron, bittern, and fwallow fly¬
ing low \ birds forfaking their meat and flying to their
nefts *, poultry going to rood, or pigeons to their
dove-houfe *, tame fowls grubbing in the dull, and
clapping their wings ; fmall birds feeming to duck
and wafli in the fand *, the late and early crowing of
the cock, and clapping his wings \ the early finging
of wood-larks ; the early chirping of fparrows ; the
early note of the chaflinch near houfes $ the dull ap-
o L O G Y, 731
pearance of robin-redbreaft near houfes \ peacocks and Weather..
owls unufually clamorous.
Sea and frefli-water fowls gathering in flocks to the wind'froin
banks, and there fporting, efpecially in the morning ; birds,
wild-geefe flying high, and in flocks, and diredling
their courfe eaitward ; coots re ft lei 3 and clamorous ;
the hoopoe loud in his note j the king’s-fiflier taking
to land; rooks darting or (hooting in the air, or
fporting on the banks of frefti rvaters 5 and lalily, the
appearance of the malefigie at fea, is a certain forerun¬
ner of violent winds, and (early in the morning) de¬
notes horrible tempefts at hand. 84
Halcyons, fea-ducks, &c. leaving the land and Fair wea-
flocking to the fea ; kites, herons, bitterns, and fwal- t^er frora
lows flying high and loud in their notes; lapwings re‘+-b'rus*
lefs and clamorous; fparrows after funrife reftlefs and
noify ; ravens, hawks, and keftrils (in the morning),
loud in their notes; robin redbreaft mounted high,
and loud in his fong; larks fearing high, and loud in
their fongs ; owls hooting with an eafy and clear note;
bats appearing early in the evening.
Affes braying more frequently than ufual; hogs pa;n from
playing, fcattering their food, or carrying draw inbealts.
their mouths ; oxen fnutRng the air, looking to the
fouth, while lying on their (ides, or licking their
hoofs ; cattle gafping for air at noon; calves run¬
ning violently and gamboling; deer, (beep, or goats,
leaping, fighting, or puthing ; cats wafning their face
and ears ; dogs eagerly feraping up earth ; foxes bark¬
er wolves howling; moles throwing up earth
than ufual ; rats and mice more reftlefs than
a grumbling noife in the belly of hounds.
8<f
mg>
more
ufual _
Worms crawling out of the earth in great abund- Rain from
ance; fpiders falling from their webs; flies dull and infedts.
reftlefs ; ants haftening to their nefts ; bees haliening
home, and keeping clofc in their hives ; frogs and
toads drawing nigh to houfes; frogs croaking from
ditches; toads crying on eminences; gnats finging
more than ufual; but, if gnats play in the open air, or
if hornets, wafps, and glow-worms appear plentifully
in the evening, or if fpiders webs are feen in the air, or
on the grafs, or trees, thefe do all denote fair and warm
weather at hand.
Sun rifing dim or waterifh ; rifing red with blackifli Rain from
beams mixed along with his rays ; rifing in a mufty or the fun.
muddy colour ; riling red and turning blackifli ; fet-
ting under a thick cloud ; fetting with a red Iky in the
eaft.
V. B. Sudden rains never laft long; but rvhen the
air grows thick by degrees, and the fun, moon, and
(tars (nine dimmer and dimmer, then it is like to rain
fix hours ufually. gs
Sun rifing pale and fetting red, with an iris; rifing Wind from
large in furface; rifing with a red (ky in the north ; fet-the fun.
ting of a bloody colour ; fetting pale, with one or more
dark circles, or accompanied with red ftreaks; feeming
concave or hollow; feeming divided, great ftorms ;
parhelia, or mock funs, never appear, but are followed
by tempefts. ^
Sun rifing clear, having fet clear the night before ; pa;r wea_
rifing while the clouds about him are driving to the ther from
weft; rifing with an iris around him; and that iris the fUR*
wearing away equally on all fides, then expeft fair and
fettled weather ; rifing clear and not hot ; fetting in
red clouds, according to the old obfervation :
4 Z,2
The
7^2
Weather.
. 91
'Wind from
the moon.
9®
Fair wea¬
ther from
the moon.
93
Weather
from the
flats.
.
Sain from
the clouds.
95
Wind from
she clouds.
96
Sain from
strainbfcw.
METEOR
The evening red and morning gray,
Is the hire lign of a fair day.
Moon pale in colour, rain ; horns blunt at firft riling,
rain j horns blunt, at or within two or three days after
the change, denotes rain from that quarter 5 an iris with
a fouth wind, rain next day 5 wind fouth third night
after change, rain next day j the wind fouth, and the
inoon not feen before the fourth night, rain moft of
that month ; full moon in April, new and full moon
in Auguft, for moft part bring rain; mock moons are
the forerunners of great rains, land floods, and inun¬
dations.
Moon feeming greatly enlarged •, appearing of a red
colour •, horns lharp and blackiih ^ if included with a
clear and ruddy iris ; if the iris be double or feem to
be broken in parts, tempefts.
N. B. On the new moon, the wind for the moft part
changes.
When the moon, at four days old, has her horns
iharp, flie foretels a tempeft at fea, unlefs fhe has a
circle about her, and that too entire, becaufe, by that
Ihe {hews that it is not like to be bad weather, till it is
full moon.
Moon feeming to exhibit bright foots 5 a clear iris
with full moon ; horns fliarp fourth day, fair till full;
horns blunt at firft rifing, or within two or three days
after change, denotes rain for that quarter •, but fair
weather the other three quarters j moon clear three
days after change and before full, always denotes fair
weather. After every change and full, rains for the
raoft part, fucceeded by fair fettled iveather; moon
clear and bright, always fair weather.
Stars feeming large, dull, and pale of colour, rain j
or when their twinkling is not perceptible, or if encom-
paffed with an iris. In fummer, when the wind is at eaft,
and ftars feem greater than ufual, then expe<ft hidden
rain ; ftars appearing great in number, yet clear and
bright, feeming to fhoot or dart, denote fair w'eather in
fummer, and in winter froft.
In cloudy weather, when the wind falls, rain fol¬
lows } clouds growing bigger, or feeming like rocks or
towers fettling on tops of mountains 5 coining from the
fouth, or often changing their courfe; many in number
at north-weft in the even ; being black in colour from
the eaft, rain at night 5 but out of the weft, rain next
day ; being like fleece of wool, from the eaft, rain for
two or three days $ lying like ridges about mid day in
the fouth-weft, (hews great ftorms both of wind and
rain to be nigh. Clouds flying to and fro ; appearing
fuddenly from the fouth or weft ; appearing red, or ac¬
companied with rednefs in the air, efpecially in the
morning; beingof a leadifli colour in the north-weft;
fingle clouds c^note wind from w’henee they come ; but
if at funfet, clouds appear with golden edges, or di-
miniih in bulk, or fmall clouds link low, or draw
againft the wind, or appear fmall, white, and fcattered
in the north-weft (fuch as are vulgarly called macke-
rel) when the fun is high, thefe are figns of fair
weather.
N. B. It is often obferved, that though the mackerel
fky denotes fair weather for that day, yet for the moft
part, rain follows in a day or two after.
After a long drought, the rainbow denotes hidden
and heavy .rains; if green be the predominant colour, it
Z
O L O G Y. Chap. VI,
denotes rain, but if red, wind with rain; if the clouds Weather,
grow darker, rain ; if the bow feems broken, violentv'—v*—^
ftorms ; if appearing at noon, much rain; if in the
weft great rain, with thunder.
A. B. It is obferved, that if the laft week in Fe¬
bruary, and the firft fortnight of March, be moftly rainy,
and attended with frequent appearances of the bow, aivet
fpring and fummer may be expedled. ^
The rainbow appearing after rains, denotes fair wea- Fair wea¬
ther at hand, if the colours grow lighter, fair; if thed161 from
bow fuddenly difappears, fair ; if the bow appear in the r“n*
morning, it is the fign of fmall rains, followed by fair
weather; and if appearing at night, fair weather ; if
appearing in the eaft in the evening, fair; if the bow
appear double, it denotes fair weather at prefent but
rain in a few days; if in autumn, it continues fair for
two days after the appearance of the aurora borealis,
expedf fair weather for at leaft eight days more.
If miffs be attracted to the tops of hills then expeft Ra;n fron-.
rain in a day or two; if, in dry weather, they be ob- mifts.
ferved to afeend more than ufual, then expedt hidden
rain ; mifts in the new moon forefhew rain in the old •,
mifts alfo in the old moon denote rain ter happen in the
new ; a mifty white fcare, in a clear fky in the fouth-
eaft, is always a forerunner of rain.
If mifts dillipate quickly, or defeend after rain, it is Fair^wea-
a hire fign of fair weather; a general miff before fun- ther from
rihng near the full moon, denotes fair weather for about mitts,
a fortnight running. If after funfet or before hmrife,
a white miff arife from the waters and meads, it denotes
warm and fair weather next day. A mifty dew on the
infide of glafs windows fhews fair weather for that
day.
Wood fwelling, or ftones feeming to fweat; lute or pajn from
viol firings breaking; printed canvas or patted maps inanimate
relaxing; fait becoming moift ; rivers finking, or floods
fuddenly abating ; remarkable halo about the candle ;
great drynefs of the earth ; pools feeming troubled or
muddy ; yellow feum on the furface of ftagnant waters;
dandelion or pimpernel fhutting up; trefoil fwelling in
flalk, while the leaves bow down.
N. B. A dry fpring is always attended with a rainy
winter. ,or
Wind fhifting to the oppofite point; fea calm, with a Wind from
murmuring node ; a murmuring noife from the woods inanimate
and rocks when the air is calm; leaves and feathers
feeming much agitated; tides high when the ther¬
mometer is high; trembling or flexuous burning of
flames ; coal burning white rvith a murmuring noife;
thunder in the morning with a clear Iky ; thunder from
the north.
N. B. Whenfoever the tvind begins to fliift, it Avill
not reft till it come to the oppofite point; and if the
wind be in the north, it will be cold; if in the north-
eaft colder ; if in the fouth ; it brings rain ; but if in
the fouth-weft more rain. io2
The hidden clofing of gaps in the earth ; the remark- sjgns 0f
able riling of fprings or rivers ; if the rain begins an rain, cea»
hour or two before funrife it is like to be fair erefing*
noon; but if an hour or Iavo after funrife, it for the
moft part happens to continue all day and then to
ceafe ; when it begins to rain from the fouth Avith a
high Avind for two or three hours, and that the wind
falls, and it ftill continues raining, it is then like to,
continue for 13 hours or more, and then to ceafe.
& B,
Chap.
Weather
103
Of wind
•eafing.
VI.
METEOR
104
Signs of
kail.
105
Signs of
thunder.
106
Signs of
cold and
frofly wea
ther.
107
Signs of
thaw.
N. B. Tliefe long rains fcldom hold above 24 hours,
or happen above once a year.
A hafty fhower after raging winds is a fure fign of
the ftorm being near an end. If the water ruckles and
frequent bubbles arife, or if the halcyon or kingVfifher
attempts the fea while the ftorm lafts, or moles come
out of their holes, or fparrows chirp merrily, thefe are
all certain figns of the ftorm ceafing.
Both fea and frefti-water fifties by their frequent ri¬
ling and fluttering on the furface of the water, foretel
the ftorm nigh over, but efpecially dolphins fpouting up
water in a ftorm foretel a calm.
N. B. Let the wind be in what quarter it will, upon
the new moon, it prefently changes.
Clouds white, inclining to yellow, and moving
heavily though the wind be high, is a lure fign of hail ^
if the eaftern Iky before funnfe be pale, and refracted
rays appear in thick clouds, then expeft great ftoims of
hail : white clouds in fummer are a fign of hail, but. in
winter they denote fnow, efpecially when we perceive
the air to be a little warm } in fpring or winter, when
clouds appear of blueilh white, and expand much, ex-
pea final 1 hail or drizzling, which properly is no other
than frozen milts.
Meteors Ihooting in the fummer’s evening, or chops
and clefts in the earth, when the weather is fultry,
always foretel thunder is nigh } in fummer or haiveft,
when the wind has been fouth two or three days, and
the thermometer high, and clouds rife with great white
tops like towers, as if one were upon the top of another,
and joined with black on the nether fide, expeft rain
and thunder fuddenly j if two fuch clouds aiife, one on
either hand, it is then time to look for ihelter, as the
thunder is very nigh.
iV. B. It is obferved that it thunders moll with a
fouth wind and leaft with an eaft.
Sea-pyes, ftarlings, fieldfares, with other migratory
birds, appearing early, denote a cold fealon to enfue ;
' the early appearance of fmall birds in flocks, and. of
robin-redbreafts near houfes 5 fun in harveft fetting
in a mill or broader than ufual } moon bright, with
iharp horns, after change ; wind Ihifting to the eaft or
north after change 5 Iky full of twinkling fta.rs j fmall
clouds hovering low in the north ; fnow falling fmall,
while clouds appear on heaps like rocks.
N. B. Frofts in autumn are always fucceeded with
rain.
Snow falling in large flakes while the wind is at
fouth ; cracks appearing in the ice 5 fun looking water-
ifh • the moon’s horns blunted 5 ftars looking dull *,
wind turning to the fouth j wind extremely ftiifting. It
is alfo obferved, that, if Oftober and November be
froft and fnow, January and February are like to be
open and mild.
O L O G Y. 733
Fair weather for a week together, while the wind is Weather. ^
all that time in the fouth, is, for the moft part, follow-
ed by a great drought 5 if February be for molt rainy, Sigrs of
fpring and fummer quarters are like to be fo too •, but if drought,
it happen to be altogether fair, then exped a drought
to follow ; if lightning follow after 24 hours of dry and
fair weather, drought will follow, but it within 24 hours,
expect great rains. _ 109
A moift and cold fummer, and mild autumn, are Signs of a
fure figns of a hard and fevere winter: ftore of hips win-
and haws denote the fame ; the hazel-tree flowering is er-
ever obferved to foretel the fame ; acorns found
without any infeft is a fure prognoftic of a hard win¬
ter. , 110
A dry and cold winter with a foutherly wind ; a Signs of
very rainy fpring, ficknefs in fummer j if fummer be g^tial
dry with the wind northerly, great ficknefs is like to
follow 5 great heats in fpring time without winds; roots
having a lufcious tafte, while the wind has been.long
foutherly without rain 5 and, laftly, great quantities of
ftinking atoms, infefts or animals, as flies, frogs, brakes,
locufts, &c. # II.1
Inclofe the leech worm in an eight ounce phial glafs, Expen-
three-fourths filled with water, covered with a bit of"^*1
linen ; let the water be changed once a week in fum¬
mer, and once a fortnight in winter.
If the leech lies motionlefs at the bottom in a fpiral
form, fair weather 5 if crept to the top, rain j if reft-
lefs, wind ; if very reftlefs, and without the water,
thunder; if in winter at bottom, froft 5 but if in the
winter it pitches its dwelling on the mouth of the phial,
fnoW\ See HELMINTHOLOGY (f). . IT2
In calm weather, when the air is inclined to rain, Signs of the
the mercury is low j but when tending to fair, it will weather
rife: in very hot weather when falling, it forefhews ®
thunder 5 if rifing in winter, froft 5 but if falling inb
froft, thaw ; if rifing in a continued froft, fnow if foul
weather quickly on its falling, foon over ; if fair wea¬
ther quickly on its rifing, foon over 5 alfo if rifing high
in foul weather, and fo continuing for two or three
days, before the foul weather is over, then expeft a
continuance of fair weather 5 but, if in fair weather the
mercury fall low, and fo continue for two or three
days, then expeft much rain, and probably high
winds. /
N. B. In an eaft wind, the mercury always rifes and
falls loweft before great winds*. fon'“jour¬
nal, Feb.
It was intended to infert in this article a fummary 1804,
view of the opinions of Toaldo, Cotte, and Lamarck, p. i49‘
refpe&ing the influence of the moon in producing
changes in our atmofphere ; but peculiar circumftances
render it neeeffary to poftpone this .view till we come to
the article Moon.
we
fF) In compliance with the writer of this paper, we have retained this paflage on the leech ; though as ...
ftated, when treating of the Hirudo medicinalis, in Helminthology, we are very fceptical relpecting the wea
ther-judging faculties of that wTorm.
INDEX.
C 73+ ]
INDEX.
AlMOSFHZHE, denfity of, leaft at the
equator, and greatell: at
the poles, N°
■weight of, the fame all over
the globe, ib.
forms two inclined planes,
meeting at the equator, ib.
in the northern hemifphere
lefs inclined in our fum-
mer, and v. v. ib.
Augujl, the warmed; month in the fou-
thern latitudes, jg
B.
Barometer, Hands liigheH at the level
of the fea, 2
medium height there, 30
inches, p
varies very little in the tor¬
rid zone, 10
tropical daily variation cor-
refponds to the tides, ib.
table of the range of, ib.
range of, much lef* in N.
America, ib.
feems to have a tendency to
rife towards evening, ib.
range of, greater in winter, 11
high in ferene weather, and
on the approach of eafter-
ly and northerly winds, ib.
low in calm weather, on the
approach of rain, high
winds, or with a fouther-
ly wind, ib.
axioms on, by Cotte, 12
variation of, accounted for, 13
why higheft in winter in
northern latitudes, 14
whether affe&ed by the fun
and moon, ib.
C.
Capper on the winds, (
Clouds, always form at fome height
above the earth,
theory of, uncertain,
Congelation, perpetual term of,
tables of,
Cotters writings on meteorology,
axioms on the barometer,
on the thermometer, ^
Currents of air, different, in the atmo-
fphere at once, 75
D.
Dalton's writings on meteorology, 6
table of the quantity of vapour
at various temperatures, p. 713
and Hoyle’s experiments on
evaporation, N° 29
Drought, figns of, N° 108
E.
Evaporation, confined to the furface, 26
proportional to the tem¬
perature of the air, 27
rate of, how eftimated, p. 715
goes on continually, 7x6
mean annual, at Liver¬
pool, ib.
over the globe, N° 31
from land, 28
experiments on, by Dal¬
ton and Ho)le, 29
may go on for a month
together without rain, 34
Falling ftar probably of an electrical
origin, -76
analogous to the aurora borealis, ib.
H.
Flail, figns of, 104
Howard's (Luke) writings on meteo¬
rology, 6
remarks on the influence of
the fun and moon on the
barometer, 14
Hygrometer, Leflie’s, defcribed, 38
I.
January, the coldefl: month in all lati¬
tudes, 16
Ignis fatuus, probably a phofpboric
phenomenon, 77
July, the warmeft month in northern
latitudes, 1 g
K'
Kirwan's writings on meteorology, g
mode of calculating the mean
annual and monthly tempe¬
rature of the air, p.710, note
(d), and p. 711, note (e.)
mode of eftimating the rate
of diminution of the air’s
temperature, 17
conclufions on the weather, 79
L •
Lamarck's writings on meteorology, 6
Leech, experiments with, as to its pow¬
ers of prognofticating the wea¬
ther, 111
Lejlie's hygrometer defcribed, 38
explained, qt)
Luc, de, vindicated from the charge of
plagiarifm, p. 706, note (a)
M.
Meteors, 73
Meteorology, objeft of, 1
conneftinn of with che-
miilry, 2
Hill in its infancy, 3
33
34
18
P- 7i5
N° 6
12
J
6
7
42
44
H
76
32
34
ib.
Meteorology, means of improving,
importance of,
writers on,
divifion of,
Monfoons,
direftion of,
Moon, effect of, on the barometer,
Morgan's remarks on the falling ilar,
R.
Rain never begins in a clear Iky,
theory of, uncertain,
mean annual quantity of, greateft
at the equator,
in Great Britain, 37
falls mod in the day,
proportional quantity in different
months, Jj)<
often molt frequent in winter, 3 j
figns of from birds, 82
from beafts, 85
from infefts, 86
from the fun, 87
from the moon, go
from the clouds, 94
from a rainbow, 96
from miffs, 98
from inanimate bodies, 100
figns of its ceafing, 102
8.
SauJJure's writings on meteorology, 6
Seafons, probable fucceflion of, " 79
peftilential, figns of, no
T.
Temperature of the atmofphere tends
towards a mean in all
climates, ?• 710
mean annual, greateft at
the equator, N° 13
table of, ib.
how calculated, p. 710,
note (d),
mean monthly table of, p. 711
how calculated, ib. note (e),
of the air diminiflies as we
afeend above the earth,
N° 17
diminiflies in arithmeti¬
cal progreflion, 19
owing to the air’s con¬
ducing power, ib.
of the north pacific 0-
cean, 20
of the fouthern hemi¬
fphere,
of fmall feas,
of North America,
of iflands,
• of open plains,
of woody countries,
21
22
ib.
23
ib.
ib.
Thaw
Index.
Thaw, figns of, N* 10 7
Thermometer, axioms on, by Cotte, 24
Thunder, figns of, 10 j
V.
Vapour, qualities of, _ _ 25
quantity of, raifed at various
temperatures, table of, p* 7J5
Hate of, in the air unknown, N°34
W.
Weather, conclufions refpecling, by Kir-
wan, 79
rules for prognofticating, 8 x
fair, figns of from birds, 84
from the fun, 89
from the moon, 92
from the rainbow, 97
from mills, 99
from the ftars, 93
figns of, from the barometer, 112
cold and frofty, figns of, 106
Williams''s hints for improving meteo-
rology, . 4
work on the climate of Britain, 6
METEOROLOGY.
Winds, fiiftory of, N°40—63
trade 41
how produced, 68
tropical, 42
dire£lion of, 43
fea and land breezes, 45
in Bornou and Fezzan, ib.
in Abyffinia, 46
at Calcutta, 47
in the temperate zones, 48
in Virginia and N. America, 49
in South America, ib.
in Egypt, _ 50
in the Mediterranean, 51
in Syria, 52
in Italy, 53
in France, 54
in Germany, 55
at London, 56
at Lancafter, 57
at Dumfries, 58
near Glafgow, 59
in Britain, table of, p. 723
735
Winds in Ireland, N° 60
at Copenhagen and in Ruflia, 6 r
at the Cape of Good Hope, 62
in the Pacific, 63
theory of, 64—7 2
velocity of, extremely variable,
table of, 65
produced by difturbmg the e-
quilibrium of the air, ib.
fouth-weft, very common after
aurorae boreales, 70
probable caufes of, 71
commonly begins at the place
towards which it blows, 72
partial,^ . 74
Wind, figns of from birds, 83
from the fun, 88
from the moon, pi
from the clouds, 93
from inanimate bodies, 101
ceafing, figns of, 103
Winter, hard, figns of, 109
MET
Meteoro- METEOROM ANCY, a fpecies of divination by
ma|jcy meteors, principally by lightning and thunder. This
Method;fts. method of divination palled from the Tufcans to the
'—-v—' Romans, with whom, as Seneca informs us, it was
held in high efteem.
METESSIB, an officer of the eaflern nations, who
has the care and overfight of all the public weights and
meafures, and fees that things are made juilly according
to them.
METHEGLIN, a fpecies of mead 5 one of the mod
pleafant and general drinks which the northern parts of
Europe afford, and much ufed among the ancient in¬
habitants : (See Mead'). The word is Welffi, med-
dyglin, where it fignifies the fame.—There are divers
ways of making it ; one of the bell whereof follows :
Put as much new honey, naturally running from the
comb, into fpring water, as that when the honey is
thoroughly dilfolved an egg will not fink to the bot¬
tom, but be juft fufpended in it 5 boil this liquor for
an hour or more, till fuch time as the egg fvvim above
the liquor about the breadth of a groat; when very
cool, next morning it may be barrelled up 5 adding to
each 15 gallons an ounce of ginger, as much ol mace
and cloves, and half as much cinnamon, all grofsly
pounded ; a fpoonful of yeail may be alfo added at
the bung hole to promote the fermentation. When
it has done working, it may be clofely Hopped up ;
and after it has Hood a month, it Ihould be drawn off
into bottles.
METHOD, the arrangement of our ideas in fuch
a regular order, that their mutual connexion and de¬
pendence may be readily comprehended. See Logic,
part iv.
METHODISTS, in ecclefiallical hillory, is a de¬
nomination applied to different fedts, both Papifts and
Proteftants.
I. The Popijh Methodijls were thofe polemical dcc-
M E T
tors, of whom the moft eminent arofe in France to- Methodifts.
wards the middle of the 17th century, in oppoiition
to the Huguenots or Proteilants. Thofe Methodiffs,
from their different manner of treating the controver-
fy with their opponents, may be divided into two
claffes. The one may comprehend thofe doctors,
whofe method of difputing with the Proteftants was
difingenuous and unreafonable, and who followed the
examples of thofe military chiefs, who Ihut up their
troops in intrenchments and ftrong holds, in order to
cover them from the attacks of the enemy. Of this
number were the Jefuit Veron, who required the Pro¬
teftants to prove the tenets of their church by plain
paffages of feripture, without being allowed the liber¬
ty of illuftrating tiiofe paffages, reafoning upon them,
or drawing any conclufions from them j Nihufius, an
apottate from the Proteftant religion 5 the two Wa~
lenburgs, and others, who confined themfelves to the
bufinefs of anfwering objeftions and repelling attacks j
and Cardinal Richelieu, who confined the whole con ■
troverfy to the fingle article of the divine inftitution
and authority of the church. The Methodiiis of»the
fecund ciafs were of opinion, that the moft expedient
manner of reducing the Proteftants to filence, was not
to attack them by piecemeal, but to overwhelm them
at once, by the weight of fome general principle or
prefumption, fome univerfal argument, which compre¬
hended or might be applied to all the points conteftecl
between the two churches : thus imitating the con¬
duct of thofe military leaders who, inftead of fpending
their time and Urength in fieges and fkirmifhes, en¬
deavoured to put an end to the war by a general and
decifive aftion. Thefe polemics refted the defence of
Popery upon prefeription ; the wicked lives of Pro-
teUant princes who had left the church of Rome j the
crime of religious fchifm ; the variety of opinions
among Proteftants with regard to do&rine and difei-
Methoclifts.
* See Wef-
lex's Life.
p. 105.
MET [ 73
pline ; and tlie uniformity of the tenets and worlhip of
the church of Rome. To this claR belong Nieolle the
Janfenilf dobtor, the famous Boffuet, &c.
II. The Prate/}ant Method/}s form a very confider-
able body in this country. i he fe£t was founded in
the year 1729 by one Mr Morgan and Mr John Wef-
ley. In the month of November that year, the latter
being then fellow of Lincoln college, began to fpend
fome evenings in reading the Greek New Teftament,
along with Charles Welley iludent, Mr Morgan com¬
moner of Chritl church, and Mr Kirkham of Merton
college. Next year two or three of the pupils of Mr
John WeOey, and one pupil of Mr Charles Wefley ob¬
tained leave to attend thefe meetings. Two years af¬
ter they u'ere joined by Mr Ingham of Queen’s col¬
lege, Mr Broughton of Exeter, and Mr James Her-
vey j and in 1735 they were joined by the celebrated
Mr Whitefield, then in hi* 18th year.
At this time it is faid that the whole kingdom of
England was tending fait to infidelity. “ It is come
(fays Bilhop Butler), I know not how, to be taken
for granted by many perfons, that Chriftianity is not
fo much as a fubjecR of inquiry, but that it is now at
length difcovered to be fidtitious ; and accordingly
they treat it as if in the prefent age this were an
agreement among all people of difcernment, and no¬
thing remained but to fet it up as a principal fubjeft
of mirth and ridicule, as it were by way of reprifals,
for its having fo long interrupted the pleafures of the
"world.” The Methodifts are faid, with great proba¬
bility, to have been very inllrumental in Hemming
this torrent. They obtained their name from the
exatSl regularity of their lives ; which gave occafion to
a young gentleman of Chrift church to fay, “ Here is
a new fet of McthodJIs fprung up j” alluding to a fe£t
of ancient phylicians which went by that name. This
extreme regularity, however, foon brought a charge
againft them, perhaps not altogether'without foundation,
of being too fcrupulous, and carrying their fenflity to
too great a height. In particular it was urged, that
they laid too much ftrefs upon the rubrics and canons
of the church, infilled too much on obferving the rules
of the univerfity, and took the fcriptures in too literal
a i’enfe 5 and to the name of Methodifts two others were
quickly added, viz. thofe of Sctcramenturians and the
Godiy Club.
The principal perfon in this club while in its infan¬
cy appears to have been Mr Morgan, and next to him
Mr John Welley. They vifited the lick, and inlfitut-
ed a fund for the relief of the poor*, and the better
to accomplifh their benevolent defigns, Mr Welley
abridged bimfelf of all his fuperfluities, and even of
fome of the neceffaries of life ; and by propofing the
fcheme to fome gentlemen, they quickly increafed
their funds to Sol. per annum. This, which one Ihould
have thought would have been attended with praife
rnltead of cenfure, quickly drew upon them a kind of
perfecution *, fome of the feniors of the univerfity be¬
gan to interfere, and it was reported “ that the college
cenfors were going to blow up the Godly Club
They found themfelves, however, patronifed and en¬
couraged by fome men eminent for their learning and
virtue ; fo that the fociety Hill continued, though they
had fuffered a fevrre lofs in 17 to in the death of Mr
Morgan, who had indeed been the founder of it. In
5 ] MET
the month of October 1735, John and Charles Wef-
ley, Mr Ingham, and Mr Eelamotte ion to a merchant
in London, embarked for Georgia along with Mr O-
glethorpe, aftenvards General Oglethorpe. 1 he de-
lign of this voyage was to preach the gofpel to the
Indians. By this time, however, it appears that Mr
Wefley had embraced fuch notions as may without
the lealt breach of charity be accounted fanatical.
Thus in a letter to his brother Samuel, he conjures
him to banilh from his fchool “ the dallies with their
poifon,” and to introduce inilead of them fuch Chri-
itian authors as would work together with him in
“ building up his flock in the knowledge and love of
God.”
During the voyage fuch a profufion of worlhip was
' obferved, as we cannot help thinking favoured more of
a Pharifaical than Chriftian behaviour ; an account of
which, as a fimilar ftiiclnds would certainly be incul¬
cated upon the difciples, and confequently muft give a
jufl idea of the principles of the early Methodifts, we
fliall here tranferibe from Mr Wefley’s life. “ From
four in the morning till five, each of us ufed private
prayer ; from five to feven we read the Bible together,
carefully comparing it (that we might not lean to our
own underftandings) with the writings of the earlieft
ages j at feven we breakfafted ; at eight were the pub¬
lic prayers 5 from nine to twelve learned the lan¬
guages and inftrudled the children ; at twelve we met
to give an account to one another what we had done
fince our laft meeting, and what we defigned to do be¬
fore our next *, at one we dined ; the time from dinner
to four we fpent in reading to thofe of whom each of
us had taken charge, or in fpeaking to them feparate-
ly as need required *, at four were the evening prayers,
when either the lecond leffon was explained (as it al¬
ways wras in the morning), or the children were cate-
chifed and inftrufted before the congregation ; from
five to fix we again ufed private prayer ; from fix to
feven I read in our cabin to two or three of the paf-
fengers, of whom there wrere about 80 Englilh on
board, and each of my brethren to a few more in
theirs ; at feven I joined with the Germans in their
public fervice, while Mr Ingham was reading between
decks to as many as defired to hear 5 at eight we met
again, to inftrudf and exhort one another j between
nine and ten wre went to bed, when neither the roar¬
ing of the fea nor the motion of the flfip could take
away the refrelhing fleep which God gave us.”
As they proceeded in their pafiage, this aufterity
inflead of being diminifhed was increafed. Mr V/efley
difeontinued the ufe of wfine and fit Hr ; confining him-
felf to vegetables, chiefly rice and bifeuit. He ate no
fupper *, and his bed having been made w'et by the
fea, he lay upon the floor, and flept foundly till morn¬
ing. In his Journal he fays, “ I believe I fliall not
find it needfui to go to bed, as it is called, any more 5”
but whether this was really done or not, we cannot
fay.
The miflionaries, after their arrival, were at firft very
favourably received, but in a (hurt time loft the afieftions
of the people entirely. This w a> owing to the behaviour
of Mr Wefley himfelf, who appeared not only capri¬
cious but frequently defpotic. He particularly gave
offence by infilling upon the baptifm of ehiidnn by
immerfion ; and his exceflive aufterity, with regard to
himfelf
MET
t 73? 1
MET
Mtfhodlft*. liimfelf did not tend to give his hearers any favourable
u— > opinion either of the fuperior fandity or wifdom of their
teacher. At lad, on account of a difference with Mr
Cauiton the ftorekeeper and chief magiifrateof Savannah
which ended in a lavv-fuit, he was obliged to return to
England.
Thus the caufe of Methodifm feemed to be entirely
loft in Georgia. But Mr Wefley was foon fucceeded
by a more popular and fuccefsful champion, viz. Mr
George Whitefield j who having fpent his time during
the voyage in converting the foldxers with whom he
failed, arrived at Savannah in Georgia on the yth of
May 1738. Here he was received by Mr Delamotte,
was joined by feveral of Mr Wefley’s hearers, and be¬
came intimate with feme other minifters. Mr Ingham
had made fome progrefs in converting a few runaway
Creek Indians, who had a fettlement about four miles
from Savannah; but being obliged to return to Eng¬
land in a few months, this defign was fruftrated, and
the Indians in a few years feparated. During the
fliort time that Mr Whitefield refided at Savannah, he
became extremely popular ; and indeed the initances
of his fuccefs in the way of making converts are very
liirp-ifing. However, he was obliged to return to
England in the autumn of that year, that he might
receive priefts orders. On his return to America in
October 1739, he landed at Philadelphia, and inftantly
began his fpiritual labours as in other places •, being
attended with aftoniftiing fuccefs not only there but
wherever he went. Palling through the colonies of
Virginia, Maryland, North and South Carolina^ the
number of converts continually increafed j but on his ar¬
rival at Savannah, he found the colony almoft deferted.
He now refumed the fcheme he had formerly pro]efl¬
ed of building an Orphan-houfe •, and for this he made
the firlt colleftion at Charleftown in South Carolina,
amounting to about 70I. fterling. His zeal in the
caufe of religion, or of the colony, were not, however,
fufficient to procure him the favour of thofe in power.
On his return to Philadelphia, after a fhort ftay at Sa¬
vannah, the churches were denied him •, but he was
made ample amends by the fuccefs which attended his
field preachings and private efforts. Religious focie-
ties were everywhere fet up, and many were convert¬
ed with fymptoms of enthufiafra, different according
to their various tempers and conflitutions. During
this excurfion, he was fo fuccefsful in his colleftion for
the Orphan-houfe, that on his return to Savannah he
brought along with him money and provifions to the
value of 500I. fterling.
The fuccefs in Georgia was now greater than ever ;
but the many charities which it was neceffary to fup-
ply, rendered it neceffary in a fhort time for him to
undertake another journey to Charleftown. Here his
principles met with the greateft oppofition. He had
loft the favour of the commiffary by his field-preach¬
ing, and was denied the facraraent. I he oppofition,
however, was altogether fruitlefs 5 the number of con¬
verts increafed wherever he went, and he now under¬
took a voyage to New England. In this place alfo
the eftablifhed clergy were his enemies •, but the ufual
fuccefs attended his other endeavours, and procured
300I. more for the ufe of the Orphans in Georgia.
From the year 1741 to 1743 America was deprived
of Mr Whitefield’s preaching, he having fpent that
Vol. XIII. Part II.
interval in England •, but in 1744 he again fet out for Method;in.
the weitern continent. The remarkable fuccels which
had hitherto attended his labours now ftirred up many
opponents 5 and thefe had met with the greater fuc¬
cefs, as none of the Methodift preachers whom he
had left were poffeffed of fuch abilities either to gain
the favour of thofe who heard them, or to defend their
dodfrines againft objections. Mr Whitefield's fuceefsj
however, was the fame as before : he even found
means to infpire the military clais with inch fentiments
of devotion, that Colonel Peppered could not under¬
take his expedition againft Louifbourg without firft
confulting Mr Whiiefield ; and great numbers of Mew-
Englanders went volunteers, confident of vidlory, in
confequenee of the dilcourfes of their teacher.
From the continent of America Mr 'Whitefield
took a voyage to the Bermudas iilands j and here, as
everywhere elfe, he met with the moil furpriling fuc¬
cefs. Here alfo collections were made lor the Or¬
phan houfe in Savannah, which were tranfmitted to
that place.
Suppoling it to be better for his caufe to vifit dif¬
ferent countries, than to take up a permanent refi-
dence in one, Mr Whitefield left Bermudas in a few
months, and did not return to America till 1751,
when the Orphan-honfe was found to be in a very
flourilhing fituation. After a Ihort ! ay, he fet iail
again for Britain. Here he remained two years, and
then fet out on another vifit to America, landing at
Charleftown on the 27th of May 1754. His prefene*
conftantly revived the fpirits and caufe of his party,
and added to their numbers wherever he went. Next
year lie returned to England •, but after labouring in
the ufual manner, and meeting with the ufual fuccefs
there till the year 1763, he fet fail again for America,
and arrived at Virginia in the latter end of Auguft. Fie
now vifited all the colonies, and found that great pro¬
grefs had been made in converting the Indians. On
his arrival at Georgia, matters were found in a very
flourithing fituation, and he received the thanks of
the governor and principal people for the great bene¬
fit he had been to the colony ; which (bows, that the
ftories which had been fo induftrioufly propagated,
concerning the avarice of him and other Mt thodift
preachers, were, partly at leaft, unfounded. In 1765
he returned to England ; and in 1769 made his fe-
venth and laft voyage to America, landing at Charlef¬
town on the 30th of November the fame year He
was ftill attended with the fame fuccefs ; and indeed
it is impoffible to read, without admiration, an ac¬
count of the efforts made by himfelf and Mr Wtfley,
to propagate their tenets in the different parts of the
world.
For a very confiderable time Mr Whitefield was
the only Methodift who paid any attention to A-
merica; and in that country he was more popular
than even in Europe. Towards the end of hi> life,
feveral Methodifts having emigrated from Britain,
formed diftimft focieties in New York and Philadel¬
phia. Thefe quickly increafed in number 5 and, about
the time that the war with Biitain began, their num¬
bers amounted to about 3000 in Virginia, Maryland,
New York, and Pennfylvania. They would pro¬
bably have increaf d much more, had it not been for
the imprudence of fome of their preachers, who in-
c A troduccd
MET
Methodifts, troduced politics into their difcourfes, and thus ren¬
dered themfelves obnoxious to the people among whom
they lived. Among thofe who hurt the caufe in this
manner was Mr Welley himfelf, who, by writing a
piece entitled A Calm Addrejs to the American Colo¬
nies, would in all probability have ruined it, had not a
gentleman, with whom he was connetted, deftroyed or
fent back to England the whole impreffion as foon as
it arrived in America, fo that its exiftence was fcarce
known in that continent. At the conclufion of the
war, Dr Coke, who in 1776 had left a curacy in Eng¬
land in order to join Mr Welley, paid a vifit to his
friends in America j though it had been imagined that
a total reparation had taken place between the Ameri¬
can and European Methodifts. This breach was, how¬
ever, made up by a manoeuvre of Mr Welley ; for no
fooner had the Americans obtained their independence,
than he, who had hitherto branded them with the name
of rebels, fent a congratulatory letter on their freedom
from the “ State and the Hierarchy,” and exhorting
them to “ Hand fait in that liberty with which God had
fo ftrangely made them free.” To Ihow his zeal in
their fervice Hill farther, he gave ordination, by laying
on of hands, to feveral preachers who were to embark
for America, and confecrated Dr Coke one of the bilhops
of the Methodift Epifcopal church in that country. Ele
extracted alfo from the liturgy of the Englidi church one
for the American Mcthodifts, taking particular care to
expunge every expreflion that had a particular refpeft
to the regal authority.
Such proceedings in one who had formerly profef-
fed fuch extraordinary attachment to the Englilh
church, could not but require an apology 5 and this
was accordingly made in a paftoral letter tranfmitted
to the American focieties, and addreffed “ to Dr
Coke, Mr Aftbury, and our brethren in North Ame¬
rica.” In this letter he makes the following defence
of his condudl. “ Lord King’s account of the pri¬
mitive church convinced me, many years ago, that
bilhops and prelbyters are the fame order, and con-
fequently have the fame right to ordain. For many
years I have been importuned, from time to time, to
exercife this right, by ordaining part of our travelling
preachers. But I have Hill refufed, not only for the
fake of peace, but becaufe I was determined, as little
as poffible, to violate the eftablilhed order of the na¬
tional church to which I belonged. But the cafe is
widely different between England and North Ameri¬
ca. Here there are bilhops who have a legal jurif-
didlion : in America there are none, neither any pa-
rilh minifters : fo that for fome hundred miles toge¬
ther, thfire is none either to baptize, or to adminifter
the Lord’s fupper. Here, therefore, my fcruples are
at an end ; and I conceive myfelf at full liberty, as I
violate no order, and invade no man’s right, by ap¬
pointing and fending labourers into the harveft. It
has indeed been propofed to defire the Englilh bilhops
to ordain part of our preachers for America ; but to
this I object 1. I delired the bilhop of London to
ordain only one, but could not prevail. 2. If they
confented, we know the flownefs of their proceed¬
ings ; but the matter admits of no delay. 3. If they
would ordain them 'now, they would likewife expedl
to govern them ; and howr grievoully would that en¬
tangle us, 4. As our American brethren are now to-
[ 738. ]
MET
tally difentangled, both from the Hate and the Eng- Methodifc.
lilh hierarchy, we dare not entangle them again either * •— J t
with the one or the other. '1 hey are now at full li¬
berty Amply to follow the feripture and the primitive
church j and we judge it belt, that they Ihould Hand
fait in that liberty wherewith God has io itrangely
made them free.”
Dr Coke, on the confecration of Mr Aflbury to the
office of a bilhop, made another apology. “ The church
of England (fays he), of which the fociety of Me-
thodiits in general have till lately profeffed themfelvei,
a part, did for many years groan in America under
grievances of the heavieit kind. Subjedted to a hierar¬
chy which weighs every tiling in the fcale of politics,,
its mofl important intermits were repeatedly facrihced to
the fuppofed advantages of England. The churches
were in general filled with the parafites and bottle-com¬
panions of the rich and great. The humble and moff
importunate entreaties of the oppreffed flocks, yea the
reprefentations of a general afiembly itfelf, were con¬
temned and defpifed. Every thing facred mufl bow
down at the feet of a party j the holinefs and happinefs
of mankind be facrificed to their views ; and the drunk¬
ard, the fornicator, and the extortioner, triumphed over
bleeding Zion, becaufe they were faithful abettors of
the ruling powers. The memorable revolution has
Hruck off thefe intolerable fetters, and broken the anti-
chriftian union which before fubfifted between church
and Hate. And had there been no other advantage
arifing from that glorious epoch, this itfelf, I believe,
would have made ample compenfation for all the cala¬
mities of the war ; one happy confequence of which was
the expulfion of moft of thofe hirelings, who “ ate the
fat, and clothed themfelves with the wool, but ftrength-
ened not the difeafed,” &c. The parochial churches
in general being hereby vacant, our people were de¬
prived of the facraments through the greateft part of
thefe Hates, and continue fo Hill. What method can
we take in fo critical a junflure ? God has given us
fufficient refources in ourlelves ; and, after mature de¬
liberation, we believe that we are called to draw them
forth.
“ But what right have you to ordain ?” The fame
right as moft of the churches in Chriftendom j our or¬
dination, in its loweft view, being equal to any of the
preffiyterian, as originating with three prefbyters of
the church of England. “ But what right have you
to exercife the epifcopal office ?” To me the moft
manifeft and clear. God has been pleafed to raife up,
by Mr Wefley, in America and Europe, a numerous
fociety well known by the name of Methodijls. The
whole body have invariably efteemed this man as their
chief paftor under Chrift. He has conftantly appoint¬
ed all their religious officers from the higheft to the
loweft, by himfelf or his delegate. And we are fully
perfuaded there is no church office which he judges
expedient for the welfare of the people intrufted to his
charge, but, as effential to his ftation, he has power to
ordain. “ But, do not you break the fucceffion ?”
The uninterrupted fucceffion of biffiops is a point that
has long been given up by the moft able Proteflant de¬
fenders of epifcopacy. Biffiop Hoadley himfelf, in his
celebrated controverfy with Dr Calamy, allows it to be
unneceffary. His words are, ‘ To the 13th queftion I
anfwer, that I think not an uninterrupted line of fuc¬
ceffion
MET
Mothodifts. ceflion of regularly ordained bifliops neceflary.’
v ' fo grants the authenticity of the anecdote given us by
St Jerome, which informs us, that the church of Alex¬
andria had no regular fucceflion from the time of St
Mark the evangelift, the firft bifhop of that church, to
the time of Dionyfius, a fpace of 200 years j but the
college of prefbyters, on the death of a biihop, elected
another in his Head. We are alfo informed, from the
epiftle of St Clement to the Corinthians, written foon
after the death of St Paul, a writer whofe works are
next in precedence to the canon of fcripture, and pro¬
bably written by immediate infpiration, that the church
of Corinth was then governed only by a college of
prefbyters. And from the epiftle of Polycarp to the
church of Philippi, written in 116, we alfo find that the
Chriftian Philippians were then governed only by a
college of prefbyters. So that the primitive Chriftians
were fo far from efteeming the regular fucceftion
us eflential to the conftitution of a Chriftian church,
that, in fome inftances, epifcopacy itfelf was wholly
omitted.
Such was the defence urged by Mr Wefley for this
extraordinary affumption of epifcopal powers : a con-
dudt, however, of which he afterwards repented, as
tending to make a final feparation betwixt his fol-
. lowers and the church of England. Yet it does not
appear that this had any bad effedt on the minds of
his American brethren j for Dr Coke, on his arrival
on the weftern continent, found the focieties numerous
and flourifhing. His firft efforts were directed againft
the flave trade 5 and not only the abolition of that
traffic, but the releafe of all thofe who were actually
flaves at the time, feem to have been his favourite ob-
je£ts. By interfering in this matter, however, per¬
haps with too much zeal, he involved himfelf in dan¬
ger. Some riots took place, and a lady offered the
mob 50 guineas if they would give the Doff or 100
lafhes. This piece of difcipline would have been in-
flifled, had it not been for the interpofition of a fturdy
colonel; and the Doffor had not only the fatisfaffion
of efcaping the intended punifhment, but of feeing his
doflrine fo far attended to, that fome flaves were eman¬
cipated.
Mr Hampfon, in his Memoirs of Mr Wefley, obferves,
that “ the colonifts, in the infancy of Methodifm, con-
duffed themfelves with more propriety than the Eng-
lilh. There was little or no perfecution, nor any thing
like a riot, except in one or two inftances which have
been mentioned as the confequence of the animadver-
fions on flavery •, and even thefe were produffive of no
mifchief. Not a creature was materially injured ; no
bones were broken, nor any lives loft which was not
the cafe in this country. Here many thoufands of in¬
nocent people were fubjefted to the groffeft indignities,
and feveral were eventually facrificed to the fury of
their perfecutors.
“ While we commend the Americans for their be¬
haviour in oppofition to the brutality of Englifh mobs,
it may be proper ; o inquire into the fources of this
diftinffion. Something of this may have arifen from
fimilarity of fentiment. The Americans, from the firft
beginnings of colonization, had been accuftomed to
the doffrines of the old puritans and nonconformifts,
which in many refpeffs have a near affinity to the Me-
tbodiftic tenets. The origin of Methodifm in Ame-
l J739 1 ME T
He al- rica was feldom, if ever, attended, either under the Methodifts.
difcourfes of Mr Whitefield’s or Mr Wefley’s preach-
ers, with thofe ridiculous effeffs with which it was ac¬
companied in thefe kingdoms. Moft of the preachers,
who went over to the continent, having laboured for
fome years in Europe previous to their having crofted
the water, had exhaufted their wildfire 5 fo that their
difcourfes were more fcriptural and rational than thofe
of the primitive Methodifts. Another reafon may be
found in the education of the Americans. As a people,
they are better cultivated than the body of the Engliffi j
they are chiefly compofed of merchants and a refpectable
yeomanry : and there is but a fmall proportion of that
clafs, fo fuperabundant here, which we diftinguilh by
the name of mob.
“ The only exception we have heard, to their ex¬
emption from the extravagancies which in this coun¬
try marked the infancy of Methodifm, is a cuftom
they have introduced in Maryland and Virginia. Fre¬
quently, at the conclufion of a fermon, the whole
congregation began to pray and to praife God aloud.
The uproar which this muft create may eafily be con¬
ceived. Some we are told, are great admirers of this
fpecies of enthufiafm, in which every man is his own
minifter, and one lings and another prays, with the
moft difcordant devotion. But we will not dignify
fuch indecency with fuch a name. Its proper appel¬
lation is fanaticifm. We hope, that, for the future,
religion will never appear in this country under fo
odious a form ; and greatly is it to be lamented, that,
among the friends of Chriliianity, any fuch abfurdi-
ties ffiould arife, to furniffi infidels with occafions of
triumph.”
Our author informs us, that the occupation of the
Methodift preachers in America was very laborious.
In the courfe of the day they frequently rode 20 or
30 miles, preaching twice or thrice, and fometimes
to confiderable congregations. Notwithftanding this
labour, however, few or none of them ever thought
of returning to Britain. Several reafons may be af~
figned for the pleafure they took in this laborious ex-
ercife. “ Their excurfions (fays Mr Hampfon) through
immenfe forefts abounding in trees of all forts and
fizes, were often highly romantic. Innumerable ri- »
vers and falls of wrater 5 villas opening to the view,
in contrail with the uncultivated wild ; deer now ffioot-
ing acrofs the road, and now fcouring through the
wmods, while the eye was frequently relieved by the
appearance of orchards and plantations, and the houfe$
of gentlemen and farmers peeping through the trees j
formed a fcenery fo various and piflurefque, as to
produce a variety of refleftion, and prefent, we will
not fay to a philofophic eye, but to the mind of every
reafonable creature, the moll fublime and agreeable
images.
“ Their wTorlhip partook of the general fimplicity. It
was frequently conduced in the open air. The wood*
refounded to the voice of the preacher, or to the finging
of his numerous congregations ; while their horfes, fas¬
tened to the trees, formed a lingular addition to the fo-
lemnity. It wras indeed a linking pi£lure ; and might
naturally imprefs the mind with a retrofpedl of the an¬
tediluvian days, when the hills and valleys re-echoed
the patriarchal devotions, and a Seth or an Enoch, in
the lhadow of a proje£ling rock, or beneath the foliage
5 A 2 of
M E T [ 740 ] MET
Methodiftn. of ibme venerable oak, delivered his primeval lec-
tures, and was a “ preacher of righteoufnefs to the
people.”
The American hofpitality is fuppofed by Mr Hamp-
fon to have been another reafon for the alliduity of the
Methodift teachers, as well as the confcioufnefe of
being well employed, and the faiisfaction refuiting
from conilderations of public utility. As many of
the preachers were men of fervent piety, this reflec¬
tion would have its full weight 5 and the inftruftion
of the ignorant and the reformation of the profligate
Avouid be confidered as the belt recompenfe of their la¬
bours. Spreading themfelves through the continent,
they took in Nova Scotia, Georgia, with the principal
places in both Carolinas, Virginia, Maryland, Dela¬
ware, Penufylvania, New Jeriej\, and New York ;
numbering upwards of 43,000 members of their fo-
ciety, excluiive of about 80 itinerants, and a conlider-
able number of local preachers, who took no circuits,
but aflifted oceaiionally in the neighbourhood of their
refpeflive refidence.
The large and expenfive buildings which the co-
lonifts have erefted for public worfhip, almoft exceed
credibility j and feveral colleges are founded for the
inilruclion of youth. How far the propofed plan of
uniting genuine religion and extenfive learning will
be carried into execution, time only can difeover. It
mull: materially depend on the character of the pre-
fidents and tutors, and the provifion that lhall be made
for their fupport. Men of real erudition will never
be procured at low falaries •, and it is in vain to at¬
tempt eltablifhments of this fort without a liberal pro-
adium for the profeffors in every branch of fcience.
Two of thefe places are called Coiejbury and Wefley
Colleges. How they are endoaved, or whether they
propofe to obtain authority to confer degrees, ave are
not informed. But perhaps they are rather fchools
than colleges 5 which indeed is a circumftance to be
Aviihed, as good grammar fchools are of the utmolt fer-
vice to the progrefs of literature.
The great fuccefs avhich attended the Methodift
preachers in America naturally determined Mr Wef¬
ley to try the Weft India iflands. The Moravians
had already attempted to eilablifti their principles in
feme of thefe iflands; and in 1786 fome preachers
were fent from the Methodifts in England to the Weft
Indies. In many of thefe they met with fuccefs. So¬
cieties were formed in Barbadoes, St Vincent’s, Do¬
minica, St Chriftopher’s, Nevis, Antigua, St Eufta-
tius, Tortola, and St Croix, amounting in all to near
5000 perfons. At this time the avbole number of
Methodifts in America and the Weft Indies amounted
to about 48,302. Thefe focieties confifted both of
whites and blacks: on the continent they were moftly
whites, but in the iflands negroes. “ But it is to
be obferved (fays Mr Hampton) that the fubjeftion of
the negroes, and the obedience in avhich they are
trained, muft inculcate a docility peculiarly favour¬
able to the purpofes of a million.” Some of the mif-
fionaries went alfo to St Vincent’s, where they met
with fome fuccefs, and have eftablilhed fome fchools,
in which their children are carefully inftrudted in the
principles of religion.
“ In January 1789 (fays our author), Dr Coke
paid a vifit to Jamaica, and gave them feveral fer-
5
mons. As he made but a ftiort flay, it could hardly be It
confidered as a fair trial. Should a million be tilablilh-
ed here, as well as m the other illands, avhich avill pro¬
bably be the cafe, it is hoped it avill be the means of
eorre&ing one vice at leaft, and that is duelling ; a fa-
yage relic! of Gothic barbarity, by avhich' all the
illands have for many years been dittinguilhed. Per¬
haps too it avill give fome check to the ipirit of luxury
and diffipation; and teach the planters, if it be found
impratlicable to emancipate their Haves, at leaft to treat
them with humanity.”
It has been debated among the leading men of the
Methodiftical profeffion, whether the caufe might not
be lerved by fending miffionaries to the Eaft Indies
and to Africa ; but thefe projects were dropped, as
there was no invitation, nor any profpedt of fuccefs
if it had been adopted. A miflion has been formed to
the new fettlement called Kentucky, on the confines of
the Indian territories, near the Mifliflippi. The dan¬
ger of the miflionaries at the time they undertook this
fervice avas certainly very great; yet fuch avas their
zeal for the cauie, that they voluntarily offered them¬
felves : but we are not yet informed what fucoefs they
have met avith.
While Methodifm avas thus making rapid progref
in America, its teachers were equally indefatigable
in Britain. A moft remarkable particular, however,
occurs with regard to Mr Wefley himfelf; for though
he had gone to Georgia, as has been already related,
to convert the Indians to Chriftianity, yet on his re¬
turn to England in 1738, he took it into bis head
that he, their teacher, avas not yet converted : the rea¬
fon was, that he had not the faith of affurance. This,
however, was not long wanting. He arrived in Eng¬
land on the firft day of February, and was bleft avith
the affurance on the fixth of March following. This
avas immediately announced to the public ; and the
confequence, if we may believe him, was, that God
then began to work by his miniftry, which he had
not done before. Being joined by one Kinchin, a
fellow of Corpus, they travelled to Manohefter, Holms
Chapel, Newcaftle in Staffordflnre, and other places,
where they preached, exhorted, and converfed on re¬
ligious fubje£ts, in public houfes, flables, &c. fome-
times meeting with fuecefs and fometimes not. Du¬
ring this peregrination Mr Wefley certainly difplayed
a great deal of fuperftition, avhich ave muft undoubt¬
edly fuppofe to have been communicated to his hear¬
ers, and to have caufed them aft on many oecaflons
in a very ridiculous manner. An inftance follows :—-
“ The next day (fays he), March nth, ave dined
at Birmingham, and, foon after we left it, were re¬
proved for our negligence there (in letting thofe who
attended m go without either exhortation or inftruc-
tion) by a fevere fhewer of hail !” About the lat¬
ter end of March or beginning of April he and his
companion began to pray extempore, leaving off en¬
tirely the forms of the church of England, to which
he had formerly been fo devoted. The dodlrine of
inftantaneous converfion, which his imagination had
fuggefted to him as a work performed on himfelf,
avas greediiy received by fome of his hearers ; and all
the converts to the new dodtrine confirmed themfelves,
and contributed greatly to perfuade others, by declara¬
tions of their experiences, as they called them : how¬
ever,
MET [74
ItfethodHH ever, though a knowledge of the faving afiurance had
been given on March 6th, he does not date his conver-
fion fooner than May 24th of the fame year.
This new do&rine of an inftantaneous, and in faft
miraculous impulfe, though greatly relithed by the
enthufiaftical part of the iociety, was very much dif-
liked by others, particularly Mr Charles Wefley his
brother, who warned him of the mifchief he was do¬
ing •, though he himielf was foon converted, and,
what is very aftonithing, two days before John Wef¬
ley himfelf. The particulars related of thefe mira¬
culous converfions are truly difgraceful, and could not
but bring into contempt the fociety which confided
of fuch cnthufiafts. “ Many (fays Mr Hampfon) are
reprefented as falling fuddenly to the ground, in hor¬
ror and agony not to be conceived, and riling again
with equal expreflions of peace and confolation.”—
Their converfions were ufually attended with thefe
violent fymptoms 5 and, for feveral years, few meet¬
ings occurred where Mr Wefley prefided, w ithout one
or°more inftances of the fame kind. It was not pof-
fible that fuch tranfaftions fhould pals without notice.
The confufion that too often prevailed, the emotions
of the perfons affecled, and the exultations' of the reft,
which were feverally animadverted upon, gave great
and general offence. Many infifted, that it mult ei¬
ther be occaiioned by the heat of the rooms, and the
agitation of the animal fpirits under dlfcourfes of the
xuoft alarming nature 5 or that it was mere artifice and
hypocrify.
In the mean time, tvro of the fons of a Mrs Hut¬
ton in London, happening to become converts to the
new doftrine, this lady was fo much offended, that
the wrote to Mr Samuel Wefley, informing him, that
ihe was of opinion his brother John had loft his fenfes ;
and requefting, that the next time he came to his houfe,
he, Mr Samuel, would either confine or convert him.
All that could be done, however, to prevent the pro-
grefe of the new do£trine was infufficient and the firft
Mcthodift fociety was formed in Imndon on the firft
of May 1738, when about 50 agreed to meet together
once a-week, for free eonverfation, begun and ended
with finging and prayer.
All this time, however, it feems that the conver-
fion of Mr Wefley was far from being fo complete as
that of many of his hearers. He had preached and
converted others, while he himfelf was abfolutely un¬
converted. The knowledge of the true faving faith
was only revealed to him on the 6th of March, and
he did not experience its power till the a-jHi of May 5
and even after this, his doubts and fears were ftill fo
great, that on the T^th of June he undertook a
voyage to Germany, where, in the company of Count
Zinzendorff, his faith feems to have been thoroughly
confirmed.
On Mr Weflev’s return, September 16th, 1738,
he applied himfeif with the greateft afliduity and fuc-
cefs to the propagation of his doctrine. Multitudes
of converts were made in various parts of the king¬
dom *, and the reproaches poured upon him by his
opponents, feemed to have rendered his zeal more fer¬
vent if p flible than before. It is remarkable, how¬
ever, that fome of his old friends were now fo much
offended with his conduct or his principles, that they
abfolutely refufed to keep company with him. His
1 ] MET
original plan feems to have been, to make an union ofMethodifts.^
clergymen, and diffeminate his principles by their *
means. But in this he fucceeded fo ill, that in a letter
written in 1742, he withed for a clerical afliftant, were
he only in deacons orders : but adds, u I know of
none fuch, who is willing to caft in his lot with us 5
and I learce expect I (hall, becaufe I know how fail
they are nvetted in the fervice of the devil and the
world before they leave the univerfity.”—Finding at
laft that nothing could be done with them, he was ob¬
liged to have recourfe to lay preachers ; and eafily fe-
le£ted thofe who appeared to have the greateft talents
for prayer and exhortation in the private meetings ap¬
pointed for that pur pole. This he at once railed
himfelf to be the head of a fe£t ; as the lay preachers
willingly yielded obedience to him who had the ad¬
vantages of fuperior learning and abilities, and was be¬
tides in orders as a clergyman } and this obedience he
did not fail on every ocealion to exaft.
If his doctrine had formerly given offence to tha.
eltabliftied clergy, the appointment of lay preachers
was reckoned much worfe ; and their being appointed
without any form of ordination whatever, which al-
moft all of them were, fubjefted them to contempt
and reproach, which their want of learning, and very
often of natural abilities, did not contribute to re¬
move. Thus finding the churches Ihut againft him
and his followers, he was obliged to preach in the
fields, and made his firft effay in this way on the fe¬
cund of April 1739, in the neighbourhood of Brif-
tol j Mr Whitefield having fet him an example the
day before.
The fuccefs of thofe ignorant and itinerant preach¬
ers, with their abfurd and uncharitable difcourfes and
behaviour, fo provoked their adverfaries, that a per-
fecution was foon commenced againft them. Mr
Wefley himfelf was calumniated in the harlheft man¬
ner, being fometimes faid to be a Jefuit, fometimes
an illiterate enthufiaft, as the people took it into their
heads. Many pretended to anfwer him in writing,
Avithout being able to do fo the confequence Avas,
that their deficiency of argument Avas fupplied by
inveftiA^e, and the moft fcandalous performances made
their appearance. Some of the Englilh clergy fo far
forgot themfelves as to inftigate the mob againft them,
and the moft cruel outrages Avere committed upon
them in various places. For fome time the perfecuted
party adhered to the doftrines of paflive obedience and
non-refiftance, Avhich their inhuman adverfaries did
not fail to take the advantage of.—The lefs they vrere
oppofed, the more infolent they became. The Me-
thodifts Avere frequently in danger of their lives.
Men, Avomen with child, and even children, Avere
knocked down and abufed with the fame undiftin-
guififing fury. Houfes Avere ftripped of their furni¬
ture, vaft quantities of furniture carried off, feather¬
beds cut in pieces and ftrtwed over the ftreets, feveral
reputable people were forced into the army, &c. To
the difg. ace of magiftracy alfo it Avas found, that Avhen
anplicaUon Avas made to the juftices of the peace, re-
drefs Avas commonly denied-, nor was a flop put to th fe
(hameful proceedings without a royal mandate for the
purpofe.
From the year 1738 to 1747 Mr Wefley and his
itinerants Avere employed in various parts of England.
In
M E T [ 742 3
;Jelll°'Ui: 1tn I747 l'e went over to Dublin, where a fociety had a voyage to Ireland.
been formed by one Mr Williams a clergyman. 
Here they proved fo fuccefsful, notwithftanding the
number of Papifts, and the violence of their other op¬
ponents, that in 1750 they had eroded meeting-
houfes in every part of the kingdom, and had formed
29 circuits, which employed 67 itinerants, befides a
confiderable number of local preachers. An invita¬
tion was given to Mr Wefley, in 1751, to vifit Scot¬
land, by an officer in quarters at Muffelburgh. He
accordingly took a journey thither the fame year 5
but left the place, after preaching in it once or twice.
In 1753 he returned to Scotland, and vifited Glaf-
gow. Societies were at length formed in that city,
as well as at Edinburgh, Dundee, Aberdeen, Inver-
nefs, and a few other places : but his fuccefs was by
no means equal to what it had been in other parts j
for in 1790 the number of circuits in Scotland was
no more than eight, which were fupplied by 20 iti¬
nerants.
. Mr Whitefield, the other great labourer in the
vineyard, was equally indefatigable, and probably
more fuccelsful than IVIr "Wclley. Eefore enterin°'
into orders, he had formed a fociety of religious per*
fons at Gloucefter : here he preached his firft fermon
on the Neceffity and Benefit of Religious Society j
here he became extremely popular, as well as at
Briftol and London, while preparing to fet fail for
Georgia for the firft time ; and in all places to which
he came, large collettions were made for the poor.
He maintained the fame doftrine with Mr Wefley
as to the new birth ; which likewife gave offence to
the clergy when delivered by him, as it had done with
Mr Wefley. In the various intervals of his voyages
to America, he employed himfelf with the very fame
affiduity in Britain and in Ireland, which vre have al¬
ready taken notice of in the w^eftern continent. His
fuccefs was everywhere prodigious. In 1741 he was
invited to Scotland, and preached his firft fermon
there at Dunfermline. From thence he went to E-
dinburgh, and preached in feveral of the eftabliflied
churches, but differed with Meffrs Ralph and Ebene-
zer Erlkine 5 fo that he, as wrell as Mx Wefley, prov¬
ed un fuccefsful in forming a coalition with any other
religious party. In the private way, however, his
fuccefs was very confiderable, at Edinburgh, Glaf-
gow, Aberdeen, Dundee, and other places. In 1742
he paid a fecond vifit to Scotland, and a third one
in 1748. In 1751 he vifited Ireland for the firft
time ; and preached, to great multitudes, without be¬
ing molefted, even in places where others had been
mobbed. From thence he returned to Scotland the
fame year, and fpeaks in very favourable terms of the
atte»tion the people there paid to their Bibles. In
1752 an<f a£ain vifited the fame kingdom, and
the laft time diftinguiftied himfelf by preaching againft
the playhoufe . in Glafgow. In 1756 he returned j
and by his animated difeourfes at Edinburgh againft
Popery and arbitrary power, was owned to have con¬
tributed very much to the increafe of courage and
loyalty in this country. Next year he again vifited the
Scottiffi capital during the time that the General Af-
fembly fat, and his fermons V'ere attended by feveral
of the members. At Glafgow he made a large col¬
lodion for the poor of that city, and from thence took
MET
„ A.~ , , He was received with the ufualMethod^
aftechon by the lower claffes of Proteflants ; but the' "v—j
Popilh rabble, exafperated at his fuccefs, almoft mur¬
dered him with ftones. After paffing through a great
part of Ireland, vifiting England and Wales, he paid
another vifit to Scotland, where four clergymen now
lent him their pulpits. His laft vifit was in the ham¬
mer of 1758, when his congregations were as large as
ever; and. it is to his endeavours principally that we
are to a.fcribe the great number of Methodift focieties
now exifting in Scotland.
With regard to the religious principles of the Me-
thodifts,. we cannot enter into any particular detail ;
neither indeed are there any dodrines peculiar to all
included under that name, except the Angle one of
un.iverfal redemption. In March 1741, Mr Whitefield Hifiory of
rcturne4 to England, entirely feparated from Mr Methodifia,
Wefley and his friends, “ becaufe he did not hold tbe5^-
decrees.”—Here was the firft breach, which warm men
perfuaded Mr Whitefield to make, merely for a dif¬
ference of opinion. Thofe indeed who believed uni-
verfal icdemption, had no defire at all to feparate : but
thofe who held particular redemption, would not hear
of any accommodation, being determined to have no
fellowfliip with men that “ were in fuch dangerous
errors.” So there were now two forts of Methodifts
fo called ; thofe for particular, and thofe for general,
redemption.
Not many years paffed, before William Cudworth
and James Relly feparated from Mr Whitefield. 
Thefe were properly Antinomians, abfolute avowed
enemies to the law of God, which they never preach¬
ed or profeffed to preach, but termed all legalifis who
did. With them, preaching the law was an abomina¬
tion. They had nothing to do with the law. They
would preach Chrift, as . they called it 5 but without
one word either of holinefs or good works. Yet
thefe were ftill denominated Methodijls, although dif¬
fering from Mr Whitefield both in judgment and
praftice, abundantly more than Mr Whitefield did
from Mr Wefley.
In the mean time, Mr Venn and Mr Romaine be¬
gan to be Ipoken of: and not long after Mr Madan
and Mr Berridge, with a few other clergymen, who,
although they had no connexion with each other,
yet preaching falvation by faith, and endeavouring to
live accordingly, to be Bible Chriftians, were foon in¬
cluded in the general name of Methodijls. And fo in¬
deed were all others who preached falvation by faith,
and appeared more ferious than their neighbours.
Some of thefe were quite regular in their manner of
preaching: fome were quite irregular, (though not
by choice j but neceffity was laid upon them, they
muft preach irregularly, or not at all) : and others were
between both 5 regular in moft, though not in all par¬
ticulars.
In 1762, George Bell and a few other perfons be¬
gan to fpeak great words. In the latter end of the
year they foretold that the world would be at an end
on the 28th of February. Mr Wefley, with whom
they, ivere then connected, withftood them both in
public and private. This they would not endure :
fo, in January and February 1763, they feparated from
him, under the care of Mr Maxfield, one of Mr Wef-
ley’s preachers. But ftill Mr Maxfield and his adhe¬
rents.
M E
Methodifts. rents, even the wiJdeit
enthuiiarts among
under the general name of Methodijls, and fo bring
a fcandal upon thofe with whom they have no con¬
nexion.
At prefent, thofe who remain with Mr Wefley
are moilly Church of England men. They love her
articles, her homilies, her liturgy, her difeipline, and
unwillingly vary from it in any inftance. Mean time, all
who preach among them declare, we are all by nature
children ofwrath, but by grace we are faved through faith:
faved from both the guilt and from the power of fin.
They endeavour to live according to what they preach,
to be plain Bible Chrillians; and they meet toge¬
ther at convenient times, to encourage one another
therein They tenderly love many that are Calvinifts,
though they do not love their opinions. Yea, they
love the Antinomians themfelves j but it is with a love
of compaflion only, for they hate their doflrines with
a perfect hatred ; they abhor them as they do hell fire :
being convinced nothing can fo effe&ually deftroy all
faith, all holinefs, and all good works.
We fhall conclude this article with the words of Mr
Hampfon, which muft certainly be accounted juft, what¬
ever objections may be made to fome parts of the prin¬
ciples or behaviour of the Methodifts. “ If they pof-
fefs not much knowledge, which, however, we do not
know to be the cafe, it is at lead certain, they are not
deficient in zeal: and without any paflionate defire to
imitate their example, we may at leaft commend their
endeavours for the general good. Every good man
•will contemplate with pleafure the operation of the
fpirit of reformation, whether foreign or domeftic ;
and will rejoice in every attempt to propagate Chri-
ftianity in the barbarous parts of the world. An at¬
tempt which, if in any tolerable degree fuccefsful, will
do infinitely more for their civilization and happinefs,
than all the united energies of thofe boafted benefac¬
tors of mankind, the philofophic infidels.”
The minutes of the conference of the Methodifts
held at Leeds in Auguft, 1806, reprefent the numbers
of that fociety to be as follows :
In Great Britain, - - 110,803
In Ireland, - - 23>773
Gibraltar, - - 40
Nova Scotia, New Brunfwick, and Newfound¬
land, - - 1418
Weft Indies, whites 1775, coloured people
I3>l65> - " I4>94°
United States, whites qc,628, coloured people
24,316, - - H9,945
Total, 270,919
Methodists (Methodici), in the hiftory of medi¬
cine, a fed of ancient phyficians, who reduced the
whole art of healing to a few common principles or ap¬
pearances. The Methodifts were the followers of
Theffalus j whence they were alfo called Thejfalict.
They were ftrenuoufly oppofed by Galen in feveral of
his writings ; who fcrupled not to affert, that the me¬
thodical herefy ruined every thing that was good in the
art. According to Ouincy, the Methodifts (Methodici')
are thofe phyficians who adhere to the doflrine of
Galen, and the fchools ', and who cure with bleeding,
purges, &c, duly applied according to the fymptojus,
[ 743 ] M E T
them, go circumftances, &c. in oppofition to empirics and che- MethodiHs
mills, who ufe violent medicines, and pretended fecret*
or noftrums.
METHUSELAH, the fon of Enoch and father of
Lamech, was born in the year of the world 687, begat
Lamech in 874, and died in 1656, being the very year
of the deluge, at the age of 969, which is the greateft
age that has been attained to by any mortal man upon
earth (Gen. v. 21, 22, &c.). According to the text
of the feptuagint, Methufelah muft have lived 14 years
after the deluge ; and according to other copies, he
died fix years before it: but it is generally agreed on,
that thefe copies, as well as the feptuagint, are cor¬
rupted in this place.
METHYMNA, in Ancient Geography, a town ot
the ifland of Lelbos. It was the fecond city of the
ifland in greatnefs, population, and opulence. Its terri¬
tory was fruitful, and the wines it produced excellent.
It was the native place of Theophraftus, and of Arion
the mufician. When the whole ifland of Lelbos revolt¬
ed from the power of the Athenians, Methymna alon®
remained firm to its ancient allies.
METOECI, a name given by the Athenians tofuch
as had their fixed habitations in Attica, though fo¬
reigners by birth. The metccci were admitted by th«
council of Areopagus, and entered in the public re-
gifter. They differed both from the and
becaufe the politce or “ citizens” were freemen of A-
thens, and the xeni or “ ftrangers” had lodgings only
for a Ihort time ; whereas the metceci though not free¬
men of Athens, conftantly refided upon the fpot whi¬
ther they had removed.
METONYMY, in Rhetoric, is a trope in which on®
name is put for another, on account of the near relation
there is between them. See Oratory, N° 51.
METOPE, in ArchiteBure, is the interval or fquare
fpace between the triglyphs of the Doric frieze, which
among the ancients ufed to be painted or adorned with
carved work, reprefenting the heads of oxen or utenfils
ufed in facrifices.
METOPOSCOPY, the pretended art of knowing
a perfon’s difpofitions and manners by viewing the
traces and lines in the face. Giro Spontoni, who has
written exprefsly on metopofeopy, fays, that feven lines
are examined in the forehead, and that each line is
confidered as having its particular planet : the firft is
the line of Saturn, the fecond of Jupiter, the third of
Mars, &c. Metopofeopy is only a branch of phy-
fiognomy, which founds its conjeftures on all the parts
of the body.
METRE, ftsrgne, in Poetry, a fyftem of feet of a
juft length.
The different metres in poetry, are the different
manners of ordering and combining the quantities, or
the long and ftiort fyllables •, thus hexameter, pentame¬
ter, iambic, fapphic verfes, &c. confift of different me¬
tres or meafures. See Hexameter.
In Englilh verfes, the metres are extremely various
and arbitrary, e ■ ery poet being at liberty to introduce
any new form that he pleafes. The moft ufual are the
heroic, generally confifting of five long and five Ihort
fyllables, and verfes of four feet, and of three feet, and
a caefura or Angle fyllable.
The ancients, by varioufly combining and tranfpof-
ing their quantities, made a vaft variety of different
meafures,.
Metre.
—Y—
MET
[ 74+ 1
M E U
totf;:.
Mftro meafures, by forming fpondees, &c. of different feet.
Set- Poetry.
__ MEiRETES, a Grecian meafure, containing fome-
thing more than nine Englifh gallons. See Mea¬
sure.
METRICAL verses, are thofe confifting of a de¬
terminate number of long and Ihort fyllables j as thofe
of the Greek and Latin poets.— Capellus obferves, that
the genius of the Hebrew language is incompatible with
metrical poetry.
METEOCOMIA (from mother, and KUf\ri,
town or village), a term in the ancient church-hiltory,
fignifying “ a borough or village that had other villa¬
ges under its jurifdiblion.”—What a metropolis was
amejng cities, a metracomia was among country towns.
The ancient metrocomue had each its choriepifcopus or
rural dean, and here was his fee or relidence. See
Metrorolis and Choriepiscopus.
ME I RONOM11, the name given by the Athe¬
nians to five officers in the city and ten in the Pirwus,
whofe duty it was to infpeft all forts of meafures ex¬
cept thofe of corn. The Ptrctus was the greatefl mart
in Attica.
METROPOLIS (from mother, and
city), the capital of a country or province 5 or the prin¬
cipal city, and as it were mother of all the reft.
The term metropolis is alfo applied to archiepif-
copal churches, and fometimes to the principal or mo¬
ther-church of a city. The Roman empire having
been divided into 13 diocefes and 120 provinces, each
diocefe and each province had its metropolis or capi¬
tal city, where the proconful had his refidence. To
this civil divifion the ecclefiaftical was afterwards
adapted, and the bifliop of the capital city had the di-
redlion of affairs, and the pre-eminence over all the
biffiops of the province. His refidence in the metro¬
polis gave him the title of metropolitan. This erection
of metropolitans is referred to the end of the third
century, and was confirmed by the council of Nice.
A metropolitan has the privilege of ordaining his fuf-
fragans 5 and appeals from fentences palled by the fuf-
fragans are preferred to the metropolitan.
Metropolis, in Ancient Geography, a town of Acar-
nania, a little to the fouth of Stratos.— Another, of
Lydia •, fituated between Colophon and Priene, near the
Cayfter.— A third, of Phrygia ; facred to the mother
of the gods, who was here worfhipped.— A fourth Me¬
tropolis of Eftiotis, a diftriift in Theffaly, to the eaft of
Gomphi, and the laft town of that diltridl. Metropo-
litce. the people.
METULUM, in Ancient Geography, a eonfiderable
city of Liburnia, at the fiege of which Odlavius Caftar
was wounded. Said to be the metropolis, and fituated
on two eminences, interfered by a valley (Appian).
Now generally thought to be Metling in Carniola. E.
Long. 16. N. Lat. 46. 5.
METZ, an ancient, large, and ftrong town of
Trance, and capital of the territory of Meffin, wjth a
citadel and a bifhop’s fee, whofe bifiiop ufed to hold
the title of a prince of the empire. The cathedral
church is one of the fineft in Europe, and the fquare
called Co Ain and the houfe of the governor are worth
feeing. The Jews live in a part of the town by
thwnfelves, where they.have a fynagogue. The-fweet-
meats they make here are in high efteem. It is feated
at the confluence of the rivers Mofelle and Seille. E.
Long. 6. 16. N. Lat. 49. 7.
ME VAN! A, in Ancient Geography, a town of the
Cifapennine Umbria ; feated at the confluence of the
Tina and Clitumnus, on the Via Flaminia, famous for
its herds of white cattle brought up there for facrifice ;
the white colour faid to be owing to the waters of the
Ciitumnus (Virgil). Mevania was the country of Pro¬
pertius. Mevenates the people. Now faid to be Bc-
vagna, in the territory of the Pope.
MEURS1US, John, a learned and laborious writer,
was born at Lofdun, near the Hague, in 1579. He
early difeovered a fondnefs for polite literature and
the feience? •, and went to ftudy law at Orleans with
th« fon of Barneveldt, whom he accompanied in his
travels. In 1610 he was made profeffor of hiftory at
Levden, and afterwards Greek profeffor. In the fol¬
lowing year, the magiftrates of the United Provinces
proved how high their opinion was of his abilities, by
fixing on him to write the hiftory of his country.
Meurfius married in the year 1612. His wife, Anna
Catherina Bilberbeccia, defeended from a very ancient
and noble family in Angermond a city of Pomerania,
poffeffed many amiable qualities, and rendered his do*
meftic life remarkably happy, while he difcbargtd the
duties of his profefforfhip with an affiduity equal to his
abilities. At the fame time the republic of letters did
not lofe the advantages to be derived from his labours j
for during the fourteen years of his refidence at Ley.
den, the works which he publifhed were more numer¬
ous than thofe which had been prefented to the world
by the -whole body of profeffors from the original foun¬
dation of the univerfity in 1575.
Meurfius’s writings had now fpread his reputa¬
tion in every part of Europe ; nor was the fame of
his diligence and talents as a profeffor lefs known.
In fo high a rank, indeed, did he ftand among his
literary contemporaries, that Chriftian IV. king of
Denmark conferred on him the place of hiftoriogra*
pher royal, and invited him to undertake the profef-
forfhip of hiftory and politics in the academy of Sera,
which was founded by King Frederick II. although
the revival of its honours and dignities may be dated
from this period, when it feemed to be again found¬
ed under the aufpices of Chriftian IV. Meurfius and
his family left Leyden in the year 1635. On his
arrival at Sora, he was received with the moft friendly
tokens of regard by his majefty and the Danifh nobi¬
lity, and more particularly by Chancellor Rofenkrantz,
on whom he has bellowed very ample praifes in one of
his letters. Here he relided, equally beloved and ad¬
mired, for above twelve years. His pupils were not
very numerous, but his exertions never relaxed. Thofe
hours like-wife which Avere not devoted to the duties of
his profefforffiip, he employed in reviling the works of
the ancients and in philological difquifltions.
His health did not fuffer by the intenfenefs of ap¬
plication, till in the year 1638 he had a violent at¬
tack of the ftone, from which diforder he had fuffered
feverely. In a letter to Voflius he thus deferibes his
melancholy condition : “ The ftate of my health du¬
ring the whole of the laft Avinter has been truly de¬
plorable. My fufferings from the ftone have been
really
Mcfz
n I!
Meurfius,
M E U
[ 745 ]
M E X
Meurfius. really dreadful. I have voided fo many, that the re-
peated difcharges brought on a wound which emit¬
ted blood for above four months. I was next attacked
by a tertian fever, which increafed conftantly, and
produced an univerfal lailkude of body, a dejection
of fpirits, and a total lofs of appetite. But, thank
'heaven, 1 have now in fome meafure recovered my
ftrength, and gotten the better of thefe complaints.”
He recovered from this attack 5 but in the following
year the diforder returned with redoubled violence,
and brought on a confumption, which terminated his
exiftence on the 20th day of September 1639. He"
left behind him a fon who was named after him, and
one daughter.
So mild were the difpoiitions of Meurlius, that in
all his writings he conftantly avoided literary dilputes.
He was fometimes unavoidably drawn into them •, but
conftantly endeavoured to promote a reconciliation
rather than widen any breach, by his replies to the
attacks of his adverfaries. In his friendftiips he was
firm and affectionate. Of his domeftic life, whatever is
known has been gathered from his letters. The fame
eafy tranquillity feems to have attended him in every
fituation. In his family he was particularly fortunate.
In his fon, to whom he gave his own name, he feemed
to behold his own youth renewed. The fame applica¬
tion, the fame eagernefs in the purfuit of knowledge,
marked the conduCl of this promiiing young man ; who
did not long furvive his father, but died foon after he
had recommended himfelf to the notice of the learned
world by his publications. They were only three in
number 5 but difplayed fo much folid learning that they
have been aftigned to the father, John Meurfius, by
1’Abbe Beughem and others. This miftake rvas occa-
fioned as much by the fimilitude of their names, as by
the nature of their works, and their manner of treating
philological fubjedts.
His works may be divided into four claffes, of which
each might form a feparate volume if they were ever
to be republhhcd. Meurfias himfelf indeed, in one of
his letters to Voffius, propofes fuch a divifion. From
that epiftle, and from another which the younger
Meurfius fent to G. I. Voffius, who ftrongly advifed
him to republirti the whole of his father’s writings, and
from the collections of his pofthumous works which
have appeared from Struvius, Grofehupfius, Moller,
and fome others, a catalogue of his works might be
formed. Some afliftance will alfo be derived from the
indexes publilhed in their refpedtive works, by Hank¬
ins, Deffelius, Wettenius, and Bartholinus. The plan
which Meurfius recommends for publiftiing his works,
is to infert in the firft volume all that he has written
relative to Athens ; in the fecond, his hiftorical pieces ;
in the third, his mifcellaneous differtations ; and in the
fourth, the various authors which he publifhed, with
his notes and corredtions.
A fcandalous and indecent work, which is entitled
Meurfti elegantue Latini fermonis, and has Aloifice Si-
gece Satyrcv Sotadiccz annexed to it, is very falfely attri¬
buted to Meurfius ; nor indeed are the Satires with
more reafon affigned to Aloifia Sigea, who was a
Spanifti lady eminent for her piety and virtue. The
real author of thefe infamous produdtions was Weftre-
nius, an advocate at Copenhagen, who probably affum-
’ed the name of Meurfius, in order to fhield himfelf
VOL. XIII. Part II.
Meurfius
from the difgrace which would naturally have attended
the writer of fuch a performance. Mexico.
MEW, Sea-mew, or Sea-mall. 1 See Larus, Or.ni- u—y—
Winter MEW, or Coddy-moddy. 3 thology Index.
MEWING, the falling off or change of hair, fea¬
thers, tkin, horns, or other parts of animals, which hap¬
pens in fome annually, in others only at certain ftages
of their lives ; but the generality of beafts mew in the
fpring. An old hart cafts his horns fooner than a young
one, which is commonly in the months of February and
March, after which they begin to button in March or
April : and as tire fun grows ftrong, and the feafon of
the year puts forth the fruits of the earth, fo their heads
grow, and are fummed full by the middle of June. It
is to be obferved, that if a hart be gelt before he has a
head, he will never have any ; and if he be gelt after
he has a head, he will never call his horns j again, it
he be gelt when he has a velvet head, it will always be
fo, without fraying or burnifhing.
MEXICO, a province of the Spanifti empire in
America, once a celebrated kingdom, the moft power¬
ful and civilized in the new world ; lying between the
14th and 21 ft degrees of nortli latitude, and between
91 and 103 degrees weft longitude ; being near 2000
miles in length, and in foine places 600 miles in
breadth. # 1
The Toltecans are the moft ancient Mexican nation Toltecans
of which we know any thing. They were expeUed,
as we are told, from their own country (fuppofed by
Clavigero to have been To/lan, to the northward of
Mexico) in the year 472; and for fome time led a
wandering life. In whatever place they determined to
refide for any confiderable time, they erefted houfes
and cultivated the ground. Thus their migrations were
extremely flow, and it was not till 104 years after they
fet out that they reached a place about 50 miles to the
eaftward of the city of Mexico, where they fettled for
20 years, giving to their new place of refidence the a
name of Tollanfzinco. From thence they proceeded Their hi=
about 40 miles farther to the weft, where they built aftoiT-
city called, from the name of their country, Tollan, or
Tula.
After the final fettlement of the Toltecans, the govern¬
ment was changed into a monarchy. Their firft king be¬
gan his reign in 667, and their monarchy lafted 384
years, during which time they reckon juft eight princes.
We are not, however, to imagine that each of their
kings lived long enough to make up this fpace. If
was a cuftom among them that the name of the king
Ihould be continued for 52 years, and no longer, from
the time he afeended the throne. If he died within
that period, the government was carried on in his name
by a regency 5 if he furvived, he was obliged to refign
his authority. During the four centuries that the
Toltecan monarchy continued, they had increafed very
confiderably in number, and had built many cities $
but when in the height of profperity, almoft the
whole nation was deftroyed by a famine occafioned by
drought; and a peflilence, probably the confequence
of the former. “ According to Torquemada (fays
our author), at a certain feftival-ball made by the Tolte¬
cans, the fad-looking devil appeared to them of a gigan¬
tic fizf, with immenfe arms, and in the midft of the en¬
tertainment he embraced and fuffocated them; that then
he appeared in the form of a child with a putrid head,
5 B and
Mexico.
Succeeded
by the Chi-
chemecas.
Xolotl their
£rft king.
His people
civilized by
the Tolte-
New inha¬
bitants ar¬
rive and ob¬
tain fettle-
m exits.
M E X [746
and brought the plague ; and, finally, at the perfua-
fion of the fame devil, they abandoned the country of
Tula.”
1 hey were fucceeded by the Chichemecas, a much
more barbarous people, who came from an unknown
country called Amuquemecan, where they had for a
lung time relided 5 but of which no traces of remem¬
brance can be found among any of the American na¬
tions known to Europeans 5 fo that Clavigero fuppufes
it mult have been very far to the northward.
1 he motive which the Chichemecas had for leaving
the ir own country is not known. They were eighteen
months on their journey, and took pofleffion of the
defolate country of the Toltecas about an hundred
years after the former had left it. They were much
more uncivilized than the Toltecans } but, however,
had a regular form of monarchical government, and
in other refpedfs were lefs difgufting in their manners
than fome of the neighbouring nations. The lafl.
king who reigned in Amaquemecan before the depar¬
ture of the Chichemecas, had left his dominions between
his two fons Auchcauhtli and Xolotl, and the latter
conducted the new colony. Having proceeded from
the ruins of Tula towards Chempoalla and Tepepolio,
Xolotl fent his fon to furvcy the country. The prince
eroded the borders of the lakes and the mountains
which furround the vale of Mexico ; then afcending
to the top of a very high one, he viewed the whole
country, and took pofleffion of it in the name of his
father, by Ihooting four arrows to the four winds.
Xolotl being informed by his fon of the nature of
the country, chofe for the capital of his kingdom Te-
nayuca, about fix miles to the northward of the city
of Mexico, and diflributed his people in the neigh¬
bouring territory ; but as moll of them went to the
northward, that part obtained the name of the coun¬
try of the Chichemecas, in diftindtion from the reft.
Here a review of the people was taken, and their num¬
ber, according to Torquemada, was more than a mil¬
lion.
Xolotl finding himfelf peacefully fettled in his new
dominion, fent one of his officers to explore the fources
of fome of the rivers of the country. While perform¬
ing this talk he came to the habitations of fome Tol¬
tecans, who it feems had ftill kept together, and were
likely once more to become a nation. As thefe peo¬
ple were not inclined to war, and greatly efteemed for
their knowledge and fkill in the arts, the Chiche¬
mecas entered into a ftrift alliance with them, and
Prince Nopaltzin, who had firfl furveyed the country,
married a Toltecan princefs. The confequence of
this alliance was the introduftion of the arts and
knowledge of the Toltecans among the Chichemecas.
Till now the latter had fubfifled entirely by hunting,
and fuch fruits and roots as the earth fpontaneoufly
produced. They were clad in the fkins of wild beafts,
and, like thefe beads, they are faid to have fucked
the blood of the animals they caught •, but after their
connexion with the Toltecans they began to fow corn,
to learn the art of digging and working metals, to
cut Hones, manufa61ure cotton, and, in every refpect,
to make great improvements.
When Xolotl had reigned about eight years in his
new territories, an embaffy of fix perfons arrived from
a diftant country not far from Amaquemccan, expreffing
4-
1
M E X
a defire of coming with their people to refide in the Mexico.
country of the Chichemecas. I he king gave them J
a gracious reception, and affigned them a diltridt;
and, in a few years after, three other princes, with a
great army of Acolhuans, who were likewife neigh¬
bours of Amaquemecan, made their appearance. The
king was at that time at Tezcuco, to which place he
had removed his court : and here he was accofted by
the princes, who, in a fubmiffive and flattering man¬
ner, requefted him to allow them a place in his hap¬
py country, where the people enjoyed fuch an excel¬
lent government. Xolotl not only gave them a fa¬
vourable reception, but offered them his two daugh¬
ters in marriage, expreffing his concern that he had
no more, that none might have been excluded from
the royal alliance. On the third prince, however, he
bellowed a noble virgin of Chaleo, in whom the Tol¬
tecan and Chichemecan blood were united. The nup¬
tials wrere celebrated with extraordinary pomp ; and
the two nations, after the example of the fovereigns,
continued to intermarry. As the Acolhuans were the
more civilized nation of the tw'o, the name of Chi¬
chemecas began to be appropriated to the more rude
and barbarous part, who preferred hunting to agricul¬
ture, or chofe a life of favage liberty in the mountains
to the reftraints of focial laws. Thefe barbarians afib-
ciated with the Otomies, another favage nation who
lived to the northward, occupying a traft of more than
three hundred miles in extent ; and by their defet nd-
ants the Spaniards were haraffed for many years after
the conqueft of Mexico.
As foon as the nuptial rejoicings were over, Xolotl o;viflon 0f
divided his territories into three parts, affigning onethedomi-
to each of the princes. Acolhuatzin, who had mar-nions of
ried his eldell daughter, had Azcopazalco, 18 milesXolot1,
to the wefhvard of Tezcuco 5 Chiconquauhtli, who
married the other, had a territory named Xaltocan j
and Tzontecomatl, wrho married the lady of inferior
rank, had one named Coatlichan. The country con¬
tinued for fome time to flourilh, population increafed
greatly, and with it the civilization of the people ;
but as thefe advanced, the vices of luxury and ambi¬
tion increafed in proportion^, Xolotl found himfelf
obliged to treat his fubjefls with more feverity than
formerly, and even to* put fome of them to death.—
This produced a confpiraey againft him, which, how¬
ever, he had the good fortune to efeape $ but wffiile
he meditated a feVere revenge on the confpirators, he
was feized with the diffemper of which he died, in
the fortieth year of his reign, and in a very advanced
age- . . 8
Xolotl was fucceeded by his fon Nopaltzin, who at Nopaltzi*
the time of his acceffion is fuppofed to have been the fecond
about fixty years of age. In his time, the tranquilli-^S*
ty of the kingdom, which had begun to fuffer difturb-
ance under his father, underwent much more violent
ffioeks, and civil wars took place. Acolhuatzin, the
only one of the three princes who remained alive,
thinking the territory he poffeffed too narrow, made
war upon the lord of a neighbouring province named
Tapotzotlan, and deprived him of his territory. Huet-
zin, fon to the late Prince Tzontecomatl, lord of
Coatlichan, fell in love with the grand-daughter of
the queen, a celebrated beauty, but was rivalled by a
neighbouring lord, who determined to fupport his
pretenfions
HEX
[ 747 1
M E X
Mexico
Quinatzin
a luxurious
prince.
TO
Difturban-
«es in va¬
rious part'.
XI
Migrations
•fthe Mexi
cans.
pretenfions by force of arms. Huetzin, however, got
the better, defeated and killed his adverfary, and then
poffefled himfelf of the lady and his ellate. This was
followed by a rebellion of the whole province ol iol-
lantzinco, fo that the king himfelf was obliged to take
the field. As the rebels were very numerous, the
royal army was at firft defeated $ but having at laft
received a ftrong reinforcement, the rebels were over¬
come, and their ringleaders fcverely puniihed. The
king did not long furvive the reftoration of tranquillity
to his dominions. He died in the thirty-fecond year of
his reign, and ninety-fecond of his age, leaving the
throne to his el dell fon 1'iotzin, who was an excellent
prince, and reigned thirty-fix years.
Quinatzin, the fon and fucceffbr of llotzin, proved a
vain and luxurious prince. His accefiion to the throne
was celebrated with much greater pomp than any of his
predeceflors. Xolotl had removed his court from Te-
nayuca to Tezcuco $ but being difgufted with this laft
place, on account of the confpiracy formed againft him
there, he had returned to Tenayuca.— i here the court
continued till the reign of Quinatzin, who removed it
back to Tezcuco.
The reign of Quinatzin, though tranquil at firft,
was foon difturbed by dangerous revolts and rebellions.
Thefe firft broke out in two ftates, named Maztillen
and Totopec, fituated among the northern mountains.
The king, having colledted a great army, marched
without delay againft the rebels, and challenged their
leaders to come down and fight him in the plain.—
This challenge being accepted, a furious engagement
enfued, in which, though great numbers fell on both
fides, no decifive advantage was gained by either
party. Frequent engagements took place for the
fpace of forty days, until at laft the rebels, perceiving
that their own numbers were daily diminilhing, with¬
out any poflibility of being recruited like the royal
army, made a final furrender to the king, who pu-
nifhed the ringleaders with great feverity. i ranquil-
lity, however, was not yet reftored : the rebellion
fpread to fuch a degree, that the king was obliged
not only to take the field in perfon, but to employ fix
other armies, under the command of faithful and ex¬
perienced generals, to reduce the rebels. Thofe proved
fo fuccefsful in their enterprifes, that in a fliort time
the rebellious cities were reduced to obedience, and
the kingdom enjoyed the bleflings of peace during the
long reign of Quinatzin, who is faid to have lat on
the throne for no lefs than fixty years. He was fuc-
ceeded by his fon Techotlatla *, but as the affairs of the
Acolhuans now began to be conne<ftcd with thofe of
the Mexicans, it will be proper to give fome account of
that people.
The Mexicans, called alfo the Aztecas, dwelt till
the year 1160 in a country called Aztlan, fituated to
the north of the gulf of California, as appears by the
route they purfued in their journey 5 but how far to
the northward we are not certainly informed. Betan¬
court makes it no lefs than 2700 miles, and Boturini
fays it was a province of Alia. T he caufe of their
migration is faid to have been as follows :
Among the Aztecas was a perfon of great autho-
riiy, named Huixtilin, to whofe opinion every one paid
the utmoft deference. He had conceived a defign to
perfuade his countrymen to change their refidence; and
Mexico.
to effect this he fell upon the following ftratagem. Ha- i
ving heard, while meditating on his fcheme, a Ihtle
bird ling mg on the branches of a tree, the notes of
which rc fern bled the word Tihui, which in the Azteca
language fignified “ let us go,” he took that opportu¬
nity to work upon the fuperiiition of the people. W ith
this view, he took along with him a refpeCtable perlun,
and made him attend to the note of the bird. “ W hat
can it mean (lays he), but that we mult leave this
country, and find ourfelves another ? Without doubt it
is the warning of fome lecret divinity who watches over
our welfare : let us obey, therefore, hh voice, and not
draw his anger upon us by a refuial.” iecpaltzin, for
that was the name of his friend, readily agreed to the
interpretation and both of them being perfons of
great influence, their united perfuafions loon gained
over to their projedf the bulk of the nation, and they
accordingly fet out. _ _ 12 .
The Aztecas, when they left their original habita-Separation
tions, were divided into fix tribes •, but at Culiacan the
Mexicans were left with their god * by five of them, viz. * A
the Xoehimilcas, Ttpanecas, Chalcefe, 1 lahuicas, and en image.
Tlafcalans. The caufe oi this reparation is not knowm,
but it was probably occalioned by lome difagreemeiit
among themfelves} for the remaining tribe was divided
into two violent factions, which perfecuted one another :
neither did they afterwards conuruCf any more edifices.
However, they always travelled together, in order to
enjoy the company of their imaginary god. At every
place where they flopped an altar was creeled to him }
and at their departure they left behind them all
their lick, and probably* alio fome others to take care
of them, or fuch as were not willing to endure the
fatigue of farther journeys, 'i hey flopped in lula
nine years, and eleven more in the neighbouring parts.
At laft, in 1216, they arrived at Zumpaneo, a conli-
derable city in the vale of Mexico, where they were
received in a very hofpitable manner by the lord of
that diftridt. He not only alfigned them proper habi¬
tations, but became very much attached to them ; and
even demanded from among them a iviie for his fon
Ilhuicatl. This requeft was complied with ; and from
this marriage all the Mexican kings delcended.
The Mexicans continued to migrate from one place
to another along the lake of Tezcuco. Xoloil, who
was then on the throne of the Acolhuans or Chiche-
mecas, allowed them to fettle in whatever places'of
his dominions they thought proper \ but fome of them
finding themfelves haraffed by a neighbouring lord, ' he Mexi-
were obliged, in 1245, to it tire to Chapoltepec, a M-erie*
mountain on the weftern borders of the lake, fcarcely u tx ’
two miles diftant from the file of Mexico, i his took
place in the reign of Nopaltzin, when difturbances be¬
gan to take place in the Acolhuan dominions. The
Mexicans, however, did not find themfelves any more
fecure in their new place of refidence than formerly :
they were perfecuted Ly the neighbouring lords, and
obliged to take refuge in a number of fmall iflauds,
named Acocolco, at the fouthern extremity of the lake
of Mexico. Here for 52 years they lived in the moft
miferable manner, fubfifting on fiih, infeefs, roots, &c.
and clothing themfelves with the leaves of the amcxtli,
which abounds in that lake. 14
In this niferable plight the Mexicans continued till and en-
the year 1314, when they were reduced to a ftate of flav‘;41,
f B 2 the
M E X
Mexico.
i.5
Hegain
their liber¬
ty by cruel-
ty-
iS
The firft
human fa-
crifice in
Mexico.
the mod abfolute flavery. This was done by the king
of a petty date named Colhuacan, who, it is faid, be¬
ing unwilling to allow the Mexicans to maintain them-
felves in his territories without paying tribute, made
war upon them, fubdued and enllaved them. Others
affirm that, pretending compaffion for their miferable
iituation, he offered them a more commodious place of
refidence. The Mexicans readily accepted the offer $
but had fcarcely fet out to take poffeffion of their new
place of refidence when they were attacked by the Col-
huans, made prifoners, and carried off for flaves.
After feme years a war broke out betwixt the Col-
huans and Xochimilcas, in which the latter gained
fuch advantages, that they were obliged to employ
their Haves to affift them. I hey accordingly ordered
them to prepare for war, but without furnifhing them
with arms neceffary for a military enterprife 5 fo that
the Mexicans were obliged to content themfelves with
long Haves, having their points hardened in the fire 5
they alfo made knives of the ftone itztli, and fhields of
reeds woven together. They agreed not to wafte their
time in making prifoners, but to content themfelves
with cutting oft one ear of their enemies, and then
leaving them without farther injury. They adhered
punctually to this refolution 5 and rulhing fusioufly up¬
on the Xochimilcas, cut off an ear from as many as
they could, killing thofe who ftruggled to fuch a de¬
gree that they could not effedt their purpofe. In ftiort,
fo well did the Mexicans acquit themfelves in this en¬
gagement, that the Xochimilcas fled, and took refuge
among the mountains. After the battle, the Colhuan
foldiers prefented themfelves before their general with
the prifoners they had taken, by the number of which
alone they judged of their valour. The Mexicans had
taken only four, and thefe they kept concealed for the
abominable purpofe of facrificing them. The Colhuans,
therefore, feeing no trophies of their valour, began to
reproach them with cowardice ; but the Mexicans, pro¬
ducing their balkets of ears, defired them to judge
from thefe horv many prifoners they might have taken,
had. they not been unwilling to retard their viClory by
taking up time in binding them.
Notwithftanding the valour difplayed by the Mexi¬
cans in this engagement, it doth not appear that their
haughty mafters were in the leaft inclined to afford them
eafier terms than before. Having erefted an altar to
their god, they demanded of their lord fomething pre¬
cious to offer in facrifice to him ; but he in difdain fent
them a dirty cloth, enclofing the filthy carcafs of a vile
bird. This was carried by Colhuan priefts; and with¬
out any ceremony laid upon the altar. The Mexicans,
with apparent unconcern, removed this filthy offering,
and put in its place a knife made of itztli, and an odo-
rilerous herb. On the day of confecration, the Cul¬
lman prince attended with his nobility ; not with a
view to do honour to the feftival, but to make a moc¬
kery of the Mexicans. Their derifion, however, w-as
fi>on changed into horror, when the Mexicans, after a
fine inn dance, brought forth the four Xochimilcan pri¬
foners they had taken 5 and, after having made them
dance a little, cut open their breafts with the knife
which lay on the altar, and plucking out their hearts,
offered them, while yet palpitating with life, to their
diabolical idol. I his had fuch an eft'edt upon the fpec-
tators, that both king and fubje&s defired the Mexicans
3
t 748 ]
M E X
immediately to quit their territories and go where they Mexic*.
pleafed. This order was inftantly obeyed : the whole ^
nation took their route towards the north, until they
came to a place named SfcaPzit'ziritlan, fituated betwixt
two lakes, and afterwards named Mexicalt%inco ; but
for fome reafon or other, being difeontented with this
Situation, as indeed they feem very often to have been,
they proceeded to l%tacalco, ftill nearer to the fite of
Mexico. Here they formed the image of a little moun¬
tain. of paper, and danced round it a whole night,
finging their viftory over the Xochimilcas, and reunit¬
ing thanks to their god for having freed them from the
yoke of the Colhuans. Clavigero is of opinion, that by
this mountain they reprefented Colhuacan, as in their
pictures ,t was always reprefented by a hunch-backed
mountain j and this is the literal fignification of the
name.
I he city of Mexico wTas founded in the year 1325, The^t f
in the molt incommodious fituation wTe can imagine, Mexico^
viz. on a fmall ifland named Tenochtitlan, in the mid- founded,
die. of a great lake, without ground to cultivate for
their fubfiftence, or even room fufficient to build their
habitations. Their life was therefore as miferable here
for fome time as it had been wffien they w'ere on the
iflands at the end of the lake, and they w7ere reduced
to the fame ftnfts to maintain themlelves. To enlarge
the boundaries of their ifland, they drove palifades in¬
to thofe parts of the w7ater which were moft {hallow,
terracing them with ftones and turf, and uniting to
their principal ifland feveral other fmaller ones which
lay in the neighbourhood. To procure to themfelves
afterwards ftones, wrood, &c. for conftrufling their
habitations, as well as clothing and other neceffaries,
they inftituted a commerce with the people who dw-elt
on the borders of the lake, fupplying them with fiffi,
waterfowl, and other more minute inhabitants of the
lake and marffies, which they contrived to render eat¬
able 5 and in return for all this they received the necef¬
faries above mentioned. The greateft effort of their
induftry, however, was the conftrudtion of floating gar¬
dens, by means of bufties and the mud of the lake 5 and
thefe they brought to fuch perfeftion that they produced
maize, pepper, chia, French beans, and gourds. l8
For thirteen years that the Mexicans had to ftruggle The two
with extreme difficulty, they remained at peace j" butfa<aions **“
no fooner did they begin to profper and live comfort-^arate*
ably, than the inveterate enmity betwixt the two factions
broke out in all its fury. This produced a feparation j
and one of the parties took up their refidence on a fmall
ifland at a little diftance to the northward, which, from
a heap of fand found there, they at firft named Xaltilol-
co, but afterwards Tlatelolco, from a terrace cout!ruffed
by themfelves. J his ifland was afterwards united to
that of Tenochtitlan.
i^bout this time the Mexicans divided their city into
four parts, a divifion which ftill fubfifts 5 each quarter
having now its tutelar faint, as it had formerly its tute¬
lar god. In the midft of their city was the fancluary
of their great god Month, whom they conftantly pre¬
ferred to all the reft. To him thev daily performed
a els of adoration : but inftead of making any progrefs
in humanity, they feem to have daily improved in the
moft horrible barbarities, at leaft in their religion.;
The dreadful facrifices made of their prifoners, could
only be exceeded by that which wre are now about to gi0n.
relate.
19
Monftroui
1 barbarity of
M E X
[ 749 3
M E X
Mexico, relate. Being now on a more refpe&able footing than
—formerly, they fent an embafly to the petty king of
Colhuacan, requefting him to fend them one of his
daughters, that Ihe might be confecrated the mother
of their protecting god. The unfufpeCting prince
readily complied with their defire.—The unfortunate
princefs was conduced in great triumph to Mexico 5
but no fooner was (he arrived, than fhe was facrificed
in a (hocking manner 5 and, to add to the horror of
the deed, the body was flayed, and one of the braved
young men of the nation drefled in her (kin. Her fa¬
ther, ignorant of this dreadful tranfadtion, was invited
by the Mexicans to be prefent at the apotheofis of his
daughter, and went to fee the folemnity, and to wor-
Ihip the new divinity. He was led into the fanCluary,
where the young man flood clothed in the bloody (kin
of his daughter ; but the darknefs of the place prevent¬
ed him from feeing what was before him. They gave
him a cenfer in his hand, and fome copal to begin his
xvorfliip •, but having difcovered by the flame of the co¬
pal the horrible fpeftacle, he ran out in a diftradled
manner, calling upon his people to revenge the injury ;
but this they were not able to do at that time nor ever
after.
In the year 1352 the Mexican government was
changed from an ariftocracy to a monarchy. At firfl
they were governed by 20 lords, of whom one had
an authority fuperior to the reft. This naturally fug-
gefted the idea of monarchy *, and to this change they
were alfo induced by the contemptible ftate in which
their nation (till continued, thinking that the royal
dignity would confer upon it a degree of fplendour
which otherwife it could not enjoy j and that by
20 having one leader, they would be better able to op-
A-cam*pit- pofe their enemies. Proceeding, therefore, to eleCl
zin the firlt a king, the choice fell upon Acamapitzin, a man of
great eftimation among them, and defcended from
Opochtli, a noble Aztecan, and a princefs of the royal
family of Colhuacan. As he was yet a bachelor, they
attempted to negociate a marriage, firft with the daugh¬
ter of the lord of Tacuba, and then of the king of Az-
capozalco : but thefe propofals being rejefted with dif-
dain, they applied to Acolmiztli lord of Coatlichan,.
and a defcendant of one of the three Acolhuan princes ;
who complied with their requeft, and the nuptials were
celebrated with great rejoicings.
In the mean time, the Tlatelolcos, the natural ri¬
vals of the Mexicans^ refolved not to be behind them
in any thing which had the lead appearance of aug¬
menting the glory of their ftate. They likewife,
therefore, chofe a king 5 but not thinking proper to
choofe him from among themfelves, they applied to
the king of the Tepanecas, who readily fent them
his fon *, and he was crowned firft king of Tlatelolco
in 1353. In this the Tlatelolcos feem to have had
a defign of humbling their rivals, as well as render¬
ing themfelves more refpedlable ; and therefore it is
probable, that they had reprefented the Mexicans as
wanting in that refpeift due to the Trepanecan mo¬
narch, as having eledled a king without his leave,
though at the fame time they were tributaries to
him. The confequence of this was, that he took a
refolution to double their tribute. Hitherto they
had paid only a certain number of fifh and water-
fowl ) but now they were ordered to bring alfo feve-
Mexicc.
king of
Mexico.
2T
The Tlate¬
lolcos alfo
choofe a
king.
21
Mexicans
©ppreffed.
ral thoufands of fir and willow plants to be fet in the l
roads and gardens of Azcapozalco, and to tranfport v
to the court a great floating garden, which produced
vegetables of every kind known in Anahuac. This
being accomplifhed with great difficulty, the king com¬
manded them next year to bring him another garden,
with a duck and fwan in it both fitting upon eggs ^but
fo, that on their arrival at Azcapozalco the brood might
be ready to hatch. This was alfo done ; and the prince
had the fatisfa&ion of feeing the young birds come out of
the eggs. The third year they were ordered to bring
a live flag along with a garden. This was more dif¬
ficult than any of the former talks ; beeaufe they were
obliged, in order to hunt the flag, to go to the moun¬
tains of the continent, where they -were in danger of
falling into the hands of their enemies; however, this
alfo was accompliftied, and the defire of the king grati¬
fied.
In this manner the Mexicans were oppreffed for no
lefs than 50 years. They freed themfelves, however,
from all their difficulties by vigorous exertions, abfurdly
afdribing to the proteftion of that malevolent being
whom they xvorffiippcd the glory of every deliverance.
Acamapitzin governed this city, which at that time
comprehended the whole of his dominions, for 37 years
in peace. His queen being barren, he married another
Avife, but Avithout abandoning the firfl: ; and thefe tAVo,
inftead of being rivals to one another, lived together in
the utmoft harmony ; the firfl: Avife taking upon herfelf
the charge of educating Huitzilihuitl, the fon of the
fecond. He had, befides, feveral children by other
Avomen, and one named llxcoatl, who afterAvards proved
one of the. bed and mod renowned kings who fat on the
throne of Mexico. He is faid alfo to have conquered
four coafiderable cities j but Clavigero thinks he muft
in this only have been an auxiliary, it being very im¬
probable, that while he could fcarce maintain his oAA'n
territories, he ffiould think of foreign conquefts.
Acamapitzin died in 1389, greatly lamented by
the Mexicans, and his death Avas followed by an in¬
terregnum of four months. As the deceafed mo¬
narch had formerly refigned his authority into the
hands of his nobles, it Avas neceflary that a neAV elec¬
tion ffiould take place •, and Avhen this was done, the
choice fell upon Huitzilihuitl, the fon of Acama¬
pitzin. As he Avas ftill unmarried, it was refolved, HuitzPi-
if poffible, to procure him an honourable and advan-huitl the
tageous match. With this vieAV, a deputation of fecond king,
nobility was fent to the king of Azcapozalco, re¬
quefting, in very humble terms, an alliance Avith one
of his daughters. The expreffions made ufe of by
thefe ambafladors are faid by our author to have
been particularly elegant in the Mexican language :
but it is difficult to underftand hoAV a fpeech made
among a people ignorant of the art of writing could
be particularly recorded at the interval of fome hun¬
dreds of years after. They are as folloAV : “We be-
feech you, Avith the moft profound refpeft, to take
compaifion on our mafter and your fervant Huilzili-
huitl, confined among the thick ruffies of the lake.-—
He is without a Avife, and AATe without a queen.—
Vouchfafe, Sir, to part Avith one of your jeAvels or
moft precious feathers. Give us one of your daughters,
Avho may come to reign over us in a country Avhich be¬
longs to you/’
This
Mexico.
M E X [ 75° ] M
_Tlll!,.P!e,Ce °f Orat,017 liad fllch an effeft upon the laft fail him, fued for peace
E X
Unfortu-
ziaie reign
of Techot-
lala’s fon.
24 he granted their requeit, and a Tepanecan
Marries a Princefs was conduced in great triumph to Mexico,
daughter of'where the marriage was folemnized with the utmoft
the Tcf. of Jov‘ this princefs brought, him a fon the
necans.1^ year of tllcJr marriage, the king, in order to
ftrengthen himfelf by frefh alliances, married alfo the
daughter of another prince, by whom he had Monte¬
zuma Uhuicamina, the moft celebrated of all the Mexi¬
can kings.
As the Mexicans advanced in wealtli and power,
fo did their rivals the inhabitants of Tlatelolco. 
1 heir find king died in 1399, leaving his fubjefts
greatly improved in civilization, and the city much
enlarged and beautified. The rival (hip which fub-
hfted between the two cities had indeed greatly
contributed to the aggrandizement of both." The
Mexicans had formed fo many alliances by marriage
wish the neighbouring nations, had fo much improv¬
ed their agriculture and floating gardens on the
lake, and had built fo many more vefiels to fupply
their extended commerce and fifliing, that they were
enabled to celebrate their fecular year, anfwering to
A. D. 1402, with greater magnificence than they
had ever done fince they left their original country of
is Atztlan.
All this time Techotlala, the fon of Ouinatzin, con¬
tinued to reign in Acolhuaean, and for 30 years enjoy¬
ed uninterrupted tranquillity ; but being now very far
advanced in years, and finding his end approach, he
called to him his fon Ixtlilxochitl, and recommended
to him to beivare of the ambitious difpofition of the king
of Azcapozalco, as he was apprehenfive that he might
attempt fomething againfl the peace of the empire.
His fufpicions were verified ; for on the death of Te-
chotlala, which happened in 1406, the king of Azca¬
pozalco, without making the ufual fubmiflions to the
new king, to whom he was a feudatory, fet out for his
own territories, with a view to 11 ir up the other feu¬
datory princes to rebellion. Having called to him the
kings of Mexico and Tlatelolco, he told them, that
Techotlala, who had long tyrannized over that country,
being dead, he defigned to procure freedom to the
princes, fo that each might rule his own territory en¬
tirely independent of the king of Acolhuacan ; but for
this purpofe he needed their aflillance, and trufted to
their well known fpirit to take part with him in the
enterprife. He informed them likewife, that in order
to enfure fuccefs, he would find means to unite other
princes in the confederacy.
The new king of Acolhuacan, in the mean time,
was employed in fettling the affairs of his kingdom,
and endeavouring to gain the good will of his fubjefls.
The combination againft him was foon difeovered :
but though Ixtlilxochitl was defirous of heading his
army in perfi-n, he was diffuaded from fo doing by
his courtiers $ fo that the condudt of the war was
committed to his generals. To weaken the enemy,
they ravaged the territories of fix revolted dates : but,
rmtvvithflanding this, and the fuperior difeipline of
the royal army, the war was carried on by the rebels
with great obftinacy, their armies being conflantly re¬
cruited by frefh troops in proportion to their Ioffes.
At laft, after three years of a ruinous war, the . king
of Azcapozalco, finding that his refources would at
27
Diftrt i- and
. , x / but with a defign of ac- Mexic,
comphftung by treachery what he had not yet been v-*
able to do^ by force. His adverfary, equally reduced
witli himfelf, confented to a peace, though he knew
very well that the Tepanecan prince intended to ob-
ferve it no longer than fuited his purpofe.
fn the year 1409 died Huitzilihuitl king of Mexico, ChimL
wno like woe lett the right of elefting a fucceffor to thepoca third
nobility. They made choice of his brother Chimalpo-kii g of
Pocaj and from thence it became an eftabliflied lawMesice'
to choofe one of the brothers of the deceafed king, or,
il^ lie had no brothers, to eleft one of his grandfons.
While the new prince was endeavouring to fecure him¬
felf on the throne, the treacherous Tezozomoc ufed
all means in his power to ftrengthen the party he had
formed againit the king ot Acolhuacan. In this he
was attended with (uch fuccels, that the unfortunate
prince found himfelf reduced to the neceflity of wan¬
dering among the neighbouring mountains, at the head
of a (mall army, accofnpanied by the lords of Hucxotla
and Coatlichan, who remained always faithful to him.
The Tepanecans diftreffed him to fuch a degree, by
intercepting his provifions, that he was forced to beg
them of his enemies. One of his grandfons was
fent to Otompan, a rebel (late, to requeft them todea."hof
fupply their king with the provifions he ftood in need the king of
of, and to exhort them to abandon the caufe of the A(°hlua"
rebels, which they had efpoufed. No talk could becan-
more dangerous ; yet fuch was the magnanimity of
the young prince’s difpofition, that he readily fet out
on the journey ; nor was he deterred by the informa¬
tion he got that there were in the place certain Tepa¬
necans who had come on purpofe to publifh a proclama¬
tion from I ezozomoc. He went boldly to the moft
public place of the town, and in prefence of thofe who
publifhed the proclamation made known his requeft.
This heroifm, however, did not meet with the fuceefs
it deferved. His propofitions were derided from the
moment they Avere made ; but the people did not offer
any farther infult, until one of the meaner fort threAV a
ftone at him, exciting others of the fan e ftamp to put
him to death. The Tepanecans, Avho had hitherto
continued filent, perceiving their opportunity, joined
in the general cry to kill the prince, and began alfo to
throAv ftones. The prince attempted firft to defend
himfelf, and afterwards to efcape by flight 5 but, both
being equally impcflible, he fell under a ftiowcr of
ftones. The Tepanecans exulted in this ad! of treachery,
and foon after cut off Ixtlixochitl himfelf, after having
treacheroufly perfuaded him to a conference with two
of their captains. This perfidious adl was committed
in fight of the royal army, Avho Avere too weak to re¬
venge it ; the royal corpfe was faved Avith difficulty j
and Ne%ahualcojotl. heir apparent to the crown, Avas
obliged to (belter himfelf among the bullies from the
fury of his enemies. .
_ Tezozomoc having hoav in a great meafure gained AcoJhua-
his point, proceeded to pour down his troops up< ncancori*
thofe cities and diftricls which had remained faithful ff‘erec*
to the late unfortunate monarch. The people made * "<)Z0'
a moft defperate defence, and killed vail numbers of ‘ * ‘
their enemies *, but at laft being themfelves reduced by
the calamities of war, and in danger of total extermi¬
nation, they Avere obliged to quit their habitations and
fly to other countries. The tyrant, then, finding him¬
felf
M E X [ 751 ] M E X
Mexico, felf fuperior to all his adverfaries, gave Tezcuco in fief
'“■'-v—'”' to Chimalpopoca king of Mexico, Huexotla to 'ila-
cacotl king of Tlatelolco *, placing faithful governors
in other places, and appointing Azcapozalco, the capi¬
tal of his own territory, the royal refidence and capital
of Acolhuacan,
Prince Nezahualcojotl was prefent in difguife at this
difpofal of his dominions, along with feveral other per-
fons of diftinction who were enemies of the tyrant ;
and fo much was he tranfported with paffion, that it
was with difficulty he could be reftrained from killing
Tezozomoc on the fpot, though this would certainly
have been done at the expence of his own life. All
the reft of the Acolhuacan empire fubmitted 5 and
Nezahualcojotl faw himfelf for the prefent deprived of
all hopes of obtaining the crown.
H s tyvan- Tezozomoc had now attained the fummit of his am-
ny and bition : but inftead of conciliating the minds of his
death. new fubjedls, oppreffed them with new taxes 5 and be¬
ing confcious of the precarious fituation in which he
flood, and tormented with remorfe on account of his
crimes, fell into melancholy, and was conftantly haunted
with frightful dreams. He was now become fo old,
that his body no longer retained its natural heat.
He was therefore obliged to be covered up with cot¬
ton in a great cradle, not being able to fit eredt
in a chair. In this miferable condition, however, he
never forgot his tyranny or cruelty. From his cradle
he iffued oppreflive laws relating to the Acolhuacans 5
and almoft with his laft breath renewed his com¬
mands with regard to Nezahualcojotl. At laft he ex¬
pired in the year 1422, leaving the crown to his fon
Tajatzin.
The throne Tezozomoc was no fooner dead than Maxtlaton,
ufurned by without paying the leaft regard to his father’s will, be-
Maxtlaton. gan j.0 eXercife the fun ft ions of a fovereign. Though
it was the right of Taj at z in to invite to his father’s
funeral whom he pleafed, Maxtlaton took that upon
himfelf. Nezahualcojotl, though not invited, came
among the reft; but though Teuftzintli, brother to
Maxtlaton, infifted upon his being put to death, the
latter oppofed it, as it could not then be done private¬
ly, and he hoped to find another opportunity. No
fooner were the funeral ceremonies over, however,
than Maxtlaton behaved in fuch a manner to his bro¬
ther Tajatzin, that the prince thought proper to re¬
tire to Chimilpopoca king of Mexico, to whom he
had been particularly recommended by his father, in
order to have his advice. This monarch, agreeable to
the charafter of that age and people, advifed him to
invite his brother to an entertainment, and then mur¬
der him. Unluckily for them both, this difeourfe was
overheard by a fervant, who in expeftation of a reward
informed the tvrant of what he had heard : but in¬
ftead of this, Maxtlaton, pretending to difbelieve his
ftory, drove the informer from his prefence with igno¬
miny. Notwithftanding this pretence, the tyrant had
not the leaft doubt of the truth of what was told him ;
and therefore determined to rid himfelf of his brother
without delay. This he foon accomplifhed in the very
fame way that had been projefted againft himfelf.
Tajatzin, along with the kings of Mexico, Tlatelolco,
and feme other feudatory princes, were invited by
Maxtlaton to an entertainment. The king of Mexico
prudently excufed himfelf, but the unfufpefting Ta-
atzin fell into the fnare. He came to the place of Mexico,
entertainment, and was inftantiy put to death. 1 he
company were greatly alarmed ; but Maxtlaton, having 'j'ajat:zjI1
explained to them his reafons for fo doing, they not murdered,
only excufed him, but proclaimed him king ; to which
it is not to be doubted that their fears greatly contri¬
buted.
Though the king of Mexico efcaped a fudden death Miferable
by his abfence at this time, it was only to perifti in a fate of the
more flow and ignominious manner. The vengeanceft
of Maxtlaton firft appeared by fending him a woman’s 1 eXK0'
drefs in return to the prefent he fent him as a feuda¬
tory ; which being a refleftion upon his courage, was
the higheft affront that could be offered him. This
infult, however, was quickly followed by one of a
much higher nature. Having heard that one of the
Mexican prince’s wives was an extraordinary beauty,
he enjoined feme Tepanecan ladies, who were accu-
ftomed to vifit that princefs, to invite her to fpend
fome days tvilh them at Azcapozalco. This being
complied with, the tyrant eafily got an opportunity
of ravilhiug her, and then fent her back to her huf-
band. Chimilpopoca was fo much affefted by this
misfortune, that he refolved to offer himfelf up a fa-
crifice to his god. Maxtlaton, however, was refolved
that he fhould not have even this fatisfaftion. At
the very time of the ceremony, therefore, he fent a bo¬
dy of troops ; who entering Mexico without refiftance,
carried off the king alive, to the aftonifhment of the
multitude ; and who probably were fo much confounded
by this unexpefted adventure, that they did not think
of making any refiftance.
Chimilpopoca°t>eing carried prifoner to Azcapozal¬
co, was confined in a ftrong wooden cage, the com¬
mon prifon for criminals. Maxtlaton ftill was not fa-
tisfied : he wilhed to get into his hands Nezahual¬
cojotl ; and with this view fent a meffage to him, pre¬
tending that he was willing to come to an agreement
with him refpefting the kingdom of Acolhuacan.
Though the prince was well affured of the tyrant’s
treacherous intentions, he went boldly to his palace,
prefented himfelf before him, and told him that he
had heard of the imprifonment of the king of Mexico;
he had heard alfo that he Avithed to take away his
own life; he defired him to do fo, and to gratify his
malice. Maxtlaton was fo ftruck with this fpeech, pje
that he affured the prince he had not formed any de- ed in pri-
fign againft his life, and that he neither had put tofonbyNe«
death the king of Mexico, nor would do fo. He z bualco-
then gave orders for his being properly entertained,-*0
and even alloAved him to pay a vifit to the king of
Mexico in prifon. The unfortunate Chimilpopoca,
after reciting his misfortunes, requefted the prince not
to return to court, where they would certainly fall
upon fome projeft for taking atvay his life; and ha¬
ving pathetically recommended to him the care of his
fubjefts, made him a prefent of a gold pendant and
fome other jeAvels he Avore; after Avhich they took a
laft fareAA'ell.
In the mean time, the Mexicans raifed to the throne, itzcoatlrak
Itzcoatl, the fon of Acamapitzin by a flave, and who fed to the
Avas accounted the moft prudent, juft, and brave, of all hr°ae of
the Mexican nation. His eleftion Avas no lefs pleafingr lVl1exlc£.,n.
tvt 1 1 • 1 j 1 • 1 • 'n- ^ who alhtt*
to Nezahualcojotl and his party, than it Avas offenfive ]sfeza}iua^
to Maxtlaton. An alliance Avas quickly concluded cojotl.
between
M E X
M exico
t 752 ]
M E X
v, 35
Dangerous
embafiy
undertaken
by Monte¬
zuma.
36
Maxtlaton
declares
war againft
Mexico.
between the exiled prince and the king of Mexico ;
and this was foon followed by the commencement of
hoftilities on the part of the former. His firft enter-
prife was againft the city of Tezcuco, which lie de¬
termined to take by affault, but was prevented by the
fubmiftion of the inhabitants. He put to death, how¬
ever, all the officers eftabliffied by the tyrant; and all
the Tepanecans he found there. The very fame day
another large city named Acolman was furioufly at¬
tacked by a detachment of his army 5 great numbers
put to the fword, and among the reft the governor,
who was brother to Maxtlaton ; and the fame day alfo
Coatlichan was taken by the Chalcefe.
The Mexican monarch, hearing of the fuccefles of his
ally, fent an embafty to congratulate him upon them.
His ambaftador was a fon of king Huitzilihuitl, named
Montt%urmt, who for his invincible courage and great
qualities was furnamed the man of great heart and the
archer of heaven. The journey was extremely danger¬
ous *, but Montezuma undertook it without any fear,
accompanied by another nobleman. They got in fafety
to the place where the prince rvas; but had the misfortune
to be taken prifoners, and were carried to Chaleo \ the
lord of which city, named Toteotzin, was an inveterate
enemy to the Mexicans. By him he was immediately put
in clofe confinement, under the care of one Quateozin,
who was inviolably attached to the Mexican interefl.
Orders were given to the latter to provide no fufte-
nance for the prifoners but what was preferibed by his
lord, until the mode of death which they were to fuffer
fliould be determined. Toteotzin then fent his pri¬
foners to them, that they might be facrificed there if
they thought proper. Thefe people, however, rejefted
the propofal with difdain ; on which Toteotzin, think¬
ing to regain the favour of Maxtlaton, informed him of
the prifoners he had in his polfeffion. But Maxtlaton
called him a double minded traitor, and commanded
him inftantly to fet the prifoners at liberty. Before
this anfwer arrived, however, Quateozin had inftrufted
the prifoners how to make their efcape, and dire&ed
them aifo not to return by land left they ftiould again
be intercepted, but to embark at a certain place, and
proceed by water to Mexico. They followed his ad¬
vice exactly \ and having got to the place to which
they were direfted, arrived fafely at their city, to the
great furprife and joy of the inhabitants.
Toteotzin, enraged at the lofs of his prifoners, put
Quateozin to a cruel death, deftroying alfo all his fa¬
mily excepting one fon and a daughter 5 of whom the
latter fled to Mexico, where ffie was highly honoured
on her father’s account. Maxtlaton, too, notwith-
ftanding his generofity to the prifoners (which Clavi-
gero derives from mere oppofition to Toteotzin), pre¬
pared to W'age a formidable war with the Mexicans,
who had agreed to unite their troops with thofe of the
prince. The Mexican populace, terrified at engaging
fo powerful an enemy, demanded that their king ffiould
fubmit and beg for peace. So great was the tumult,
that the king himfelf W'as obliged to confent j and
it required the utmoft exertions of Montezuma’s elo*
quence to perfuade the people to agree to a com¬
mencement of hoftilities. This being done at laft, the
king next called together the chief nobility, and alked
■which of them would have the courage to carry an
embafly to the king of the Tepanecans ? This adven¬
ture appeared fo hazardous, that all of them kept a Mexico,
deep filence, until Montezuma declared himfelf willing1 v
to undertake the arduous enterprife. fie was ordered
to propofe peace to Maxtlaton, but to accept of no
diihonourable conditions ; to which he punctually ad¬
hered. Maxtlaton refufed to give any immediate an¬
fwer, but promifed to give one next day, after he had
confulted his nobility. Montezuma, dreading fome
treachery if he ftaid all night, promifed to return next
day 5 which he did, and was told that Maxtlaton had
determined upon war. Montezuma then performed
the ceremony of challenging him, by prt fenting him
with certain defenfive weapons, anointing his head,
and fixing feathers upon it, as was cuftomary to do
with dead perfons. Laitly, He protefted, in the name
of his mailer, that as Maxtlaton would not accept of
the offered peace, he and all the Tepanecans would in¬
fallibly be ruined. Maxtlaton Ihowed not the leaft
fign of difpleafure, but gave Montezuma arms in like
manner to prefent to the king of Mexico ; and direct¬
ed him, for his perfonal fecurity, to return in difguife
through a fmall outlet from the palace. Montezuma
followed hi- advice } but as foon as he found himfelf
out of danger, began to infult the Tepanecan guards ;
and though they ruflied violently upon him, he not
only efcaped from their attacks, but killed one or two
of them.
On his return to Mexico, the populace were again
thrown into the utmoft confternation by the newrs
that war w?as inevitable, as the chiefs of the two na¬
tions had challenged one another. They norv requeft-
ed the king to allow them to retire from their city, of
which they fuppofed the ruin to be certain. The king
encouraged them with the hopes of victory. “ But if
we are conquered (replied they), vffiat rvill become
of us ?” “ If that happens (anfwered the king), we
are that moment bound to deliver ourfelves into your
hands, to be made facrifices at your pleafure.” “ Be it
fo (replied they), if wre are conquered \ but if we ob¬
tain the victory, we and our defeendants are bound to
be tributary to you ; to cultivate your lands and thofe
of your nobles j to build your houfes j and to carry
for you, when you go to Avar, your arms and bag¬
gage.”
Matters being thus fettled, intelligence avhs fent to jjc ;s tfe*
Prince Nezahualcojotl to repair with his army to Mexi-feated and
co, which he did Avithout delay •, and the day after his killed,
arrival a furious engagement took place. The Tepa¬
necan army was commanded by a general named Ma-
•zatl; Maxtlaton himfelf not judging it proper to quit
his capital. The foldiers on both Tides fought Avith
the utmoft bra\-ery *, but towards night the Mexicans,
diffieartened by feeing the army of their enemies con¬
tinually increafing in number, began once more to
lofe their courage and talk of furrendering. The
king, greatly concerned, alked Montezuma what Ihould
be done to diflipate the fears of the people ? That
brave prince replied, that they muft fight till death j
that if they died Avith their arms in their hands, it
would be honourable *, but to furvive their defeat,
Avould be eternal ignominy. Nothing could be more
falutary than this advice at fo critical a junClure : for
the Mexicans Avere already begun to implore the mer¬
cy of their enemies, and to promife to facrifice their
chiefs, whofe ambition had brought the Avhole nation
into
M
EX [ 753 1 _ M E X
On hearing this, the whole body purfued them thither ; and Montezuma perceiving that
“ ~ ' ' they intended to fortify themfelves in tne greater tem¬
ple, fruitrated their defign by getting potieflion of it
and burning the turret. By this diiafter they were to
much terrified, that they tied to the mountains fouth of
royal army overtook
3s
The Tepa-
necans en¬
tirely re¬
duced.
Mexico, into fuch a dilemma.
—'T—' of nobility, with the king and Montezuma at their
head, aiTaulted the enemy fo furioutly, that they repul-
fed them from a ditch of which they had taken poflef-
fion 5 after which, Montezuma, happening to encounter
Mazatl the Tepanecan general, Itruck him fuch a blow
on the head that he fell down lifelefs. Thus the Mexi¬
cans were infpired with frefh courage, and their ene¬
mies proportionally difpirited : however, they retired
for that night to the city, in fome hopes of being able
to retrieve their fortune next day. Maxtlaton encou¬
raged them by every method in his power ; but fortune
proved Hill more unfavourable than the day before.
The Tepanecans were now entirely defeated, and the
city of Azcapozalco taken. Maxtlaton, who feems
not to have had the courage to fight, had not now the
prefence of mind to fly. He attempted indeed to hide
himfelf; but being quickly difcovered, he was beaten
to death with flicks and ftones. The city was plun¬
dered, the inhabitants butchered, and the houfes de-
ftroyed by the vidlors.
This viflory proved decifive in favour of the confe¬
derates. Every other place of ftrength in the country
was quickly reduced, until the T epanecans, finding
themfelves on the verge of deftruflion, fent an humble
embaffy to the king of Mexico, requefting to be taken
under his protedlion, and to become tributaries to him.
Itzcoatl received them graciouflybut threatened them
with total extirpation if they violated the fidelity they
had fworn to him.
Itzcoatl, after this extraordinary fuccefs, took care
to have the above-mentioned contrafl ratified between
the nobility and common people, by which the latter
were bound to perpetual fervices. Thofe who had
difcouraged the foldiers in time of battle were banilh-
ed for ever from the ftate of Mexico ; while Monte¬
zuma and others who had diflinguilhed themfelves by
their bravery, were rewarded with lands, as was ufual
with other conquerors.
Itzcoatl, now finding himfelf firmly feated on the
eojotl made throne of Mexico, fet about performing his engagements
king of A- tQ t|ie Acolhuacan prince, by feating him on the throne
eolhuacan. ^ pjs anceftorSi Having again joined their armies,
they marched againft Huaxotla, a city which refufed
to fubmit, even though terms of pardon were offered
them. Inflead of this, they raflfly ventured a battle, in
which they were entirely defeated 5 and were then fain
to fend a deputation of their old men, pregnant women,
&c. as was cuftomary in cafes of diflrefs, to move the
enemy to compaflion. At laft all obftacles being re¬
moved, Nezahualcojotl was feated on the throne of
Acolhuacan, the auxiliary troops were difmiffed, and
Itzcoatl left at liberty to purfue his conquefts, in which
he was ftill affxfted by the king of Acolhuacan. The
firft expedition was againft Cojohuacan, and other two
Tepanecan cities, who had not only refufed fubmiflion
themfelves, but excited others to (hake off the yoke al-
fo. The war againft them proved bloody. I hree bat¬
tles were fought, in which Itzoatl gained no other ad¬
vantage than making the enemy retreat a little •, but in
the fourth, while the two armies were hotly engaged,
Montezuma, with a body of chofen troops, which he
had placed in ambufcade, attacked the rear-guard of
the rebels with fuch vigour, that they were foon difor-
dered, and obliged to fly to the city. The conquerors
Vol. XIII. Part II.
Mexko.
3* ,
N«z»hual-
4*
Conquefts
of the
Mexicans.
Cojohuacan j but even there the
and purfued them more than 30 miles, till they came
to another mountain, where, quiie exhaufted with fa¬
tigue, and feeing no means of elcape, they were obli¬
ged to furrender at difcretion.
Having thus happily accomplfthed the conqueft of
Cojohuacan and the other rebellious cities, the two
kings returned to Mexico. Itzcoatl gave great part
of the Tepanecan country, ■with the title ot king of
Tacuba, to Totoquihuatxin, a grandfon of Tezozomoc,
but who does not appear to have been any way con- 4?
cerned in his projects againft the Mexicans. An ai- Alliance
liance was then formed among the three kings on the between^
following terms : The king of iacuba held his crown ^
on condition of ferving the king of Mexico with ail ^conlua_ ’
his troops, at any time when required j for which he can, and
W'as to have a fifth part of the fpoils taken from theTepaneca.
enemy. The king of Acolhuacan was likewife to af-
fift the king of Mexico in war ; and for this he was to
have a third part of the plunder, after deducing the
fhare of the king of Tacuba \ and the remainder was
to belong to the king of Mexico. The kings of Ta¬
cuba and Acolhuacan were both declared honorary
eleflors of the kings of Mexico 5 the real electors being-
four nobles : and the king of Mexico was likewife
bound to aflift in the wars of his allies whenever it was
demanded.
After having thus fettled matters among themfelves,
and rewarded their foldiers, Itzcoatl fet out with Ne¬
zahualcojotl for Tezcuco, where the Acolhuacan king
was crowned with all poflible ceremony. Here the
new king took every method which prudence could
fuggeft to eftabliftt his authority on a permanent bafis j
but while he was thus employed, the Xochimilcas,
fearing left the Mexicans might conquer their country
as they had done that of the Tepanecans, held a coun¬
cil on what was to be done to prevent fuch a difgrace.
In this council it was determined to commence hoftili-
ties againft that riling ftate, before it ihould become ^
more'formidable by new conquefts. Itzcoatl was no other con.
fooner informed of this determination, than he fentquefts.
Montezuma with a great army againft them. The
Xochimilcas met him with one ftill more numerous j
but being worfe difeiplined, they were quickly de¬
feated, and their city taken in a very fliort time af¬
ter. This conqueft was followed by the reduction of
Cuitlahuac, fituated on a fmall ifland in the lake of
Chaleo. Their infular fituation gave them confidence
to attack the formidable power of the Mexicans. The
king was fo fenfible of the difficulty of this enterprife,
that he propofed to attack them with the whole force
of the alliance : Montezuma, however, with only a
fmall number of men of his own training, whom he
furnifhed with proper veflels, reduced them in feven
days. 43
Itzcoatl died in the year 1436, at a very advanced Montezu-
age, in the height of profperity, and Avas fucceeded ma I. king
by Montezuma I. the greateft monarch that ever fat0^ Mexico,
on the Mexican throne. Before his coronation, in
order to comply Avith the barbarous rites of his reli-
5 C gioIh
M E X
Mexico.
44
©hn'.^a ta¬
ken.
45
Tlatelolf o
reduced,
and ivlo-
quihuix
made kin^.
, gion, lie made war upon the Chalcefe, In order to pro¬
cure the prifoners who were to be facrificed at his
coronation 5 and fcarce was this ceremony over, when
a new war commenced, which terminated in the de-
ftruction of that city. Ihis quarrel happened be¬
tween the Chalcde and the Tezcucans. Twro of the
royal princes of Tezcuco having gone a-hunting on
the mountains which overlook the plains of Chaleo,
while employed in the chafe, and feparated from their
retinue, with only three Mexican lords, fell in with
a troop ol Chalcefe foldiers 5 who, to gratify the
cruelty of their mafter, carried them all prifoners to
Chaleo. i he cruel and inconfiderate tyrant who com¬
manded there inllantly put them all to death : after
which he caided their bodies to be falted, dried, and
placed in an hall of his palace, where they ferved as
iupporters to the pine torches burned there for lights
e' ery evening. 1 he king of Tezcuco, overwhelmed
With grief, and to the lalt degree exafperated at fuch
an inhuman act, called for the afliitance of the allied
kings. The city was attacked at once by land and wa¬
ter. The inhabitants, knowing that they had no mer¬
cy to expert, fought like men in defpair. Even the
old tyrant who commanded them, though unable to
walk, caufed himfelf to be carried in a litter among the
combatants not with (landing which they were totally
defeated, and the mod fevere vengeance executed upon
them.
Montezuma, on his return, found himfelf obliged
to encounter an enemy more formidable on account
of his vicinity, than more powerful ones at a diftance.
I his was the king of Tlatelolco, wrho had formerly
cpnfpired againd the life of Itzcoatl j and finding him¬
felf disappointed in this, had tried to reduce his power
by entering into a confederacy with fome of the
neighbouring lords. At that time his defigns proved
abortive, but he refumed them in the time of Monte¬
zuma ; the confequence of which was, that he was
defeated and killed. One Moquihuix xvas chofen in
his room 5 in whofe election it is probable that Mon¬
tezuma had a confiderable (hare. This was follow¬
ed by conqueds of a much more important nature.
The province of Cuikixcas, lying to the fouthward,
was added to his dominions, comprehending a traft
of country more than 150 miles in breadth j then,
turning to the wredward, he conquered another named
Tzompahuacan. This fuccefs, however, was for a fiiort
time interrupted by a war with Atonaltzin, lord of a
territory in the country of the Mixtacas. This prince,
puffed up on account of the great wealth he poffeffcd-,
took it into his head that he would allow no Mexican
to travel through his country. Montezuma fent am-
baffadors to know the reafon of fuch drange conduct •,
but Atonaltzin gave them no other anfwer than (bow¬
ing them fome part of bis wealth, making a prefent to
the king, and defiring them from thence to obferve how
much the fubjedts of Atonaltzin loved him j and that
he willingly accepted of war, which was to determine
whether he (hould pay tribute to the Mexicans or the
Mexicans to him. Montezuma having informed his al¬
lies of this infolent anfwer, fent a confiderable army
againd Atonaltzin, but had the mortification to be in¬
formed of its defeat •, in confequence of which the pride
af Atonaltzin was increafed to a great degree. Monte-
C 754 ]
M E X
zuma, greatly chagrined at this fird check, determined Mexico.
to head his next army in perfon ; but before he could  
call together another, Atonaltzin had drawn into a
confederacy with him the Huexotzincas and Tlafca-
lans, who were glad of the opportunity, as they fup-
pofed, of reducing the power of the Mexicans. Their
numbers, however, availed but little; Montezuma in
the very fird engagement totally defeated the confe¬
derate army. The allies of Atonaltzin were partieu-Atonaltzin
larly unfortunate j for fuch of them as were not kill-defeated,
ed in the field of battle, w^ere dedroyed by their ownan<J !he
party out of revenge for the unfortunate event of the jlexican
battle.
By this viflory the Mexican monarch became maf-
ter n«t only of his dominions of Atonaltzin, but of
many other neighbouring princes, againd whom he
made war on account of their having put to death
fome Mexican merchants or couriers without any juft
caufe. The conqueft of Cuetlachtlan or Cotajla, how¬
ever, which he attempted in 1457, proved a much more
difficult talk. This province lies on the coaft of the
Mexican gulf, and had been formerly inhabited by the
Olmecans, whom the Tlafcalans had driven out. The
inhabitants were very numerous ; but dreading the
power of Montezuma, called in thofe of Tlafcala, toge¬
ther with the Huexotzincas, to their affiftance. Along
with thefe the allies drew the Cholulans alfo into the
confederacy j fo that this feems to have been the mod
formidable combination that had yet been formed
againft the Mexican power. Montezuma colledled an
exeellently equipped army ; which, however, he did
not on this occafion command in perfon. It contained
a great number of perfons of very high rank, among
whom were three princes of royal blood, and Moqiii-
huix king of Tlatelolco already mentioned. The com¬
bination of the three republics againft Mexico was not
known at court when the army fet out ; but Montezu¬
ma, being informed of it foon after, fent an order to hb
generals to return. This accorded fo ill with the ro¬
mantic notions of valour entertained by the Mexican-,
that a confultation of the generals wras held whether
they (hould obey it or not. At laft it was determined
that the king’s order (hould be obeyed j but no fooner
was this agreed to than Moquihuix accufed them all of
cowardice, and threatened, with his own troops, unaf-
fifted, to go and conquer the enemy. His fpeech had
fuch an effeft upon them all, that they went to meet
the confederates. The Cotaftefe fought with great va¬
lour, but wrere unable to refill the royal forces ) and
their allies were almoft totally deftroyed. Six thoufand
two hundred of them were taken prifoners, and foon af¬
ter facrificed to the Mexican god of war in the barba¬
rous manner already deferibed. The victory was (aid
to have been owing principally to the valour and good
condufl of Moquihuix, infoinuch that to this day a fong
made in his praife on that occafion is known in Mexico.
Montezuma was fo well pleafed with the victory, that
he not only forgave the difobedience of his orders, but
bellowed upon Moquihuix a princefs, one of his own
coufins, to wife.
During the reign of this great monarch a violent inundatiorv
inundation happened in Mexico. The lake, fuelled and famine
by the exceflive rains which fell in the year 1446, pour-at Mexico-
ed its waters into the city with fo much violence that
many
Mexico.
48 ,
Axayac-atl
fucceeds
Montezu¬
ma.
49
Death of
the kings
of Acolhu-
acan and
Tacuba.
5°
Tlatelolco
reduced,
and the
ting killed.
M E X [75
many houfes were deflroyed, and the flrcets inundated
to fuch a degree that boats were everywhere made ufe
of. The inundation was foon followed by a famine.
This was occalioned by the Hinting of the crop of
maize in 1448 ; the ears while young and tender being
deftroyed by froft. In 1450 the crop was totally loll
for want of water ; and in 1451, befides the unfavour¬
able feafons, there was a fcarcity of feed. Hence, in
1452, the neceflities of the people became fo great, that
they w'ere obliged to fell themfelves for Haves in order
to procure fubfiftenee. Montezuma permitted them to
go to other countries for fupport; but being informed
that many fold themfelves for a few days provilion, he
ordered, by proclamation, that no woman fhould fell
herfelf for lefs than 400 ears of wheat, nor any man for
lefs than 500. He opened alfo the public granaries for
the relief of the lower claffes 5 but nothing was able to
Hop the progrefs of the famine.
Montezuma wras fucceeded by Axayacatl, who like
his predeceffor inftantly commenced a war, for no
other reafon than that he might have prifoners to facri-
fice at his coronation. He purfued Montezuma’s plan
of conqueft ; in which, however, he was lefs fuccefsful,
many of the provinces reduced by that monarch having
revolted after his death, fo that it vras neceffary to re¬
conquer them. On his returning fuccefsful from one
of thefe expeditions, he built a new temple, to which
he gave the name of Coutlon; but the Tlatelolcos,
whofe ancient rivallhip feems to have revived on the
death of Montezuma, built another in oppolition,
which they called Coaxolotl. Thus the former ha¬
tred between the two nations was renewed, and a dif-
cord took place which ended in the ruin of the Tlate¬
lolcos.
The Mexicans fuftained an irreparable lofs in 1469
and 1470 by the death of their allies the kings of Tacu¬
ba and Acolhuacan.
The king of Tacuba was fuccecded by his fon Chim-
alpopoca, and the Acolhuacan monarch by his fon Neza-
hualpilli. A fhort time after the acceffion of the latter,
the war broke out between the Tlatelolcos and Mexi¬
cans, which ended in the deftrudtion of the former.
King Moquihuix had been married by Montezuma to
a filler of Axayacatl, now on the throne of Mexico ;
but it appears that this princefs never was greatly the
objedl of his affedlion. On the contrary, he took all
methods of exprefling his diflike, either out of enmity
to herfelf, or envy of the fuperior greatnefs of her bro¬
ther. Not content with this, he entered into an alli¬
ance with a great number of the neighbouring dates, in
order to reduce the Mexican greatnefs. His wife,
however, being informed of this fcheme, communicated
the particulars to her brother j and foon after, being
impatient of the ill ufage Ihe received, came to Mexico
with her four fons to claim the protedlion of her brother.
This uncommon accident exafperated the Mexicans and
Tlatelolcos again!! each other to fuch a degree, that
•wherever they met, they fought, abufed, and murder¬
ed each other. The king of Tlatelolco prepared for
war with many horrid ceremonies, of which the drink¬
ing of human blood was one. A day was appointed
for attacking Mexico. Xiloman, lord of Colhuacan,
was to begin the attack, afterwards to pretend flight,
in order to induce the Mexicans to follow him ; after
which the Tlatelolcos were to fall upon their rear.
5 ] M E X
For fome reafon, however, with which we are not ac-
quainted, the Tlatelolcos began the attack without
waiting for Xiloman 5 the confequence of which was,
that he retired in difguft, leaving them to finifli their
battle the belt way they could. The engagement laft-
ed till night, when the Tlatelolcos were obliged to
retire. Axayacatl, during the night, difpofed of his
troops in all the roads which led to Tlatelolco, ap¬
pointing them to meet in the market-place. The Tla¬
telolcos, finding themfelves attacked on all fides, retir¬
ed gradually before the Mexicans, until at lall they
were forced into the market-place, where they found
themfelves worfe than ever on account of its narrownefs,
which did not allow them room to act. The king flood
on the top of the great temple, encouraging his men to
exert themfelves againll the enemy. His words, how¬
ever, had now loll their ufual influence. H® not only
was not obeyed, but was reproached with cowardice
becaufe he did not come down and fight among the reft.
At lall the Mexicans arrived at the temple, and af-
cendcd to the balcony where the king was. He mad&
a defperate defence for a little j but by a violent pufli
in the breaft was thrown backwards upon the Heps
of the temple, and flunned or perhaps killed by the
fall.
The Tlatelolcos being thus reduced, Axayacatl next
fet out on an expedition againH the Matlazincas, a
tribe in the vale of Toluca, who Hill refufed to fub-
mit to the Mexican yoke. Having proved fuccefsful
in this expedition, he undertook to fubdue alfo the
northern part of the valley, now called Valle d"1 Ix~
tlahuacan, particularly Xiquipilco, a confiderable city
and Hate of the Otomies, whofe chief was much re¬
nowned for flrength and bravery. Axayacatl, who
likewife valued himfelf on thefe qualities, encounter-
ed him in Angle combat. In this, however, he was Axa) acat'i
overmatched, and received a violent wound in the wounded
thigh 5 after which he would have been taken prifoner, ancI U1
had not fome young Mexicans made a defperate effortsreat ^an*
for his refeue. NotwithHanding this difafler, Axaya-&
catl’s army gained a complete viflory, carrying off
11,060 prifoners, among whom was the chief of the
Otomies himfelf, and two of his officers who had at¬
tacked the king. Thefe chiefs were put to death at
an entertainment of the allied kings, the fight of their
agonies not interrupting in the leal! the mirth of the
feaff } fo much were they familiarized to the {heading
of human blood. ^2
He was fucceeded by his elder brother Tizoc. Is fucceetl.
He intended to have built a larger temple than any ecl wi¬
thal had yet been feen in Mexico, though that origi-zoc‘
nally built bad been greatly enlarged by fome of his
predeceffors. For this purpofe he collefted a great
quantity of materials ; but before he could bring bis
projects to bear, he was taken off by a confpiracy of
his fubjefts. During the reign of Tizoc, the Acol-
huacans made war upon the Huexotzincas, ruined
their city, and conquered their territory. Nezahual-
pilli alfo, the Acolhuacan monarch, though he had
already feveral wives, had not made any of them
queen, having wilhed to confer that honour upon one
of the royal family of Mexico. Tizoc readily gave
him one of his grand-daughters, who had a fifier of
lingular beauty named Xocot%in. The friendfliip be¬
twixt thefe two ladies was fuch, that the one could
5 C 3 not
Mexico.
S3
Ahuitzotl
dedicates
a temple
with a mul
titude of
human vic¬
tims.
54
Montezu-
M E X [756
( not thin'k of being feparated from the other ; for which
reafon the new queen fought and obtained permiffion to
take her fitter along with her to Tezeueo. Xocotzin
had not been long there before the king fell in love
with her, and married her with the title of queen like-
wTile. Soon after this fecond marriage, the firtt queen
brought forth a fon named Cacamat%in, who fucceeded
him in the throne, and was afterwards taken prifoner
by the Spaniards.
Ahuitzotl, the brother of Tizoc, fucceeded him in
the kingdom of Mexico. His firtt obje£t w'as to finilh
the great temple begun by his predeceffor ; and fuch
was the number of workmen, that it was completed in
four years. During the time that it was building, the
king employed himfelf in making Avar Avith different
nations, referving all the prifoners he took for victims
at the dedication of the temple. The number of pri¬
foners facrificed at this dedication is faid by Torque-
mada to have been 72,324 ; by other hiftorians 64,060.
The miferable victims were ranged in tAVo files, each a
mile and a half in length, terminating at the temple.
The fame year another temple was built by a feuda¬
tory lord, in imitation of the great one built by the
king ; at the dedication of which a vaft number of
prifoners Avere alfo facrificed. Thefe temples Avere de¬
dicated in i486. In 1487 happened a violent earth¬
quake ; and Chimalpopoca king of Acolhuacan died,
who Avas fucceeded by Totoquihuatzin II.
Ahuitzotl died in 1502, of a diforder produced by
a contufion in his head. At the time of his death, the
Mexican empire Avas brought to its utmoft extent. His
fucceffor, Montezuma Xocojot%in or Montezuma Ju-
nioj', Avas a perfon of great bravery, befides which he
was like wife a prieff, and held in great eftimation on
account of his gravity and the dignity of his deport¬
ment. His eleftion Avas unanimous •, and the nobles
congratulated themfelves on the happinefs the coun¬
try Avas to enjoy under him, little thinking hoAV fhort
the duration of their happinefs or of their empire Avas
to be.
The firft care of the neAv monarch, as ufual, was
to procure vi£Hms for the barbarous facrifices to be
made at his coronation. The people of Atlixco, Avbo
had again (haken oft' the Mexican yoke, Avere tVe
fufferers on this occafion, being once more reduced,
though not Avithout greatHofs on the part of the Mexi¬
cans, fome of Avhofe braveft officers periffied in the
Avar. The ceremony of coronation Avas pertormed
Avith fuch pomp as had never been feen before in
Mexico y but no fooner Avas this ceremony over than
Montezuma began to difcover a pride Avhich nobody
had fufpe&ed before. All his predeceffors had been
accufiomed to confer offices upon perfons of merit,
and thofe Avho appeared the moft able to difcharge
them, without any partiality as to birth or Avealth.
Montezuma, however, difapproved of the conduft of
his predeceffors, under pretence that the plebeians
ihould be employed according to their rank ; for that
in all their aclions the bafenefs of their birth and the
meannefs of their education appeared : and in confe-
quence of this maxim he deprived all the commoners of
a
i
M E X
Mexin
the offices they held
incapable of holding'
bout the court, declaring them
any for the future. All the
royvd fervants now Avere people of rank. Befides
thofe Avho lived in the palace, 600 feudatory lords and
nobles came to pay court to him. They paffed the
Avhole day in the antichamber, where none of their fer¬
vants Avere permitted to enter ; converting in a Ioav
voice, and Avaiting the orders of their lovereign 
The fervants of thefe lords were fo numerous that they
occupied three fmall courts of the palace, and many
waited in the ftreets.
In every refpedl Montezuma kept up, as far as was \fagnffi-
poffible, an extravagant appearance of dignity. Hiscence dif-
kitchen utenfils were of the fineft earthen ware, andfiayetjln
his tablecloths and napkins of the fineft cotton; but1*1* palacf'
none of thefe ever ferved the emperor more than once,
being immediately made a prefent of to fome noble¬
man. The veffels in which his chocolate and other
drinks from cocoa Avere prepared, Avere all of gold, or
fome beautiful fea-thell, or naturally-formed veffels,
curioufiy varnilhed. He had alfo gold plate, but it.
Avas ufed only on particular occafions in the temple.
The number and variety of his dilhes aftonilhed the
Spaniards. He took great delight in the cleanlinefs of
his oAvn perfon, and of every thing about him. He-
bathed regularly every day, and had baths in all his
palaces. Every day he wore four dreffes, never ufing
again thofe Avhich he had put off, but referving them
as largeffes for the nobility, or thofe Avho had diftin-
guiffied themfelves in Avar. The expence of ail this
rendered him very difagreeable to a great number of
his fubjedls ; though others were pleafed Avith the
readinefs he ffiowed to relieve the neceffities of indivi¬
duals, and his generofity in reAvarding his generals and
minifters who deferved it. Among other aftions
worthy of imitation, he appointed the city of Colhuacan
as an hofpital for all invalids, who after having faithful¬
ly ferved the croAvn either in the civil or military line,
required a proA'ifion on account of their age and in¬
firmities. In this place they Avere maintained and at¬
tended at the expence of the king.
The reign of Montezuma, even before the arrival
of the Spaniards, was far from being fo glorious Avith
regard to his fucceffes in Avar as thofe of his predecef¬
fors had been. He reduced indeed one rebellious pro-p,;s ^fuc
vince, and conquered another which had never before cepful Avar
been fubjugated ; but in his war with Tlafcala he Avas with Tlaf-
by no means fuccefsful. This Avas but a fmall repu-cala•
blic at no great diftance from the capital, but the in¬
habitants Avere remarkable for their bravery and inde¬
pendent fpirit. The neighbouring ftates, however,
Avho had been reduced by the Mexicans, envious of
their liberty and profperity, exafperated the Mexicans
againft them, by reprefenting that the Tlafcalans Avere
defirous of making themfelves mafters of the maritime
provinces on the Mexican gulf, and that by their com¬
merce Avith thefe provinces they Avere increafing their
Avealth and poAver, and gaining the hearts of the peo¬
ple with whom they were to traffic. In eonfequence
of this reprefentation, ftrong garrifons Avere placed on
the frontiers of Tlafcala, to obftruft the commerce of
the inhabitants, and thus to deprive them of the means
of obtaining fome of the neceffaries of life. The Tla¬
fcalans complained ; but received no other anfwer than
that the king of Mexico Avas lord of all the Avorld, and
that the Tlafcalans mull fubmit and pay tribute to him.
The Tlafcalans returned a fpirited anfwer to this in-
folent fpeeeh, and began to fortify their frontier.
They had already enclofed all the lands of the repu¬
blic
M E X [ 757 ] M E X
Mexico.
Apprehen-
fions enter-
tai ed by
the Mexi¬
cans of the
arrival of
a new
peaple.
blic with intrenchments j and to thefe they now add¬
ed a wall of fix miles in length on the weft iide, where
an invafion was molt to be apprehended ; and fo well
did they defend themfelves, that though they were fre¬
quently attacked by the neighbouring flares in alliance
with Mexico, or fubjedl to it, not one of them was able
to wreft a foot of ground from them. Thus a continual
feries of wars and engagements took place between the
ftates of Mexico and this republic, which continued till
the arrival of the Spaniards.
During the remainder of Montezuma’s reign the
empire was difturbed by various rebellions, of which
the accounts are not fufficiently interefting to merit
a particular detail j but in the year 15°^ Monte¬
zuma began to entertain apprehenftons of that fatal
event w'hich at length overtook him. An expedition
having been undertaken againft a very diftant region
named Amatla, the army in marching over a lofty
mountain were attacked by a furious north wind, ac¬
companied with fnow *, which made great havock in the
army, many of them perilhing with cold, and others
being killed by the trees rooted up by the wdnd. The
remains of the army continued their march to Amat¬
la, where they were almoft all killed in battle. By this
and other calamities, together with the appearance of
a comet, the Mexicans wrere thrown into the utmoft
confternation. Montezuma was fo terrified by thefe
omens, that having in vain confulted his aftrologers,
he applied to the king of Acolhuacan, who was re¬
ported to be very fkilful in divination. Nezahualpilli
having conferred with him upon the fubjeft, told
Montezuma that the comet prefaged fome calamity
which was about to befal their kingdoms by the arrival
of a new people : but this being unfatisfadlory to the
emperor, the king of Acolhuacan challenged him to
a game at foot-ball, flaking the truth of his prediction
on the iflue of the game. Montezuma loft the game,
but did not yet acquiefce in the truth of his prediction.
He therefore applied to a celebrated aftrologer, whom
it feems he had not vet confulted ; but he confirmed
the interpretation of Nezahualpilli: for which the em¬
peror caufed his houfe to be pulled down, sfnd himfelf
^8 buried in the ruins.
Conqueftof Mexico itfelf was firft difcovered, though imper-
Mexico un- feCtly, by a Spaniard named Nunex de Balboa ; but in
Corte*611^ 1 ^ ^ie COQflueft °f ^ was undertaken by a celebrat¬
ed adventurer named Yerdinundo Cortes. On the 10th
of February 1^19, he fet fail from the Havannah in
Cuba } and foon landed on the ifland of Cozumel, on
the coaft of Yucatan, difcovered the preceding year.
Here he joined one of his officers named Pedro d'Al-
vat'edo, who had arrived fome days before, and colleded
fome booty and taken a few prifoners. But the gene¬
ral feverelv cenfured his conduft j and the prifoners
were difmiffed, after they had been informed by an
Indian interpreter named Melchior, that fuch injuries
were entirely difagreeable to the intentions and withes
of Cortes. Here he muftered his army, and found
that it amounted to 508 foldiers, 16 horfemen, and
IOQ mechanics, pilots, and mariners. Having encou¬
raged his men by a proper fpeech, and releafed, by
means of fome Indian ambafladors, a Spaniard named
Jerom de Aguilar, who had been detained a prifoner
for eight years, he proceeded to the river Tabafco,
where he hoped to be received in a friendly manner,
as one Grijalva had been a fliort time before ; but,
from fome unknown cauie, he was violently attacked
by them: however, the fuperiority of the Spanilh
arms foon decided the viClory, and the inhabitants
were obliged to own the king ol Caitile as their fo-
vereign.
The Spaniards then continued their courfe weft-
ward, to the harbour of St Juan de Uilua ; where they
were inet by two Mexican canoes, which carried two
ambaffadors from the emperor of that country, and
fliowed the greatell figns of peace and amity. Their
language was unknown to Aguilar ; but one of the
female prifoners above mentioned underftood it, and
tranllated it into the Yucatan tongue ; after which
Aguilar interpreted the meaning in Spanilh. 'Ihis
flave was afterwards named Donna Marina, and proved
Mexico.
very ufeful in their conferences with the natives. ^
At this time the Mexican empire, according to Dr State of the
Robertfon, was arrived at a pitch of grandeur to empire at
which no fociety had ever attained in fo Ihort a pe-that timr’
riod. Though it had fubfifted only for 130 years,
its dominion extended from the north to the louth
fea, over territories ftretching about 500 leagues from
eaft to weft, and more than 200 from north to fouth j
comprehending provinces not inferior in fertility, po¬
pulation, and opulence, to any in the torrid zone.—
Though by nature Montezuma polfeffed a good deal
of courage and refolution; yet from the firft moment
that the Spaniards appeared on his coaft, he difcover¬
ed fymptoms of timidity and embarrafiment, and all
his fubjedls were embarrafled as well as himfelt. Ihe
general difmay which took place on this occafion was
partly owfing to the ftrange figure the Spaniards made,
and the prodigious power of their arms ; but partly
alfo to the following circumftance. An opinion pre¬
vailed almoft univerfally among the Americans, that
fome dreadful calamity impended over their heads,
from a race of formidable invaders who Ihould come
from regions towards the rifing fun, to overrun and
defolate their country.
By means of his two interpreters, Donna Marina
and Aguilar, Cortes learned that the chiefs of the
Mexican embaffy were deputies from Pilpatoe and
Teutile •, the one governor of a province under the
emperor, and the other the commander of all his forces
in that province : the purport of their embafiy was to
inquire what his intentions were in vifiting their coafts,
and to offer him what afliftance he might need in order
to continue his voyage. Cortes, in his turn, alfo pro-
feffed the greateft friendfhip ; and informed the ambaffa-
dors, that he came to propofe matters of the utmoft con-
fequence to the welfare of the prince and his kingdom ;
which he would more fully unfold in perfon to the go- ^
vernor and the general. Next morning, without wait-Cortes lai|ds
ing for any anfwer, he landed his troops, his horfes, and , nd fortifies
his artillery ; began to eredl huts for his men, and to his camp,
fortify his camp.
The next day the ambaffadors had a formal audi¬
ence 5 at which Cortes acquainted them, that he came
from Don Carlos of Auftria, king of Caflile, the
greateft monarch of the eaft, and was intrufted with
propofitions of fuch moment, that he would impart
them to none but the emperor himfelf, and therefore
required to be conducted immediately to the capi¬
tal. This demand produced the greateft uneafinefsj
M E X [ 758 ] M E X
did all in their power to dif- than formerly, that he mull; infill: on his firft demand;
as he could not, without dilhonour, return to his own
fovereign until he was admitted into the prefence of
the prince whom he was appointed to vifit in his name.
The pufillanimity of the Indian monarch afforded
time to the Spaniards to take meafures which would
have been out of their powrer had they been vigoroufly
attacked on their firft refufal to obey his orders.
Cortes ufcd every method of fecuring the affections of
the foldiers j which indeed was very neceffarv, as
many of them began to exclaim againft the railmefs
of his attempt in leading them againft the whole force
63
Montezu-
with his
defign,
f and the ambaffadors dirt all in
6i fuade Cortes from his defign, endeavouring to con-
Tbe Indi- ciliate his good will by the prefents fent him by
ans endea- Montezuma. Thefe they introduced with great pa-
fiiadehim" ra<^e’ anc^ conhfted of fine cotton cloth, of plumes of
fromgoing va”ous c°lours, and of ornaments of gold and filver
to the capi-l° a confiderable value, the workmanfhip of which ap-
tal, but in peared to be as curious as the materials -were rich,
vain. J3ut thefe prefents ferved only to excite the avidity of
the Spaniards, and to increafe their defire for be¬
coming mailers of a country which abounded with fo
many precious commodities. Cortes indeed could
fcarcely reflrain himfelf fo far as to hear the argu¬
ments made ufe of by the ambaffadors to diffuade
him from going to the capital; and, in a haughty,
determined tone, infilled on his former demand of
being admitted to a perfonal interview with their fo¬
vereign.
During this converfation, fome painters in the re¬
tinue of the Mexican chiefs had been diligently em¬
ployed in delineating, upon white cotton cloths, figures
of the fhips, horfes, artillery, foldiers, and whatever elfe
attraCled their eyes as lingular.
While exerting their utmolt efforts in reprefenting
ma made thefe vmnderful things, melfengers were immediate-
■ 03111 6 ly defpatched to Montezuma with the pictures, and a
full account of every thing that had palfed fince the
arrival of the Spaniards, together with fome European
curiofities to Montezuma ; which Cortes believed
would be acceptable on account of their novelty. The
Mexican monarchs had couriers polled at proper 11a-
tions along the principal roads ; and as thefe were
trained to agility by a regular education, they convey¬
ed intelligence with furprifing rapidity. Though the
city in which Montezuma refided was above 180 miles
from St Juan de Ullua, Cortes’s prefents were carried
thither, and an anfwer returned to his demands, in a
few days. As the anfwer was unfavourable, Montezu¬
ma had endeavoured to mollify the Spanilh general by
the richnefs of his prefents. Thefe confilted of the
manufaClures of the country ; cotton Huffs fo fine, and
of luch delicate texture, as to refemble filk ; pictures of
animals, trees, and other natural objeCts, formed with
feathers of different colours, difpofed and mingled
with fuch Ikill and elegance as to rival the works of
the pencil in truth and beauty of imitation. But
what chiefly attraCled their attention, were two large
plates of a circular form 5 one of maffive gold repre¬
fenting the fun, the other of filver reprefenting the
moon. Thefe were accompanied with bracelets, col¬
lars, rings, and other trinkets of gold j and that no¬
thing might be wanting which could give the Spaniards
a complete idea of what the country afforded, fome
boxes filled with pearls, precious Hones, and grains of
gold unwrought, as they had been found in the mines
or rivers, were fent along with, the red. Cortes re¬
ceived all with an appearance of the mofl profound
refpeCt for Montezuma •, but when the Mexicans,
prefuming upon this, informed him, that their mafler,
though he defired him to accept of what he had fent
as a token of his regard for the prince whom he re-
prefented, would not give his confent that foreign
troops Ihould approach nearer to his capital, or even
allow them to continue longer in his dominions, Cortes
declared in a manner more refolute and peremptory
2
Mexico.
6S
*3
Sends an
unfavour¬
able an¬
fwer, but
accompa¬
nied with
rich pre-
■ fonts.
64
Cortes ft ill
infifts on
his de¬
mands.
of the Mexican empire. In a Ihort time Teutile ar-Montezu-
rived with another prefent from Montezuma, andmaperemp-
together with it delivered the ultimate orders of that tonly co™-
monarch to depart inflantly out of his dominions 5 an(i lo^ouve ™s
when Cortes, inflead of complying with his demands, dominions,
renewed his requefl of audience, the Mexican imme¬
diately left the camp with flrong marks of furprife and
refentment. Next morning, none of the natives ap¬
peared ; all friendly correfpondence feemed to be at an
end, and hoflilities were expected to commence every
moment. A Hidden conflernation enfued among the
Spaniards, and a party was formed againfl him by the
adherents of Velafques 5 who took advantage of the oc-
cafion, and deputed one of their number, a principal of¬
ficer, to remonfirate, as if in name of the whole army,
againH his raflinefs, and to urge the neceflity of his
returning to Cuba. Cortes received the meffage with¬
out any appearance of emotion ; and as he Avell knew
the temper and iviHies of his foldiery, with much com¬
placency he pretended to comply with the requeH now
made him, and iffued orders that the army fliould be
in readinefs next day to embark for Cuba. Upon
hearing this, the troops, as Cortes had expected, were
quite outrageous : they pofitively refufed to comply
with thefe orders, and threatened immediately to choofe
another general if Cortes continued to infiH on their
departure.
Our adventurer was highly pleafed with the difpo-
fition which now appeared among his troops : never-
thelefs, diffembling his fentiments, he declared, that
his orders for embarking had proceeded from a per-
fuafion that it was agreeable to his fellow-foldiers, to
whofe opinion he had facrificed his own j but now he
acknowledged his error, and was ready to refume his
original plan of operation. This fpeech wras highly
applauded j and Cortes, -without allowing his men
time to cool, fet about carrying his defigns into exe- <j<j
cution. In order to give a beginning to a colony, heVilJaRka
affembled the principal perfons in his army, and by founded,
their fuffrages ele&ed a council and magiflrates, in
-whom the government was to be vefled. The perfons
chofen were mofl firmly attached to Cortes ; and the
new fettlement had the name of Vi//a Rica de la Vera
Cru% ; that is, the rich town of the true crofs. ^
Before this court of his own making, Cartes did The go-
not hefitate at refigning all his authority, and wasvernment
immediately re-elected chief-juflice of the colony,of t,ie
and captain-general of his army, with an ample com-£dinCortW(
miflion, in the king’s name, to continue in force till
the royal pleafure fliould be farther known. The
foldiers eagerly ratified their choice by loud acclama¬
tions ; and Cortes, now confidering himfelf as no
longer accountable to any fubjeft, began to affume a
much
M E X
Mexico, much greater degree of dignity, and to exercife more
‘ " v extenfive powers than he had done before.
Cortes having thus Itrengthened himfelf as well as
he could, refolved to advance into the country } and
to this he was encouraged by the behaviour of the
cacique or petty prince of Zetnpoalla, a confiderable
town at no great diftance. Here he was received in
the molt friendly manner imaginable, and had a re-
gs fpe£t paid towards him almolt equivalent to adora-
Charadter tion. The cacique informed him of many particu-
of Monte- jars relating to the character of Montezuma.—He
b) the’ a6”him that he was a tyrant, haughty, cruel, and
ci^ue, fufpicious 5 who treated his own fubjefts with arro¬
gance, ruined the conquered provinces by his extor¬
tions, and often tore their fons and daughters from
them by violence j the former to be offered as victims
to his gods, the latter to be referved as concubines
for himfelf and favourites. Cortes, in reply, artfully
infinuated, that one great objeft of the Spaniards in
vifiting a country fo remote from their own was, to
redrefs grievances, and to relieve the oppreifed ■, and
having encouraged him to hope for this interpoli-
tion in due time, continued his march to Quiabiflan, the
territory of another cacique, and where, by the friendly
aid of the Indians, a Spanifh colony was foon formed.
During the refidence of Cortes in thefe parts, he fo
far wrought on the minds of the caciques of Zem-
poalla and Quiabiflan, that they ventured to infult
the Mexican power, at the very name of which they
had been formerly accuftomed to tremble. Some of
Montezuma’s officers having appeared to levy the
ufual tribute, and to demand a certain number of hu¬
man viftims, as an expiation of their guilt in pre¬
fuming to hold intercourfe with thofe flrangers whom
the emperor had commanded to leave his dominions j
initead of obeying his orders, they made them pri-
foners, treated them with great indignity, and, as
their fuperftition was no lefs barbarous than Montezu¬
ma’s, they threatened to facrifice them to their gods.
Though Cortes had now taken fuch meafures as in
a manner enfured his fuccefs; yet as he had thrown
off all dependence on the governor of Cuba, who was
his lawful fuperior, and apprehended his intereft at
court, he thought proper, before he fet out on his in ¬
tended expedition, to take the mod; effectual meafures
againft the impending danger. With this view, he
perfuaded the magiftrates of his colony to addrefs a
letter to the king, containing a pompous account of
their own fervices, of the country they had difcovered,
&.c. and of the motives which had induced them to
throw off their allegiance to the governor of Cuba,
and to fettle a colonv dependent on the crown alone,
in which the fupreme power, civil as well as military,
had been veiled in Cortes ; humbly requefting their
1'overeign to ratify what had been done by his royal
authority.
Some foldiers and failors, fecretly difaffe£led to
Cortes, formed a delign of feizing one of the brigan¬
tines, and making their efcape to Cuba, in order to
give fuch intelligence to the governor as might en¬
able him to intercept the veffel which was to carry
the treafure and defpatches to Spain. This confpiracy
was conducted with profound fecrecy 5 but at the mo¬
ment when every thing was ready for execution, the
fecret was difcoyered by one of the affociates. The la-
[ 759 1 M E X
tent fpirit of difaffe£lion which Cortes was now too well Mexico,
convinced had not been extinguilhed amongit his troops, v—
gave him very great uneafinefs. The only method Cort^
which he could think of to prevent fuch confpiracies bums his
for the future was to deftroy his fleet, and thus deprive fleet,
his foldiers of every refource except that of conqueil :
and with this propofal he perfuaded his men to comply.
With univerfal confent therefore the ihips were drawn
alhore, and, after being llripped of their fails, rigging,
iron work, and whatever elfe might be of ufe, they
were broke in pieces.
Cortes having thus rendered it neceffary for his
troops to follow wherever he ehofe to lead, began his
march to Zempoalla with 500 infantry, 15 horle, and
fix field pieces. The reft of his troops being lefs fit
for aftive fervice, he left them as a garrifon in Villa
Rica, under the command of Efcalante, an officer of
merit, and wrarmly attached to his intereft. The ca¬
cique of Zempoalla fupplied him with provifions j and
with 200 of thofe Indians called Taman 's, whofe of¬
fice, in a country where tame animals were unknown,
was to carry burdens, and perform all manner ot ferviie
labour. He offered likewife a confiderable body of
troops j but Cortes was fatisfied with 400 ; taking care,
however, to choofe perfons of fuch note, that they might
ferve as hoftages for the fidelity of their mailer.
Nothing memorable happened till the Spaniards
arrived on the confines of the republic of Tlafcala.
The inhabitants of that province were warlike, tierce,
and revengeful, and had made confiderable progrefs
in agriculture and fome other arts. They were im¬
placable enemies to Montezuma} and therefore Cortes
hoped that it would be an ealy matter for him to pro- 70
cure their friendffiip. With this view, four Zem- Sends am-
poallans of high rank were fent ambafladors to 1 laf-bal^aclor' 1°
cala, dreffed with all the badges of that office ufual
among the Indians. The fenate were divided in their *
opinions with regard to the propofals of Cortes : but
at laft Magifcatzin, one of the oldeft fenators, and a
perfon of great authority, mentioned the tradition of
their anceftors, and the revelations of their priefts j
that a race of invincible men, of divine origin, who
had power over the elements, (hould come trom the
eaft to fubdue their country. He compared the re-
femblance which the ftrangers bore to the perfone
figured in the traditions of Mexico, their dominion
over the elements of fire, air, and water ; he reminded
the fenate of their prodigies, omens, and fignals,
which had lately terrified the Mexicans, and indicated
forne very important event; and then declared his
opinion, that it would be raffinefs to oppofe a force
apparently affifted by heaven, and men who had al¬
ready proved, to the fad experience of thole who op-
pofed them, that they were invincible. This orator
was oppofed by Xicotencal, who endeavoured to prove
that the Spaniards were at beft but powerful magi¬
cians: that they had rendered themfelves obnoxious
to the gods by pulling down their images and altars
(which indeed Cortes had very imprudently done at
Zempoalla) ; and of confeqnence, that they might eafily
be overcome, as the gods would not fail to refent fuch
an outrage. He therefore voted for war, and advifed
the crufhing of thefe invaders at one blow.
The advice of Xicotencal prevailed ; and in confe-
quence of it, the ambaffadors. were detained j which
giving'
M E X
[ ]
M E X
Mexico, giving Cortes the alarm, he drew nearer the city of
Tlafeala. They fuffered him with his army drawn up
in good order, to paf- a itrong wall between two moun¬
tain', which might have been very advantageoufly de¬
fended againit him. He had not advanced tar beyond
this pafs, however, before a party of Tlafcalans with
plumes were difcovered, which denoted that an army
wras in the field. Thefe he drove before him by a de¬
tachment of fix horfe, obliged them to join another
party, and then reinforcing the advanced detachment,
charged the enemy with fuch vigour that they began to
retire. Five thoufand Tlafcalans then rufhed out of
their hiding places, juft as the infantry came up to
aflift their ilender body of cavalry. The enemy at¬
tacked with the utmoft fury : but were fo much dif-
concerted by the firft difcharge of the fire-arms, that
they retreated in confufion, furnilhing the Spaniards
with an opportunity of purfuing them with great
daughter. Cortes, however, fuppofing that this could
not be . their whole force, advanced with the utmoft
caution, in order of battle, to an eminence, from whence
he had a view of the main body of the X lafcalan army
commanded by Xicotencal, confiding of no fewer than
40,000 men. By thefe the fmall army of Cortes Avas
entirely furrounded ; which Xicotencal no fooner per¬
ceived, than he contra&ed the circle with incredible
diligence, while the Spaniards were almoft overwhelm¬
ed with (hovvers of arrows, darts, and ftones. It is im-
poflible but in this cafe many of the Spaniards muft
have periftied, had it not been for the infufficiency of
the Indian weapons. This circumftance gave the
Spaniards a prodigious advantage over them 5 and
therefore the Tlafcalans, notwithftanding their valour
and fuperiority in number, could accompliftr no more
in the prefent inftance, than to kill one horfe and {light¬
ly wound nine foldiers.
The Tlafcalans being taught by this, and fome fub-
fequent encounters, how much they were inferior to
the Spaniards, began to conceive them to be really
what Magifcatzin had faid ; a fuperior order of beings,
againft whom human power could not prevail. In this
extremity they had recourfe to their priefts, requiring
them to reveal the caufes of fuch extraordinary events,
and to declare what means they fhould take to repel
fuch formidable invaders. The priefts, after many fa-
crifices and incantations, delivered their refponfe, That
thefe ftrangers were the offspring of the fun, procreat¬
ed by his animating energy in the regions of the eaft :
that, by day, while cheriftied with the influence of his
parental beams, they were invincible ; but by night,
when his reviving heat was withdrawn, their vigour
declined and faded like herbs in the field, and they
dwindled down into mortal men. In confequence of
this, the llafcalans atted in contradi&ion to one of
their molt eftablilhed maxims in war, and ventured to
attack the enemy in the night time, hoping to deftroy
them when enfeebled and furprifed. But the Spanifh
*2 centinels having obferved fome extraordinary move-
But are de-Tnents among the XXafcalans, gave the alarm. Imme-
feated and diatefy the troops were under arms, and fallying out,
defeated their antagonifts with great daughter, with¬
out allowing them to approach the camp. By this dif-
after the Tlafcalans were heartily difpofed to peace 5
but they were at a lofs to form an adequate idea of
the enemies they had to deal with. They could not
fue for
peace
afcertain the nature of thefe furprifing beings, or whe- Mexic*.
ther they were really of a benevolent or malignant dif-
pofition. There were circumftances in their behaviour
which feemed to favour each opinion. On the one
hand, as the Spaniards conftantly difmifftd the pri-
foners whom they took, not only without injury, but
often with prefents of European toys, and renewed
their offers of peace after every viftory this lenity
amazed people accuftomed to the exterminating fyftem
of Avar known in America, and Avho facrificed and de¬
voured Avithout mercy all the captives taken in battle j
and difpofed them to entertain fentiments favourable
to their humanity. But, on the other hand, as Cortes
had feized 50 of their countrymen who brought pro-
vifions to their camp, and cut off their heads 5 this
bloody fpeclacle, added to the terror occafioned by
the fire-arms and horfes, filled them AArith dreadful ideas
of their ferocity. Accordingly they addreffed them
in the following manner : “ If (faid they) you are
divinities of a cruel and favage nature, Ave prefent to
vou five Haves, that you may drink their blood and eat
their flelh. If you are mild deities, accept an offer¬
ing of incenfe and variegated plumes. If you are
men, here is meat, bread, and fruit, to nourilh you.” 73
After this addrefs, the peace Avas foon concluded, to Whick is
the great fatisfa&ion of both parties. XTe Tlafcalans §rant*i
yielded themfelves as vaffals to the croAvn of Caftile,
and engaged to aflift Cortes in all his operations j while
he took the republic under his prote&ion, and promifed
to defend their perfons and poffeflions from injury and
violence.
Cortes left no method untried to gain the favour and
confidence of the Tlafcalans j Avhich, hoAvever, he had
almoft entirely loft, by his untimely zeal in deftroying
their idols as he had done thofe of Zempoalla. But he
was deterred from this ralh a£lion by his chaplain
Father BartholomeAV dc Olmedo ; and left the Tlafca¬
lans in the undifturbed exercife of their fuperftition,
requiring only that they Ihould defift from their horrid
practice of offering human viftims. As foon as his CortpS c#n.
troops Avere fit for fervice, he refolved to continue his tinues hi*
march towards . Mexico, notAvithftanding the remon-march for
ftrances of the Tlafcalans, Avho looked upon his deftruc-Mexis®*
tion as unavoidable if he put himfelf into the poAver of
fuch a faithlefs prince as Montezuma. But the empe¬
ror, probably intidimated vvith the fame of his exploits,
had refolved to admit his vifit; and informed Cortes that
he had given orders for his friendly reception at Cholula,
the next place of any confequence on the road to Mexico.
Cortes Avas received with much feeming cordiality j Treachery
but 6000 Tlafcalan troops Avho accompanied him Avere 0f Monte-
obliged to remain without the toAvn, as the Cholulanszumaand
refufed to admit their ancient enemies Avithin their pre-|^C 0]>
cindls. Yet tAVO of thefe, by difguifing themfelves, got an *
into the city, and acquainted Cortes that they obferved
the Avomen and children belonging to the principal citi¬
zens retiring every night in a great hurry, and that fix
children had been facrificed in the great temple ; a fign
that fome Avarlike enterprife Avas at hand. At the fame
time Donna Marina, the interpreter, received informa¬
tion from an Indian Avoman of diftinflion, whofe con¬
fidence the had gained, that the deftru&ion of the Spa¬
niards was concerted j that a body of Mexican troop*
lay concealed near the town j that fome of the ftreet*
were barricaded, in others deep pits or trenches Avere
dug,
16
Severe pu-
nilhment of
the (Jholu-
lans.
77
Difaftedlion
of Monte¬
zuma’s fub-
jecls.
M E X r 7
Mexico, dugf, and {lightly covered over, as traps into which the
——~J horfe might fall •, that ftones and miflile weapons were
collefted on the tops of the temples, with which to
overwhelm the infantry ; that the fatal hour was already
at hand, and their ruin unavoidable. Cortes, alarmed
at this news, fecretly arrefted three of the chief priefts,
from whom he extorted a confeffion that confirmed the
intelligence he had already received. As not a mo¬
ment was to be loft, he inftantly refolved to prevent his
enemies, and to inflidft on them fuch dreadful vengeance
as might ftrike Montezuma and his fubje£ts with terror.
On a fignal given, the troops rallied out, and fell
upon the multitude, deftitute of leaders, and fo much
aftonilhed, that the weapons dropped from their hands,
and they flood motionlefs, and incapable of defence.
While the Spaniards attacked them in front, the Tlaf-
calans did the fame in the rear ; the ftreets were filled
with (laughter ; the temples, which afforded a retreat to
the priefts and fome leading men, were fet on fire, and
they perilhed in the ilames. At length the carnage
ceafed, after the (laughter of 6000 Cholulans, without
the lofs of a (ingle Spaniard. Cortes then releaied the
magiftrates j and reproaching them bitterly for their
intended treachery, declared, that as juftice was now
appeafed, he forgave the offence ; but required them
to recal the inhabitants who had lied, and re-eftabli(h
order in the town.
From Cholula, Cories advanced direcfly towards
Mexico ; and throughout the whole of his journey was
entertained with accounts of the oppreflions and cruel¬
ty of Montezuma. This gave him the greateft hope
of accompliQiing his defign ; as he now perceived that
the empire was entirely divided, and no fort of unani¬
mity prevailed among them. No enemy appeared to
check his progrefs. Montezuma was quite irrefolute 5
and Cortes was almoft at the gates of the capital be¬
fore the emperor had determined whether to receive
him as a friend or oppofe him as an enemy. But as
no fign of open hoftility appeared, the Spaniards, with¬
out regarding the flucluations of Montezuma’s fenti-
ments, continued their march to Mexico, with great
circurnipecfion and the ftricfeft difcipline, though with¬
out feeming to fufpe<ft the prince whom they were about
to vifit.
When they drew near the city, about 1000 perfons
who appeared to be of diftinflion, came forth to meet
them, adorned with plumes, and clad in mantles of fine
cotton. Each of thefe, in his order, paffed by Cortes,
and fainted him according to the mode deemed moft
refpeftful and fubmiflive in their country. They an¬
nounced the approach of Montezuma himfelf, and foon
after his harbingers came in fight. There appeared
firft 200 perfons in an uniform drefs, with large plumes
of feathers, alike in faftiion, marching two and two,
in deep filence, barefooted, with their eyes fixed on the
ground. Thefe were followed by a company of higher
rank, in their moft fhowy apparel : in the midft of
whom was Montezuma, in a chair or litter richly or¬
namented with gold and feathers of various colours.
Four of his principal favourites carried him on their
(boulders, others fupported a canopy of curious work¬
man firip over his head. Before him marched three
officers with rods of gold in their hands, which they
lifted up on high at certain intervals j and at that fig¬
nal all the people bowed their heads, and hid their
Vol. XIII. Part II.
73
Meeting cf
Cortes and
Mor.tezu-
51 ] M E X
faces, as unworthy to look on fo great a monarch.
When he drew near, Cortes difmounting, advanced
towards him with officious haile, and in a reipedtful
pofture. At the fa ne time Montezuma alighted from
his chair, and leaning on the arms of two of his near
relations, approached with a llow and r ately pace, his
attendants covering the ttreet with cotton cloths, that
he might not touch the ground. Cortes accofted him
with profound reverence, after the European faftuon.
He returned the fauna ion, according to the mode of
his country, by touching the earth with his hand, and
then killing it. This ceremony appeared (uch amazing
condefceniion in a proud monarch, who fcarcely deign¬
ed to confider the reft of mankind as of the fame fpecies
with himfelf, that all his fubjecls firmly believed thofe
perfons, before whom he humbled himfelf in this man¬
ner, to be fomething more than human. Accord¬
ingly, as they marched through the crowd, the Spa¬
niards frequently, and with much fatisfaftion, heard
themfelves denominated teules, or divinities. Nothing
material paffed in this (irfi: interview. Montezuma con¬
ducted Cortes to the quarters which he had prepared
lor his reception •, and immediately took leave of him
with a polltenefs not unworthy of a court more refined :
“ You are now (fays he), with your brothe’s, in your
own houfe 5 refreffi yourfelves alter your fatigue, and
be happy until I return.” The place allotted to the
Spaniards for their lodging was a houfe built bv the fa¬
ther of Montezuma. It was furrounded by a ftone
wall, with towers at proper diftances, which i ' t d for
defence as well as for ornament } and its apartments
and courts were fo large as to accommodate both he
Spaniards and their Indian allies. The firft care of
Cortes was to take precautions for his fecurity, by plant¬
ing the artillery fo as to command the different avenues
which led to it, by appointing a large divifion of his
troops to be always on guard, and by polling centinels
at proper ftations, with injundtions to obferve the fame
vigilant difcipline as if they were within fight of an
enemy’s camp.
In the evening Montezuma returned to vifit his
guefts with the fame pomp as in their firft interview j
and brought prefents of fuch value, not only to Cortes
and to his officers, but even to the private men, as
proved the liberality of the monarch to be fuitable to
the opulence of his kingdom. A long conference en-
fued, in which Cortes learned what was the opinion of
Montezuma with refpedl to the Spaniards. It was an
eftablifhed tradition, he told him, among the Mexicans,
that their anceftors came originally from a remote re¬
gion, and conquered the provinces now fubjeft to his
dominion *, that after they were fettled there, the great
captain who condudled this colony returned to his own
country, promifing, that at fome future period his de-
fcendents (hould vifit them, affume the government,
and reform their conftitutions and laws ; that, from
what he had heard and feen of Cortes and his followers,
he was convinced that they were the verv perfons
whole appearance their prophecies taught them to ex-
pcift j that accordingly he had received thorn, not as
(hangers, but as relations of the fame blo^d and pa¬
rentage, and defired that they might confider them¬
felves as mailers in his dominions ; for both himfelf and
his fubjefts {hould be ready to comply with their will,
and even to prevent their wifties. Cortes made a re-
5 D pty
M E X
ufual itylt with remeft to
Mexico. p’y in hi
'' power of his fovereign, ar
iii.n into that country 3 ;
fram, his difcourn , that it
the dignity and
fending
in
i his intention
rtfully endeavouring fo to
tuight coincide as much as
idea which Montezuma had formed
i
79 .
Defcri j'tion
of the city
of ■.Vleiico.
po Jible with the
concerning the origin of the Spaniards. Next morn¬
ing, Cortes and fome of his principal attendants were
admitted to a public audience of the emperor. The
three fubfequent days were employed in viewing the
city *, the appearance of which, To far fuperior in the
order of its buildings and the number of its inhabi¬
tants to any place the Spaniards had beheld in Ame¬
rica, and yet fo little refembling the ilru&ure of an
European city, filled them with furprife and admira¬
tion.
Mexico is fituated in a large plain, environed by
mountains offuch height, that though within the torrid
zone, the temperature of its climate is mild and health¬
ful. All the moitture which defoends from the high
ground- is colledfed in feveral lakes, the two largeit of
which, of about 90 miles in circuit, communicate with
each other. The waters of the one are freth, thole of
the other braekilh. On the banks of the latter, and
on fome fmall iflands adjoining to them, the capital of
Montezuma’s empire was built. The accefs to the city
was by artificial caufeways or llreets, formed of ftones
and earth, about 30 feet in breadth. As the waters of
the lake, during the rainy fealon, overflowed the flat
country, thefe cauleways were of confiderable length.
That of Tacuba on the weft a mile and a half j that of
Tezcuco on the north-weft three miles 3 that of Cuoya-
can towards the fouth fix miles. On the eaft there was
no caufeway, and the city could be approached only by
canoes. In each of thefe caufeways were openings at
proper intervals, through which the waters flowed 3 and
over thefe beams of timber were laid, which being co¬
vered with earth, 1 he caufeway or ftreethad everywhere
an uniform appearance. As the approaches to the city
were Angular, its conftrudlion was remarkable. Not
only the temples of their gods, but the houfes belonging
to the monarch, and to perfons of dillinclion, were of
fuch dimenfions, that in comparifon with any other
buildings which had been dileovered in America, they
might be termed magnificent. The habitations of the
common people were mean, refembling the huts of
other Indians. But they were all placed in a regular
manner, on the banks of the canals which paffed through
the city, in fome of its diftricls, or on the fides of the
ftreets which interfered it in other quarters. In feve¬
ral places were large openings or fquares, one of which,
allotted for the great markel, is faid to have been fo
fpacious that 40,000 or 50,000 perfons carried on
traffic there. In this city, the pride of the New
World, and the nobleft monument of the induftry and
art of man, while unacquainted with the ale of iron,
the Spaniards, who are moft moderate in their computa¬
tions, reckon that there were at leaft 60,000 inhabi¬
tants.
Uneafirefs -^u*: h°w much foever the novelty of thofe objedls
of the Spi- might amufe or aftonifti the Spaniards, they felt the
' ’ 1 utmoft folicitude with refpeft to their own fituation.
From a concurrence of eircumftances, no lefs unexpedl-
ed than favourable to their progrefs, they had been
allowed to penetrate into the heart of a powerful king¬
dom, and were now lodged in its capital, without hav-
niards.
762 ] M E X
ing cnee met with open oppofition from its monarch. Mexico.
The Tlafcalans, however, had earneftly diffuaded them
from placing fuch confidence in Montezuma as to en¬
ter a city ol iuch a peculiar fituation as Mexico, where
that prince would have them at mercy, Ihut up as it
were in a fnare, from which it was impoflible. to elcape.
They allured them that the Mexican priefts had, in
the name of the gods, counfelled their lovereign to ad¬
mit the ftrangers into the capital, that he might cut
them oh' there at one blow with perfedt feeurity.
The Spaniards now perceived, too plainly, that the
apprehenfions of their allies were not deftitute of foun¬
dation 3 that, by breaking the bridges placed at certain
intervals on the caufeways, or by deftroying part of
the caufeways themfelves, their retreat would be ren¬
dered impradlicable, and they muft remain cooped up in
the centre of a hoftile city, furrounded by multitudes
fufficient to overwhelm them, and without a poflibility
of receiving aid from their allies. Sr
Before he fet out from Cholula, Cortes had received Some hoftb .
advice from Villa Rica, that Qualpopoca, one of the
Mexican generals on the frontiers, having affembled an Spaniards'"
army in order to attack fome of the people whom the and Mexi.
Spaniards had encouraged to throw' off the Mexican cans,
yoke, Efcalante had marched out with part of the gar-
rifon to fupport his allies 3 that an engagement had en-
fued, in which, though the Spaniards were viftorious,
Efcalante, with feven of his men, had been mortally
wounded, his horfe killed, and one Spaniard had been
furrounded by the enemy and taken alive 3 that the
head of this unfortunate captive, after being carried in
triumph to different cities, in order to convince the.
people that their invaders were not immortal, had been
fent to Mexico. Cortes, though alarmed with this
intelligence, as an indication of Montezuma’s hoftile
intentions, had continued his march. But as foon as he
entered Mexico he became fenfible, that, from an excefs
of confidence in the fuperior valour and difeipline of his
troops, as well as from the diladvantage of having no¬
thing to guide him in an unknown country but the
defective intelligence which he received from people
with whom his mode of communication was very im-
perfedl, he had pufiied forward into a fituation, where
it was difficult to continue, and from which it was dan¬
gerous to retire. Difgrace, and perhaps ruin, was the
certain confequence of attempting the latter. The fuc-
cefs of his enterprife depended upon fupporting the.
high opinion which the people of New Spain had form¬
ed with refpeft to the irrefiftible power of his arms.
Upon the fir ft fymptom of timidity on his part, their
veneration would ceafe, and Montezuma, whom fear
alone reftrained at prefent, would let loofe upon him
the whole force of his empire. At the fame time, he
knew that the countenance of his own fovereign was to
be obtained only by a feiies of vi&ories 3 and that no¬
thing but the merit of extraordinary luccefs could fereen
his conduct from the cenfure of ii regularity. From all
thefe confiderations, it was neceffary to maintain his
ftation, and to extricate himfelf out of the difficulties in
which one bold ftep had involved him, by venturing
upon another ftill bolder. The fituation was trying,
but his mind was equal to it 3 and after revolving the CoTtJie,
matter with deep attention, he fixed upon a plan nof0jves t0
lefs extraordinary than daring. He determined tofeizefeize Mon-
Montezuma in his palace, and carry him a prifoner to tezumam
1 the'hls Palace*
M E X [ 763 3 M E X
Mexico- the Spanifh quarters. From the fuperftltious veneration
of the Mexicans for the perfon of their monarch, as well
as their implicit fubmiflion to his will, he hoped, by
having Montezuma in his power, to acquire the fupreme
direction of their affairs •, or at leaft, with fueh a facred
pledge in his hands, lie made no doubt of being fecure
from any effort of their violence.
This he immediately propofed to his officers. The
timid ftartled at a meafure fo audacious, and raifed ob¬
jections. The more intelligent and refolute, confeious
that it was the only refource in which there appeared
any profpedt of fafety, warmly approved of it, and
brought ocer their companions fo cordially to the fame
opinion, that it was agreed inftantly to make the at¬
tempt. At his ufual hour of vifiting Montezuma,
Cortes went to the palace, accompanied by Alvarado,
Sandoval, Lugo, Velafquez de Leon, and Davila, five
of his principal officers, and as many trufty foldiers.
Thirty chofen men folio-wed, not in regular order, but
fauntering at fome dillance, as if they had no objeft
but curiofity $ fmall parties were puffed at proper in¬
tervals, in ail the ftreets leading from the Spanxlh quar¬
ters to the court ; and the remainder of his troops,
with the Tlafcalan allies, were under arms, ready to
Tally out on the firft alarm. Cortes and his attendants
were admitted without fufpicion ; the Mexicans retir¬
ing, as ufual, out of refpeft. He addreffed the mo¬
narch in a tone very different from that which he had
employed in former conferences ; reproaching him bit¬
terly as the author of the violent affault made upon the
Spaniards by one of his officers, and demanding public
reparation for the lofs which he had fuffained by the
death of fome of his companions, as well as for the in-
fult offered to the great prince whofe fervants they
were. Montezuma, confounded at this unexpefted ac-
cufation, and changing colour either from the confci-
oufnefs of guilt, or from feeling the indignity with
which he was treated, afferted his own innocence with
great earneftnefs ; and, as proof of it, gave orders in¬
ftantly to bring Qualpopoca and his accomplices pri-
Toners to Mexico. Cortes replied, with feeming com-
plaifance, that a declaration fo refpeftable left no doubt
remaining in his own mind •, but that fomething more
was requifite to fatisfy his followers, who would never
be convinced that Montezuma did not harbour hoftile
intentions againft them, unlefs, as an evidence of his
confidence and attachment, he removed from his own
palace and took up his refidence in the Spaniffi quar¬
ters, where he fliould be ferved and honoured as be¬
came a great monarch. The firft mention of fo ftrange
a propofal bereaved Montezuma of fpeech, and almoft
of motion. At length he haughtily anfwered, “ That
perfons of his rank were not accuftomed voluntarily to
give up themfelves as prifoners j and were he mean
enough to do fo, his fubjefts would not permit fuch an
affront to be offered to their fovereign.” Cortes, un- .
willing to employ force, endeavoured alternately to
foothe and intimidate him. The altercation became
warm : and having continued above three hours, Ve¬
lafquez de Leon, an impetuous and gallant young man,
exclaimed with impatience, “ Why wafte more time
in vain ? Let us either feize him inftantlv, or ftab him
to the heart.” The threatening voice and fierce gef-
tures with which thefe words were uttered, ftruck Mon¬
tezuma. The Spaniards, he was fenfible, had now pro¬
ceeded fo far, as left him no hope that they would re- Mexico.
cede. His own danger vras imminent, .he neceffity v
unavoidable. He faw both ; and abandoning himleif
to his fate, complied with their requeft. 83
His officers were called. He communicated to them The empe-
his reiblution. Though altoniftied and afiiitted, they ^^ ^
prefumed not to quell ion the will of their' mailer, but, ^ ^uair_
carried him in filent pomp, all bathed in tears, to the ters.
Spanish quarters.
They at firli pretended to treat Montezuma with
great rcfpect:; but foon took care to let him know
that he was entirely in their power. Cortes withed
that the ftiedding the blood ol a Spaniard ihuuld ap¬
pear the moft heinous crime that could be commit¬
ted ; and therefore not only took a moft exemplary
vengeance on thofe who had been concerned in the af¬
fair of Villa Rica, but even but the emperor himfelf in
chains till the execution of the Mexican general was
over. JBy thefe, and other infults, he at laft gained ' cries
entirely the afeendant over this unhappy monarch j rules the
and he took care to improve his opportunity to the emijire"
utmoft. He font his emiffaries into different pans of
the kingdom, accompanied with Mexicans of diftinc-
tion, who might lerve both to guide and to protect
them. They vifited moft of the provinces, viewed
their foil and produflions, furveyed with particular
care the dill rifts which yielded gold or filver, pitched
upon feveral places as proper for future colonies, and
endeavoured to prepare the minds of the people for
fubmitting to the Spanifh yoke : and while they were
thus employed, Cortes, in the name and by the au¬
thority of Montezuma, degraded fome of the principal
officers in the empire, whofe abilities or independent
fpirit excited his jealoufy •, and fubftituted in their
place perfons who he imagined would be more obfe-
quious. One thing, however, was ftill wanting to com¬
plete his fecurity. He widled to have fuch a command
of the lake as might enfure a retreat, if, either from
levity or difguft, the Mexicans ftiould take arms againft;
him, and break down the bridges or caufeways, in or- g ,
der to enelofe him in the city. In order to obtain By a pre-
with accounts of the Spanifti (hipping, and thofe float- t”,0
ing palaces that moved with fuch velocity on the wa- brigantines
ter, without the affiftance of oars ; and when he found oa the lake,
that the monarch himfelf was extremely defirous of
feeing fuch a novelty, he gave him to underiland,
that nothing was wanting to his gratification befides
a few neceffaries from Vera Cruz, for that he had
-workmen in his army capable of building fuch vcffels.
The bait took with Montezuma; and he gave imme¬
diate orders that all his people fliould affift Cortes in
whatever he ftiould direft concerning the (hipping.
By this means, in a few days, two brigantines were
got ready, full rigged and equipped *, and Montezuma
was invited on board, to make the firft trial of their
failing, of which he could form no idea. Accor ing-
]y he embarked for this purpofe, and gave orders for
a great hunting upon the water, in order that all his
people might be diverted with the novelty preferred
by the Spaniards. On the day appointed, the royal
equipage was ready early in the morning; and the
lake was covered with a multitude cf boats and canoes
loaded with people. The Mexicans had augmented
5 D 2 the
Mexico.
8(5
Montexu-
ma owns
himfelf a
■‘/afial to
toe rung of
Spain..
87
The Spani-
M E X [ ^64
the number of their rowers on board the royal barges,
With an intention to dilgrace the Spanilh veffels, which
they regarded as elumfy, unwieldy, and heavy. But
tney were icon undeceived 5 a freili gale llarted up,
the brigantines hoifted fail, to the utter atlonifliment of
ail the ipe&ators, and foon left all the canoes behind ;
while the monarch exulted in the viflory of the Spani¬
ards, without once confidering that now he had effe&u-
aliy rivetted his own chains.
Cortes having obtained this important point, refolv-
ed to put the condefcenfion of the emperor to a trial
ilill more levere. He urged Montezuma to acknow¬
ledge himfelf a vaffal to the crown of Caltile ; to hold
his crown of him as fuperior, and to fubjeel his domi¬
nions to the payment of an annual tribute. With this
requiiition, humiliating as it was, Montezuma com¬
plied. He called together the chief men of his em¬
pire, and, in a folemn harangue, reminded them of the
traditions and prophecies which led them to expedt the
arrival of a people fprung from the lame flock wiih
themfelves, in order to take pollefhon of the fupreme
po wer ; he declared his belief that the Spaniards were
this promifed race ; and that therefore he recognifed
the right of their monarch to govern the Mexican em¬
pire, would lay his crown at his feet, and obey him as
a tributary. While uttering thefe words, Montezuma
difcovered how deeply he was affedled in making fuch
a facrifice. Tears and groans frequently interrupted
his difcourfe. The firlt mention of fuch a refolution
If ruck the aflembly dumb with aftonifhment. This
was followed by a fullen murmur of forrow mingled
with indignation ; which indicated fome violent erup¬
tion of rage to be near at hand. This Cortes forefaw,
and feafonably interpofed to prevent it, by declaring
that his mailer had no intention to deprive Montezuma
of the royal dignity, or to make any innovation upon
the conftitution and laws of the Mexican empire. This
afi'urance, added to their dread of the Spanilh arms, and
the authority oi their monarch’s example, extorted the
confent of the affembly; and the adl of fubmiffion and
homage was executed with all the formalities which the
Spaniards pleafed to prefcribe.
Montezuma, at the requeft of Cortes, accompa¬
nied this profedion of fealty and homage with a mag¬
nificent prefent to his new fovereign; and, after his
example, his fubjects brought in very liberal contri¬
butions. The Spaniards then colledled all the trca-
]
M E X
their wea* ^ure been either voluntarily bellowed upon
fure, them at different times by Montezuma, or had been
extorted from his people under various pretences 5
and having melted the gold and filver, the value
of thefe amounted to 600,000 pefos. The foldiers
were impatient to have it divided 5 and Cortes com¬
plied with their defire. A fifth of the whole was
fet apart as the tax due to the king. Another fifth Avas
allowed to Cortes as commander. The fums advan¬
ced by the governor of Cuba, who had originally fit¬
ted out the expedition, Avere then deduced. The re¬
mainder Avas then divided among the army, including
the garrifon of Vera Cruz, in proportion to their dif¬
ferent ranks; and after fo many deductions, the {hare
of a pri\rate man did not exceed 100 pefos. This fum
fell fo far beloAv their fanguine expectations, that it re¬
quired all the addrefs, and no fmall exertions of the li¬
berality of Cortes, to prevent an open mutiny. How-
4
ever, he at laft reflored tranquillity j but had no fooner Meu<*.
efeaped this danger, than he involved himfelf, by his
imprudent zeal tor religion, in one much worfe. Mon¬
tezuma, though often importuned, had obftinately re¬
futed to change his religion, or abolilh the fuperfti-
tious rites which had been for fuch a long time praCii- c
fed throughout his dominions. This at latt tranfport- Conefat.
ed the Spaniards^ with fuch rage, that, in a fally of tempts to*
zeal, he led out his foldiers in order to throtv doAvn thec*ei;ro} the
idols in the great temple by force. But the prieftsMexicatl
taking arms in defence of their altars, and the people iaoi;:‘
croAvding Avith great ardour to liipport them, Cortes’s
prudence overruled his zeal, and induced him to defift
trom his raih attempt, after difiodging the idols from one
of the {brines, and placing in their dead an image of the
Virgin Mary.
From this moment the PJexicans began to meditate winch
the expulfion or the deitruCtion of the Spaniards. The duces apT*
prieits and leading men held frequent meetings Avith r.eral difaf-
Montezuma for this purpofe. But as any violent at-fe<^10a*
tempt might have proved fatal to the captive monarch,
it Avas thought proper firlt to try more gentle means.
Having called Cortes into his prefence, he obferved,
that noAv, as all the purpofes of his embaffy were iully
aecomplilhed, the gods had declared their will, and the
people fignified their defire, that he and his followers ^
Ihould inftantly depart out of the empire. With this The Spa-
he required them to comply, or unavoidable de{truc-lll;irfls are
tion Avould fall fuddenly on their heads. This unex-
peCted requifition, as AATell as the manner in which it part>
Avas delivered, alarmed Cortes. However, he fuppofed
that more might be gained by a feigned compliance
than by open refiftance; and therefore replied Avith
great compofure, that he had already begun to prepare
for his return 5 but as he had deftroyed the veffels in
Avhieh he arrived, fome time Avas requifite for building
other fhips. This appeared reafonable ; and a number
of Mexicans A\rere fent to Vera Cruz to cut doAvn tim¬
ber, and fome Spanifh carpenters Avere appointed to fu-
perintend the Avork. 9I
Cortes flattered himfelf, that, during this inter\ral, he An arma-
might either find means to avert the threatened danger,rnent {ent
or receive fuch reinforcements as Avould enable him to*roni
defend himlelf. Nine months had iaoav elapfed fince <j^rtes.
Portoearrero and Montejohad failed Avith his defpatches
to Spain ; and he daily expected a return, Avith a con¬
firmation of his authority from the king, Avithout Avhich
all that he had done ferved only to mark him out as an
objedt of puniftunent. V bile he remained in great
anxiety on this account, news Avere brought that fome
{hips had appeared on the coaft. Thefe Avere imagined
by Cortes to be a reinforcement fent him from Spain :
but his joy Avas of {hort continuance, for a courier very
foon arrived from Vera Cruz, Avith certain information
that the armament Avas fitted out by Velafquez, the go¬
vernor of Cuba, and inltead of bringing fuccours,
threatened them with immediate deftrudtion.
Velafquez had been excited to this hoftile meafure
chiefly through the indiferetion, or rather treachery,
of the meiTengers of Cortes; Avho, contrary to his ex-
prefs injundtions, had landed on the ifland of Cuba,
and given intelligence of all that had paffed : and Ve¬
lafquez, tranfported with rage at hearing of the pro¬
ceedings of Cortes, had now fent againft him this ar¬
mament j confifting of 18 {hips, Avhich carried 80 horfe-
men?.
M E X r 765 ] M E X
Mexico, men, 800 infantry, of which 80 were mufketeers, and
1 20 crofs bowmen, commanded by a brave officer named
Pamphi/o de Narvaez ; whofe inltruftions were, to feize
Cortes and his principal officers, to fend them prifoners
to him, and then to complete the difeovery and conqueft
of the country in his name. This proved a mod afflict-
t)2 ing piece of new to Cortes.
Which is Having now no refource but in war, he left 150
deic ted men under the command of Pedro de Alvarado, an
th‘^ officer of great bravery, and much refpetled by the
guic.d . Mexicans, to guard the capital and the captive em¬
peror $ while he himfelf marched with the remain¬
der, to meet his formidable opponent, who had ta¬
ken poffeffion of Zempoalla. Even after being re¬
inforced by Sandoval his governor of Vera Cruz, the
force of Cortes did not exceed 250 men. He hoped
for fuccefs chiefly from the rapidity of his motions
and the poffibility of furprifing his enemies *, and as he
chiefly dreaded their cavalry, he armed his foldiers
with long fpears, accuftoming them to that deep and
compact arrangement which the ufe of this formidable
•weapon enabled them to affume. A.s he advanced,
however, he repeated his propofals of accommoda¬
tion ; but thefe being conftantly reje&ed, and a price
fet upon his head, he at laft attacked Narvaez in
the night-time, entirely defeated and took him pri-
foner, obliging all his troops to own allegiance to him¬
felf.
Nothing could be more feafonable than this victory,
by which Cortes found his army very confiderably in-
creafed } for mod of the foldiers of Narvaez chofe
rather to follow Cortes than to return to Cuba, whi¬
ther the conqueror had offered to fend them if they
Dangerous chofe. His affairs at Mexico, in the mean time,
fituation of were in the utmofl: danger of being totally ruined j
the Spa- an(j tjjjg dedffve viftory been delayed but a few
atMexico days lonSer> ,ie muft ^ave corne to° late to ^ve his
companions. A Ihort time after the defeat of Nar¬
vaez, a courier arrived from Mexico writh the difagree-
able intelligence that the Mexicans had taken arms j
and having feized and deftroyed the two brigantines
which he had built in order to fecure the command
of the lake, had attacked the Spaniards in their quar¬
ters, killed fome, and •wounded many more, burnt
their magazine of provinons, and, in fliort, carried on
hoftilities with inch fury, that though Alvarado and
his men defended themfelves with undaunted refo-
lution, they muff either be cut off by famine, or fink
under the multitude of their enemies. This revolt
was excited by motives which rendered it ftill more
alarming. On the departure of Cortes for Zempo¬
alla, the Mexicans flattered themfelves, that the long-
expe&ed opportunity of reftoring their fovereign to
liberty, and driving out the Spaniards, was arrived ;
and confultations were accordingly held for bringing
about both thefe events. The Spaniards in Mexico,
confcious of their own wreaknefs, fufpefted and dread¬
ed thefe machinations •, but Alvarado, who had nei¬
ther the prudence nor the addrefs of Cortes, took the
word method imaginable to overcome them. Inftead
of attempting to foothe or cajole the Mexicans, he
waited the return of one of their folemn feftivals, when
the principal perfons in the empire were dancing, ac¬
cording to cuftom, in the court of the great temple j
lie feized all the avenues which led to it j and, allu¬
red partly by the rich ornaments which they wore in i Mexico. _
honour of their gods, and partly by the facility of ^
cutting off at once the authors of that confpiracy
which he dreaded, he fell upon them, unarmed and
unfufpicious of danger, and maffacred a great num¬
ber } none efcaping but fuch as made their way
over the battlements of the temple. An aftion fo
cruel and treacherous filled not only the city, but the
whole empire, with indignation and rage •, and the
Mexicans immediately proceeded in the manner above
mentioned.
Cortes advanced with the utmofl celerity to the re¬
lief of his diftreffed companions : but as he paffed
along, had the mortification to find that the Spa¬
niards were generally held in abhorrence. T. he princi¬
pal inhabitants had deferted the towns through which
he paffed ; no perfon of note appeared to meet him
with the ufual refpedl ; nor wc-e provifions brought p4
to his camp as ufual. Notwithflanding thefe figns of Cortes al-
averfion and horror, however, the Mexicans were fo lowed to
ignorant of the military art, that they again permitted ^™0t°
him to enter the capital without oppofition ; though
it wms in their power to have eafily prevented him,
by breaking down the bridges and caufeways which led
to it.
Cortes was received by his companions with the
utmofl; joy •, and this extraordinary fuccefs fo far in¬
toxicated the general himfelf, that he not only ne-
gledted to vifit Montezuma, but expreffed himfelf very p5
contemptuoufly concerning him. Thefe expreffions but is fu-
being reported among the Mexicans, they all at once rioufly at-
flew to arms, and made fuch a violent and hidden l>y
attack, that all the valour and fkill of Cortes Were
fcarce fufficient to repel them. This produced great
uneafinefs among the foldiers of Narvaez, who had
imagined there was nothing to do but to gather the
fpoils of a conquered country. Difcontent and mur-
murings, however, were now of no avail ; they were
enclofed in a hoftile city, and,' without fome extra¬
ordinary exertions, were inevitably undone. Cortes,
therefore, made a defperate fally 5 but, after exerting
his utmofl; efforts for a whole day, was obliged to
retire with the lofs of 12 killed, and upwards of 60
wounded. Another fally was attempted with the like
bad fuccefs, and in it Cortes himfelf was wounded in
the hand.
The Spanifli general was now thoroughly convinced
of his error 5 and therefore betook himfelf to the on¬
ly refource which was left ; namely, to try what ef¬
fect the interpofition of Montezuma would have to
foothe or overawe his fubjefts. When the Mexicans
approached the next morning to renew the affault,
that unfortunate prince, at the mercy of the Spaniards,
and reduced to the fad neceffity of becoming the in-
flrument of his own difgrace, and of the flavery of his
people, advanced to the battlements in his royal robes,
and with all the pomp in which he ufed to appear on
folemn occafions. At the fight of their fovereign,
whom they had been long accuftomed to reverence al~
moft as a god, the Mexicans inftantly forebore their
hoftilities, and many proftrated themfelves on the
ground : but when he addreffed them in favour of the-
Spaniards, and made ufe of all the arguments he could
think of to mitigate their rage, they teftified their re- ,^5^
fentment with loud murmurings 3 and at length broker^1^2^'
forth
M E X
' Mexico
97
A terrible
en, a^e-
ment be-
twee the
Spani ards
and Mexi¬
cans.
fortn with fuch fury, that before the foldiers, appoint¬
ed to guard Montezuma, had time to cover him with
tueii ihields, he was wounded with two arrows, and
a blow on Ins temple with a done (truck him to the
ground. On feeing him fall, the Mexicans inlhantly
rled with the utmolt precipitation: but the unhappy
monarch, now convinced that he was become an ob¬
ject of contempt even to his own fubjedts, obtlinately
retulcd all nouriflunent 5 and thus in a lliort time ended
his days.
On the death of Montezuma, Cortes having loft all
hope of bringing the Mexicans to any terms of peace,
pi c pared for retreat. Eut his antagonifts, having
taken poffefiion of a high tower in tiie great .temple,
which overlooked the Spaniih quarters, and placing
there a garrtfon of their principal warriors, the ■ Spa¬
niards were lo much expofed to their mitfile weapons,
fchar none courd ftir without danger or being killed Or
wounded, f rom this poll, therefore, it was nectiTary
to uiHodge them at any rate •, and Juan de Efcobar,
with a large detachment of chofen foldiers, was order¬
ed to make the attack. Eut Efcobar, though a valiant
officer, and though he exerted his utmoft efforts, -was
thrice repulfed. Cortes, however, fenfible that not
only his reputation, but the fafety of his army, de¬
pended. on the fuccefs of this affault, caufed a buckler
to be tied to his arm, as he could not manage it with
• Ins wounded hand, and rufhed with his drawn fword
among the thiekefl of the combatants. Encouraged
by the prelence of their general, the Spaniards re¬
turned to the charge with fuch vigour, that they gra¬
dually iorced their way up the lieps, and drove the
Mexicans to the platform at the top of the tower.
X Iwre a dieadiul carnage began j when two young
Mexicans of high rank, obferving Cortes, as he ani¬
mated his loidiers, refolved to faeridee their own lives
in order to eut off the author of fo many calamities
which defolated their country. They approached him
[ 766 1
M E X
1 . 'uppliant pofture, as if they intended to lay down
their arms ; and leizing him in a moment, hurried him
towards the battlements, over which they threw them-
lelves headlong, in hopes of dragging him along with
them. But Cortes, by his ffrength and agility, difen-
gaged himfelf from their grafp j fo that the two Mexi¬
cans perilhed alone.
As foon as the Spaniards became mailers of the
tower, they fet fire to it, and without further mole-
flation continued the preparations for their retreat.
This became the more neceffary, as their enemies,
aflonifhed at this laft effort of their valour, had now
entirely changed their fyflem of hoflility ; and, inftead
of inceffant attacks, endeavoured, by barricading the
ftreets, and breaking down the caufeways, to cut off
the communication of the Spaniards with the conti¬
nent, and thus to flarve an enemy whom they could
nof fubdue. t be firfl point to be determined, was
whether they ffiould Tnarch out openly in the face of
day, iv on they could difeern every danger, or whether
they muld endeavour to retire feeretly in the night.
Ine fatter was preferred, partly from hopes that the
fupcrftition of the Mexicans would prevent them frotn
attacking them in the night, and partly from their
own Eiperfhfion in giving credit to the predictions of
a private foldier, who pretended to aftrology, and
affured them of fuccefs if they retreated in this manner.
towards midnight, therefore, they began their march, Mexico.
in three divifions. Sandoval led the van ; Pedro Al- v 
varado and Velafquez de Leon had the eonduft of the
rear 5 and Cortes commanded in the centre, where he
placed the prifoners, among whom were a fun and
two daughters of Montezuma, together with fevtral
Mexicans of diftinCtion, the artillery, baggage, and
a portable bridge of timber intended to be laid over
the breaches in the caufeway. They marched in
profound filence along the eaufeway which led to
lacuba, becaufe it was fhorter than any of the reft
and, lying moft remote from the road towards Tlafea-
la and the fea coaft, had been left molt entire by the
Mexicans.
They reached the firft breach in the caufeway with- Cortege,
out moleftation, hoping that their retreat was undif-ueats with
covered. Eut the Mexicans had not only watched all &resitMs.
their motions, but made preparations for a molt for¬
midable attack. While the Spaniards were intent up¬
on, placing their bridges in the breach, and occupied
in conducting their horfes and artillery along it, they
were fuddenly alarmed with the found of warlike in-
ftruments, and found themfelves affaulted on all fides
by an innumerable multitude of enemies. Unfortu¬
nately the wooden bridge was wedged fo fait in the
mud by the weight of the artillery, that it was impof-
ftble to remove it. Difmayed at this accident, the
Spaniards advanced with precipitation to the fecond
breach. The Mexicans hemmed them in on every
ftde j and though they defended themfelves with their
ufual courage, yet, crowded as they were in a narrow
caufeway, their difeipline and military ikill were of
little avail 5 nor did the obfeurify of the night allow
them to derive much advantage from their fire-arms
or the fupefiority of their other weapons. At laft the
Spaniards, overborne with the numbers of their ene¬
mies, began to give way, and in a moment the confufion
was univerfal. Cortes, with about 100 foot foldiers,
and a few horfe, forced his way over the two remain¬
ing breaches in the caufeway, the bodies of the dead
ferving to fill up the chafms, and reached the main
land. Having formed them as foon as they arrived, he
returned with fuch as ivere yet capable of fervice, to
affift his friends in their retreat. He met with part of
bis foldiers who had forced their way through the ene¬
my, but found many more overwhelmed by the multitude
of their aggreffors, or perifliing in the lake j and heard
the grievous lamentations of others whom the Mexicans
-were carrying off in triumph to be facrificod to the god
of war.
In this fatal retreat more than one half of Cortes’s
army perifhed, together with many officers of diftinc-
tion. All the artillery, ammunition, and baggage,
were loft ; the greater part of the horfes and above
2000 ri lafealans were killed, and only a very fmall part
of their treafure fave.d. The firft care of the Spanith
general was to find fome flicker for his wearied troops ;
for, as the Mexicans infefted them on every fide, and
the people of Tacuba began to take arms, he could
Hot continue in his prefent ftation. At laft be difeo-
vered a temple feated on an eminence, in which he
found not only the fhelter he wanted, but fome provi-
fions ; and though the enemy did not intermit their
attacks throughout the day, they were without much
difticulty prevented from making any impreflion. For
fix
Mex’co.
99
M E X
fix days after, they continued their march through a
1 barren, ill cultivated, and thinly peopled country, where
they were often obliged to feed on berries, roots, and
the ftalks of green maize ; at the fame time they were
haraffed without intermiffion by large parties of Mexi¬
cans, who atacked them on all lides. On the fixth
day they reach Qtumba, not far from the road be¬
tween Mexico and Tlafcala.. Early next morning they
began to advance towards it, flying parties o£ the ene¬
my ilill hanging on their rear ; and amidft the infults
with which they accompanied their hoitilities, Donna
Marina remarked, that they often exclaimed with exul¬
tation, “ Go on, robbers ; go to the place where you
(hall quickly meet the vengeance due to your crimes.”
The meaning of this threat the Spaniards did not com¬
prehend, until they reached the fummit of an eminence
before them. There a fpacious valley opened to their
view, covered with a vaft army as far as the eye could
reach. The Mexicans, while with one body of their
troops they harafled the Spaniards in their retreat, had
aflembled their principal force on the other lide of the
lake ; and marching along the road which led directly
to Tlafcala, polled it in the plain of Otumba, through
Tire "battle which they knew Cortes mufl pafs. At the fight of
Otumba. this incredible multitude, which they could furvey at
once from the rifing ground, the Spaniards were aito-
niflied, and even the boldeff began to defpair. But
Cortes, without allowing their fears time to operate,
after warning them briefly that no alternative remained
but to conquer or die, led them inflantly to the charge.
The Mexicans waited their approach with unufual for¬
titude : yet fuch was the fuperiority of the Spanilh dif-
cipline and arms, that the impreffion of this fmall body
was irrefiftible ; and whichever way its force was di-
refled, it penetrated and difperfed the moft numerous
battalions. But while thefe gave way in one quarter,
new combatants advanced from another ; and the Spa¬
niards, though fuccefsful in every attack, were ready
to fink under thefe repeated efforts, without feeing
any end. to their toil, or any hope of vicffory. At that
time Cortes obferved the great ftandard of the empire,
which was carried before the Mexican general, advan¬
cing $ and fortunately recolledling to have heard, that
on the fate of it depended the event of every battle,
he affembled a few of his bra veil officers, whofe horfes
were ilill capable of fervice, and placing himfelf at
their head, pufhed towards the flandard with fuch im
petuofity that he bore down every thing before him.
A chofen body of nobles, who guarded the flandard,
made fome refiflance, but were foon broken. Cortes,
with a ftroke of his lance, wounded the Mexican ge¬
neral, and threw him to the ground. One of his fol¬
lowers alighting, put an end to his life, and laid hold
of the imperial flandard. The moment that the ir leader
fell, and the flandard, towards which all diredled their
eyes, difappeared, an univerfal panic ffruck the Mexi¬
cans •, and, as if the bond which held them together
had been diffolved, every enfign was lowered, each
foldier threw away his weapons, and fled with preci¬
pitation to the mountains. The Spaniards, unable to
purfue them far, rtV urned to colleft the fpoils of the
field •, and thefe were fo valuable as to be fome
compenfation for the wealth which they had loft in
Mexico •, for in the enemy’s army were moft of
their principal warriors dreffed out in their richeft
[ 767 1
M E X
100
Mexicans
defeated.
ornaments, as if they had been marching to affured Mexico,
vidlory. u—,^r—j
The day after this important aclion (being July
8. 1520), the Spaniards entered the Tlaiealan terri¬
tories, where they were received with the moft cordial
friendihip. Cortes endeavoured to avail himfelf of this
difpofition as much as poiiible •, for which purpofe he
diftributed among them the rich fpoils taken at Otum¬
ba with fuch a liberal hand, that he made himfelf lure
of obtaining trom the republic whatever he ftrould de¬
fire. He drewr a fmall fupply of ammunition, and
two or three field pieces, from his flores at Vera Cruz.
He defpaiched an officer of confidence with few fliips
of Narvaez's fleet to Hifpaniola and Jamaica, to en¬
gage adventurers, and to purchafe horfes, gunpowder,
and other military ftores. And as he knew that it
would be in vain to attempt the reduction of Mexico,
unlefs he could fecure the command of the lake, he
gave orders to prepare, in the mountains of 'I lafeala,
materials for building 12 brigantines, fo that they
might be carried thither in pieces, ready to be put to¬
gether, and launched when he flood in need ol their
fervice. But, in the mean time, his foldiers, alarmed
at the thoughts of being expofed to fuch calamities a
fecond time, prefented a remonftrance to their general,
in which they reprefented the imprudence of attack¬
ing a powerful empire with his fhattere'd forces, and
formally required him to return back to Cuba. All
the eloquence of Cortes could now only prevail with
them to delay their departure for fome time, when he
promifed to difmifs fuch as fhould defire it. How¬
ever, this was only a pretence : for Cortes, in facl,
had the conqueft of Mexico as much at heart as ever.
Without giving his foldiers an opportunity of cabal¬
ling, therefore, he daily employed them againft the
people of the neighbouring provinces, who had cut off
fome detachments of Spaniards during his misfortunes
at Mexico 5 and by which, as he wras conftantly at¬
tended with fuceefs, his men foon refumed their wont¬
ed fenfe of fuperiority. joi
But all the efforts of Cortes could have been of little fortes re¬
avail, had he not unexpefledly obtained a reinforce-ceive" ap
ment of Spanifh foldiers. Thefe belonged to an arma-Enforce¬
ment fitted out by Francifco de Garay, governor of Ja-ment.
maiea, who had long aimed at dividing with Cortes
the glory and gain of annexing the empire of Mexico
to the crown of Caftile. They had, however, unad-
vifedly made their attempt on the northern provinces,
where the country was poor and the inhabitants fierce
and warlike ; fo that, after a fucceffion of difafters, they
were now obliged to venture' into Vera Cruz, and call
themfelves upon the mercy of their countrymen 5 and
here they alfo were foon perfiiaded to throw off their
allegiance to their mailer, and to enlift with Cortes.
About the fame time a (hip arrived in Spain, freight¬
ed by fome private adventurers, with military ft ores 5
and the cargo was eagerly purchafed by Cortes, while
the crew, following the example of the reft, joined him
at Tlafcala.
From thefe various quarters, the army of Cortes
was augmented with 180 men and 20 horfes; by
which means he was enabled to difmifs fuch of the fol¬
diers of Narvaez as were moft troublofomc and difeon-
tented j after the departure of whom he ftill muftered
550 infantry, of whom 80 were armed with mulkets or
crofs-
Mexico.
M E X [ 768
Crofs'-bows, 40 horfemen, and nine pieces of artillery
M E X
H<! lets out
again for
Mexico.
103
Cortes
makes
great pro-
grei's.
At the head of thefe, with 10,000 Tlafcalans and other
friendly Indians, he began his inarch towards Mexico,
on the 28th of December, fix months after his fatal re¬
treat from that city.
As loon as Cortes entered the enemy’s territories,
he difcovered various preparations to oblfrufl his pro-
grefs. But his troops forced their wray with little dif¬
ficulty 5 and took poffeffion of Tezcuco, the fecond
city of the empire, fituated on the banks of the lake,
about 20 miles from Mexico. Here he determined to
eltabliih his head quarters, as the moft proper llaticn
for launching his brigantines, as wrell as for making his
approaches to the capital. In order to render his re-
fidence there more fecure, he depofed the cacique or
chief, who was at the head of that community, under
pretence of fome defeff in his title, and fubftituted in
his place a perfon whom a fafHon of the nobles pointed
out as the right heir of that dignity. Attached to him
by this benefit, the new cacique and his adherents fer-
ved the Spaniards with inviolable fidelity.
As the condrubtion of the brigantines advanced
{lowly under the unfkilful hands of foldiers and In¬
dians, whom Cortes was obliged to employ in allifting
three or four carpenters who happened fortunately to
he in his fervice, and as he had not yet received the
reinforcement which he expected from Hifpaniola, he
was not in a condition to turn his arms direclly again!!
the capital. To have attacked a city fo populous, fo
well prepared for defence, and in a fituation of fuch
peculiar ftrength, muft have expofed his troops to ine¬
vitable deftruclion. Three months elapfed before the
materials for eonflrubling the brigantines were finilh-
ed, and before he heard any thing with refpebt to the
fuccefs of his negociation in Hifpaniola. This, how¬
ever, was not a feafon of inabfion to Cortes. He at¬
tacked fuccefiively feveral of the towns fituated around
the lake j and though all the Mexican power was ex¬
erted to obftrubl his operations, he either compelled
them to fahmit to the Spanilh crown, or reduced
them to ruins. Other towns he endeavoured to con¬
ciliate by more gentle means • and though he could
not hold any intercourfe with the inhabitants but by
the intervention of interpreters, yet, under all the dif-
advantages of that tedious and imperfebt mode of com¬
munication, he had acquired fuch thorough knowledge
of the Hate of the country, as well as of the difpofitions
of the people, that he conclubled his negotiations and
intrigues with aftonifhing dexterity and fuccefs. Mod.
of the cities adjacent to Mexico were originally the
capitals of fmall independent dates and fome of them
having been but lately annexed to the Pvlexiean empire,
dill retained the remembrance of their ancient liberty,
and bore with impatience the rigorous yoke of their
new maders. Cortes having early obferved fymptoms
of their difaffcblion, availed himfelf of this knowledge
to gain their confidence and fr-ienddiip. By offering
with confidence to deliver them from the odious do¬
minion of the Mexicans, and by liberal promifes of
more indulgent treatment if they would unite with
him againd their oppreffors, he prevailed on the peo¬
ple of feveral confiderable didribls, not only to ac¬
knowledge the king of Cadile as their fovereign, but
to fupply the Spanifli camp with provifions, and to
dj'engthen his army with auxiliary troops. Guatimo-
on the fird appearance of defeblion among his Me vie*,
exerted himlelf with vigour to prevent or to '—-v—
punith their revolt ; but, in fpite of his efforts, the fpi-
rit continued to fpread. The Spaniards gradually ac¬
quired new allies •, and with deep concern he beheld
Cortes arming againd his empire thofe very hands
which ought to have been active in his defence, and
ready to advance againd the capital at the head of a
numerous body of his own fubjebts.
While, by thefe various methods, Cortes was gra¬
dually circumfcribing the Mexican power within iuch
narrow limits that his profpebl of overturning it feemed
neither to be uncertain nor remote, all his fehernes
were well nigh defeated by a confpiraey againd his
own perfon, and which was difcovered only a fhort time
before it was to have been executtd. Though many
were concerned, Cortes did not think proper to punilh
any more than the principal ringleader, whom he
caufed immediately to be hanged ; and then, without
allowing them leifure to ruminate on what had hap¬
pened, and as the mod effebtual means of preventing
the return of a mutinous fpiiit, he determined to call
forth his troops immediately to abtion. Fortunately
a proper occafion for this occuried, without his feeming
to court it. He received intelligence, that the mate¬
rials for building the brigantines were at length com¬
pletely finilhed, and waited only for a body of Spa¬
niards to condubt them to I'ezcuco. The command
of this convoy, confiding of 200 foot foldiers, 15
horfemen, and two field-pieces, he gave to Sandoval,
who by the vigilance, abfivity, and courage, which he
manifeded on every occafion, was growing daily in his
confidence, and in the edimation of his fellow-foldiers.
The Tlafcalans furnilhed 8ooo Tamenes, an inferior
order of men dedined for fervile talks, to carry the ma¬
terials on their dioulders, and appointed 15,000 war¬
riors to accompany and defend them. Sandoval made
the difpofition for their progrefs with great propriety,
placing the Tamenes in the centre, one body of war¬
riors in the front, another in the rear, with confider¬
able parties to cover the fianks. To each of thefe he
joined fome Spaniards, not only to adid them in dan¬
ger, but to aceudom them to regularity and fubordi-
nation. Parties of Mexicans frequently appeared ho¬
vering around them on the high grounds : but perceiv¬
ing no profpebl of fuccefs in attacking an enemy con¬
tinually on his guard, and prepared to receive them,
they did not venture to moled him •, and Sandoval had
the glory of condubfing fafely to Tezcuco a convoy
on which all the future operations of his countrymen
depended. ^
Cortes determined to attack the city from three dif- Medco De¬
ferent quarters ; from Tezcuco on the ead fide of the£egeth
lake, from Tacuba on the wed, and from Cuayocan to¬
wards the fouth. Thofe towns were fituated on the
principal caufeways which led to the capital, and in¬
tended for their defence, pie appointed Sandoval to
command in the fird, Pedro de Alvarado in the fecond,
and Chridoval de Olid in the third j allotting to each
a numerous body of Indian auxiliaries, together with
an equal divifion of Spaniards, who, by the junction
of the troops from Hifpaniola, amounted now to 86
horfemen, and 8t8 foot foldiers; of whom il8 were
armed with mufkets or crofg-bows. Their train of ar¬
tillery confided of three battering cannon, and 15 field-
pieces.
Mexico.
i=>5
The Spa¬
niards de¬
feat the
Mexicans,
and become
mailers of
the lake.
M E X [ 769 ] M E X
pieces. He referved for himfelf, as the ftation of great-
eft importance, and danger, the condutft of the brigan¬
tines, each armed with one of his fmall cannon, and
manned with 25 Spaniards.
As Alvarado and Olid proceeded towards the polls
aftigned them, they broke down the aqueducts which
the ingenuity of the Mexicans had erefled for convey¬
ing water into the capital, and, by the diftrefs to
which this reduced the inhabitants, gave a beginning
to the calamities which they were deftined to fuffer.
Alvarado and Olid found the towns, of which they
were ordered to take poffeffion, deferted by their in¬
habitants, who had fled for fafety to the capital,, where
Guatimozin had colledled the chief force of his em¬
pire, as there alone he could hope to make a fuccefsful
Hand againft the formidable enemies who Avere ap¬
proaching to affault him.
The firft effort of the Mexicans Avas to deftroy the
fleet of brigantines, the fatal effedls of whofe opera¬
tions they forefaAV and dreaded. Though the brigan¬
tines, after all the labour and merit of Cortes in form¬
ing them, Avere of inconliderable bulk, rudely con-
ftrufted, and manned chiefly with landmen, hardly pof-
feffed of Ikill enough to conduct them, they mull have
been objedfts of terror to a people unacquainted with
any navigation but that of their lake, and poffeffed of
no veffel larger than a canoe. Neceffity, hoAvever, ur¬
ged Guatimozin to hazard the attack j and hoping to
fupply by numbers what he Avanted in force, he affem-
bled fuch a multitude of canoes as co\rered the face of
the lake. They rowed on boldly to the charge, Avhile
the brigantines, retarded by a dead ealm, could fcarcely
advance to meet them. But as the enemy drew near,
a breeze fuddenly fprurig up •, in a moment the fails
were fpread, and the brigantines with irreliftible im-
petuolity broke their feeble opponents, overfet many
canoes, and diflipated the Avhole armament ATi'th fuch
flaughter, as convinced the Mexicans, that the pro-
grefs of the Europeans in knoAvledge and arts rend¬
ered their fuperiority greater on this nerv element
than they had hitherto found it by land.
From that time Cortes remained mafter of the lake ;
and the brigantines not only preferved a communica¬
tion betAveen the Spaniards in their different ftations,
though at a conftderable diltance from each other ; but
were employed to cover the caufexvays on each fide,
and keep off the canoes, xvhen they attempted to an¬
noy the troops as they advanced toxvards the city. He
formed the brigantines in three divifions, allotting one
to each ftation, with orders to fecond the operations
of the officer who commanded there. From all the
three ftations he puffied on the attack againft the city
xvith equal vigour; but in a manner fo very different
from that by which fieges are conduced in regular war,
as might appear no lefs improper than lingular to per-
fons unacquainted with his fituation. Each morning his
troops affaulted the barricades which the enemy had
erefted on the caufeways, forced their xvay over the
trenches xvhich they had dug, and through the canals
xvhere the bridges xvere broken down, and endeavoured
to penetrate into the heart of the city, in hopes of
obtaining fome decifiA’e advantage, xvhich might fbree
the enemy to furrender, and terminate the wrar at once 5
but xvhen the obftinate valour of the Mexicans rendered
the efforts of the day ineffectual, the Spaniards retired
Vol. XIII. Part II.
in the evening to their former quarters. Thus their toil Mexico,
and danger were, in fome meafure, continually renexv-
ed, the Mexicans repairing in the night xvhat the Spa¬
niards had deftroyed through the day, and recovering
the polls from xvhich they had driven them. But ne¬
ceffity preferibed this floxxr and untoward mode of ope¬
ration. The number of his troops xvas fo fmall, that
Cortes durft not, xvith a handful of men, attempt to
make a lodgement in a city xvhere he might be fur-
rounded and annoyed by fuch a multitude of enemies.
The remembrance of xvhat he had already fuffered by
the ill-judged confidence xvith which he had ventured
into fuch a dangerous fituation, was ftili frefh in his
mind. The Spaniards, exhaulled with fatigue, xvere
unable to guard the various polls xvhich they daily
gained} and though tlieir camp was filled with Indian
auxiliaries, they durft not devolve this charge upon
them, becaufe they were fo little accullomed to difei-
pline, that no confidence could be placed in their vi¬
gilance. Befides this, Cortes xvas extremely felicitous
to preferve the city as much as poffibie from being de-
llroyed, both as lie deftined it to be the capital of his
conquells, and wiffied ‘that it might remain as a mo¬
nument of his glory. From all thefe confiderations,
he adhered obftinately, for a month after the fiege was
opened, to the fyllem which he had adopted. The
Mexicans, in their own defence, difplayed valour
which was hardly inferior to that with xvhich the Spa¬
niards attacked them. On land, on water, by night
and by day, one furious conflidl lucceeded to another.
Several Spaniards xvere killed, more wounded, and all
xvere ready to fink under the toils of unintermitting
fervice, which were rendered more intolerable by the
injuries of the feafon, the periodical rains being now
fet in with their ufual violence.
Aftoniffied and difconcerted xvith the length and dif¬
ficulties of the fiege, Cortes determined to make one
great effort to get poffeffion of the city before he re-
linquifhed the plan which he had hitherto followed,
and had recourfe to any other mode of attack. With
this view he fent inftru£lions to Alvarado and Sando¬
val to advance with their divifions to a general affault,
and took the command in perfon of that pofted on the
caufeway of Cuyocan. Animated by his prefence, and
the expe<5lation of fome decifive event, the Spaniards
puffied forward with irrefiftible impetuofity. They
broke through one barricade after another, forced their
xvay over the ditches and canals, and having entered
the city, gained ground inceffantly, in fpite of the mul¬
titude and ferocity of their opponents. Cortes, though
delighted xvith the rapidity of his progrefs, did not
forget that he might ftill find it neceffary to retreat j
and in order to fecure it, appointed Julian de Alderete,
a captain of chief note in the troops which he had re-
ceix'-ed from Hifpaniola, to fill up the canals and gaps
in the caufeway as the main body advanced. That of¬
ficer deeming it inglorious to be thus employed, while
his companions were in the heat of atftion and the ca¬
reer of viclory, neglefled the important charge com¬
mitted to him, and hurried on ineonfiderately to mingle
xvith the combatants. The Mexicans, whofe military
attention and Ikill were daily improving, no fooner ob-
ferved this, than they carried an account of it to their
monarch.
Guatimozin inilantly difeerned the confequenees of
5 E the
M E X
Mexico.
ic<J
Cortes re-
the error which the Spaniards had committed, and, with
admirable prefence of mind, prepared to take advantage
of it. He commanded the troops polled in the front
to flacken their efforts, in order to allure the Spaniards
to pulh forward, while he defpatched a large body of
chofen warriors through different dreets, fome by land,
and others by water, towards the great breach in the
caufeway, which had been left open. On a fignal
which he gave, the priefts in the great temple Itruck
the great drum confecrated to the god of war. No
fooner did the Mexicans hear its doleful folemn found,
calculated to infpire them with contempt of death and
with enthufiaftic ardour, than they rulhed upon the
enemy with frantic rage. The Spaniards, unable to
refdl men urged on no lefs by religious fury than hope
of fuccefs, began to retire, at firlt leifurely, and with
a good countenance ; but as the enemy preffed on,
and their own impatience to efcape inereafed, the
terror and confulion became fo general, that when
they arrived at the gap in the caufeway, Spaniards
and Tlafcalans, horfemen and infantry, plunged in pro-
mifcuoully, while the Mexicans rulhed upon them
fiercely from every fide, their light canoes carrying
them through Ihoals which the brigantines could mot
. approach. In vain did Cortes attempt to flop and
attack.1*1 311 ra^y Hying troops ; fear rendered them regardlefs
of his entreaties or commands. Finding all his endea¬
vours to renew the combat fruitlefs, his next care -was
to fave fome of thofe who had thrown themfelves into
the water *, but while thus employed, with more atten¬
tion to their lituation than to his own, fix Mexican
captains fuddenly laid hold of him, and were hurrying
him off in triumph ; and though two of his officers ref-
cued him at the expence of their own lives, he received
feveral dangerous wounds before he could break loofe.
Above 60 Spaniards perilhed in the rout 5 and what
rendered the difalfer more affii6fing, 40 of thefe fell
alive into the hands of an enemy never known to Ihow
mercy to a captive.
The approach of night, though it delivered the de-
jedled Spaniards from the attacks of the enemy, ulher-
cd in, what was hardly lefs grievous, the noife of their
barbarous triumph, and of the horrid fellival with
which they celebrated their victory. Every quarter
of the city was illuminated ; the great temple Ihone
with fuch peculiar fplendour, that the Spaniards could
plainly fee the people in motion, and the priefts bufy
in haftening the preparations for the death of the pri-
foners. Through the gloom they fancied that they
difeerned their companions by the whitenefs of their
fkins, as they were ftripped naked and compelled to
dance before the image of the god to whom they were
to be offered. They heard the ftirieks of thofe who
were facrificed, and thought they could diftinguilh each
unhappy viclim by the well-known found of his voice.
Imagination added to what they really fawr or beard,
and augmented its horror. The moft unfeeling melt¬
ed into tears of compaffion, and the ftnuteft heart
trembled at the dreadful fpe£tacle which they be¬
held.
Cortes, who, befides all that he felt in common with
his foldiers, was oppreffed with the additional load of
anxious refledfions natural to a general on fuch an un-
expedled calamity, could not like them relieve his mind
[ 77° 1
M E X
by giving vent to its anguifh. He was obliged to af- Mexico,
fume an air of tranquillity in order to revive the fpirits '—■—v'—^
and hopes of his followers. The juncture, indeed, re¬
quired an extraordinary exertion of for titude. The Mexi- The Mexi¬
cans, elated with their victory, falliedout next morning cans renew
to attack him in his quarters. But they did not relytlie at!a‘k
on the efforts of their owrn arms alone : they fent the&reat
heads of the Spaniards whom they had facrificed to the ury'
leading men in the adjacent provinces, and allured them
that the god of war, appeafed by the blood of their inva¬
ders, which had been ftied fo plentifully on his altars, had
declared with an audible voice, that in eight days time
thofe hated enemies fhould be finally deftroyed, and
peace and profperity re-eftabliftied in the empire.
A predidfion, uttered wdth fuch confidence, and in
terms fo void of ambiguity, gained univerfal credit
among a people prone to fuperftition. The zeal of
the provinces which had already declared again!! the
Spaniards augmented, and feveral which had hitherto
remained inactive took arms with enthufiaftic ardour to
execute the decrees of the gods. The Indian auxiliaries
who had joined Cortes, accuftomed to venerate the
fame deities with the Mexicans, and to receive the re-
fponfes of their priefts with the fame implicit faith, aban¬
doned the Spaniards as a race of men devoted to certain
deftruftion. Even the fidelity of the Tlafcalans was
fliaken, and the Spaniffi troops were left almoft alone in
their ftations. Cortes, finding that he attempted in
vain to difpel the fuperftitious fears of his confederates
by argument, took advantage, from the imprudence of
thofe who had framed the prophecy in fixing its accom-
pliftnnent fo near at hand, to give them a linking de-
monftration of its falfity. He fufpended all military
operations during the period marked out by the oracle.
Under cover of the brigantines, which kept the enemy
at a diftance, his troops lay in fafety, and the fatal term
expired without any difafter.
His allies, afhamed of their own credulity, returned
to their ftation. Other tribes, judging that the gods,
who had now deceived the Mexicans, had decreed
finally to withdraw their protection from them, joined
his ftandard ; and fuch was the levity of a Ample
people, moved by every flight impreffion, that, in a
ftiort time after fuch a general defeftion of his confe¬
derates, Cortes faw himfelf, if we may believe his own I0j
account, at the head of 150,000 Indians. Even with Cortes a-
fuch a numerous army, he found it neceffary to adopt f'0Pt;amorft
a new and more wary fyftem of operation. Inftead of^MloTof
renewing his attempts to become mailer of the city at proceeding.
once, by fuch bold but dangerous efforts of valour as
he had already tried, he made his advances gradually,
and with every poffible precaution againft expofing his
men to any calamity fimilar to that which they ft ill be¬
wailed. As the Spaniards pulhed forward, the Indians
regularly repaired the caufeways behind them. As foon
as they got poffeffion of any part of the town, the heufes
were inllantly levelled with the ground. Day by day,
the Mexicans, forced to retire as their enemies gained
ground, were hemmed in within more narrow limits.
Guatimozin, though unable to flop the career of the
enemy, continued to defend his capital with obftinate
refolution, and difputed every inch of ground. But the
Spaniards, having not only varied their mode of attack,
but, by order of Cortes, having changed the weapons
with
M E X [ 771 ] M E X
Me'fic#. ^vith 'which they fought, were again armed with the
't-—' long Chinantlan fpears, which they had employed with
fuch fuccefs againft Narvaez j and, by the firm array
in which this enabled them to range themfelves, they
repelled, with little danger, the loofe affault of the
Mexicans •, incredible numbers of whom fell in the con-
fii&s, which they renewed every day. While war
wafted without, famine began to confume them within
the city. The Spaniih brigantines, having the entire
command of the lake, rendered it impoffible to receive
any fupply of provifions by water. The vaft number
of his Indian auxiliaries enabled Cortes to Ihut up the
avenues to the city by land. The ftores which Guati-
mozin had laid up were exhaufted by the multitudes
which crowded into the capital to defend their fovereign
and the temples of their gods. Not only the people,
but perfons of the higheft rank, felt the utmoft diftreffes
of want. What they fuffered brought on infedious and
mortal diftempers, the laft calamity that vifits be-
fieged cities, and which filled up the meafure of their
109 woes.
Guatimo- But, under the preflure of fo many and fuch various
•An refufes evils, the fpirit of Guatimozin remained firm and un¬
to fubmit fub^ued. He reje&ed with fcorn every overture of
teym/ peace from Cortes $ and, difdaining the idea of fubmit-
ting to the oppreffors of his country, determined not
to furvive its ruin. The Spaniards continued their
progrefs. At length all the three divifions penetrated
into the great fquare in the centre of the city, and
made a fecure lodgment there. Three-fourths of the
city were now reduced, and laid in ruins. The re¬
maining quarter was fo clofely prefled, that it could
not long Avithftand afiailants who attacked it from their
new ftation with fuperior advantage, and more allured
^ expectation of fuccefs. The Mexican nobles, feli¬
citous to fave the life of a monarch whom they rever¬
ed, prevailed on Guatimozin to retire from a place
where refiftance was now vain, that he might roufe the
more diftant provinces of the empire to arms, and
maintain there a more fuccefsful ftruggle with the pub¬
lic enemy. In order to facilitate the execution of this
meafure, they endeavoured to amufe Cortes with over¬
tures of fubmiflion, that, while his attention was em¬
ployed in adjufting the articles of pacification, Gua¬
timozin might efcape unperceived. But they made this
attempt upon a leader of greater fagacity and difeern-
ment than to be deceived by their arts. Cortes fufpeCl-
ing their intention, and aware of what moment it was
to defeat it, appointed Sandoval, the officer on whofe
vigilance he could moft perfeftly rely, to take the
command of the brigantines, with ftriCl: injunftions to
watch every motion of the enemy. Sandoval, atten¬
tive to the charge, obferving fome large canoes crowd ¬
ed with people rorving along the lake with extraordi¬
nary rapidity, inftantly gave the fignal to chafe.
Gracia Holguin, who commanded the fleeteft brigan¬
tine, foon overtook them, and was preparing to fire
on the foremoft canoe, which feemed to carry fome
perfon whom all the reft followed and obeyed. At
once the rowers dropt their oars, and all on board,
throwing down their arms, conjured him with cries Mexico,
and tears to forbear, as the emperor was there. Hoi- J
guin eagerly feized his prize 5 and Guatimozin, with a tje js ta]ien
dignified compofure, gave himfelf up into his hands, prifoner.
requefting only that no infult might be oftered to the
emprefs or his children. When conducted to Cortes,
he appeared neither with the fullcn fiercenefs of a bar¬
barian, nor with the dejection of a fupplicant. “ I
have done,” faid he, addreiling himfelf to the Spanifti
general, “ what became a monarch. I have defended
my people to the laft extremity. Nothing now re¬
mains but to die. Take this dagger,” laying his
hand on one which Cortes wore, “ plant it in my
breaft, and put an end to a life which can no longer be
of ufe.” IIt
As foon as the fate of their fovereign was known, Mexico
the refiftance of the Mexicans ceafed ; and Cortes took fubmits,
pofleffion of that fmall part of the capital which yet
remained undeftroyed. Thus terminated the fiege of
Mexico, the moft memorable event in the conqueft of
America. It continued 75 days, hardly one of which
paired without fome extraordinary effort of one party
in the attack, or of the other in the defence of a city,
on the fate of which both knew that the fortune of
the empire depended. As the ftruggle here was more
obftinate, it rvas likewife more equal, than any be¬
tween the inhabitants of the Old and New' Worlds.
The great abilities of Guatimozin, the number of his
troops, the peculiar fituation of his capital, fo far
counterbalanced the fuperiority of the Spaniards in
arms and difeipline, that they muft have relinquifhed
the enterprife, if they had trufted for fuccefs to them¬
felves alone. But Mexico was overturned by the jea-
loufy of neighbours who dreaded its power, and by
the revolt of fubje&s impatient to lhake off its yoke.
By their effeftual aid, Cortes w7as enabled to accom-
pliffi what, without fuch fupport, he would hardly
have ventured to attempt. How much foever this
account of the reduction of Mexico may detract, on
the one hand, from the marvellous relations of fome
Spanifti ivriters, by aferibing that to fimple and ob¬
vious caufes which they attribute to the romantic va¬
lour of their countrymen, it adds, on the other, to the
merit and abilities of Cortes, who, under every difad-
vantage, acquired fuch an afeendant over unknoAvn na¬
tions, as to render them inftruments towards carrying
his fcheme into execution.
The exultation of the Spaniards, on aecompliftiing
this arduous enterprife, was at firft exceffive. But this
Avas quickly damped by the cruel difappointment of
thofe fanguine hopes which had animated them amidft:
fo many hardftiips and dangers. Inftead of the inex-
hauftible wealth Avhich they expected from becoming
mailers of Montezuma’s treafures, and the ornaments
of fo many temples, their rapacioufnef? could colledt
only an inconfiderable booty amidft ruins and defola-
tion (a). Guatimozin, aware of his impending fate,
had ordered* aa hat remained of the riches amaffed by
his anceftors to be thrown into the lake. The Indian
auxiliaries, Avhile the Spaniards were engaged in con-
5 E 2 ftid
(a) The gold and lilver, according to Cortes, amounted only to 120,000 pefos, (Relat. 280, A.) a fum far
inferior to that which the Spaniards had formerly divided in Mexico.
'Mexico.
na
fjuatimo-
zin tortur¬
ed.
II3
The Spa¬
niards be¬
come ma-
flers of the
whole
Mexican
empire.
114
Ancient
divifions of
Mexico.
M E X [ 772 ] M E X
fiicl: with the enemy, had carried off the mod valuable
part of the fpoil. The fum to be divided among the
conquerors was fo ffnall, that many of them difdained
to accept of the pittance which fell to their fhare, and
all murmured and exclaimed ; fome againft Cortes and
Ins confidants, whom they fufpedled of having fecretly
appropriated to their own ufe a large portion of the
riches which fliould have been brought into the common
flock *, others againft Guatimozin, whom they accufed
of cbftinacy, in refufing to difcover the place where he
had hidden his treafure.
Arguments, entreaties, and promifes, were employ¬
ed in order to foothe them ; but with fo little effedl,
that Cortes, from folicitude to check this growing
fpirit of difcontent, gave way to a. deed which ftained
the glory of all his great aftions. "Without regarding
the former dignity of Guatimozin, or feeling any re¬
verence for thofe virtues which he had difplayed, he
fubjected the unhappy monarch, together with his
chief favourite, to torture, in order to force from them
a difcovery of the royal treafures, which it was fup-
pofed they had concealed. Guatimozin bore Avhat-
ever the refined cruelty of his tormentors could inflict,
with the invincible fortitude of an American warrior.
His fellow-fufferer, overcome by the violence of the
anguifh, turned a dejefted eye towards his mafter,
which feemed to implore his permiffion to reveal all
that he knew. But the high-fpirited prince, darting
on him a look of authority mingled with fcorn, check¬
ed his wreaknefs, by afking, “ Am I now repofing on
a bed of flowers ?” Overawed by the reproach, he per-
fevered in his dutiful filence, and expired. Cortes,
afhamed of a feene fo horrid, refeued the royal victim
from the hands of his torturers, and prolonged a life re-
lerved for new indignities and fufferings.
The fate of the capital, as both parties had fore-
feen, decided that of the empire. The provinces fub-
mitted one after another to the conquerors. Small
detachments of Spaniards marching through them with¬
out interruption, penetrated, in different quarters, to the
great Southern ocean, which, according to the ideas of
Columbus, they imagined would open a fhort as well
as eafy paffage to the Eaft Indies, and fecure to the
crown of Caftile all the envied wealth of thofe fertile
regions •, and the adive mind of Cortes began already
to form fchemes for attempting this important difeovery.
In his after-fehemes, ho'wever, he was difappointed $
but Mexico hath ever fince remained in the hands of
the Spaniards.
The ancient kingdom of Mexico, properly fo called,
was divided into feveral provinces, of which the vale
of Mexico itfelf was the fineft in every refpeft. Il is
furrounded by verdant mountains, meafuring upwards
of 120 miles in circumference at their bafe. A great
part of this vale is occupied by two lakes, the upper
one of freth Avater, but the loAver one brackifh, com¬
municating with the former by means of a canal. All
the wTater running from the mountains is colleded in
this lower lake, on account of its being in the bottom
of the valley ; hence it -was ready, when fwelled by
extraordinary rains, to overflow the city of Mexico,
as has been already obferved. This delightful region
contained the three imperial cities of Mexico, Acol-
huacan, and Tlacopan 5 befides 40 others, with innu¬
merable villages and hamlets j but the moft confider-
5
able of thefe, according to Clavigero, now fcarcely Mexica,
retain one-twentieth part of their former magnificence, '-"“•'v'——
The principal inland provinces to the northward were
the Otumies j to the fouih-weft the Malatzincas and
Cuitlatecas 5 to the fouth the Tlahuicas and Cohu-
ixcas; to the fouth eaft, after the ftates of Itzocan,.
Jauhtepac, Quauhquecollon, Atlixco, Tehuacan, and
others, were the great provinces of the Mixtecas, the
Zapotecas, and the Chiapanecas ; towards the eaft
were the provinces ot Tepayacac, the Popolocas, and
Totonacas. The maritime provinces on the Mexican
gulf were Coatzacualco and Cuetlaehtlan, called by
the Spaniards Cotajia. On the Pacific ocean were thofe
of Coliman, Zacatollan, Tototepec, Tecuantepee, and
Zoconochco.
The province of the Otomies began in the northern
part of the vale of Mexico, extending through the
mountains to the north to the difiance of pc miles from
the city of Mexico 5 the principal cities being Tollan
or Tula, and Xilotepec : the latter made the capital of
the country by the Spaniards. Beyond the fettlements
of the Otomies, the country for more than a thoufand
miles in extent was inhabited only by barbarous and
wandering favages.
The Malatzinca province contained the valley of
Tolocan, and all the country from Taximaroa to the
frontier of the kingdom of Michuacan. The valley of '
Tolocan is upwards of 40 miles long from fouth-eaft ta
north-weft, and 30 in breadth where breadeft. Its
principal city, named alfo Tolocan, is fituated at the
foot of a high mountain covered writh fnow, 30 miles
diftant from Mexico.
The country of the Cuitlatecas extended from north-
eaft to fouth-weft, upwards of 200 miles, extending as
far as the Pacific ocean. T heir capital was named
Mexcaltepec, once a great and populous city, fituated
upon the fea-coaft : but of "which the ruins are now
fcarcely vifible. That of the Tlahuicas was named
Quauhnahuac, and fituated about 40 milts to the fouth-
w^ard of Mexico. The province extended almuft 60
miles fouthward, commencing from the fouthern moun¬
tains of the vale of Mexico.
The country of the Cohuixcas extended on the
fouth ward as far as the Pacific ocean, through that
part where at prefent the port and city of Acapulco
lie. It wTas divided into the fiates of Tzompanco,
Chilapan, Tlapan, and Tiftla •, the latter a very hot
and unwholefome country. To this province belong¬
ed a place named T/achco, celebrated for its filver
mines.
The province of the Mixtecas extended from Acat~
lan, a place diftant about 1 20 miles from Mexico, as
far as the Pacific ocean towards the fouth-eaft. The
inhabitants carried on a confiderable commerce, and
had feveral well-inhabited cities and villages. To the
eaft of the Mixtecas were the Zapotecas, fo called from
their capital Teotzapotlan. In their diftrid was the
valley of Huaxyacac, now Oaxaca or Guaxaca.
The province of Mazatlan lay to the northward of
the Mixtecas 5 and to the northward and eaftward of
the Zapotecas W'as Ghimantla, having their capitals of
the fame name with their provinces. T he Chiapane¬
cas, Zoqui, and Queleni, were the laft of the Mexican
provinces towards the fouth-eaft. On the fide of the
mountain Popocatepec and around it lay feveral ftates,
of
HEX [ 773 ] HEX
Mexiso. of which the moft confiderable were Cholallan and Hu-
1 v exotzinco. Thefe two having, with the affiilance of
the i'lafcalans, fhaken oft' the Mexican yoke, re-efta-
blilhed their former aril’ocratical government. The
Cholulans poffefted a fmall hamlet called Cuitlaxcoapan,
in the place where the Spaniards afterwards founded
the city of Angelopoli, which is the fecond of New
Spain.
To the eaftward of Cholula lay a confiderable ftate
named Tepeyacac ; and beyond that the Popolocas,
whofe principal cities were Teeamachalco and Que-
cholac. To the fouthw'ard of the Popolocas was the
ftate of Tahuacan, bordering upon the country of the
M!xtecas} to the eaft, the maritime province of Cuet-
laclulan *, and to the north the Totonacas. The ex¬
tent of this province was 150 miles, beginning from
the frontier of Zacatlan, a ftate diftant about 80 miles
from the court, and terminating in the gulf of Mexi¬
co. Befides the capital, named Mizquihuncan, this
country had the beautiful city of Chempoallan, fitu-
ated on the coaft of the gulf; remarkable for being
that by which the Spaniards entered the Mexican em¬
pire.
Coliman was the moft northerly of the provinces on
the Pacific ocean ; the capital, named alfo Coliman,
being in lat. 19. long. 92. W. Towards the fouth-eaft
was the province of Zacotlan, with its capital of the
fame name ; then came the coaft of the Cuitlatecas j
alter it that of the Cohuixcans, in which wras the cele¬
brated port of Acapulco. The Jojri bordered on the
Cohuixca coaft ; and adjoining to that the Mixteca
country, now called Xicayan ; next to that was the
large province of Tecuantepec 5 and, laftly, that of
Xoconochco.
This province, the moft foutherly of the Mexican
empire, was bounded on the eaft and fouth-eaft by the
country of Xochitepec, which did not belong to Mexi¬
co ; on the weft by Tecuantepec ; and on the fouth
by the ocean. The capital, called alfo Xoconochco, was
fituated between two rivers, in 14 degrees of latitude
and 103 W. longitude. On the Mexican gulf there
were, befides the country of the Totonecas, the pro¬
vinces of Cuetlachtlan and Coatzacualco j the latter
bounded on the caft by the ftates of Tabafco and the
peninfula of Yucatan. The province of Cuetlachtlan
comprehended all the coaft between the rivers Alva¬
rado and Antigua, where the province of the Totonecas
1x5 be$an*
Climate. The climate of this vaft country varies very much
according to the fituation of its different parts. The
maritime places are hot, unhealthy, and moift. The
lands which lie in the neighbourhood of high moun¬
tains, the tops of which are always covered with
fnow, muft of neceflity be cold ; and Clavigero in¬
forms us, that he has been on a mountain not more
than 25 miles diftant from the city of Mexico, where
there was white froft and ice even in the dog days.
“ All the other inland countries (fays our author),
where the greateft population prevailed, enjoy a climate
fo mild and benign, that they neither feel the rigour
of winter nor the heats of fummer. It is true, in
many of thefe countries, there is frequently white froft
in the three months of December, January, and Fe¬
bruary, and fometimes even it fnows ; but the fmall
inconvenience which fuch cold occafions continues on¬
ly till the rifing fun : no other fire than his rays is ne- Mexico,
ceffary to give warmth in winter ; no other relief is 1 jl
wanted in the feafon of heat but the tirade : the fame
clothing which covers men in the dog-days defends
them in January, and the animals tleep all the year un¬
der the open tky. llg
“ This mildnefs and agreeablenefs of climate under Caufe* of
the torrid zone is the effedt of feveral natural caufes miLnefs of
entirely unknown to the ancients, who did not believe t^ie c^ma1‘e’
it to be inhabited j and not w7ell underftood by tome
moderns, by whom it is believed unfavourable to thofe
who live in it. The purity of the atmofphere, the
fmaller obliquity of the folar rays, and the longer ftay
of this luminary above the horizon in winter, in com¬
panion of other regions farther removed from the
equator, concur to leffen the cold, and to prevent all
that horror which disfigures the face of nature in
other climes. During that feafon a ferene Iky and
the natural delights of the country are enjoyed *, where¬
as, under the frigid, and even for the moft part under
the temperate zones, the clouds rob man of the pro-
fpeft of heaven, and the fnow buries the beautiful pro-
du£Hons of the earth. No leis caufes combine to tem¬
per the heat of fummer. The plentiful ftiowers which
frequently water the earth after mid-day from April
or May to September or O&ober j the high moun¬
tains, continually loaded with fnow, fcattered here and
there through the country of Anahuae 5 the cool winds
which breathe from them in that feafon ; and the fhorter
ftay of the fun above the horizon, compared with the
circumftances of the temperate zone, transform the
climes of thofe happy countries into a cool and cheer¬
ful fpring. But the agreeablenefs of the climate is
counterbalanced by thunder ftorms, which are frequent
in fummer, particularly in the neighbourhood of the
mountain of Tlafcala ; and by earthquakes, which are
at all times felt, though with lefs danger than terror.
Storms of hail are neither more frequent nor more fe-
vere than in Europe.” IT^
One undoubted inconvenience which Mexico has is Mexican
that of volcanoes. One named by the Spaniards Vo/- volcanoes.
can d'1 Orizaba is higher than the peak of Teneriffe, ac¬
cording to the Jefuit Tallandier, wl:t> meafured them
both. It began to fend forth fmoke in the year 1545,
and continued burning for 20 years, but has not dif-
covered any fymptoms of eruption fince that time. It
is of a conical figure j and may be feen at 50 leagues
diftance. The top is always covered with fnowq but
the lower part with woods of pine and other valu¬
able timber. It is about 90 miles to the eaftward of
the capital.
Two other mountains, named Vopocatcpec and Iz-
taccihuat/, which lie near each other, at the diftance of
33 miles to the fouth-eaft of Mexico, are likewife
furprifingly high. Clavigero fuppofes the former
to be higher than the higheft of the Alps, con-
fidering the elevated ground on which the bafe of
it Hands. It has a crater more than half a mile wide ;
from which, in the time of the Mexican kings, great
quantities of fmoke and flame iffued. In the 17U1
century it frequently threw out great ftiowers of allies
upon the adjacent places ; but in the 1 8th century hard¬
ly any fmoke has been obferved. This mountain is
named by the Spaniards Vcl cun, and the other Sierra
Nevada. The latter has alfo fometimes emitted flames.
Bofli
M E X
'Mexico.
f 77+ 1
HEX
118
’livers and
Jakes.
Both of diem have their tops always covered with fnow
in fuch quantities, that the maflfes which fall down upon
the neighbouring rocks fupply the cities of Mexico,
Gelopoli, Cholula, and all the adjacent country to the
diftance of 40 miles, with that commodity ; of which
the confumpt is fo great, that in +746 the impoft up¬
on what was confumed in the city of Mexico amount¬
ed to 15,222 Mexican crowns ; fome years after it a-
mounted to 2c,ooo j and is now in all probability a
great deal more.
Behdes thefe volcanoes, there are others in Mexico
of a very remarkable height. The great chain of
mountains called the Andes is continued through the
ifthmus of Panama and through all Mexico, until
they are loft; in the unknown mountains of the north.
The mod confiderable of that chain is known in Mexi¬
co by the name of Sierra Madre, particularly in Cina-
loa and Tarahumara, provinces no lefs than 1200 miles
diftant from the capital.
Mexico is well watered by very conftderable rivers,
though none of them are comparable to thofe of South
America. Some of thefe run into the gulf of Mexi¬
co, and others into the Pacific ocean. The Alvarado
has its principal fource among the mountains of the
Zapotecas, and difeharges itfelf by three navigable
mouths into the Mexican gulf, at the diftance of 30
miles from Vera Cruz. The moft celebrated of the
rivers w'hich run into the Pacific ocean is that called by
the Spaniards Guadalaxara or Great River. It rifes in
the mountains of Toloccan ; and after running a courfe
of more than 600 miles, difeharges itfelf into the ocean
in 220 latitude.
There are likewife in this country feveral lakes of
very confiderable magnitude ; but thofe of Nicaragua,
Chapallan, and Pazquaro, which are of the greateft
extent, did not belong to the ancient Mexican em¬
pire. The moft remarkable were thofe in the vale of
Mexico, upon which the capital of the empire was
founded. Of thefe, the frefti water one, called the
lake of Chaleo, extended in length from eaft to weft
12 miles, as far as the city of Xochimilco; from
thence, taking a northerly direftion, it incorporated
itfelf by means of a canal with the lake of Tezcuco ;
but its breadth did not exceed fix miles. The other,
named the lake of Tezcuco, extended 15, or rather 17
miles from eaft to weft, and fomething more from fouth
to north ; but its extent is now much lefs, by reafon of
the Spaniards having diverted the courfe of many of the
ftreams which run into it. This lake is fait, which
Clavigero fuppofes to arife from the nature of the foil
which forms its bed.
Befides thefe, there are a number of fmaller lakes,
fbme of which are very delightful. There is a vaft
variety of mineral waters, of the nitrous, fulphureous,
and aluminous kinds, fome of them fo hot that meat
may be boiled in them. At Tetuhuacan is a kind
cf petrifying w^ater, as wrell as in feveral other parts
of the empire. One of them fornw a kind of fmooth
white ft ones, not difpleafing to the taftt ; the ferap-
ings of which taken in broth are celebrated as a dia¬
phoretic, probably without any good reafon. The
dofe for a perfon not difficult to be fweated is one
dram of the ferapings. Mamr of the rivers of Mexi¬
co afford furprifing and beautiful cafcades ; particularly
the great river Guadalaxara, at a place called Tempizque,
15 miles to the fouth ward of that city. Along a deep Mexic*.
river called Atoyaque is a natural bridge, confiding of —y——J
a vaft mound ot earth, along which carriages pafs con¬
veniently. Clavigero fuppoies it to have been the frag¬
ment of a mountain thrown down by an earthquake, and
then penetrated by the river.
The mineral productions of Mexico are extremely Natural
valuable, fuch as gold and filver in abundance, two pradudlion»,
fpecies of copper, tin, lead, mercury, fulphur, alum,
vitriol, amber, and afphaltum. It alfo produces dia¬
monds, amethyfts, cats-eyes, cornelians, and fome green
ftones refembling emeralds, as alfo quarries of jafper
and marble of various colours. There are faid to be
whole mountains of loadftone, and a fine white talc
which may be burnt into an excellent plafter.
The foil is capable of producing all the neceffaries,
and even the luxuries of human life. Hiftorians men¬
tion no fewer than 1200 plants which are all indige¬
nous, or natives of the country ; but as thefe are laid
to be chiefly medicinal, we mull conclude that provi¬
dent nature has furniftred them with many more w hich
are intended for nourilhment.
This country abounds with a great variety of flower's,
numbers of which are peculiar to itfelf, v'hile many
exotics even rival them in luxuriance, fuch in particular
as are imported from Europe. Water-melons, apples,
pears, peaches, apricots, figs, &c. are among the exo¬
tics, which thrive in a manner equal to any of the indi¬
genous productions. All the maritime countries abound
with cocoa-nut trees, of which Hernandez mentions
four kinds, the fmalleft of w'hich is moftly ufed for cho¬
colate and other drinks.
Prior to the introduction of com from Europe, maize
Was the principal grain of Mexico, and of which there
were feveral fpecies. It was brought from America to
Spain, and from thence to the other countries of
Europe. The principal kind of pulfe ufed by the
people was the French bean, the different fpecies of
which exceeded in number thofe of the maize ; and
one of them in particular not only fupported the poorer
clafs, but even the Spanifh nobility deemed it a luxury.
Hiftorians enumerate five fpecies of efculent roots, ex-
clufive of many culinary vegetables imported from the
Canaries, Spain, and other European countries. This
country produces a variety of palm trees, from the
fibres of the leaves of one fpecies of which the Mexi¬
cans manufacture thread. The timber trees are numer¬
ous, and, in refpeCt of quality, faid to be inferior to
none in the Avorld. There are whole woods of cedars
and ebonies, and fome trees mentioned by Clavigero
are of a moft ftupendous magnitude. This author
mentions one that meafured 107 Paris feet in height;
and Acofta fpeaks of one that was 16 fathoms in cir¬
cumference. A remarkable fir tree hollowed by
lightning, contained within it 100 young men, ac¬
cording to the teftimony of the archbifliop of Toledo,
who wrent to view it in the year 1770* I20
This country abounds alfo with aromatic and me-jyfe(pcinai
dicinal trees, producing gums, refins, &c. From one and aroma-
of thefe a balfam is produced not in the leaft inferior dc gums,
to the celebrated balfam of Mecca. It is of a reddifh
black or yellowifh white, of a (harp bitter tafte, and
of a ftrong but moft grateful odour. It is common in
the provinces of Panuco and Chiapan, and other w'arm
countries.
The
M E X r 775 ] M E X
Mexico.
Z 2 X
Mexican
animals.
The tree producing liquid amber, the liquid ftorax
of the Mexicans, is of a large lize, the leaves limilar
to thofe of the maple, indented, white in one part
and dark in the other, difpofed of in threes ; the fruit
is thorny and round, but polygonous, with the furface
and the angles yellow •, the bark of the tree partly
green and partly tawney. By incifions in the trunk
they extract that valuable fubllance named liquid am¬
ber, and the oil of the fame name, which is ftill more
valuable. Liquid amber is likewife obtained from a
decoftion of the branches, but it is inferior to that
obtained from the trunk.
The name copal/i in Mexico is generic, and com¬
mon to all the refins ; but efpecially fignifies thofe
made ufe of for incenfe. There are ten fpecies of
tliefe trees yielding rcfins of this kind *, the principal
of which is that from which the Coval is got, fo
well known in medicine and varnilhes. A great quan¬
tity of this was made ufe of by the ancient Mexicans,
and is ftill ufcd for fimilar purpofes by the Spaniards.
The tecopalli or tepecopalli is a refin firailar to the in¬
cenfe of Arabia j which diftils from a tree of mode¬
rate fize that grows in the mountains, having a fruit
like an acorn, and containing the nut enveloped in a
mucilage, within wdiich there is a fmall kernel ufeful
in medicine.
The mi%quitl, or mezquite, is a fpecies of true aca¬
cia, and the gum diftilled from it is faid to be the true
gum arable. It is a thorny ftirub, with branches ir-
regularly difpofed, the leaves fmall, thin, and pinnat¬
ed ; the flowers being like tbofe of the birch-tree.
Of the elaftic gum, which is found in plenty in Mexi¬
co, the natives were in ufe to make foot-balls, which,
though heavy, have a better fpring than thofe filled
with air. With this they varnilh their hats, cloaks,
boots, and great coats, in a manner fimilar to what is
done in Europe with wax ; and by which means they
are rendered all wrater proof.
The quadrupeds found in Mexico at the arrival of
the Spaniards, were lions, tygers, wild cats, bears,
wolves, foxes, the common flags, white flags, bucks,
wild goats, badgers, polecats, weafels, martins, fquir-
rels, polatucas, rabbits, hares, otters, and rats. All
thefe animals are fuppofed to be common to both con¬
tinents. The white flag, whether it be the fame fpeeies
of the other or not, is undoubtedly common to both,
and was known to the Greeks and Romans. The
Mexicans call it the king of the fags. M. Buffon
imagines the xvhite colour of this creature to be the
effedt of capitivity •, but Clavigero fays, that it is found
wild, and of the fame white colour, on the mountains
of New Spain. In many other points, he alfo contro¬
verts the opinions of this celebrated naturalift, who will
not allow the lion, tyger, or rabbit, to be natives of
America.
Clavigero enumerates the quadrupeds common to
New Spain with the reft of the continent of America.
Among thefe he will not allow a place to the Peru¬
vian fheep, the huanaco, and floth •, all of which are
peculiar to Sou^h America. Hernandez indeed makes
mention of the Peruvian ftieep, and gives a drawing of
it; but this was only on account of a few individuals
brought thence from Peru, which the Mexicans called
bv that name, in the fame manner as he deferibes fe~
\'eral animals of the Philippine iflesj not that they
had ever been bred in Mexico, or found in any country Mexico,
of North America, unlefs it wasfome individual carried
there, as they are carried as a curiolity from Europe.
The animals which he allows to be common to both
countries are, the Mexican hog, the moufete, the
opoffum, the armadillo, the techichi, a fmall animal re-
fembling a dog ; which being perfectly dumb, gave
occafion to a report that the Mexican dogs could not
bark. I he flelh of this animal was eaten by them, and
was efteemed agreeable and nourilliing food. Alter
the conqueft of Mexico, the Spaniards having neither
large cattle nor ftieep, provided their markets with
this quadruped ; by which means, the fpecies foon
came to be extindt, though it had been very numer¬
ous. The land-fquirrel is very numerous in the king¬
dom of Michuaean, has great elegance of form, and
is extremely graceful in its movements 5 but it cannot
be tamed, and bites moft furioully every perfon who
approaches it.
Befides thefe, there are fea lions, ratoons, and that
voracious animal named the tapir. Oviedo informs
us, that he lias feen it at one bite tear off two or three
hand-breadths of Ikin from a hound, and at another
a whole leg and thigh. The flelh is eatable, and its
Ikin is valued on account of its being fufticiently ffrong
to refill mulket-balls. There are likewife great num¬
bers of monkeys of many different kinds 5 feme of
which have heads refembling thofe of dogs. Some of
them are ftrong and fierce, equalling a man in ftature
when they Hand upright.
Among the animals peculiar to Mexico, is one na¬
med coyoto, which appears to have been inaccurately
deferibed by natural hiitorians ; fome making it one
fpecies and fome another. It is about the fize of a
maftiff, but more llender. The eyes are yellow and
fparkling, ears fmall pointed, and eredt ; the fnout
blackifh, ftrong limbs, and the feet armed with large
crooked nails. The tail is thick atid hairy, the Ikin
a mixture of black, brown, and white ; and the voice is
compounded of the howl of the wolf and the bark of
the dog. It purfues the deer, and will fometimes even
attack men. Its ufual pace is a trot, but fo quick that
a horfe at the gallop can fcarcely overtake it. The
tlalcojotl or tlalcoqoto is about the fize of a middling
dog, and the largeft animal that lives under the earth.
Its head has fome refemblance to that of a cat •, but
in colour and length of hair it refembles the lion.—
It has a long thick tail, and feeds upon poultry and
fmall animals, which it catches in the night-time.
The tepemuintli, or mountain-dog, though it is but of
the fize of a fmall dog, is fo bold that it attacks deer,
and fometimes kills them. Its hair and tail are long,
the b^dy black, but the head, neck, and breaft, white.
M, Buffbn reckons this animal the fame with the
glutton, but Clavigero denies it. Another animal,
larger than the two foregoing, is called the xoloit%cuint-
h. Some of thefe are no lefs than four feet in length.
It has a face like the dog, but tufks like the wolf,
wi‘h ere 61: ears, the neck grofs, and the tail long.—
It is entirely deflitute of hair, excepting only the
fnout, where there are fome thick crooked briftles.
The whole bodv is covered wi h a fmooth, foft alb-
coloured Ikin, fpotted partly with black and tawney.
This fpecies of animals, as well as the two former,
are almoft totally extinct. A Lyncean academician
named
Mexico.
icta
Mexican
birds.
M E X [ 776 ] M E X
named Giovanni Fabri, has endeavoured to prove that
the xoloitzcuintli is the fame with the wolf of Mexico j
but this is denied by Clavigero.
A curious animal of the mole kind is called to%an
or tu'&a. It is about the fize of a European mole,
but very different otherwife. The body is about feven
or eight inches long, and Avell made 5 the fnout like
that of a moufe, the ears fmall and round, with the tail
Ihort. The mouth is armed with very ftrong teeth,
and its paws are furnifhed with ftrong crooked nails,
with which it digs its habitation in the earth. It is
extremely deftruftive to the corn fields by the quantity
of grain it fteals, and to the highways by the num-
ner of holes it makes in them 5 for w'hen, on account
of the dimnefs of its fight, it cannot find its fir ft hole,
it makes another, and fo on. It digs the earth with its
claws and two canine teeth, which it has in the upper
jaw.
The birds are fo numerous, and of fuch various ap¬
pearances and qualities, that Mexico has been called
the country of birds, as Africa is of quadrupeds. Her¬
nandez defcribes above 200 peculiar to the country.
He allows to the eagles and hawks of Mexico a
fuperiority over thofe of Europe 5 and the falcons of
this country were formerly eftessmed fo excellent, that,
by the defire of Philip II. a hundred of them were
fent every year over to Spain. The largeft, the moft
beautiful, and the moft valuable kind of eagles, is
called by the Mexicans itzquauhtli, and will purfue not
only the larger kinds of birds, but quadrupeds, and even
men.
The ravens of Mexico, do not, like thofe of other
countries, feed upon carrion, but fubfift entirely by
Healing corn. The carrion is devoured by the birds
called in South America gallinaz.’zi, in Mexico %opi-
lots and aare. By Plernandez they are faid to be a
fpecies of ravens •, but, according to Clavigero, they
are very different, not only in their fize, but in the
fhape of their head, their flight, and their voice.
The aquatic birds are very numerous, and of great
variety.—There are at leaft 20 fpecies of ducks, a
vaft number of geefe, with feveral kinds of herons,
great numbers of fwans, quails, water rails, divers,
king’s fiftrers, pelicans, &c. The multitude of ducks
is fometimes fo great, that they cover the fields, and
appear at a diftance like flocks of ftieep. Some of
the herons and egrets are perfectly white, fome alh-
coloured others have the plumage of the body white,
while the neck, with the tops and upper part of the
wings, and part of the tail, are enlivened with a bright
fcarlet, or beautiful blue.
Numbers of the other claffes of birds are valuable
for their flefti, plumage, or fong, while fome are
remarkable for their extraordinary inftindt or other pro¬
perties. Clavigero enumerates more than 70 fpecies
of thofe which afford an agreeable and wholefome
food. Befides the common fowls which were brought
from the Canaries to the Antilles, and from thefe to
Mexico, there were, and ftill are, fowls peculiar to
the country itfelf. Thefe partly refemble the common
fowl and partly the peacock, whence they had the
name 01 gallipavos from the Spaniards. From Mexico
they were imported into Europe, where they have mul¬
tiplied very fall, efpecially in Italy, though the common
fowls have multiplied much more in Mexico.
There are .great numbers of birds valuable on ac- Mexico,
count of their plumage, which was made ufe of by
the Mexicans in their excellent mofaic works ; an art
which feems now to be totally loft. Peacocks have
been carried from the old continent to Mexico j but,
not being attended to, have propagated very flowly.
The birds remarkable for their fong are like wife very
numerous ) among which that called the centxonitl, by
Europeans the mocking-bird, is the moft remarkable, on
account of its counterfeiting naturally the notes of all
others it hears. There are great numbers of beautiful
parrots j and there is a bird which counterfeits the
human voice, but in a kind of burlefque tone, and will
follow travellers a great way. The vzaeua is remark¬
able for its inftinft. Birds of this kind live in fociety,
every tree being a village or city to them, having great
numbers of nefts in the neighbourhood of each other,
all hanging from the boughs. One of them, whofe
office it is to be the head or guard of the village, re-
iides in the middle of the tree j from which it flies
about from one neft to another, viliting them all, and
after flinging a little, returns to its place, while the reft
continue perfectly filent. If any bird of a different
fpecies approaches the tree, he flies to it, and with
his bill and wings endeavours to drive it off j but if
a man or any large animal comes near, he flies feream-
ing to another tree 5 and if at that time any of his
fellows happen to be returning to their nefts, he meets
them, and, changing his note, obliges them to retire
again : as foon as he perceives the danger over, he re¬
turns to his wonted round of vifiting the nefts. X2,
Mexico, like all other American countries, abounds Keptiles.
with reptiles, many of them of an enormous fize.
The crocodiles are not lefs to be dreaded than thofe of
Africa or Afia, and there are likewife fome of thofe
monftrous ferpents met with in the Eaft Indies and in
South America : though happily the fpecies of thofe
terrible creatures feems to be nearly extindft, as they
are feldom to be found but in fome folitary wood, or
other remote place. There are great numbers of liz¬
ards, fome of which the people fuppofe to be poifon-
ous ; but Clavigero thinks this opinion ill-founded.
There are feveral kinds of poifonous ferpents, of which
the rattlefnake is one. 124
The aquatic animals are innumerable. Clavigero Aqiianc
mentions a fpecies of frogs fo large that a Angle oncan^ma^'
will weigh a pound, and which are excellent food.—
Of fifti proper for food, he fays that he has counted up¬
wards of loo fpecies, without taking in the turtle,
crab, lobfter, or any other cruftaceous animal. The
fharks are well known for their voracity. A whole
fheep’s ikm, and even a large butcher’s knife, has been
found in the belly of one of them. They are accuftom-
ed to follow veffels, to devour any filth that is thrown
overboard : and, according to Oviedo, they have been
known to keep up with ftiips failing before a fair wind
for no lefs than 500 miles. The bottetto is a fifti about
eight inches in length, but exceflively thick. While
this fifh lies alive upon the beach, it fwells whenever it
is touched to an enormous fize, and boys often take
pleafure in making it burft with a kick, The liver is
fo poifonous as to kill with ftrong convulfions in half
an hour after it is eaten. j,,-
Of flying and other minute infe&s, the number isinfe&s.
prodigioufly great. There are a variety of beetles :
fome
M E X
t 7
Mexico, fome of a green colour make a great noife in flying j on
which account children are fond of them. There
are great numbers of ftiining beetles, which make a
delightful appearance at night, as well as the lumi¬
nous flies which abound in the country. There are fix
kinds of bees and four kinds of wafps ; of which
laft, one colledls wax and honey of a very fweet
tafte j another is called the wandering %vafp from
its frequent change of abode •, and in confequence of
thefe changes, it is conftantly employed in collecting
materials for its habitations. The lake of Mexico
abounds with a kind of fly, the eggs of which are
depofited upon the flags and rufues in fuch quantities
as to form large maffes. Thefe are collected by the
fifliermen, and carried to market for fale. They are
eaten by both Mexicans and Spaniards, and have much
the fame tafte as the caviare of fifh. There are abund¬
ance of gnats in the moift places and lakes 5 but the
capital, though fituated upon a lake, is entirely free
from them. The butterflies are in vaft numbers, and
their wings glow with colours far fuperior to thole of
Europe j the figures of fome of them are given by Her¬
nandez. But notwithftanding its beauties and advan¬
tages, Mexico is fubjeCt to the dreadful devaftations of
locufts, which fometimes occafion the moft deftruCtive
famines.
There are fome of the worms of Mexico made ufe
of by the inhabitants as food ; others are poifonous,
There are great numbers of fcolopendrse and fcor-
pions, fome of the former growing to an immenfe
iize. Hernandez fays, that he has feen fome of them
two feet long and two inches thick. The fcorpions
are very numerous ; and in the hot parts of the coun¬
try their poifon is fo ftrong as to kill children, and
give terrible pain to adults. Their fting is moft dan¬
gerous during thofe hours of the day in which the fun
is hotteft. There is a mifchievous kind of tick, which
in the hot countries abounds among the grafs. From
thence it cafily gets upon the clothes, and from them
upon the (kin. There it fixes with fuch force, from
the particular figure of its feet, that it can fcarcely be
got off. At firft it feems nothing but a fmall black
fpeck, but in a fhort time enlarges to fuch a degree,
from the blood which it fucks, that it equals the fize of
a bean, and then affumes a leaden colour. If it is not
fpeedily removed, a wound is made fimilar to that
which the nigera or ehegoe makes.
Mexico produces filk-worms : and the manufacture
of filk might be carried on to great advantage, were
it not prohibited for fome political reafons. Befides
the common filk, there is another found in the woods,
very white, foft, and ftrong. It grows on the trees in
feveral maritime places, particularly in dry feafons.
Unlefs by poor people, however, this filk is not turned
to any ufe, partly from inattention to their interefts,
but “ chiefly (fays our author) from the obftruCHons
which would be thrown in the way of any one who
lliould attempt a trade of that kind. We know from
Cortes’s letters to Charles V. that filk ufed to be fold
in the Mexican markets *, and fome pidures are ft ill
prefcrved, done by the ancient Mexicans upon a paper
made of filk.”
Cochineal is one of the moft valuable produ&s of
Mexico, and great care is taken to rear the infeft in
Vol. XIIE Part IE
116
Silk and
cochineal.
Mexico.
127
77 ] M E X
different parts ; but the beft is that which comes from
the province of Mizteca. Some have reckoned that
more than 2500 bags of cochineal are fent every year
from Mizteca to Spain ; and the trade in that article
carried on by the city of Oazaca is computed at
200,000 crowns value.
Though Mexico wras originally inhabited by a General
number of different nations, yet all of them refembled
each other pretty much, not only in charafter, but in^tants.
external appearance. “ They generally rather exceed
(fays Clavigero) than fall under the middle fize, and
are well proportioned in all their limbs. They have
good complexions, narrow foreheads, black eyes, clean,
firm, white, and regular teeth thick, black, coarfe,
gloffy hair 5 thin beards, and generally no hair upon
their legs, thighs, and arms, their fkin being of an
olive colour. There is fcarcely a nation on earth in
which there are fewer perfons deformed ; and it would
be more difficult to find a fingle hump-backed, lame,
or fquint-eyed man among a thoufand Mexicans, than
among a hundred of any other nation. The unpleafant-
nefs of their colour, the fmallnefs of their foreheads,
the thinnefs of their beards, and the coarfenefs of their
hair, are fo far compenfated by the regularity and fine
proportion of their limbs, that they can neither be
called very beautiful nor the contrary, but feem to hold
a middle place between the extremes. Their appear¬
ance neither engages nor difgufts ; but among the
young women of Mexico, there are many very beauti¬
ful and fair, whofe beauty is at the fame time rendered
more winning by the natural fweetnefs of their manner
of fpeaking, and by the pleafantnefs and natural
modefty of their whole behaviour. They become gray¬
headed and bald earlier than the Spaniards 5 and al¬
though moft of them die of acute difeafes, it is not
very uncommon among them to attain the age of a
hundred. They are now, and ever have been, mode¬
rate in eating, but their paffion for ftrong liquors is
carried to the greateft excefs. Formerly they were
kept within bounds by the feverity of the laws ; but
now that thefe liquors are become fo common, and
drunkennefs is unpuniftied, one half of the people feem
to have loft their fenfes •, and this, together with the
poor manner in which they live, expofed to all the
baneful impreffions of difeafe, and deftitute of the
means of corredting them, is undoubtedly the princi¬
pal caufe of the havock which is made among them by
epidemical diforders.
“ Many perfons allow the Mexicans to poffcfs a
great talent of imitation, but deny them that of in¬
vention ; a vulgar error, which is contradicted by the
ancient hiftory of that people. Their minds are af-
fedted by the fame variety of paffions with thofe of
other nations, but not to an equal degree. The
Mexicans feldom exhibit thofe tranfports of anger, or
frenzies of love, which are fo common in other coun¬
tries. They are flow in their motions *, and ffiow a
wonderful tenacity and fteadinefs in thofe works which
require time and long-continued attention. They are
moft patient of injury and hardfhip ; and where they
fufpedt no evil intention, are molt grateful for any
kindnefs fhown : but fome Spaniards, who cannot di-
ftinguifh patience from infenfibility, nor diftruft from
ingratitude, fay provebially, that the Indians are alike
j F infenfible
Mexic
123
Of the Tol-
tecas and
Chicheme-
cas.
M E X
infenfible to injuries or benefits.      
wnicli they entertain of all tvlio are not of their nation,
prompts them often to lie and betray ; fo that good
faith certainly has not been refpected among them fo
much as it deferves. They are by nature taciturn, fe-
rious, and aultere j and fhovv more anxiety to punifh
crimes than to reward virtues.
“ Generofity and perfect difintereftednefs are the
principal features of their charafter. Gold with the
Mexicans has not that value which it enjoys elfewhere.
They feem to give without reluftance 'what has colt
them the utmolt laoour to acquire. The ncgledt of
Jelfidi interelts, with the diflike which they bear to
tlieir rulers, and confequently their averfion to per-
foim ihe tallis impoled by them, feem to have been
tiie only grounds of tliat much exaggerated indolence
with which the Americans have been charged ; and,
af ter all, there is no fet of people in that country who
labour more, or whofe labour is more necefl'ary. The
refpebt paid by the young people to the old, and by
children to their parents, feem to be feelings that are
born with them. Parents are very fond of their chil¬
dren 5 but the affedtion which hufbands bear to their
wives is certainly lefs than that which wives bear to
their hufbands 5 and it is very common for the men to
love their neighbours wives better than their own.
“ Courage and cowardice feem alternately fo to affedt
their minds, that it is often difficult to determine whe-
the the one or the other predominates. They meet
dangers with intrepidity, when they proceed from na¬
tural caufes, but are eafily terrified by the ffern look
of a Spaniard. I hat ftupid indifference about death
and eternity, which many authors have thought inhe¬
rent in the charadler of every American, is peculiar
only to thofe who are yet fo rude and uninformed as to
have no idea of a future ffate.”
.I he 1 oltecas, avIio firft inhabited Mhxicc, were ac¬
counted much more polrfhed than thofe who came after
them, infomuch that in after ages it was cuftomary to
diftii-guifh people of ingenuity and learning by the name
of Toltecas. They always lived in fociety, colledted
into cities, under the government of kings, and had
regular laws. They -were more addidted to the arts of
peace than of war ; and it was to them that the fucceed-
ing nations owed themfelves indebted for their know¬
ledge of the culture of grain, cotton, pepper, &c.
They underftood the art of calling gold and filver, and
melting them in whatever forms they pleafed, acquiring
alfb great reputation from their Ikill in cutting gems of
all kinds 5 and they were befides well verfed in the
fciences of altronomy and chronology.
According to the ancient hiftories of thefe people,
they obferved, about a hundred years before the
Lhrillian era, how far the lolar year exceeded the ci¬
vil one 5 fupplying the defeft, as we do, by the addi¬
tion of a day once in four years. In the year 660,
while their monarchy continued in Tula, a celebrated
aftronomer named Huematzin, alfembled with the
king s confent all the ivife men of the nation j and
with their alfiltance painted a famous book named
Teoamoxth, or “ divine book,” in which Avere repre-
fented, in very plain figures, the origin of the Indians,
theii difperfion after the confufion of tongues at Ba¬
bel, their journey in Afia, their firlt fettlements iu
[ 778 1 M E X
That habitual diftruft America, the founding of the kingdom of Tula, and Mexic.
their progrefs till that time : but thefe, and other ac- ^
counts of their great knowledge and accuracy, favour
too much of exaggeration, or perhaps invention, from
both which it is impoflible to clear the Spaniards when
fpeaking of American affairs.
Ihe Chichemecas derived their knowledge of agri-Their pro-
culture from the i oltecas, and of confequencp the Mex- greh in a-
icans. alfo. Being deftitute of ploughs or animals 0fgbculture.
fufficient ftrength to affift them in their labour, they
made ufe of an inftrument of hard copper, Avhich they
called coatl or coa, but differing in fliape cither from
a fpade or mattock. I hey uled copper axes to cut
trees, the figure of Avhich Avas the fame Avith ours j
only that they put the axe into the eye of the handle,
inftead of putting the handle into the eye of the axe as
avc do. I hey had feveral other inftruments of agri¬
culture, but the forms of them are not mentioned by
hiitorians. 1 hey Avatered their fields by means of the
livers and fmall torrents Avhich came from the moun¬
tains y raifing dams to colledt them, and forming ca¬
nals to conduct them properly to the places Avhich re¬
quired moidure. I hey ufed enclofures of Hone, as
well as hedges for the fields, ufing for their hedges the
aloe plant, Avhich is Avell calculated for the purpofe;
and Avhat reparations were neceffary they gave in De¬
cember. 1 hey dibbled their maize : a method of
foAving more flow indeed than the ordinary one, but
Avhich certainly repays the trouble by a vaftly larger
crop, as Avell as by faving a very confiderable quantity
of feed. Clofe to the newly foAvn fields they com¬
monly eredted a fmall toA\Ter of Avood, Avhere a man
kept watch, in order to drive away the birds that came
to feed upon the grain; a cuftom flill preferved among
the Spaniards.
In the cultivation of their gardens, the Mexicans Magnifi-
Avere extremely Ikilful and magnificent j planting in cent gar-
them not only kitchen herbs, but fruit trees, medici-dens-
nal herbs, and flowers, Avith great tafle and regularity.
Some of the royal gardens excited the admiration of
the Spaniards fo much, that Cortes, in a letter to
Charles V. informed him that the garden at Huax-
tepec Avas the molt extenfive, the molt beautiful, and
molt delightful, that had ever been beheld. It Avas fix
miles in circumference, and watered by a beautiful
river Avhich croffed it; and there were pleafure houfes
erected at proper diltances from one another. It Avas
for many years preferved by the Spaniards. The
plants molt cultivated, next to maize, Avere cotton,
cocoa, and aloe} Avhich lalt ferv^ed a great many ufe-
ful purpofes. See Aloe. -
Though they had not the advantage of the larger
quadrupeds, as horfes, oxen, or Iheep, they bred up^is?3™'
an immenfe number of quadrupeds unknoAvn in Europe.
Private perfons brought up the fmall quadrupeds al¬
ready mentioned, refembling little dogs ; as Avell as
turkeys, quails, geefe, ducks, and other kinds of fowl.
In the houfes of the great men Avere bred filh, deer,
rabbits, and a variety of birds 5 and in the royal pa¬
laces, almolt all the fpecies of quadrupeds and Avinged
animals to be found in thefe kingdoms Avere kept, as
Avell as a great number of aquatic animals and reptiles.
According to Clavigero, Montezuma II. furpaffed all
the kings in the Avorld in this kind of magnificence j
and
Mexico,
. T^z
Paintings.
[ 779 ]
Mexicans with a
M E X
and there never was a nation equal to the
"J in the care they took in taming animals.
Painting was an art in great requeft among the
Mexicans, and one of very great ufe j as it was only
by means of paintings that they recorded their hiftories.
This art they derived, like others, from the Toltecas.
Some of thefe paintings were mere images of their
gods, kings, heroes, or of terreftrial obje£b. Others
were hiftorical, containing an account of particular
events •, others mythological, of which a volume is
preferved in the great library of the order of Bologna :
others were codes of law, civil and religious; while
fome were chronological, aftronomical, or aftrological;
in which were reprefented their calendar, the polition
of the ftars, changes of the moon, eclipfes, and prog-
noftieations and variations of the weather. Great
numbers of thefe were burned by the fuperftitious
Spaniards, who imagined that they contained fome
emblems of heathen worthip. They had likewife geo¬
graphical paintings, which ferved not only to fhow the
extent and boundaries of their pofleffions, but likewife
the fituation of places, the direclion of the eoafts,
and the courfe of the rivers. In his firft letter to
Charles V. Cortes fays, that having made inquiries if
there was any fecure harbour for veiTels on the Mexi¬
can coaft, Montezuma prefented him with a painting
of the whole coaft, from the port of Vera Cruz, at that
time called Chalchiuhuecan, to the river Coatzacualco.
Another author informs us alfo, that Cortes, in a long
and difficult voyage which he made to the bay of Hon¬
duras, made ufe of a chart prefented to him by the
lords of Coatzacualco, in which all the places and ri¬
vers w’ere marked from the coaft of Coatzacualco to
Huejacallan.
The cloth on which paintings were done was made
of the thread of the aloe or a kind of palm $ or they
painted on ffieep’s Ikins or upon paper. This laft
was made of the leaves of a certain kind of aloe, fteep-
ed like hemp, and afterwards wraffied, ftretched, and
fmoothed. They ufed alfo the bark of other trees,
prepared with gum : but we are ignorant of the me¬
thod they ufed in the manufaflure. This paper is fi-
milar in thicknefs to the European pafteboard, but
fofter, fmoother, and more eafy for writing. In ge¬
neral it was made up in very long ffieets which they
preferved in rolls, or folded like bed Ikreens. The
volume of Mexican paintings, preferved in the library
of Bologna, is a thick Ikin, ill dreffed, compofed of
different pieces painted all over, and folded up in that
manner. The beautiful colours which they employed
both in their paintings and in their dyes, were obtain¬
ed from wood, leaves, and the flowers of different
plants, as well as from various animal fubftances.
Their white was made from a kind of ftone which burns
into a fine plafter ; or from a mineral, which after being
made into a pafte worked like clay, and formed in¬
to fmall balls, turns white in the fire like Spanifh
white. Their b/nck Avas got from another mineral,
which has a difagreeable fmell, or from the foot
of a kind of pine collefted in fmall earthen veffels.
They obtain blue and crzure colours from indigo ; but
their mode of obtaining thefe Avas very different from
that ufed by the moderns. They put the branches of
the plant into hot, or rather lukeAvarm, Avater ; and
after having ftirred them about for a fufficient time
M E X
flick or ladle, they paffed the Avater, when Mexic®.
impregnated Avith the dye, into certain pots or cups, v"
in Avhich they let it remain until the folid part of the
dye Avas depofited 5 after xvhich they poured off the
Avater. This fediment was firft dried in the fun, and
afterwards put between two plates before a fire until
it grew hard. They had another plant Avhich likeAvife
afforded a blue colour, but inferior to the indigo.
Red Avas obtained from the feeds of the achiot or rocou,
and purple from cochineal. Their yellows Avere ochre,
and a colour extrafled from the beautiful flower of a
plant refembling artemifia. With nitre thefe floAvers
afforded a fine orange colour j and by means of alum
they extracted other colours.
The Mexican painters Avere by no means arrived at
much perfedlion in the knorvledge of light and fliade,
or of defign 5 neverthelefs, in fome of the ancient paint-
ings, particularly in the portraits of their kings, the 133
proportions Avere exaftly obferved. Befides paintings, They did
however, the Mexicans are faid to haxre employed Litro- notpile hie-
glyphics and characters ; but this is abfolutely denied
by Clavigero 5 who tells us, that “ they reprefented ters.
material things by their proper figures ; but, in order
to fave labour, paper, and colours, they contented
themfelves Avith reprefenting part of an objeCl, Avhich
Avas fufficient to make it underftood. But as avc can¬
not underftand the Avritings of others till we have learn¬
ed to read them; in like manner thofe American
authors, Avho fay that the Mexicans made ufe of charac¬
ters, required to have been firft inftruCled in the Mexican
manner of reprefenting objeCts, in order to have been
able to underftand the paintings Avhich ferved them in
place of Avriting. When they Avould reprefent any per-
fon, they painted a man or a human head, and over it
a figure expreffing the meaning of his name, as appears
in the figures of the Mexican kings. To exprefs a
city or village, they painted in like manner a figure
Avhich fignified the fame thing, Avith its name. To
form their hiftories or annals, they painted on the
margin of the cloth or paper the figures of the years
in fo many fquares, and at the fide of each fquare the
event or events which happened that year : and if, on
account of the number of years, the hiftory of Avhich
they meant to relate, they could not all be contained
in one canvas, they Avere continued on another. With
refpeCt to the order of reprefenting the years and
events, it Avas at the liberty of the hiftorian to begin
at Avhichever angle of the piece he pleafed ; but at the
fame time conftantly obferving, that if the painting
legan at the upper angle of the right-hand, he pro¬
ceeded toAvards the left; but if it began, as it molt
commonly did, at the upper angle of the left hand,
he proceeded ftraight doAvnwards. If he painted the
firft year at the loAver angle of the left, he continued
toAvards the right ; but if he began at the loAver angle
of the right, he painted ftraight upAvards : fo that on
the upper part of his canvas he never painted from left
to right, nor ever on the lower part from right to left;
never advanced upwards from the left, nor doAvnwaids
from the right. When this method of the Mexicans is
underftood, it is eafy to difeover at firft fight svhich is
the beginning and Avhich the ending of any hiftorical
painting. Their paintings, hoAvever, ought not to be
confidered as a regular full hiftory, but only as monu¬
ments and aids of tradition. We cannot txprefs too
5 F 2 ftrongly
M E X [780
ftrongly the care which parents and mafters took to in-
ltru£t their children and pupils in the hiftory of the na¬
tion. They made them learn fpeeches and difcourfes
-which they could not exprefs by the pencil ; they put
the events of their anceltors into verfe, and taught them
to ling them. This tradition difpelled the doubts and
undid the ambiguity which paintings alone might have
occafioned ; and, by the affiilance of thofe monuments,
perpetuated the memory of their heroes and of virtuous
examples, their mythology, rites, laws, and cuftoms.
^ ^ “ Nor did that people only make ufe of tradition,
of events bv paintings, and fongs, to preferve the memory of events,
]
M E X
Mexico.
134
Careful to
preferve
their tra¬
ditions.
I3S
Preferved
knotted
threads.
Their
iowl<
fculp
ture.
but alfo of threads of different colours and differently
knotted. This curious method of the reprefentation
of things, however much ufed in Peru, does not appear
to have been employed in the province of Anahuac, if
not in the mofc early ages 5 for no traces of fuch mo¬
numents are now to be found. Boturini fays, that
after the moft diligent fearch, he with difficulty found
one in a place in Tlafcala, the threads of which were
already w7afted and confumed by time. If thofe w'ho
peopled South America ever paffed the country of A-
nahuac, they poffibly might have left there this art,
which was afterwards abandoned for that of painting,
introduced by the Toltecans or fome other nation ftill
more ancient.”
T he Mexicans arrived at greater perfe61ion in fculp-
ture, calling of metals, and mofaic works, than in paint¬
ing. Sculpture was likewife one of the arts exercifed
by the ancient Toltecans •, but the Mexicans had fculp-
tors among them wrhen they left their native country
of Atztlan. Several of the Toltecan ftatues, however,
were preferved till the time of the conqueft, particularly
that of the idol Tlaloc, placed upon the mountain of
the fame name, and fome gigantic ftatues in one of their
temples. Stone and wood were the ufual materials of
their ftatues : the former was worked with a chiffel
made of flint; and, in fpite of the unfitnefs of the inftru-
ment, fuch was the phlegmatic nature of the people,
that they furmounted every difficulty arifing from the
tedioufnefs of the work. In their ftatues they learned to
exprefs all the attitudes and poftures of which the human
body is capable. They obferved the proportions exactly,
and could when neceffary execute the moft delicate
ftrokes with the chiffel. They not only made entire
ftatues, but cut out in vwod and in ftone figures in baffo
relievo } of which kind are thofe of Montezuma II.
and one of his fons, recorded wdth praifes by Acofta.
They alfo made ftatues of clay and wood, employing
for thefe a chiffel of copper. The number of their fta¬
tues was in proportion to that of their idols ; but fo
aftive were the Spaniih priefts in deftroying thefe, that
there is now fcarce any veftige of them remaining.
The foundation of the firft church in Mexico was laid
with idols 5 on which occafion many thoufand ftatues of
their gods were neceffarily broke in pieces. In calling
Excelled in of metals, however, the Mexicans greatly excelled their
the art of works either of painting or fculpture, “ The miracles
ealhng me-j.jiey produced of this kind (fays Clavigero), would not
be credible, if, befides the teftimony of thofe who faw
them, a great number of curiofities of this kind had
not been fent from Mexico to Europe. The -works of
gold and filver fent in prefents from the conqueror
Cortes to Charles V. filled the goldfmiths of Europe
137
with aftonilhment; who, as feveral authors of that pe- Mexie#.
riod atteft, declared that they were altogether inimi-
table. The Mexican founders made both of gold and
filver the moft perfetft images of natural bodies. They
made a filh in this manner, which had its leaks alter¬
nately one of filver and the other of gold 5 a parrot
with a moveable head, tongue, and wings j and an ape
with a moveable head and feet, having a fpindle in its
hand in the attitude of fpinning. T hey fet gems in
gold and filver, and made moft curious jewellery of
great value. In Ihort, thefe fort of works w7ere fo ad¬
mirably finilhed, that even the Spaniih foldiers, all flung
with the fame wretched third: for gold, valued the work-
manlhip above the materials. This wonderful art, for¬
merly practifed by the Toltecas, the invention of which
they aferibed to one of their gods, has been entirely
loft by the debafement of the Indians, and the indolent
neglect of the Spaniards. We are doubtful if there are
any remains of thofe curious works ; at leaft we appre¬
hend that it would be more eafy to find them in fome
of the cabinets of Europe than in all New7 Spain. Co-
vetoufnefs to profit by the materials mult unqueftionably
have conquered all defire to preferve them as curioft-
ties.” The works of the Mexicans in gold and filver,
executed with the hammer, were much interior to thofe
of the Europeans.
But of all the w7orks executed by the ancient Mexi- Beautiful
cans, thofe of mofaic were the moft curious, as well as mo^c-
moft highly valued by themfelves. Thefe w7ere made
of the feathers of birds 5 and for procuring them they
reared a great number of thofe birds of fine plumage,
•with which the country abounded, not only in the royal
palaces, but alfo in private houfes; and at certain fea-
1’ons they carried off the feathers for thefe purpofes, or
to fell them at market. They valued particularly the
feathers of the humming birds, on account of their
fmallnefs, finenefs, and various colours j and in thefe,
as well as other birds of fine plumage, nature fupplied
them not only with all the colours producible by art,
but likewife with many which art cannot imitate.
Their mofaic works, as well as indeed all others of the
Mexicans, required infinite patience. At the under¬
taking of every work of this kind feveral artifts affem-
bled ; and having agreed upon a defign, and fixed their
meafure and proportions, each artift charged himfelf with
the execution of a certain part of the image, and exert¬
ed himfelf fo diligently in it, that he frequently fpent
a whole day in adjufting a feather 5 firft trying one and
then another, viewing it fometimes one way, then an¬
other, until he found one which gave his part that ideal
perfe£lion propofed to be attained. When the part
which each artift undertook was done, they affembled
again to form the entire image from them. If any
part happened to be in the leaft deranged, it was
wrought again until it was perfectly finilhed. They
laid hold of the feathers with fmall pincers, that they
might not do them the leaft injury, and pafted them
on the cloth with fome glutinous matter *, then they
united all the parts upon a little table or a plate of cop¬
per, and flattened them fuftly until they left the furface
of the image fo equal and fmooth, that it appeared to be
the work of a pencil. Thefe works were prodigioufly
admired by the Spaniards. J39
The Mexicans were Ikilled in arcliiteclure even be- Theu ar’
fore
ciuttfture.
0
Mexico.
S40
Remark¬
able aque-
dudb.
M E X [ 781 ] M E X
fore tliey left their native country ; and many edifices
ftill remain which were conftrudted by them during
their frequent journeys from one place to another.
At their firft arrival on the lake, they had no other
materials to build their houfes with but reeds and mud,
until the fuccefs of their commerce allowed them to
purchafe better materials. When the city came to
its perfection, the houfes of the principal people were
conftrufted of done and lime : they confided of two
floors, having halls, large court-yards, and chambers
fitly difpofed : the roofs were flat and terraced j the
walls fo w’ell whitened, polidied, and fluning, that they
appeared to the Spaniards when at a didance to have
been condrufted of filver. The floor was paved with
plader, perfedtly level, plain, and fmooth. Many of
their houfes were crowned with battlements and tur¬
rets 5 and their gardens had fifh ponds, and the walks
of them fymmetrically laid out. The large houfes
had in general tw'o entrances, the principal one to the
dreet, the other to the canal: they had no wooden
doors to their houfes, but covered the entrance with
fmall reeds, from whence they fufpended a ftring of
cocoa fhells, or fome other materials which would make
a ncife, fo as to awake the attention of the family
when any perfon lifted up the reeds to enter the houfe.
—The houfes of the poorer fort were conflrudted of
reeds, unburnt bricks, done, or mud j and the roofs
made of a kind of a long hay which grows plentifully
in the fields, particularly in the warm parts of the
country. For this purpofe they ufed alfo the leaves
of the aloe placed in the manner of tiles, to which
they bear fome refemblance both in thicknefs and
drape. One of the columns or fupports of thefe
houfes was generally a tree in the vigour of its
growth 5 by which means, befides the plealure derived
from its foliage and flrade, they faved themfelves fome
labour and expence. Thefe houfes had one or more
apartments according to the circumdances of the fa¬
mily.
The ancient Mexicans underflood the method of
conftrufting arches or vaults, as appears from fome re¬
mains of their buildings as well as from their paintings.
They had likewife cornices and other ornaments of
architecture. They had alfo fquare or cylindrical co¬
lumns ; but it is not known whether they had any capi¬
tals or not. They frequently adorned them rvith figures
in buffo relievo ; but their great ambition was to have
them all made out of one done. The foundations of
the large houfes in the capital were laid upon beams of
cedar driven into the ground, on account of its want of
folidity ; and the fame method is ftill praftifed by the
Spaniards. The roofs of thefe were made of cedar, fir,
cyprefs, pine, &c. In the royal palaces the columns
were of marble or even of alabafter, which the Spaniards
miftook for jafper. In the reign of Ahuizotl a new kind
of done, named tclxontli, was difeovered in the Mexi¬
can lake, which was ever afterwards made ufe of for
building. It is hard, light, and porous like a fponge •,
by which means the lime adheres very firmly to it It
is valued likewife on account of its colour, which is a
blood red. Some of the pavements were chequered
with marble and other valuable flones.
The mod remarkable piece of Mexican architefture
were their aquedufls. There were two which con¬
veyed the water to the capital from the diflance of two
miles. Thefe were condrucled of done and cement Mexico,
five feet high, and two paces broad, upon a road for v—-"v’”—-'
that purpole upon the lake; by which the water was
brought to the entrance of the city, from whence it
wTas lent forth in fmaller channels to fupply the differ¬
ent fountains. The famous aqueduct of Chempoallan,
which was done in the 16th century, is worthy of be¬
ing ranked among the greated in Europe. The con-
duftor of this work Avas a Francifcan miflionary named
Tembleque; and it xvas executed with great Ikill by
the Chempoallefe. The Avater Avas brought from a
great didance, and the country through which it mud
pafs w!as mountainous and rocky 5 but every difficulty
Avas overcome by the indudry of the Mexicans. The
aqueduct, including all the turnings and Avindings,
exceeded 30 miles in length. The principal difficulty
confided in eroding three great precipices, over Avhich
they Avere obliged to condrudt three bridges, the firff.
of 47, the fecond of 13, and the third of 67 arches.
The larged arch was 100 feet high, and 61 broad',
fo that a large veffel could have paffed under it. It
mull, however, be obferved, that, in executing this un¬
dertaking, the Mexicans A\rere undoubtedly affided by
European tools, and the directions of European work¬
men ; fo that Ave cannot Avith drift propriety call it one
of their works.
They Avere expert jewellers, and underdood the art Excellent
of cutting and polidnng the dones, as wrell as of fetting jewellers,
them. The gems mod common in their country xvere
the emeralds, amethyds, carnelians, turquoifes, and
fome others. Emeralds xvere fo common, that no
lord or noble xvanted them 5 and none of them died
without having one fixed to his lip, that it might ferve
him, as they imagined, in the other xvorld, indead of
a heart. When Cortes returned the fird time to Spain,
lie brought with him five emeralds, valued, by the
jewellers there, at 100,000 ducats. The fird was in
the form of a rofe; the fecond of a horn 5 the third
of a little fifh xvith eyes of gold ; the fourth in the
form of a bell, xvith a fine pearl for a clapper. The
fifth xvas a fmall cup xvith a foot of gold, and four little
golden chains which united in a pearl in the form of a
button. For this alone the Genoefe merchants offere d
40,000 ducats, in order to fell it again to the grand
fignior. Befides thefe, he had two emerald vafes va¬
lued at 300,000 ducats', but thefe lad were led by diip-
wreck in the unfortunate expedition of Charles V.
atraind Algiers. There are no inch gems wrought at
prefent, nor is it even knoxvn xvhere the emerald mines
are fituated ', though it is faid there are dill fome large
pieces of this precious done in fome of the churches ;
but the prieds take care to fecure them with iron chains,
led they ffiould be carried oft". ^
In other more common manufaftures the Mexicans Manufac-
were by no means deficient. The earthen ware oftures ofdifi-
Cholula xvas much praifed by the Spaniards j and they ^erent
had the art of ornamenting this kind of ware with va-kait^’
rious colours, though they did not underdand the
making of glafs. Their carpenters wrought with in-
flruments of copper j and there are dill remains of
their labours which difplay a tolerable Ikill. Almod
every one was acquainted xvith the method of making
cloth. Being deditute of wool, common filk, lint,
or hemp, they were obliged to fupply the deficiency
by other materials. For xvool they lubdituted cotton.
MS
Their hor¬
rible reli¬
gion.
M E X [ 7
for they ufed feathers, the wool of the hare or
rabbit j and inttead of lint and hemp, they ufed the fi¬
brous pait of the leaves of the aloe. From thefe lad;
they obtained a thread as fine as from lint; and from
fome fpecies they had a coarfer fort refembling hemp,
lo ootain this thread they foaked the leaves in water,
cleaned them, expofed them to the fun, and then beat
them tib they were fit to be fpun. Sometimes they in¬
terwove with their cotton the fined down on the belly
of the rabbits or hares, after having fpun it into thread ;
and of thefe they made mod beautiful cloths, which
were particularly ufed for winter waidcoats for the
lord^. ± heir cotton manufactures were equal to any
produced in Europe ; they wove them with different
figures and colours, reprefenting different animals and
dowers. Of feathers interwoven with cotton they made
mantles and bed-curtains, carpets, gowns, &c. Thefe
Vi cr<; exceedingly beautiful ; but this kind of manufac¬
ture is now loff, though there are dill fome of thefe
garments in the polfeffion of the principal lords, who
Wear them upon folemn occadons.
All thefe advances towards civilization, however, in
the ancient Mexicans, were much more than counter¬
balanced by the horrible barbarities they committed in
their religious ceremonies, and in which they exceeded
every nation on earth. Human facrifices were indeed
in ufe among all the ancient heathens ; but fuch pro¬
digious maffacres at the dedication of their temples are
unheard of in hidory. Whether they ufed thefe bar¬
barous facrifices in their own country, or whether the
pi a lice began with that of the four Xochimilca pri-
foners, is not known •, but as they only ufed their pri¬
soners or daves whom they bought in this way, it is im-
poffible that, during the infancy of their date, the num¬
ber of human viflims could have been very great.
Mod of thofe unhappy creatures perifhed by having
their breads opened, and their hearts pulled out; fome
were drowned, others ftarved to death with hunger ;
and fometimes they were burnt. Prifoners of high
--r rank were allowed to die by what Clavigero calls the
Gladiator!- gladjatorian facrifice, which was performed in the fol-
Sn lfice' lowing manner : Near to the greater temple of large
cities, in an open fpace of ground fufficient to contain
an immenfe number of people, was a round terrace
eight feet high, upon wdnch was placed a large round
done refembling a milldone in diape, but much larger,
almod three feet high, well polidied, and having figures
cut upon it. On this done, wiiicli wras called temal-
catl, the pnfoner was placed, armed with a fhield and
fhort fword, and tied by one foot. Here he was en¬
countered by a Mexican officer or foldier better armed
than himfelf. If the prifoner was vanquifhed, he was
carried, dead or alive, to the temple, where his heart
ivas taken out and offered in the ufual manner •, but if
he conquered fix combatants, he gained his life and li¬
berty. An indance, however, is given in which this
cudom was infringed 5 for the Huetzotzincas having
taken the principal lord of Cholula, a man of lingular
bravery, he overcame feven combatants ; notwithdand-
ing which he was put to death j but on this account the
Huetzotzincas were rendered for ever infamous among
thefe nations.
Hidorians differ concerning the number of vi&ims
who perifhed annually in thefe facrifices: Clavigero
inclines to think it was 20,000, but others make
4
144
MS
Number of
human vic¬
tims annu¬
ally facri-
ficed.
82 ] HEX
it much more. Zumarraga, the fird bifhop of Mexico, Mexico
fays m a letter of the 12th of June 1531, addreffed to r—
the general chapter of his order, that in that capi¬
tal alone there were above 20,000 vi&ims annually fa-
crificed. Some authors, quoted by Gomara, fay that
50,000 were annually facrificed in the various parts of
the empire. Acoda fays, that there was a certain day
of the year on which they facrificed 5000 victims, and
another on which 20,coo were facrificed. According to
others they faerificed, on the mountain Tepeyacac on¬
ly, 20,000 annually to one of their female deities. On
the other hand, Bartholomew de las Cafas reduces the
number of human vi&ims to 50 or at mod to 100.
“ We are drongly of opinion (fays Clavigero), that all
thefe authors have erred in the number ; Las Cafas by
diminution, and the red by exaggerating the truth.” I46-
Befides the cruelties which they pra&ifed up-Their man.
on others, the Mexicans were accudomed to treatftrousau-
themfelves with, the mod inhuman auderities, think-lterities
ing that the diabolical rage of their deities would
be appeafed by human blood. “ It makes one diud-
der (fays Clavigero), to read the auderities which
they pradifed upon themfelves, either in atonement
for. their tranfgreflions, or in preparation for their
fedivals. They mangled their fleffi as if it had been
infenfible, and let their blood run in fuch profufion as
if it had been a fuperfluous fluid in the body. The
effufion of blood was frequent and daily with fome
of their prieds. They pierced themfelves with the
fharped fpines of the aloe, and bored feveral parts of
their bodies, particularly their ears, lips, tongue, and
the^ fat of their arms and legs. Through the holes
which they made with thefe fpines they introduced
pieces of cane, the fird of which were fmall ; but every
time this penitential differing was renewed, a thicker
piece was made ufe of. The blood which flowed from
them was carefully colledled in the leaves of the plant
aczojat/.' They fixed the bloody fpines in little balls of
hay, which they expofed upon the battlements of the
walls of the temple, to tedify the penance which they
did for the people. Thofe who exercifed fuch feverities
upon themfelves within the enclofure of the greater
temple of Mexico, bathed in a pond that was formed
there, and which, from being always tinged with blood,
was called eKapan.”
J he drefs of the Mexicans was very fimple ; that Their drefc;
of the men confided only of a large belt or girdle, the
two ends of which hung down before and behind ; the
women wore a fquare mantle, about four feet long ;
the two ends were tied upon the bread or upon one
Ihoulder. I he Mexican gown was alfo a piece of
fquare cloth, in which the women wrapped themfelves
from the waid down to the middle of the leg. They
wore alfo a fmall under ved or waidcoat without fleeves,
named huepilli.
The drefs of the poorer fort was made of the thread
of the mountain palm, or of coarfe cotton ; but thofe
of better dation wore the fined cotton embellifhed
with various colours, and figures of animals or flowers}
or woven with feathers, or the fine hair of the rab¬
bit, &c. 1 he men wore two or three mantles, and
the women three or four veds, and as many gowns,
putting the longed undermod, fo that a part of each
of them might be feen. Their fhoes were only foies
of leather, or coarfe cloth of the mountain palm tied
with
148
Modern in¬
habitants,
&c.
M E X [78
Mexico, with .firings j but thofe of the great people were adorn-
v J ed with ribbands of gold and jewels. They all wore
long hair, and thought the.rafelves difhonoured by be¬
ing fhaved, or having their hair clipped, except the con-
fecrated virgins in the temple. The women wore it
loofe j but the men tied it up in different forms, and
adorned their heads with fine feathery both when they
danced and went to war. With this iimplicity, however,
they mixed no fmall quantity of extravagance. Befides
feathers and jewels, with which they ufed to adorn their
heads, they wore ear-rings, pendants at their upper lip,
as wrcll as many at their nofes, necklaces, bracelets for
the hands and arms, as well as certain rings like col¬
lars which they wore about their legs. The ear-rings
of the poor were {hells, pieces of cryftal, amber, &c.;
but the rich wore pearls, emeralds, amethylts, or other
gems fet in gold.
Inftead of foap the Mexicans ufed a kind of fruit
called copalxocotl j the pulp of 'which is white, vifcous,
and very bitter, makes water white, raifes a froth, and
will clean linen like foap. They ufed alfo a kind of
root named amolh, which is not unlike the faponaria of
the old continent. It is now' more ufed for waffling the
body, efpecially the head than for clothes. Clavigero
fays, that there is a kind of this root which dyes the
hair of a golden colour, and that he has been witnefs to
this effedf on the hair of an old man.
_ The principal inhabitants of Mexico, in modern
times, are Spaniards fent thither by the court, to fill
the polls of government. They are obliged like thofe
in the mother country who afpire to any ecclefiaftical,
civil, or military employments, to prove that there
have been neither heretics, Jews, Mohammedans, nor
any perfon in their family who has been called be¬
fore the inquifition for four generations. Merchants
who are defirous of going to Mexico, as well as to
other parts of America, without becoming colonilfs,
are compelled to obferve the fame forms. They are
'alfo obliged to fwear that they have 300 palms of
merchandife, their own property, in the fleet in which
they embark, and that they will not carry their wives
with them. On thefe abfurd conditions they become
the principal agents of the European commerce with
the Indies. Though their charter is only to continue
three years, and a little longer for countries more reT
mote, it is of great importance. To them alone be¬
longs the right of felling, as commififoners, the major
part of the cargo. If thefe laws were obferved, the
merchants Rationed in the new world wrould be con¬
fined to difpofe of what they have received on their
own account.
The prediledfion which adminiffration has for Spa¬
niards born in Europe, has reduced the Spanifh Creoles
to acquiefce in fubordinate Rations. The defcendants
of the companions of Cortes, and of thofe who came
after them, being conRantly excluded from ail places
of honour or of truR that were any'way confiderable,
have feen the gradual decay of the power that fup-
ported their fathers. The habit of being obliged to
bear that unjufi contempt with which they have been
treated, has at laR made them become really con¬
temptible. They have totally lofi, in the vices which
originate from indolence, from the heat of the climate,
and from a fuperfiuous enjoyment of all things, that
firmnefs and that fort of pride which have ever char
3 ] M E X
rafferized their nation. A barbarous luxury, Riame-
ful pleafures, and romantic intrigues, have enervated
ail the vigour of their minds 5 and fuperflition hath
completed the ruin of their virtues. Blindly devoted
to priefls too ignorant to enlighten them by their in-
flrudfions, too depraved to edify them by their ex¬
ample, and too mercenary to attend to both thefe du¬
ties of their function, they have no attachment to any
part of their religion but that which enfeebles the
mind \ and have neglected what might have contributed
to rectify their morals.
I he Meflees, who conflitute the third order of
citizens, are held in Rill greater contempt. It is well
known that the court of Madrid, in order to replenifh
a part of that dreadful vacancy which the avarice and
cruelty of the conquerors had occafioned, and to re¬
gain the confidence of thofe who had efcaped their
fury, encouraged as much as pofiible the marriage of
Spaniards with Indian women. Thefe alliances, which
became pretty common throughout all America, -were
particularly frequent in Mexico, where the women
had more underflanding and -were more agreeable than
in other places. The Creoles transferred to this mix¬
ed progeny the contemptuous flight they received from
the Europeans. Their condition, equivocal at firff, in
procefs of time was fixed between the whites and the
blacks.
1 hefe blacks are not very numerous in Mexico.
As the natives are more intelligent, more robufl, and
more induftrious, than thofe of the other colonies,
they have hardly introduced any Africans except fuch
as wrere required either to indulge the caprice, or per¬
form the domeflic fervice, of rich people. Thefe
Raves, who are much beloved by their maflers, on
whom they abfolutely depend, who purchafed them at
an extravagant price, and who make them the mini-
fters of their pleafures, take advantage of the high
favour they enjoy, to opprefs the Mexicans. They
a flume over thefe men, who are called free, an afcen-
dant which keeps up an implacable hatred betw'een
the two nations. The law has fludied to encom-age
this averfion, by taking effedlual meafures to prevent
all connexion between them. Negroes are prohibited
from having any amorous correfpondence with the
Indians 5 the men, on pain of being mutilated j the
women, of being feverely punifhed. On all thefe ac¬
counts, the Africans, who in other fettlements are
enemies to the Europeans, are in the Spanifh Indies
their warm friends.
Authority has no need of this fupport, at leafi in
Mexico, where population is no longer what it was
formerly. I he firfl hiflorians, and thofe who copied
them, have recorded, that the Spaniards foupd there
10,000,000 of fouls. This is Rippofed to have been
the exaggerated account of conquerors, to exalt the
magnificence .of their triumph ; and it was adopted,
without examination, with fo much the more readi-
nefs, as it rendered them the more odious. We need
only trace with attention the progrefs of thofe ruffians
•who at firR defolated thefe fine countries, in order to
be .convinced that they had not fucceeded in multi¬
plying men at Mexico and the adjacent parts, but by
depopulating the centre of the empire ; and that the
provinces which are remote from the capital, differed
in nothing from the other deferts of South and North
America.
Mexico.
M E X [ 784. ] M E X
Mexico.
149
Mexicans
cruelly
treated by
the Spani¬
ards. '
150
Bartholo-
America. It is making a great conceffion, to allow
that the population of Mexico has only been exag¬
gerated one half: for it does not now much exceed
2,0C0,000.
It is generally believed, that the firft conquerors maf-
facred the Indians out of wantonnefs, and that even the
priefts incited them to thefe acts of ferocity. Undoubt¬
edly tliefe inhuman foldiers frequently Ihed blood with¬
out even an apparent motive; and certainly their fana¬
tic miffionaries did not oppofe thefe barbarities as they
ought to have done. This was not, however, the real
caufe, the principal fource of the depopulation of Mexi¬
co ; it was the work of a How tyranny, and of that ava¬
rice which exafted from its wretched inhabitants more
rigorous toil than was compatible with their conftitution
and the climate.
This oppreffion was coeval with the conqueft of the
the country. All the lands were divided between the
crown, the companions of Cortes, and the grandees or
minifters who were moll in favour at the court of Spain.
The Mexicans, appointed to the royal domains, were
deilined to public labours, which originally were con-
fiderable. The lot of thofe who were employed on the
eftates of individuals was ftill more wretched. All
groaned under a dreadful yoke ; they were ill fed $ they
had no wages given them } and Cervices were required
of them, under which the moil robuft men would have
funk. Their misfortunes excited the compaffion of Bar-
mew de las tholomew de las Cafas.
€afas takes
their part.
This man, fo famous in the annals of the new
world, had accompanied his father in the firft voyage
made by Columbus. The mildnefs and fimplicity of
the Indians affedted him fo ftrongly, that he made
himfelf an ecclefiaftic, in order to devote his labours
to their converfion. But this foon became the leaft
of his attention. As he was more a man than a
priejl, he felt more for the cruelties exercifed againft
them than for their fuperftitions. He was continually
hurrying from one hemifphere to the other, in order
to comfort the people for whom he had conceived an
attachment, or to foften their tyrants. This con-
ducl, which made him be idolized by the one and
dreaded by the other, had not the fuccefs he expedted.
The hope of linking awe, by a charadler revered
among the Spaniards, determined him to accept, the
bilhoprick of Chiapa in Mexico. When he was con¬
vinced that this dignity was an infufficient barrier
againft that avarice and cruelty which he endeavoured
to check, he abdicated it. It was then that this
courageous, firm, difinterefted man, accufed his coun¬
try before the tribunal of the whole univerfe. In his
account of the tyranny of the Spaniards in America,
he accufes them of leaving deftroyed 15,000,000 of
Indians. They ventured to find fault with the acri¬
mony of his ftyle ; but no one convidfed him of
exaggeration. His writings, which indicate the ami¬
able turn of his difpofition, and the fublimity of his
fentiments, have ftamped a difgrace upon his barba¬
rous countrymen, which time hath not, and never will,
efface.
The court of Madrid, awakened by the reprefenta-
dition ren- tions of the virtuous Las Cafas, and by the indigna-
dered fome-pjon 0f the whole world, became fenfible at lart, that
what eafier. tBe tyranny it permitted was repugnant to religion,
to humanity, and to policy : and refolved to break the
IS1
Their con-
chains of the Mexicans. Their liberty was now only Mexico,
conftrained by the foie condition, that they fhould v“—y—
not quit the territory where they were fettled. This
precaution owed its origin to the fear that was enter¬
tained of their going to join the wandering favages to
the north and fouth of the empire.
With their liberty their lands ought alfo to have
been reftored to them 5 but this was not done. This
injuftice compelled them to work folely for their op-
prefibrs. It was only decreed, that the Spaniards, in
whofe fervice they laboured, fhould ftipulate to keep
them well, and pay them to the amount of 5I. 5s. a-
year.
From thefe profits the tribute impofed by govern¬
ment was fubtrafted, together with 4s. q^d. tor an
inftitution which it is aftoniftiing the conquerors fhould
have thought of eftablifliing. This was a fund fet a-
part in each community, and appropriated to the relief
of fuch Indians as were decayed or indifpofed, and to
their fupport under private or public calamities.
The diftribution of this fund was committed to
their caciques. Thefe were not the defcendants of
thofe whom they found in the country at the time of
the conqueft. The Spaniards chofe them from among
thofe Indians who appeared the moft attached to their
interefts ; and were under no apprehenfions at making
thefe dignities hereditary. Their authority was li¬
mited to the fupporting the police in their diftridl,
which in general extended eight or ten leagues; to
the collefting the tribute of thofe Indians who la¬
boured on their own account, that of the others being
ftopt by the mailers whom they ferved 5 and to the
preventing their flight by keeping them always under
their infpeftion, and the not fuffering them to ccntraft
any engagement without their confent. As a reward
of their fervices, thefe rr.agiflrates obtained from go¬
vernment a property. They were permitted to take
out of the common flock 2-fd. annually for every In¬
dian under their jurifditlion. At laft they were em¬
powered to get their fields cultivated by fuch young
men as were not yet fubjeft to the poll tax 5 and to
employ girls, till the time of their marriage, in
fuch occupations as were adapted to their fex, with¬
out allowing them any falary except their mainte¬
nance.
Thefe inftitutions, which totally changed the con¬
dition of the Indians of Mexico, irritated the Spa¬
niards to a degree not to be conceived. Their pride
would not fuffer them to confider the Americans as
free men $ nor would their avarice permit them to
pay for labour which hitherto had coft them nothing.
They employed themfelves fucceffively, or in combi¬
nation, craft, remonftrances, and violence, to effecf
the fubverfion of an arrangement which fo ftrongly
contradi&ed their warmeft paflions ; but their efforts
were ineffedual. Las Cafas had raifcd up for his
beloved Indians prote&ors who feconded his defign
with zeal and warmth. The Mexicans themfelves,
finding a fupport, impeached their oppreffors betore
the tribunals ; and even the tribunals that were either
weak or in the intereft of the court. They carried
their refolution fo far, as even unanimoufly to refufe
to work for thofe who had treated any of their coun¬
trymen with injuftice. This mutual agreement, more
than any other circumftance, gave fblidity to the re¬
gulations
O
Mexico.
M E X [ 785 ] M E X
gulations which had been decreed. The other, pre-
fcribed bv the laws, was gradually eftabliihed. There
was no longer any regular fyflem of opprefiion •, but
merely feveral of tbofe particular vexations which a
vanquithed people, who have loft their government,
can hardly avoid from thofe who have fubdued it.
Thefe clandeftine afts of injuftice did not prevent
the Mexicans from recovering from time to time, cer¬
tain detached portions of that immenfe territory of
which their fathers had been defpciled. T hey pur-
chafed them of the royal domain, or of the great pro¬
prietors. It wras not their labour which enabled them
to make thefe acquilitions: for this they were indebted
to the happinefs of having difcovered, fome of them
mines, others treafures which had been concealed at the
time of the conqueft. The greateft number derived
their refources from the priefts and monks, to whom
they owed their exiftence.
Even thofe wTho experienced a fortune lefs propi¬
tious, procured for themfelves, by the foie profits of
their pay, more conveniences than they had enjoyed
before they underwent a foreign yoke. We ftiould
be very much deceived, were we to judge of the an¬
cient profperity of the inhabitants of Mexico by what
has been faid of its emperor, its court, its capital,
and the governors of its provinces. Defpotifm had
there produced thofe fatal effefts which it produces
everywhere. The whole ftate xvas iacrificed to the
caprices, pleafures, and magnificence, of a fmall num¬
ber of perfons.
The government drew conliderable advantages from
the mines which it caufed to be worked, and ftill
greater from thofe which were in the hands of indivi¬
duals. The fait works greatly added to its revenue.
Thofe who followed agriculture, at the time of bar-
veft paid in a kind of a third of all the produce of the
lands, whether they belonged to them as their own
property, or whether they were only the farmers of
them. Men who lived by the chafe, filhermen, pot¬
ters, and all mechanics, paid the fame proportion of
their induftry every month. Even the poor were
taxed at certain fixed contributions, which their la¬
bour or their alms might put them in a condition to
Pa7-
The Mexicans are now lefs unhappy. Our fruits,
our corn, and our cattle, have rendered their food
more wholefome, agreeable, and abundant. T heir
houfes are better built, better dilpofed, and better
furnilhed. Shoes, drawers, ftiirts, a garment of wool
or cotton, a ruff, and a hat, conftitute their drefs.
The dignity which it has been agreed to annex to
thefe enjoyments has made them better economifts,
and more laborious. This cafe, however, is far from
being univerfal; it is even very uncommon in the vi¬
cinity of the mines, towns, and great roads, where
tyranny feldom fleeps •, but we often find it with fa-
tisfadlion in remote parts, where the Spaniards are not
numerous, and where they have in fome meafure be¬
come Mexicans.
The employments of this people are very various.
The moft intelligent, and thofe who are in eafy cir-
cumftances, devote theinfelves to the moft neceffary
and moft ufeful manufaclures, which are difperfed
through the whole empire. The moft beautiful ma-
nufaflures are eftablilhed among the people of Tlaf-
Vol. XIII. Part II.
cala. Their old capital, and the new one, which is Mexico.
called Angelos, are the centre of this indufiry. Here *
they manufaflure cloth that is pretty fine, callicoes
that have an agreeable appearance, certain flight filks,
good hats, gold lace, embroidery, lace, glafles, and a
great deal of hardware. 153
The care of flocks affords a maintenance to fome Manufac-
Mexicans, w7hom fortune or nature have not called totur®s
more diftinguiftied employments. America, at the ^
time it wTas difcovered, had neither hogs, fneep, oxen,
horfes, nor even any domeftic animal. Columbus
carried fome of thefe ufeful animals to St Domingo,
from whence they were generally difperfed ; and in
Mexico, more than in any other place, thefe have
multiplied prodigioufly. They count their horned
cattle by thoufands, whefe Ikins are become an object
of confiderable exportation. The horfes are degene¬
rated, but the quality is compenfated by the number.
Hogs lard is here fubftituted for butter. Sheep’s
wool is dry, coarfe, and bad, as it is everywhere be-
tvreen the tropics.
The vine and olive tree have experienced the fame
degeneracy. The cultivation of them was at firft pro¬
hibited, w'ith a view of leaving a free market for the
commodities of the mother country. In 1706, per-
miflion was given to the Jefuits, and a little afterwards
to the marquis Del Valle, a defcendant from Cortes,
to cultivate them. The attempts have not proved
fuccefsful. The trials, indeed, that have been made,
have not been abandoned } but no perfon has folicited
the liberty of following an example which did not
promife any great emoluments. Other cultures have
been more fuccefsful. Cotton, fugar, filk, cocoa, to¬
bacco, and European corn, have all thriven in fome
degree. The Spaniards are encouraged to profecute
the labours xvhich thefe cultures require, from the
happy circumftance of their having difcovered iron
mines, which were entirely unknown to the Mexicans,
as well as fome mines of a kind of copper that is hard
enough to ferve for implements of hulbandry. All «
thefe articles, however, for want of men and induf¬
try, are merely confirmed within the country.—
There is only the vanilla, indigo, and cochineal,
rvhich make part of the trade of Mexico with other
nations.
iVeiu MEXICO, fo called becaufe of its being difco-
vered later than Old Mexico, a country of America,
is bounded on the north by high mountains, beyond
which is a country altogether unknown ; by Louifiana
on the eaft j by New Spain on the fouth ; and on the
weft by the gulf of California, and the Rio Colorado j
extending, it is faid, above 1000 miles from eaft to
weft, and about 900 from fouth to north ; but the
twentieth part of the country within thefe limits is nei¬
ther cultivated nor inhabited either by Spaniards or
Indians. As it lies in the midft of the temperate
zone, the climate, in general, is very pleafant ; the
fummers, though very warm, are neither fultry nor
unwholefome 5 and the winters, though pretty ftiarp,
are far from being infupportable, and, for the moft
part, clear and healthy.
The greateft encomiums are lavifhed on the fertility
of the foil, the richnefs of the mines, and the variety
of valuable commodities produced in this country. It
is faid to be beautifully diverfified with fields, meadows,
5 G r^n»
MEZ [786] MEZ
Mexico,
Mezeray.
riling grounds, and rivers: abounding with fruit and
timber trees, turquoifes, emeralds, and other precious
Hones, mines of gold and filver, a great variety of wild
and tame cattle, liih and fowds. Upon the whole,
we may fafely affirm, that New Mexico is among the
pleafanteft, richeft, and moft plentiful countries in
America, or any other part of the world. There are
few great or navigable rivers in it : the moft confider-
able are, the Rio Solado and Rio del Norte, which,
with feveral fmaller itreams, fall into the gulf of
Mexico. On the coafc of the gulf are divers bays,
ports, and creeks, which might be eafily converted into
excellent harbours, if the Spaniards were poffeffed of
any portion of that commercial fpirit which animates
the other maritime nations of Europe.
The Spanifh writers tell us, that New Mexico is in¬
habited by a great variety of Indian nations or tribes,
totally unconnedted with each other •, but the princi¬
pal are the Apaches, a brave, warlike, xefolute people 5
fond of liberty, and the inveterate enemies of tyranny
and oppreffion. About the elofe of the 17th century,
thinking themfelves aggrieved by the Spanifh govern¬
ment, they made a general infurreciion, and did a
great deal of mifchitf; but were at laft obliged to
fubmit, and have fince been curbed by flronger garri-
fons. Moft of the natives are now Chriftians. "When
the Spaniards firft entered this country, they found the
natives well clothed, their lands cultivated, their villa¬
ges neat, and their houfes built with ftone. Their flocks
alfo were numerous, and they lived more comfortably
than moft of the other favages of America. As to re¬
ligion, they were idolaters, and worfhipped the fun and
moon } but whether they offered human facrifices, we
are not fufficiently informed.
The number of provinces in this country is not
well afcertained: fome writers making them only
five, others 10, 15, 20, and 25 5 but adding no
defcription, either of them or the towns contained
in them, excepting the capital, Santa Fe, which
we are told itands near the fource of the Rio del
Norte, in 36° of north latitude, and about 130
leagues from the gulf: that it is a well built, hand-
iome, rich town ; and the feat of the bithop, fuffragan
of Mexico, as well as the governor of the province,
who is fubordinate to the viceroy of Mexico or New
Spain.
MEZERAY, Francis Eudes de, an eminent
French hiftorian, the fon of llaac Eudes a fargeon, was
born at Rye, in Lower Normandy, in 1610 ; and took
the furname of Mexeray, from a hamlet near Rye.
Having performed his ftudies at Caen, he difcovered a
ftrong inclination to poetry ^ but going to Paris, he,
by the advice of one of his friends, applied himfelf to
the ftudy of politics and hiftory, and procured the
place of commiffary at war, which he held for two cam¬
paigns. He then {hut himfelf up in the college of St
Barbe, in the midft of books and manufcripts ; and, in
1643, publiftied the firft volume of the Hiftory of
France, in folio ; and fome years after, the other two
volumes. Mezeray in that work furpaffed all who had
written the hiftory of France before him, and was re¬
warded by the king with a penfion of 4000 livres. In
1668, he publiftied an Abridgement of his Hiftory of
France, in three volumes qto, which was Avell received
by the public} but as he inferted in that work the ori¬
gin of moft of the taxes, with very free reflexions, M. Mezeray
Colbert complained of it, when Mezeray promifed to II
cerreX what he had done in a fecund edition ; but thole ,Me2inac'
corrections being only palliations, the minifter caufcd ’
half of his penfion to be fupprefied. Mezeray com¬
plained of this in very fevere terms 5 when he obtained
no other anfwer than the fuppreflion of the other half.
Vexed at this treatment, he rcfolved to write on fub-
jebts that could not expofe him to fuch difappoint-
ments 5 and compofed his treatife on the origin of the
French, which did him much honour. He was elect¬
ed perpetual fecretary to the French academy $ and
died in 1683. He is laid to have been a man extreme¬
ly negligent in his per fon, and fo earelefs in his drefs,
that he might have paffed for a beggar rather than
for what he was. He was aXually feized one morning
by the archers despauvres, cr parifli officers; which
miftake was fo far from provoking him, that he was
highly diverted with it, and told them, that “ he was
not able to walk on foot, but that as foon as a new
wheel was put to his chariot, he would attend them
wherever they thought proper.” He ufed to ftudy
and write by candle light, even at noon-day in fum-
mer ; and, as if there had been no fun in the world,
always waited upon his company to the door with a
candle in bis hand. With regard to religion, he afteft-
ed Pyrrhonifm ; which however was not, it feems, fo
much in his heart as in his mouth. This appeared
from his lait ficknefs ; for bavirg font for thofe friends
wrho had been the moft ufual witneffes of his licentious
talk about religion, he made a fort of recantation,
which he concluded with defiring them “ to forget
what he might formerly have faid upon the fubject of
religion, and to remember, that Mezeray dying was a
better believer than Mezeray in health.” Befides his
hiftory, he alfo wrote, 1. A continuation of the hiftory
of the Turks. 2. A French tranflation of John de Sa-
liftmry’s Latin treatife on the vanities of the court.
3. There are attributed to him feveral fatires againft
the government; and in particular, thofe that bear the
name of Sandricourt.
MEZIERS, a ftrong town of France in the depart¬
ment of Ardennes, with a citadel. It was befieged
with a powerful army by Charles V. who w as obliged to
raife the fiege in 1521. It is feated on the river Maefe,
partly upon a hill, and partly in a valley, in E. Long.
4. 48. N. Lat. 49. 46.
MEZIRIAC, Claude Caspar Backet Sieurde,
one of the moft ingenious men of the 17th century, was
born at BrclTe, of an ancient and noble family. He
was a good poet in French, Italian, and Latin ; an ex¬
cellent grammarian, a great Greek fcholar, and an ad¬
mirable critic. Ke was xvell verfed in the contrcverlks,
both in phildfophy and religion ; and was deeply {kill¬
ed in algebra and geometiy, of the former of which he
gave proof by publiffiing the fix books of Licphantus,
enriched with a very able commentary and notes. In
his youth he fper.t a confide] able time at Paris and at
Rome ; at which laft place he wrote a fmall colleXion
of Italian poems, in competition with Vaugelas, who
was there at the fame time ; among which there are
imitations of the moft beautiful fimiles contained in
the firft eight books of the Aineid. He alfo tranflat-
ed Ovid’s Epifties ; a great part of which he illuftrat-
ed with very curious commentaries of his owrn. Vv'hilft
M E Z [ 787 ]
Meziriac he was at Paris, they talked of making him preceptor ted 1658
of Louis XIII. upon which he left the court in great
hafte, and afterwards declared that he had never felt fo
much pain upon any occafion of his life } for he feemed
to have already upon his fhoulders the important
weight of the whole kingdom. He undertook the
tranllation of all Plutarch’s works, with notes 5 which
conclufion, when he died
1638, at 45 years of age.
finiihed works, that were
he had brought nearly to a
at Bourg, in Brefle, anno
He left behind him feveral
not printed.
MEZUZOTH, in the Jewidi cuftoms, certain
pieces of parchment, which the Jews fix to the door-
pofts of their houfes, taking that literally which Mofes
commands them, faying, “ Thou firalt never forget
the laws of thy God’ but thou {halt Avrite them upon
the pods of thy houfe, and on thy gates.” ihis
expreffion means nothing elfe, but that thou lhalt
ahvays remember them, whether thou comeft into
thy houfe or goeft out. But the Hebrew doctors
imagined, that the lawgiver meant fomething more
than this. They pretended that, to avoid making
themfelves ridiculous, by writing the commandments
of God without their doors, or rather to avoid expofmg
themfelves to the profanation of the Avicked, they
ought at lead to write them on a parchment, and to
enclofe it in fomething. Therefore they Avrote thefe
words upon a fquare piece of parchment prepared on
purpofe, Avith a particular ink, and a fquare kind of
charafter. Deut. vi. 4, jb 6, 7> 9* “ •^earr’, ^
Ifrael, the Lord our God is one Lord,” &c.—Then
they left a little fpace, and afterwards AVent on, Deut.
xi. 13. “ And it fliall come to pafs if thou {halt
hearken diligently to my commandments,” &c. as far
ay, “ Thou dialt Avrite them upon the door-pods of thy
houfe,” &c. After this they rolled up the parchment,
and put it into a cafe of reeds or other matter j they
Avrote on the end of the cafe the Avord Shaddai, which
is one of the names of God ; and they put it at the doors
of their houfes, chambers, and all places mod frequent¬
ed ; they fixed it to the knockers of the door, on the
right fide •, and as often as they entered in or Avent out
they touched it in this place, Avith the end of their
finger, Avhich they atterAvards killed out of devotion.
The Hebrew Avord me%u%a properly fignifies the door-
pods of a houfe •, but it is alio given to this roil of
parchment uoav mentioned.
MEZZOTINTO, a particular manner of reprefent-
ing figures on copper, fo as to form prints in imitation
of painting in Indian ink. See Engraving.
The invention of this art has been ufually attribut¬
ed to Prince Rupert. But Baron Heinikin, a very
judicious and accurate Avritcr upon the {uoje6t of en¬
graving, aflerts, Avith gres.t appearance of trutn, that
it Avas a lieutenant-colonel de Siegan, an officer in the
fervice of the landgrave of Heffig who fod engraved
in this manner j and that the print which he produ¬
ced Avas a portrait of the princefs Amelia Elizabeth
ofHeffe, engraved in the year 1643. Prince Rupert
learned the fecret from this gentleman, and brought
it into England Avhen he came over the fecond time
Avith Charles II. Prince Rupert’s print of An Exe¬
cutioner holding a Sword in one Hand and a Head
in the other, a half length, from Spagnoletto, is da¬
ft! E Z
This art has ne\'er been cultivated with
fucccfs in any country but England.
The prince laid his grounds on the plate with a
channelled roller: but one SherAvin, about tne lame
time, laid his grounds Avith a half-round file, Avhich
Avas prefied down with a heavy piece of lead. Both
thefe grounding tools harm been laid afide lor many
years 5 and a hand tool, refembling a (hoe-maker’s cut¬
ting board knife, with a fine crenelling on the edge,
Avas introduced by one Edial, a fmith oy tracie, ay ho
afterAvards became a mezzotinto painter.
It is very different from the common vvay of en¬
graving. To perform it, they rake, hatch, or punch,
the furface of the plate all over with a knife, or in-
ftrument made for the purpofe, firft one Avay, then the
other, acrofs, &c./till the furface of the plate be thus
entirely furrowed with lines or furrorvs, clofe and as
it were contiguous to each other j fo that, if an im-
preffion Avas then taken from it, it Avould be one uni¬
form blot or fmut. This done, the defign is drarm
or marked on the fame face j after Avhich, they proceed
Avith burniffiers, ferapers, &c. to expunge and take
out the dents or furroAVs, in all the parts Avhere the
lights of the piece are to be 5 and that more or lefs as
the lights are to be ftronger or fainter \ leaving thofe
parts black Avhich are to reprefent the fhadoAvs or
deepenings of the draught.
As it is much eafier to ferape or burnifti aAvay parts^
of a dark ground correfponding Avith the outline of
any defign fketched upon it, than to form {hades upon
a light ground by an infinite number of hatches,
llrokes, and points, Avhich muff all terminate Avith ex-
aftnefs on the outline, as well as differ in their force
and manner j the method of feraping, as it is called,
in mezzotinto, confequently becomes much more eafy
and expeditious than any other method of engraving.
The inftruments ufed in this kind of engraving are
cradles, ferapers, and burniffiers.
In this engraving, the plate muff; be prepared and
poliihed in the fame manner as for other engraving 5
and aftenvards divided equally by lines parallel to
each other, and traced out with very foft chalk.—
The diftance of thefe lines ftiould be about one-third
of the length of the face of the cradle which is to
be ufed, and thefe lines ftiould be marked Avith capi¬
tal letters, or ftrokes of the chalk. The cradle is
then to be placed exactly betAvixt the two firft lines,
and paffed forwards in the fame direftion ; being kept
as fteady as poffible, and preffed upon Avith a moderate
force. The fame operation muff: be repeated with re-
fpect to all the other lines j till the inftrument has thus
paffed over the Avhole furface of the plate.—Other lines
muff; be then drawn from the extremities of the other-
two fides, in the fame manner j Avliich, interfefting the
fir ft at right angles, Avill Avith them form fquares; and
the fame operation muff; be repeated with the cradle as
in the cafe'of the firft. Ncav lines muff: then be draAvn
diagonally, and the cradle paffed betAvixt them as be¬
fore *, and Avhen the firft diagonal operation is perform¬
ed, the lines muff: be croffed at right angles as the for¬
mer, and the cradles paffed betAvixt them in the fame
manner.—The plate having undergone the aclion of the
cradle, according to the difpofition of the firft order of
lines, a fecond fet muft be formed, having the fame di-
^ G 2 ftances
M E Z [ 7B8 ] M E Z
Mezzo- fiances from each other as the firft. But they mufl be
' °' . piaced as to divide thofe already made into fpaees
one-third lefs than their whole extent 5 i. e. every one
after the firlt on each fide will take in one-third of that
before it, e. g. beginning at A, of which the-firft third
mult be left out; a third of B will confequently be
taken in, and fo of the reft. Thefe lines of the fecond
order muft be marked with fmall letters, or leffer ftrokes,
to diftinguilh them from the firft : and the fame treat¬
ment of the plate muft be purfued with refpe£t to them
as was praftifed for the others. When this fecond
operation is finifhed, a third order of lines muft be
made ; the firft of which, e. g. in A, muft omit two-
thirds of it, and confequently take in twm-thirds of
B, &c. By thefe means, the original fpaces will be
exactly divided into equal thirds •, and the cradle muft
be again employed betwixt thefe lines as before 
When the whole of this operation is finiftied, it is
called one turn; but in order to produce a very dark
and uniform ground, the plate muft undergo the re¬
petition of all thefe feveral operations for above
twenty times *, beginning to pafs the cradle again be¬
twixt the firft lines, and proceeding in the fame man¬
ner through all the reft. When the plate is prepared
with a proper ground, the Iketch muft be chalked on
it, by rubbing the paper on the backfide with chalk.
It is alfo proper to overtrace it afterwards with black
lead or Indian ink. The fcraping is then performed,
by paring or cutting away the grain of the ground
in various degrees ; fo that none of it is left in the
original ftate except in the touches of the ftrongeft
lhade. The general manner of proceeding is the fame
as drawing with white upon black paper. The maffes
of light are firft begun with *, and thofe parts which go
off into light in their upper part, but are brown below:
the reflections are then entered upon ; after which the
plate is blackened with a printer’s blacking ball made
of felt, in order to difcover the cffeCl : and then the
xvork is proceeded w ith; obferving always to begin every
part in the places where the ftrongeft lights are to be.
The art of fcraping mezzotintos has been applied
to the printing with a variety of colours, in order to
produce the refemblance of paintings. The inventor
of the method of doing this was J. C. Le Blon, a na¬
tive of Frankfort, and pupil of Carlo Marata, between
the years 1720 and 1730. It was eftablilhed by the
inventor on this principle, that there are three primi¬
tive colours, of which all the reft may be compofed
by mixing them in various proportions *, that any two
of thefe colours being mixed together, preferve their
original power, and only produce a third colour fuch
as their compound muft neceffarily give ; but if tranf-
parent colours be mixed, and three primitive kinds com¬
pounded together, they deftroy each other, and produce
black, or a tendency to it, in proportion to the equa¬
lity or inequality of the mixture 5 and that if, there¬
fore, thefe three colours be laid, either feparately or
upon each other, by three plates, engraved correfpond-
ently on thefe principles to the colouring of the de-
iign, the whole variety of teints neceffary may be pro¬
duced. The requifites, therefore, to the execution of
any defign in this method of printing are as follows :
I. To fettle a plan of the colouring to be imitated ;
ftiowing where the prefence of each of the three
fimple colours is neceffary, either in its pure ftate or
I
combined with fome other, to produce the effefl re- Mezzo,
quired ; and to reduce this plan to a painted iketch of hnto.
each, in which not only the proper outlines, but the
degree of ftrength ftiould be exprefled. 2. To en¬
grave three plates according to this plan, which may
print each of the colours exa&ly in the places where,
and proportion in which, they are wanted. 3. To
find three tranfparent fubftances proper for printing
with thefe three primitive colours. The manner in
which M. le Blon prepared the plates was as fol¬
lows : The three plates of copper were firft well fitted
with refpedl to fize and figure to each other, and
grounded in the fame manner as thofe defigned for
mezzotinto prints : and the exa£l place and boundary
of each of the three primitive colours, conformably
to the defign, -were fketched out on three papers,
anfwering in dimenfions to the plate, 'i hefe fketches
were then chalked on the plates ; and all the parts of
each plate that were not to convey the colour to which
it was appropriated to the print, were entirely fcraped
away, as in forming the light of mezzotinto prints.
The parts that were to convey the colours were then
worked upon j and where the moll light or diluted
teints of the colour wrere to be, the grain in the
ground was proportionably taken off; but where the
full colour was required, it was left entire. In this
regard was had, not only to the effects of the colour
in its fimple ftate, but to its combined operation, ei¬
ther in producing orange-colour, green, or purple, by
its admixture with one alone ; and likewife to its
forming brown, gray, and lhades of different degrees,
by its co-operation with both the others. But though
the greateft part of the engraving was performed in
the mezzotinto manner, yet the graver was employed
occafionally for ftrengthening the lhades, and for cor-
redling the outline where it required great accuracy
and fteadinefs. It was found neceffary fometimes to
have two feparate plates for printing the fame colour,
in order to produce a ftronger effect : but the fecond
plate, which was ufed to print upon the firft, was in¬
tended only to glaze and foften the colours in parti¬
cular parts that might require it. With refpeft to
the black and brown teints, which could not be fo
conveniently produced in a due degree by the mix¬
ture of the colours, umber and black were likewife
ufed.
With refpefl to the order in which the plates are to
be applied, it may be proper to obferve, that the colour
which is leaft apparent in the pi6tme ftiould be laid on
firft j that which is betwixt the moll and leaft apparent
next} and that which predominates laft ; except where
there may be occafion for two plates for the fame co¬
lour, as ivas before mentioned } or vrhere there is any
required for adding browns and lhades.
M. le Blon applied this art to portraits, and fliow-
ed, by the fpecimens he produced, the polfibility of its
being brought, by farther improvements, to afford imi¬
tations of painting which might have fome value. It is
neverthelefs much better adapted to the fimpler fubjedts,
where there are fewrer intermixtures of colours } and
where the accuracy of the refledlions, and demi-teints,
are not fo effentially neceflary to the truth of the de¬
fign, from the greater latitude of form, and difpofition
of the colour, as in plants, anatomical figures, and
feme fubjedts of architecture. But perhaps plates en¬
graved
MIC E 789 ] MIC
Mezzo- gra\'ed or rather finifhed with the tool, particularly
linro with re(pe6t to the outline, would be better aceommo-
Micw! in fonae of thefe cafes than thofe prepared only by
■ fcraping.
M. Cochin remarks, at the end of an account he
has given of M. le Blon’s manner, that though th s
ingenious artift confined liis method principally to the
life of three colours •, yet, fliould this-invention be again
taken up and cultivated, there would be more probaoi-
lity of fuccefs in uling a greater variety } and that feve-
ral different kinds might be printed by one plate, pro¬
vided they were laid on in their relpeftively proper
places by printing-balls, which fhould be uled for that
colour only. His hint might however be very greatly im¬
proved, by the further afliftance of pencils, accommo¬
dated to the plates, for laying on the colours in the
proper parts.—For the method of taking off mezzotinto
prints on glafs, fee BACK-painting.
MIASMA, among phyficians, a particular kind of
effluvia, by which certain fevers, particularly intermit-
tents, are produced.
MICA, Mufcovy glctfs, or Glimmer^ a fpecies of mi¬
neral fubltance. See Mineralogy Index.
MIC AH, or The Book of MlCAH, a canonical book
of the Old Teflament, written by the prophet Micah,
who is the fixth of the twelve leffer prophets. He
is cited by Jeremiah, and prophefied in the days of
Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah. He cenfures the
reigning vices of Jerufalem and Samaria, and denounces
the judgments of God againft both kingdoms. He
like wife foretels the confulion of the enemies of the
Jews, the coming of the Meffiah, and the glorious fuc¬
cefs of his church.
MICHAEL, or Michel, (i. e. who is /ike to God?')
The fcripture account of Michael is, that he was an
archangel, who prefided over the Jewith nation, as other
angels did over the Gentile world, as is evident of the
kingdoms of Perfia and Greece, (Dan. x. 13.) ; that
lie had an army of angels under his command (Rev.
xii. 7.) } that he fought with the Dragon, or Satan
and his angels ■, and that, contending with the Devil,
lie difputed about the body of Mofes, (Jude 9.). As
to the combat between Michael and the Dragon, fome
authors underfland it literally, and think it means the
expulfion of certain rebellious angels, with their head
or leader, from the prefence of God. Others take it
in a figurative fenfe ; and refer it, either to the conteft
that happened at Rome between St Peter and Simon
Magus, in which the apoftle prevailed over the magi¬
cian, or to thofe violent perfecutions under which the
church laboured for three hundred years, and which
happily ceafed when the powers of the world became
Chriftian. Among the commentators who main¬
tain the former opinion is Grotius •, and among thofe
who take it in a figurative fenfe are Hammond and
Mede.
The conteft about the body of Mofes is likewife ta¬
ken both literally and figuratively. Thofe who under-
ftand it literally are of opinion, that Michael by the
order of God hid the body of Mofes after his death ;
and that the Devil endeavoured to difcover it, as a fit
means to entice the people to idolatry, by a fuperlli-
tious worfhip of his relics. But this difpute is figura¬
tively underflood to be a controverfy about rebuilding
the temple, and reftoring the fervice of God among
the Jews at Jerufalem } the Jewifh church being fitly
enough ityled the body of Mofes. It is thought by '
fome, that this itory of the conteft between Michael
and the Devil was taken by Si Jude out of an apocry¬
phal book called The Affumption of Mofes.
The Romiih church celebrates three appearances of
Michael, of which no mention is made in icripture,
and which have happened, they lay, a long time after
the age of the apoitles. The firlt appearance of this
archangel was at Coloifae in Phrygia, but at what time
is uncertain. The fecond is that of Mount Garganus,
in the kingdom of Naples, about the end of the fifth
century. The third is his appearance to Aubert bi-
Ihop of Avranches, upon a rock called the Tomb,
where at this day is the abbey of St Michael. This
was about the year 706. d he firlt of thele feiiivals is
obferved on the 6th ot September, the fecond on the
8th of May, and the lait on the 16th of Ohtober. It
has been fuppofed, that it was Michael the archangel
who condutted the Ifraelites in their journey through
the wildernefs, (fee Exod. xxxii. 20, 23, and xxxiii.
2.) ; that it was he who appeared to Mofes in the burn¬
ing bulk; who appeared to Jolhua in the fields of Jeri¬
cho, and to Gideon and Manoah the father of Samlon y
and, in a word, to him have been imputed the greateft
part of the molt remarkable appearances either in the
Old or New Teltament.
Michael Angelo. See Angelo.
Mount MlCUAEL, formerly one of the molt celebra¬
ted Hate prifons of France, lies about 20 miles from
Granville. It is a rock iituated in the middle of the
bay of Avranches •, and is only acceffible at low water.
Nature has completely fortified one fide, by its craggy
and almolt perpendicular defcent, which renders it im-
pradticable to mount it by any addrefs or courage,
however confummate. The other parts are furrounded
by walls fenced with femilunar towers after the Gothic
manner 5 but fufficiently Itrong, together with the ad¬
vantage of its fituation, to render it impregnable to
any attack. At the foot of the mountain begins a
ftreet or town, which winds round its bafe to a confi-
derable height. Above are chambers where Hate pri-
foners are kept, and where there are other buildings
intended for refidence. On the fummit is eredted thft
abbey itfelf, occupying a prodigious fpace of ground,
and of a ftrength and folidity equal to its enormous
fize; fince it has for many centuries withftood all the
injuries of the weather, to which it is fo much expo-
fed. In an apartment, called the Sa/e de Chava/erie,
the knights of St Michael ufed to meet in folemn con¬
vocation on important occafions. They were the de¬
fenders and guardians of this mountain and abbey, as
thofe of the Temple, and of St John of Jerufalem, were
of the holy fepulchre. The hall in which they met is
very fpacious, but rude and barbarous. At one end
is a painting of the archangel, the patron of their or¬
der ; and in this hall Louis XL firft infiituted and in-
vefted with the infignia of knighthood the chevaliers
of the crofs of St Michael. There is a miferable dark
apartment, or rather dungeon, in which many eminent
perfons were formerly confined. In the middle of it
is a cage, compofed of prodigious bars of wood •, and
the wicket which gives entrance into it is 10 or 12
inches in thicknefs. The infide of it comprifes about
12 or 14 feet fquare, and it is nearly 20 in height. To-
wards
Michael.
— « '
Michael.
■& See
France,
140.
M I C [ 7S° ] MIC
Wards lire latter end of the 17th century, a newfwriter
' in Holland, who had prefumed to print fome very fc-
vere and farcaftic reflections on Madame de Maintenon,
was confined in this place. Some months after his pub¬
lication, he was induced, by a perfon fent exprelsly for
that purpofe, to make a tour into French Flanders.
The moment he had quitted the Dutch territories, he
was put under arreft ; and immediately, by his rnaje-
fly’s exprefs command, condufted to Mount Michael,
where he was {hut up in this cage. Here he lived up¬
wards of 23 years; and here he at length expired.
During the long nights of winter, no candle or fire was
allowed him. He rvas not permitted to have any book.
He faw no human face, except the gaoler, who came
once every day to prefent him, through a hole in the
wicket, with his little portion of bread and wine. No
inftrument was given him with which he could deftroy
himfelf: but he found means at length to draw out a
nail from the wood, with which he engraved, or cut on
the bars of his cage, certain fieurs de lis and armorial
bearings, which formed his only employment and re¬
creation. They are very curioufly performed confider-
ing the rudenefs of his inilrument.
The fubterraneous chambers in this mountain are
faid to be fo numerous, that the gaolers themfelves do
not know them. There are certain dungeons called
aubliettes, into which they were acufcomed anciently to
let down malefaftors guilty of very heinous crimes : they
provided them with a loaf of bread and a bottle of wine,
and then they were totally forgotten, and left to perilh
by hunger in the dark vaults of the rock. This puniih-
ment, however, has not been infli&ed by any king in
the laid or prefent century.
Here alfo is a remarkable chamber, in one corner
of which is a kind of window : between this and the
wall of the building is a very deep fpace, of near 100
feet perpendicular, at the bottom of which is another
window opening to the fea. It is called the Hole of
Montgomeri; and the hiftory of it is as follows: In
the year 1559, Henry II. king of France was unfor¬
tunately killed at a tournament by the count de Mont¬
gomeri *. He was a Huguenot ^ and having efcaped
fie maffaere of Paris, made head againft the royal
forces in Normandy, fupported by Queen Elizabeth
with arms and money. Being driven from his fortreffes
in thefe parts, lie retired to a rock called the Tombe-
laine. This is another fimilar to Mount Michael; only
three quarters of a league from it, and of nearly equal
dimenfions. At that time there was a caflle upon it,
which has fince been demoliftied, and of which fcarce
any veftiges now remain. From this fortrefs, accef-
fible only at low-water, he continually made excurfions,
and annoyed the enemy, who never dared to attack
him. He coined money, laid all the adjacent country
under contribution, and rendered himfelf univerfally
dreaded. Defirous, however, to furprife Mount Mi¬
chael, he found means to engage one. of the monks re-
fident in the abbey \ who promifed to give him the
fignal for his enterprife by difplaying a handkerchief.
The monk having made the fignal, betrayed him, and
armed all his afibciates, who waited Montgomeri“s ar¬
rival. The chieftan came, attended by 50 chofen
fiddlers, all defperate, and capable of any attempt.
They croffed the fand ; and having placed their feel¬
ing-ladders, mounted one by one. As they came to
2
the top, they were defpatched, each in turn, without
noife. Montgomeri, who followed laft, difeovered the
perfidy, and efcaped with only two of his men, with ,
whom he regained the Tombelaine. They preferve
with great care the ladders and grappling irons ufi d on
this occafion. The count was at laid bofieged and ta¬
ken prifoner, by the marefchal de Matignon, in 1 574,
at Domfront, in Normandy 5 and Catharine de Midi-
cis, who hated him for having been, though innocent¬
ly, the caufe of her hufband’s death, caufed him to be
immediately executed.
The church of Mount Michael is a great curiofity.
It ftands on nine pillars of moft enormous dimenfions,
built on the folid rock. Each of them appears to be
about 25 feet in circumference : befides thefe, there are
two others much inferior in fize, on which the centre
of the church reits, and over which is tire tower. The
following is the legendary account of the origin of this
church : In the reign of Childibert II. there wTas a
bifiiop of Avranches named St Aubert. To this holy
man the archangel Michael was pleafed to appear one
night, and ordered him to go to this rock to build a
church. St Aubert treated this as a dream ; upon
which the angel appeared a fecond time ; and being {till
difobeyed, he returned a third time, when, by way of
imprinting his command upon the faint’s memory, he
made a hole in his Ikull, by touching it with his thumb.
The Ikull is {till preferved in the treafury of the church.
It is enclofed in a little fhrine of gold, and a cryftal,
which opens over the orifice, admits the gratification
of curiofity by the minuteft examination of it. The
hole is of a fize and Ihape proportionable to the thumb
faid to have produced it; but it is impoflxble to deter¬
mine-whether it has been really made by a knife or
any other way. It is not to be fuppofed that the faint
would forget fuch a fenfible mark of the angel’s dif-
pleafure 5 he therefore immediately repaired to the rock,
and conltrufled a fmall church, as he had been com¬
manded. Here, however, true hiftory fupplies the
place of fable } and informs us, that it was in 966
when Richard the fecond duke of Normandy began to
build tbe abbey. It was completed about the year 1070,
under William the Conqueror, though many other ad-
tions were made by fucceeding abbots.
In the treafury of the church are innumerable other
relics: among which fome few have a real and intrin-
fic value. There is a fine head of Charles VI. of France,
cut in a cryftal, and the reprefentation of a cockle-
fhell in gold, weighing many pounds, given by Rich¬
ard II. duke of Normandy, when he founded the ab¬
bey. There is an arm faid to belong to St Richard
king of England ; but who this faint was it muft be
very difficult to determine. Such is the hiftory of the
prifon, abbey, and church of Mount Michael previous
to the revolution •, they have probably undergone fome
changes fince that period.
St MICHAEL’S, a borough town of Cornwall,
between St Columb and Truro, 247 miles from Lon¬
don. Though one of the oldeft boroughs in the coun¬
ty by prefeription, and of great note in the Saxon
times, it is a mean hamlet in the pari dies of Newland
and St Enidore 5 yet it is governed by a portreeve,
chofen yearly by a jury of the chief inhabitants, out
of the fix chief tenants, called deputy lords of the
manor, becaufe they hold lands in the borough. Plere
Mi cl)?, eg
St Mi¬
chael’s.
MIC. [ 79i ] MIC
St Mi- is no market, but two fairs. A court-leet is held here
chael s, twice a-year. This place Avas formerly called Modif-
. 1C hole, and afterwards Michael. Its lilt of members
begins in the 6th of Edward VI.
St MICHAEL"1 S Mount, in the county of Cornwall,
In the corner of Mount’s Bay, is a very high rock,
only divided by the tide from the main land, ib that it
is land and ifland twice a-day. The town here was
burnt by the French in the reign of King Henry VIII.
At the bottom of this mount, in digging for tin, there
ba\re been found fpear heads, battle axes, and fwords,
of brafs, all wrapt up in linen. The county is con¬
tracted here into a fort of ifthmus, fo that it is fcarcely
four miles between the Channel and the Severn fea.—
Large trees have been driven in by the fea between this
mount and Penzance.
MICHAELIS, John David, a celebrated biblical
critic, and author of many eiieemed werks, Avas the
eldeft fon of Dr Chriftian Benedict Michaelis, profeffor
in the univerfity of Halle in Lower Saxony, and Avas
born at that place, Feb. 27. 1717. His father devoted
him at an early age to an academical life j and Avith
that view he received the firft part of his education in
a celebrated Pruihan feminary, called the Orphan houfe,
at Glanche, in the neighbourhood of his native place.
He commenced his academical career at Halle in 1733,
and took his mailer’s degree in the faculty of philo-
fophy in 1739. In 1741 he made an excurlion to this
country, where his fuperior knowledge of the oriental
languages, which Avas confiderably increafed by ins in¬
defatigable refearches in the Bodleian library at Ox¬
ford, introduced him to the acquaintance, and gained
him the efteem, of our firil literary characters } Avith
feveral of whom, and particularly Bithop LoAvth, he
Avas in correfpondence for many years. On his return
to Plalle, after an abfence of fifteen months, he began
to read lectures on the hiitorical books of the Old Te-
ilament, Avhich he continued after his remoA'al to Got¬
tingen in 1745’ -b1 1746 he Avas appointed profeffor
extraordinary, and foon after profeffor of philofophy,
in that univerfity. The next year he obtained a place
of fecretary to the Royal Society there, of Avhich he
Avas director in 17^I5 and svas foon afterwards made
aulic counfellor by the court of Hanover. In 1764
his diftinguifhed talents, but chiefly a publication rela¬
tive to a journey to Arabia, which was undertaken by
leveral literary men, at the expence of the king of
Denmark, in confequence of his application by means
of Count Bernfdorff, procured him the honour of be¬
ing ehofen a correfpondent, and aftenvards foreign
member of the Academy of Infcriptions at Paris, of
Avhom the inftitution admitted only eight j and in the
fame year he became a member of the fociety of Haer-
lem. In I775> Count Hopkin, Avho eighteen years
before had prohibited the ufe of his Avritings at Upfal,
Avhen he Avas chancellor of that univerfity, prevailed
upon the king of SAVTeden to confer on him the order of
the Polar Star, as a national compenfation. In 1786
he Avas raifed to the diftinguilhed rank of privy coun¬
fellor of juftice by the court of Hanover ; and in 1788
received his lall: literary honour, by being unanimouf-
ly elefted a fellow of the Royal Society of London.—
His great critical knoAiledge of the Hebrerv language,
which he dlfplayed in a nerv tranflation cf the Bible,
and in other works, raifed him to a degree of eminence
almoft unknown before in Germany j and his indefa- Michaelis
tigable labours were only equalled by his defire of com- ^ Jj,
municating the knoAvledge he acquired to the numerous , ~'c"' L'
ftudents of all countries who frequented his admirable
ledtures, Avhich he continued to deliver on various parts
of the facred writings in half-yearly courfes, and on the
Hebrew, Arabic, and Syriac languages, to the. lall
year of his life. He AAras profeffor in the unh'ernty of
Gottingen 45 years, and, during that long period, he
filled the chair Avith dignity, credit, and ufefulnefs.
He died Odlober 22. 1791, aged 74. He is faid to
have left behind him feveral valuable MSS. Of the
Avorks that were publilhed during his life-time, and
which are very numerous, a catalogue, in the order cf
their publication, ife given in the Gentleman’s Magazine
for March 1792.
MICHAELMAS, or Feajl of St Michael and all
Angels, a feflival of the Chritlian church, obferved on
the 29th of September. See Michael.
MICKLE, William Julius, the celebrated tranf-
laior of the Lufiad, Avas the Ion of the reverend Alex¬
ander Mickle a Scotilh clergyman, who had formerly
been a diffenting miniffer in London, an afilllant to the
reverend Dr Watts, and one of the tranfiators of Bayle’s
Dictionary. This gentleman having refided a Icav
years in London, Avas prefented to the church of Lang¬
holm in Scotland, Avhere he married 5 and our au¬
thor was one of the younger fons. He AA'as born about
the year I735> and was educated by his father. In
his early years his paffion for poetry frequently dif-
covered itfelij though till the age of 13 he did not
fhoAV any particular attachment to books. At that time
]laving accidentally met Avith Spencer’s Faery Ojueen,
he became enamoured of his manner of Avriting, and
inftantly began to imitate him. After the death of his
father, he came to Edinburgh to refide Avith an uncle
aaJjo Avas a breAver there, and Avho admitted him into a
fiiare of his bufinefs ; not being qualified to fucceed in
this line, he went to London about the time of the
conclufion of the Avar which began in 1755, Avith a
view to procure a commiffion in the marine fervice.
Here he Avas difappointed ; but introduced himfelf
to the firft Lord Lyttelton, to Avhom he fent one
of his poems. From his Lordfhip, howevrer, he receiv¬
ed no other favour than being admitted to feveral in-
tervieAvs, and encouraged to perfeA^ere in his poetical
plans.
So clofely did our author cultivate the fludy of the
mules, that before he Avas 1 8 years of age he had writ¬
ten two tragedies and half an epic poem ; but all tbefe
were committed to the flames. The firft of his poems
which appeared in print Avas publilhed in one of the
Edinburgh magazines, and entitled, “ On palling
through the Parliament Clofe of Edinburgh at Mid.
night.” This was afterwards inferted in A Collection
of Original Poems by a Scotch gentleman, vol. ii.
P- I37*
From the time of Mr Mickle’s arriA^al in London
till the year ifs, it is not known how he employed
his time, though it is probable that he Avas employed
in feme branch of the printing bufinefs*, and in 1765 he
engaged himfelf as corrector to the Clarendon prels.
This year he publilhed the Poem which firft brought
him into notice, entitled, “ Pollio, an Elegiac Ode,
written in the Wood near R-  (Rolfin) Caftle,”
4to..
MIC [ 792 ] M I C
4to. This was an elegy written on the death of his
brother, which, previous to its publication, had been
fhown to Lord Lyttelton, and received fome correc¬
tions from him. The latter, in an epilUe to the au¬
thor, fpoke of it as equal to any thing of the kind in
our language. In 1767 he publilhed a poem called
“ The Concubine, in two cantos, after the manner of
Spencer,” 4to; and in 1769 he publifhed, “ A Letter
to Mr Harwood, wherein fome of his evafive gloffes,
falfe tranflations, and blundering criticifms, in fupport
of the Arian Herefy, contained in his literal tranflation
of the New Teftament, are pointed out and confuted,”
8vo : and next year he publilhed “ Mary Queen of
Scots, an Elegy;” “ Hengift and Mary, a ballad }”
and “ Knowledge, an Ode 5” in Pearch’s Colleflion of
Poems. In 1770 he publifhed “ Voltaire in the
Shades, or Dialogues on the Deiftical Controverfy,”
8vo. The Elegy on Mary had been fubmitted to the
judgment of Lord Lyttelton, who declined to criticife
it, not for its deficiency in poetical merit, but from
thinking differently from the author concerning that
unfortunate princefs.
About this time Mr Mickle was a frequent writer in
the Whitehall Evening Poll ; but a more important
work now engaged his attention. When no more than
17 years of age he had read Caftara’s tranflation of
the Lufiad of Camoens into French, and then piojefted
the defign of giving an Englifh tranflation of it. From
this, however, he was prevented by various avocations
till the year 1771, when he publifhed the firfl book as a
fpecimen : and having prepared himfelf by acquiring
fome knowledge of the Portuguefe language, he deter¬
mined to apply himfelf entirely to this work. With
this view he quitted his refidence at Oxford, and went
to a farm houfe at Foreft-hill, where he purfued his
defign with unremitting afliduity till the year I775>
when the work was entirely finifhed.
During the time that Mr Mickle W'as engaged
in this work, he fubfifted entirely by his employ¬
ment as corrector of the prefs ; and on his quit¬
ting that employment he had only the fubfcriptions
he received for his tranflation to fupport him. Not-
withffanding thefe difficulties, he adhered fteadily to
the plan he had laid down, and completed it in about
five years.
When his work was finifhed, Mr Mickle applied to
a perfon of great rank, with whom his family had been
connefled, for permiffion to dedicate it to him. Per-
miflion was granted, and his patron honoured him with
a very polite letter ; but after receiving a copy, for
which an extraordinary price was paid for the binding,
he did not think proper to take any notice of the au-
' thor. At laft a gentleman of high rank in the poli¬
tical world, a firm friend to the author, and who af¬
terwards took him under his proteftion, waited on the
patron, and heard him declare that he had not read
the work, but that it had been reprefented not to have
the merit it was at firft: faid to poffefs. T he applaufe
with which the work was received, however, foon ba-
nifhed from the author’s mind thofe difagreeable fen-
fations which had been occafioned by the contemptu¬
ous negleft of his patron, as well as fome fevere cri¬
ticifms which had been circulated concerning it. A
fecond edition was prepared in 1778? with a plate
prefixed to it, executed by the celebrated artift Mor- Mickle,
timer ; on whom Mr Mickle wrote an epitaph in 1779. '""“"V'--
This year alfo he publifhed a pamphlet, entitled, “ A
Candid Examination of the Reafons for depriving the
Eaft India Company of its Charter, contained in The
Hiftory and Management of the Eaft India Company
from its Commencement to the Prefent Time j together
with fome Strictures on the Self-Contradiftions and
Hiftorical Errors of Dr Adam Smith, in his Reafons
for the Abolition of the faid Company,” 4to. About
this time fome of his friends thought of recommend¬
ing him to the king as deferving of a penfion ; but
this fcheme was never put in execution. Dr Lowth,
bifhop of London, would have put him into orders,
and provided for him in the church 5 but this was not
agreeable to our author’s difpofition. While he was
meditating a publication of all his poems, in which he
w’ould moft probably have found his account, he was
appointed fecretary to Commodore Johnftone, who
had lately obtained the command of the Romney man
of war. In November 1779 he arrived at Lifbon, and
was named by his patron joint agent for the prizes
which were taken. In this capital and its neighbour¬
hood he refided more than fix months, being every
where received with every mark of politenefs and at¬
tention 5 and during this period he compofed his poem
called “ Almada Hill,” which in 1781 w>as publifhed
in quarto. He collefted alfo many particulars con¬
cerning the manners of the Portuguefe, which he in¬
tended alfo to have publifhed. During his Ray at Lif¬
bon the Royal Academy was opened ; and Mr Mickle,
who wras prefent at the ceremony of its commencement,
had the honour to be admitted a member under the
prefidency of Don John of Braganza, duke of La-
foens. His prefence being thought neceffary in Eng¬
land to attend to the proceedings of the courts of law
refpe&ing the condemnation of fome of the prizes, he
did not accompany the Commodore in his lafl expedi¬
tion, nor did he go any more to fea. In 1782 he pub¬
lifhed “ The Prophecy of Queen Emma, an ancient
Ballad lately difeovered, written by Johannes Turgot-
tus, prior of Durham, in the reign of William Rufus j
to which is added by the Editor, an Account of the
Difcovery, and Hints towards a Vindication of the
Authenticity, of the Poems of Oflian and Rowley,”
8vo.
In June this year Mr Mickle married Mifs Tomkins,
daughter of the perfon with whom he refided at Fo-
reff-hill, while engaged in tranflating the Lufiad.
Having received fome fortune with this lady, as
wrell as made fome money himfelf when in the fer-
vice of Commodore Johnfione, he now enjoyed a
comfortable independence. He afterwards fixed his
refidence at Wheatley in Oxfordfhire, and devoted
his time to the revifion of his poetical works, which
he propofed to publifh by fubfeription. During the
laff feven years of his life he was employed in
writing for the European Magazine. The Frag¬
ments of Leo, and fome of the moff approved re¬
views of books, in that periodical work, were of
his produ&ion. He died after a fhort illnefs, on the
25th of OCtober 1788, at Wheatley, leaving one fon
behind him. His poetry poffeffes much beauty,, va¬
riety, harmony of numbers, and vigour of imagination ;
M I C
Mickle
Microme-
* Phil.
Trartf
N" 25.
f See Phil.
his life was without reproach ; his foibles
and inoffenfive j his virtues many j and his genius very
conliderable.
MICROCOSM, a Geek term fignifying the little
world; ufed by fome for man, as being fuppofed an
epitome of the univerfe or great world.
MICROGRAPHY, the defcription of objefts view¬
ed with the afliftance of a microfcope'. See MICROSCOPIC
objects.
MICROMETER, an aftronomical inftrument, by
which fmall angles, or the apparent magnitudes of ob¬
jects viewed through telefcopes or microfcopes are mea-
fured with great exactnels.
r. The firft telescopic micrometers were only me¬
ter firft in- ehanical contrivances for meafuring the image of an
©afcofo-ne 0^>ie<^: ^ocus the object-glafs. Before thefe
0 ‘ ' contrivances were thought of, aflronomers were accu-
ftomed to meafure the field of view in each of their
telefcopes, by obferving how much of the moon they
could fee through it, the femidiameter being reckoned
at 15 or 16 minutes j and other diftances were efti-
mated by the eye, comparing them with the field of
view. Mr Gafcoigne, an Englilh gentleman, however,
fell upon a much more accurate method before the year
1641, and had a Treatife on Optics prepared for the
prefs ; but he was killed during the civil wars in the
fervice of Charles I. and his manufeript was never found.
His inlfrument, however, fell into the hands of Mr R.
Townly *, who fays, that by the help of it he could
mark above 40,000 divifions in a foot.
2. Mr Gafcoigne’s inftrument being fliown to Dr
Tranf. Abr. Hooke, he gave a drawing and defcription of it, and
vol.i.p.217. propofed feveral improvements f. Mr Gafcoigne divided
Node's the image of an objeft in the focus of the objeft-glafs, by
Prfhumous approach 0f two pieces of metal ground to a very fine
p.497,49S; cc%e’ *n the place of which Dr Hooke would fubftitute
and Phil, two fine hairs ftretched parallel to one another.
3. Mr Huygens meafured the apparent diameters of
the planets, by firft determining the quantity of the field
of view in his telefcope j which, he fays, is bell done by
obferving the time that a liar takes up in palling over
it, and then preparing two or three long and {lender
brafs plates, of various breadths, the fides of which are
very ftraight, and converging to a fmall angle. In
ufing thefe pieces of brals, he made them Hide in two flits,
made in the fides of the tube, oppofite to the place of the
image, and obferved in what place it juft covered the
diameter of any planet, or any fmall diftance that he
wanted to meafure J. It was obferved, however, by
Sir Ifaac Newton,that the diameters of planets, meafured
in this manner, will be larger than they ftiould be, as
all lucid objects appear to be when they are viewed
upon dark ones.
4. In the Ephemerides of the Marquis of Malvafia,
publiftied in 1662, it appears that he had a method of
meafuring fmall diftances between fixed flars and the
diameters of the planets, and alfo of taking accurate
draughts of the fpots of the moon by a net of filver
wire, fixed in the focus of the eye-glafs. He like wife
contrived to make one of two liars pafs along the
threads of this net, by turning it, or the telefcope, as
much as was neceflary for that purpofe 5 and he count¬
ed, by a pendulum-clock, beating feconds, the time
that elafped in its paflage'from one wire to another,
which gave him the number of minutes and feconds
Vol. XIII. Part II.
[ 793 1 . M 1 c.
were few of a degree contained between the intervals of the Microme-
wires of his net, with refpedl to the focal length of
his telefcope.
Tranf.
vol. xlviii.
p. 190.
Huygens’s
microme¬
ter.
t Sy/lemn
Saturuium,
p. 82.
Marquis of
Malvafia’s
microme¬
ter.
ter.
"V
5. In 1666, Meflrs Auzout and Picard publiflned a Auzout’s
defcription of a micrometer, which was nearly the fame microme-
with that of the Marquis of Malvafia, excepting theter'
method of dividing it, which they performed with more
exaftnefs by a fcrew. In fome cafes they ufed threads
of filk, as being finer than filver wires. Dechales alfo
recommends a micrometer confilling of fine wires, or
filken threads, the dillances of which were exaflly
known, difpofed in the form of a net, as peculiarly con¬
venient for taking a map of the moon.
6. M. de la Hire fays, that there is no method more Dela Hire’s
fimple or commodious for obferving the digits of anmicrome‘
eclipfe than a net in the focus of the telefcope. Thefe, ter‘
he fays, were generally made of filken threads 5 and
that for this particular purpofe fix concentric circles
had alfo been made ufe of, drawn upon oiled paper j
but he advifes to draw the circles on very thin pieces
of glafs with the point of a diamond. He alfo gives
feveral particular diredtions to aflift perfons in the ufe
of them.
7. ConJlruBion of Different Micrometers. The firfl: we Common
ftvall defcribe is the common micrometer. Let ABCD microni,;-
be a fedlion of the telefcope at the principal focus of the tei'pjate
objedl-glafs, or where the wires are fituated, which are cccxxxv.
placed in a fhort tube containing the eye-glafs, and may Fig. 1.
be turned into any pofition by turning that tube j mn
is a fine wire extended over its centre •, xy, are two
parallel wires rvell defined, and perpendicular to mn; vw
is fixed, and moves parallel to it by means of a fcrerv,
which carries two indexes over a graduated plate, to fhow
the number of revolutions and parts of a revolution
which it makes. Now to meafure any angle, we mull
firft afeertain the number of revolutions and parts of
a revolution correfponding to fome known angle, which
may be thus done : ift, Bring the inner edges of the
Avires exadlly to coincide, and fet each index to o ; turn
the fcrew, and feparate the wires to any diftance ; and
obferve the time a fl.ar m is in palling along the wire
mn from one vertical wire to the other : for that time,
turned into minutes and feconds of a degree, will be the
angle anfwering to the number of revolution , or the
angle correfponding to the dift ance. Thus, if r/~cof.
of the liar’s declination, we have 15' dm, the angle
correfponding to this diftance ; and hence, by proportion,
we find the angle anfwering to any other. 2<:////, Set
up an objedl of a knoAvn diameter, or ttvo objects at a
given diftance, and turn the ferevv till the vertical xvires
become tangents to the objedft, or till their opening juil
takes in the diftance of the two objefts upon the Avire
mn; then from the diameter, or diftance of the two
obicfls from each other, and their diftance from the
glafs, calculate the angle, and obferve the number of
revolutions and parts correfponding. 3dhj, T*ke the
diameter of the fun on any day, by making the Avires
tangents to the oppofite limb*, and find, from the nau¬
tical almanac, his diameter on that day. Here it Avill
be bell to take the upper and lower limbs of the fun
Avhen on the meridian, as he has then no motion per¬
pendicular to the horizon. If the edges do not coin¬
cide Avhen the indexes Hand at o, avc mull alloAV for
the error. Inllead of making a proportion, it is better
to have a table calculated to ihorv the angle correfpond-
5
M I C
Fig.
Microme- {ng to every revolution and parts of a revolution. But
1 y obferver mult remember, that tv hen the microme¬
ter is fixed to telefcopes of different focal lengths, a
new table muff be made. The whole ivffem of wires
is turned aoout in its own plane, by turning the eye-
tube round with the hand, and by that means the wire
m n can be thrown into any pofition, and confecjuently
angles in any pofition may be meafured. Dr Bradley
added a imall motion by a rack and pinion to fet the
wires more accurately in any pofition.
8. But the micrometer, as now contrived, is of ufe,
not only to find the angular diftance of bodies in
the field of view at the fame time, but alfo of thofe
which, when the telefcope is fixed, pafs through the
field of view fucceflively j by which means we can find
the difference of their right afeenfions and declinations.
Let A«, B C c, be three parallel and equidillant
u ires, the middle one bifefting the field of view j
HOB a fixed wire perpendicular to them paffino-
through the centre of the field ; and F/^ G^, two
wires parallel to it, each moveable by a micro¬
meter ferew, as before, fo that they can be brought
up to HOR, or a little beyond. Then to find the
angular diftance of two objeffs, bring them very near
to B b, and in a line parallel to it, by turning about
the wures, and bring one upon HOR, and by the
micrometer ferew make Si f or G^pafs through the
other; then turn the ferew till that wire coincides
with HOR, and the arc which the index has paffed
over fhows their angular diftance. If the objeffs be
further remote than you can carry the diftance of one
of. the wires Ff, G^ from HOR, then bring one
object to Yf and the other to G^- ; and turn each
micrometer ferew till they meet, and the fum of the
arcs paffed over by each index gives their angular di¬
ftance. If the objefts be two fiars, and one of them
be made to run along HOR, or either of the move-
able wires as occafion may require, the motion of the
other will be parallel to thefe wires, and their differ¬
ence of declinations may be obferved with great exaft-
neis ; but in taking any other diftances, the motion
of jhe ftars being oblique to them, it is not quite fo
eaiy to get them parallel to B ,• becaufe if one ftar
be brought near, and the eye be applied to the other
to adjuft the wires to it, the former ftar will have got¬
ten a little away from the wire. Dr Bradley, in his
account of the ufe of this micrometer, publifhed by
Dr Mafkelyne in the Philofophical Tran faff ions for
I772> thinks the beft way is to move the eye back¬
wards and forwards as quick as poflible ; but it feems
to be beft to fix the eve at feme point between,
by which means it takes in both at once lufhciently
well defined to compare them with B b. In finding
the difference of declinations, if both bodies do not
come into the field of view at the fame time, make
one n*: along the wire HOR, as before, and fix the
teh fioope and wait till the o<her comes in, and then
adjuft one of the moveable wires to it, and bring it up
to HOR, and the index gives the difference of their
decimations. The difference of time between the psf-
fage of the ftar at either of the crofs moveable wires,
and the tranfit of the other ftar over the erofs fixed
wire (which reprefents a meridian), turned into de¬
grees and minutes, will give the difference of right
afeenfion. I he ftar has been here fuppofed to be bi-
5
[ 794 ]
M I C
fe. ted by the wire ; but if the wire be a tangent to it, Microme-
allowance muft be made for the breadth oi the wire ter.
provided the adjuftment be made for the coincidence Y—J
of the wires. In oblerving the diameters ox the fun,
moon, or planets, it may perhaps be moft conveni¬
ent to make ufe of the outer edges of the wires, be¬
caufe they appear moft diftin<ft when quite within
the limb : but if there ftiould be any lenfible infiedtion
of the rays of light in palling by the wires, it will be
beft avoided by ufing the inner edge of one wire and
the outward edge of the other; for by that means
the intledlion at both limbs will be the fame way,
and therefore there will be no alteration of the rela¬
tive pofition of the rays pafling by each wire. And
it will be convenient in the micrometer to note at what
divifion the index ftands when the moveable wire co¬
incides with HOR ; for then you need not bring the
wire when a ftar is upon it up to HOR, only reckon
from the divifion at which the index then ftands to the
above divifion.
9. With a micrometer thus adapted to a telefcope, Mr The divide
S. Savory of Exeter propofed a new way of mealuring e4 object-
the difference between the greateft and leaft apparent f micro,
diameters of the fun, although the whole of the funMr
was not vifible in the field of view at once. The me- Saveryi
lliod we fhall briefly deferibe. Place two objedl-glaffes
inftead of one, fo as to form two images whofe limbs
fhall be at a fmall diftance from each other ; or in¬
ftead of two perfect lenfes, he propofed to cut a Angle
lens into four parts of equal breadths by parallel lines,
and to place the two fegments with their ftraight fides
againft each other, or the two middle frultums with
their oppofite edges together ; in either cafe, the two
parts which before had a common centre and axis, have
now their centres and axes feparated, and confequtnt-
ly two images will be formed as before by two perfedt
lenfes. Another method in refleftors w as to cut the
large concave refledfor through the centre, and by a
contrivance to turn up the outer edges whilft the
ftraight ones remained fixed ; by which means the axis
of the two parts became inclined, and formed two
images. Two images being formed in this manner,
he propofed to meafure the diftance between the limbs
when the diameters of the fun were the greateft and
leaft, the difference of which w7ould be the difference
of the diameters required. Thus far w'e are indebted
to Mr Savery for the idea of forming two images ; and
the admirable ufes to which it w'as afterwards applied,
we fhall next proceed to deferibe.
1 o. The divided obieff-glafs micrometer, as now made, improved
was contrived by the late Mr John Dollond, and by by Mr Joh»
him adapted to the objedf-end of a reflecting telefcope, i-ollond.
and has been fince by the prefent Mr P. Dollond his ion
applied with eoual advantage to the end of an achromatic
telefcope. The principle is this : The objeft-glafs is
divided into two fegments in a line drawn through the
centre ; each fegment is fixed in a feparate frame of
brafs, w hich is moveable, fo that the centres of the
twTo fegments mav be brought together by a handle
fcr that purpofe, and thereby form one image of an
objeCt ; but when feparated they will form two ima¬
ges, lying in a line pafling through the centre of each
fegment ; and coniequently the motion of each image
will be parallel to that line, which can be thrown into
any pofition by the contrivance of another handle to
turn
MIC [ 795 ] MIC
Microrae- turn the glafs about in its own plane. The brafs-worK.
ter- carries a vernier to meafure the distance of the centres
^ of the two fegments. Now let E and H be the cen-
tres of the two fegments, F their principal focus, and
two diftant objedls in FE, FH, produced, or the
oppolite limbs of the fame objedf PBh£jL) j then the
images of P and (£, formed by each fegment, or the
images of the oppofite limbs of the oojeit Pii. >
coincide at F : hence two images m % F, n x F of that
object are formed, whofe limbs are in eonladt •, there¬
fore the angular diitance of the points P and is the
fame as the angle which the di ance EH lubtends at
F, which, as the angles fuppofed to be meafured are
very fmall, will vary as EH extremely nearly •, and
confequently if the angle correfponding to one inter¬
val of the centres of the fegments be known, the
angle correfpouding to any other will be found by pro¬
portion. Now to find the interval for fome one angle,
take the horizontal diameter of the fun on any day,
by feparating the images till the contrary limbs coin¬
cide, and read off by the vernier the interval of their
centres, and look into the nautical almanac for the di¬
ameter of the fun on that day, and you have the cor¬
refponding angle. Or if greater exadlnefs be required
than from taking the angle in proportion to the diftan-
ces of their centres, we may proceed thus :—Draw
FG perpendicular to EH, which therefore bifedls it •,
then one half EH, or EG, is the tangent of half the
angle EFH ; hence, half the diftance of their centres
is to the tangent of half the angle correfponding to that
diftance as half anv other diftance of the centres is to
the tangent of half the correfponding angle (a).
ii. From this the method of meafuring fmall angles
is manifeft •, for we confider P, either as two ob¬
jects whofe images are brought together by feparating
the two fegments, or as the oppofite limbs of one ob
je£! PlU,)i A, whofe images, formed by the two feg¬
ments E, H, touch at F ; in the former cafe, EH
gives the angular diftance of the two objefb; and in
the latter, it gives the angle under which the diameter
of the objeil appears. In order to find the angular
diftance of two objedts, therefore, feparate the fegments
till the two images which approach each other coin¬
cide ; and to find the diameter of an objedt, feparate
the fegments till the contrary limbs of the images touch
each other, and read off the diftance of the centres
of the fegment from the vernier (b), and find the
angle as diredled in the laft article. Hence appears Microme-
one great fuperiorily in tins above the wire microme- ter' 
ter 5 as, with the one any diameter of an object may
be meafured with the lame cafe and accuracy ; whereas
with the other we cannot with accuracy meafure any
diameter, except that which is at right angles to thedi-
redlion of motion.
r 2. But, belides thefe twoufes to which the inftrument
fee ms lb well adapted, Dr Maikelyne * has ihown, * PhiL
how it may oe applied to find the difference of right ;"'mf
afeenfions and declinations. For this purpofe, two I-
wires at right angles to each other, bifedting the field
of view, mult be placed in the principal focus of the
eye-glafs, and moveable about in their own plane.—
Let HCR c be the field of view, HU and C c the two
wires ; turn the wires till the wefternmoit ftar (which
is the beft, having further to move) run along ROH ; Fig- 4-
then feparate the two fegments, and turn about the
micrometer till the two images of the fame ftar lie in
the wire C c; and then, partly by leparating the feg¬
ments, and partly by railing or deprefling the tele-
fcope, bring the two innermoft images of the two liars
to appear and run along ROH, as «, and the ver¬
nier will give the difference of their declinations ; be-
caufe, as the two images of one of the ftars coincided
with C c, the image of each :ar was brought per¬
pendicularly upon HR, or to FIR in their proper
meridian. And, for the fame reafon, the difference
of their times of palling the wire CO c will give their
difference of right afeenfions. Thefe operations will
be facilitated, if the telefeope be mounted on a polar
axis. If two other wires KL, MN, parallel to C c,
be placed near H and R, the obfervation may be
made on two ftars whofe difference of meridians is
nearly equal to HR the diameter of the field of view,
bv bringing the two images of one of the ftars to
coincide with one of thefe wires. If two ftars be ob-
ferved whofe difference of declinations is well fettled,
the fcale of the micrometer will be known.
13. It ha> hitherto been fuppofed, that the images of
the two ftars can be both brought into the field of
view at once upon the wire HOR : but if they can¬
not, fet the micrometer to the difference of their de¬
clinations as nearly as you can, and make the image
which comes firft run along the wire HOR, by ele¬
vating or depreffing the telefcope ; and when the other
ftar comes in, if it do not alfo run along HOR, alter
5 H 2 the.
(a) If the objefl is not diftant lety'be the principal focus ; then Ff: FG :: FG : FK (FG being produced
to meet a line joining the apparent places of the turn objects P, Q.), dividendo, fG : FG :: GK : FK, and
EH PO
alternando,yC : GK :: FG : FK :: (by fimilar triangles) EH : P(£, hence - — —^4, therefore the angle
fubtended by EH at f— the angle fubtended by PO at G *, and confequently, as fG is conftant, the angle
meafured at G is, in this cafe, alfo proportional to EH. The inftrument is not adapted to meafure the ang ular
diftance of bodies, one of which is near and the other at a diitance, becaufe their images would not be formed to¬
gether.
(b) To determine if there be any error in the adiuftment of the micrometer fcale, meafure the diameter of any
fmall ■well-defined objetft, as Jupiter’s equatoreal diameter, or the longeft axis of Saturn’s ring, both ways*
that is, with o on the vernier to the right and left of o on the fcale, and half the difference is the error re¬
quired. This error muff be added to or fubtrafted from all obfervatFns, according as the diameter meafured
with o on the vernier, when advanced on the fcale, is lefs or greater than the diameter meafured the other
way. And it is alfo evident, that half the fum of the diameters thus meafured gives the true diameter of the
objeft.
M I C
u !g- 5*
Kijr. 6.
the micrometer till it does, and half the fum of the num¬
bers fhown by the micrometer at the two feparate obfer-
vations of the two liars on the wire HOR will be the
difference of their declinations. That this Ihould be
true, it is manifeftly neceffary that the two fegments
fhould recede equally in oppofite dire&ions j and this is
effeded by Mr Dollond in his new improvement of the
objed-glafs micrometer.
14. 1 he difference of right afcenfions and declinations
of Venus or Mercury in the fun’s dilk and the fun’s
limb may be thus found. Turn the wires fo that the
north limb n of the fun’s image AB, or the north
Tim j of the image V of the planet, may run along the
wire RH, which therefore will then be parallel to the
equator, and confequently C c a fecondary to it 5 then
feparate the fegments, and turn about the micrometer
till the two images V v of the planet pals C c at the
lame time, and then by feparating the fegments,
bring the north limb of the northernmoft image V of
the planet to touch HR, at the time the northernmoft
limb n of the fouthernmoft image AB of the fun
touches it, and the micrometer Ihows the difference of
declinations of the northernmoft limbs of the planet and
fun, for the reafon formerly given (Art. 11.,) we ha¬
ving brought the northernmoft limbs of the two in-
nermoft images V and AB to HR, thefe two being
manifeftly interior to v and the northernmoft limb N of
the image PQ. In the fame manner we take the dif¬
ference of declinations of their fouthernmoft limbs ; and
half the difference of the two meafures (taking im¬
mediately one after another) is equal to the difference
of the declinations of their centres, without any re¬
gard to the fun’s or planet’s diameters, or error of
adjuftment of the micrometer ; for as it affedls both
equally, the difference is the fame as if there were no
error : and the difference of the times of the tran-
lits of the eaftern or weftern limbs of the fun and pla¬
net over C c gives the difference of their right afcen-
lions.
15. Inftead of the difference of right afcenfions, the
diftance of the planet from the fun’s limb, in lines pa¬
rallel to the equator, may be more accurately obferved
thus : Separate the fegments, and turn about the
and micrometer, fo as to make both images
run a’ong HR, or fo that the two interfe&ions
of the fun’s image may pafs C c at the fame
Then bring the planet’s and fun’s limbs into
■eontafl, as at V, and do the fame for the other limb
of the fun, and half the difference gives the diftance
of the centre of the planet from the middle of the
chord on the fun’s dilk parallel to the equator, or the
difference of the right afcenfions of their centres, al¬
lowing for the motion of the planet in the interval of
the obfervations, without any regard to the error of
adjuftment, for the fame reafon as before. For if
you take any point in the chord of a circle, half the
C 79^ 1
M 1 C
wires
V, *,
I’T
time.
difference of the tw'o fegments is manifeftly the di- Microm*.
ftance of the point f-om the middle of the chord ; and ter'
as the planet runs along HR, the chord is parallel to the v—^
equator.
In like, manner, the diftances of their limbs may be Fb. 7.
meafured in lines perpendicular to the equator, by" brino--
ing the micrometer into the pofition already defcribed,
(Art. 13.), and inftead of bringing V to HR, fepa¬
rate the fegments till the northernmoft limbs coincide
as at V 3 and in the fame manner make their fouthern¬
moft images to coincide, and half the difference of
the two meafures, allowing for the planet’s motion,
gi^es the difference of the declinations of their cen¬
tres.
Hence the true place of a planet in the fun’s dife may
at any time of its tranfit be found ; and confequently the
neareft approach to the centre and the time of ecliptic
conjun&ion may be deduced, although the middle Ihould
not be obferved.
16. But however valuable the objecl-glafs microme- Difadvaa-
ter undoubtedly is, difficulties lometimes have been found tage
in its ufe, owing to the alteration of the focus of the ollje<ft~slafe
eye, which will caufe it to give different meafures of terC1°nie
the fame angle at different times. For inftance, in
meafuring the fun’s diameter, the axis of the pencil
coming through the two fegments from the contrary
limbs of the fun, as PF, QF, fig. 3. crofting one ano¬
ther in the focus F under an angle equal to the fun’s
femidiameter, the union of the limbs cannot appear
perfeift, unlefs the eye be difpofed to fee objefts di-
ftindlly at the place where the images are formed 3 for
if the eye be difpofed to fee objects nearer to or fur¬
ther off than that place, in the latter cafe the limbs
will appear feparated, and in the former they will ap¬
pear to lap over (c). This imperfedion led Dr Maf-
kelyne to inquire, whether fome method might not be
found of producing two diftind images of the fun, or
any other objed, by bringing the axis of each pencil
to coincide, or very nearly fo, before the formation of
the images, by which means the limbs when brought
together would not be liable to appear feparated from
any alteration of the eye 3 and this lie found would be
effeded by the refradion of tivo prifms, placed either
without or within the telefcope ; and on this principle,
placing the prifms within, he conftruded a new micro¬
meter, and had one executed by Mr Dollond, which
upon trial anfwered as he expeded. The conftrudion
is as follows.
17. Let AB be the objed-glafs 3 ab the image, fup-Dr Maf-
pofe of the fun, which -would have been formed in kelyne’s
the principal focus £) 3 but let the prifms PR, SR be Pr.,fmatic
placed to intercept the rays, and let EF, \VG, be two
rays proceeding from the eaftern and W'eftern limbs of Fig. 8, <7.
the fun, converging, after refradion at the lens, to a
and b ; and fuppofe the refradion of the prifms to be
fuch, that in fig. 8. the ray EFR, after refradion at
R
(c) For if the eye can fee diftindly an image at F, the pencils of rays, of which PF, QF are the twm axes,
diverging from F, are each brought to a focus on the retina at the fame point 3 and therefore the two limbs ap¬
pear to coincide : but if we increafe the refradive power of the eye, then each pencil is brought to a focus, and
they crofs each other before the rays come to the retina, confequently the two limbs on the retina will lap over 3
and if we diminilh the refradive power of the eye, then each pencil being brought to a focus beyond the retina,
and not crofting till after they have paffed it, the two limbs on the retina muft be feparated.
Fig. 8.
MIC [ 79
R by the prifm PR, may proceed in the direftion RO 5
and as all the rays which were proceeding to a fuller
the fame refraftion at the piifm, they will all be re-
frafted to £) j and therefore, inftead of an image a b,
which would have been formed by the lens alone, an
image c is formed by thofe rays which fall on the
prifm PR •, and for the fame reafon, the rays falling
on the prifm SR will form an image Q d: and in fig.
9. the image of the point b is brought to Q, by the
prifm PR, and confequently an image C,)^ d is formed
by thofe rays which fall on PR : and for the fame rea¬
fon, an image (.) c is formed by the rays falling on SR.
Now in both cafes, as the rays EFR, WGR, coming
from the two oppofite limbs of the fun, and forming
the point of conta£l of the two limbs, proceed in the
fame direefion RQ^, they mult thus accompany each
other through the eye-glafs and alfo through the eye,
whatever refraftive power it has, and therefore to
every eye the images mull appear to touch. Now the
angle a\\bh twice the refra£tion of the prifm, and
the angle a C is the diameter of the fun 5 and as thefe
angles are very fmall, and have the fame fubtenfe a b,
we have the angle « R £ : angle a C b :: C(^ : RQ^.—
Now as C(^ is conftant, and alfo the angle « R Z< being
twice the refraftion of the prifm, the angle a C a varies
as R(E Hence the extent of the fcale for meafuring
angles becomes the focal length of the objeft-glafs,
and the angle meafured is in proportion to the diftance
of the prifms from the principal focus of the objeft-
glafs •, and the micrometer can meafure all angles (very
fmall ones excepted, for the reafon given in Art. 19.)
which do not exceed the fum of the refraflions of the
prifms j for the angle a C b, the diameter of the object
to be meafured, is always /e/s than the angle a R b, the
fum of the refraftions of the prifms, except when the
prifms touch the objedt-glafs, and then they become
equal. The fcale can never be out of adjuftment, as
the point o, where the meafurement begins, anfwers
to the focus of the obje6!-glafs, which is a fixed point
for alb diftant objeiRs, and we have only to find the
value of the fcale anfwering to fome known angle :
for infiance, bring the tAvo limbs of the fun’s images into
contaft, and meafure the diftance of the prifms from
the focus, and look in the nautical almanac for the fun’s
diameter, and you get the value of the fcale.
18. In fig. 8. the limb £) of the image Q e, is illu¬
minated by the rays falling on the obje<!ft-glafs between
A and F, and of the image by thofe falling be-
tAveen B and G *, but in fig. 9. the fame limbs are il¬
luminated by the rays falling betAveen B and F, A
and G refpeRively, and therefore Avill be more illumi¬
nated than in the other cafe ; but the difference is not
confiderable in achromatic telefcopes, on account of
the great aperture of the objedf-glafs compared Avith
the diftance FG.
It might be convenient to have tAvo fets of prifms,
one for meafuring angles not exceeding 36', and there¬
fore fit for meafuring the diameters of the fun and
moon, and the lucid parts and diftances of the culps
in their eclipfes ; and another for meafuring angles not
much greater than i', for the conveniency of meafu¬
ring the diameters of the planets. For as c : QR ::
fum of the refraftions of the prifms : angle a C b, the
apparent diameter of the objeft, it is evident that if
you diminifti the third term, you mull increafe the fe-
4
7 ] MIC
cond in the fame ratio, in order to meafure the fame Microme-
angle j and thus by diminifhing the refraRive angle of, ^ ’ ,
the prifms, you throAV them further from Q, and con¬
fequently avoid the inconvenience of bringing them
near to O , for the reafon in the next paragraph } and
at the fame time you Avill increafe the illumination in
a fmall degree. The prifms muft be achromatic, each
compofed of tAvo prifms of flint and croAvn giafs,
placed with their refrafting angles in contrary directions,
otherwife the images Avill be coloured.
19. In the conftru&ion here deferibed, the angle mea¬
fured becomes evanefeent Avhen the prifms come to the
principal focus of the objeR-glafs, and therefore o
on the fcale then begins : but if the prifms be placed
in the principal focus they can have no effect, becaufe
the pencil of rays at the junction of the prifms Arould
then vanifh, and therefore it is not practicable to bring
the tAvo images together to get o on the fcale. Dr
Mafkelyne, therefore, thought of placing another pair
of prifms Avithin, to refraR the rays before they came
to the other prifms, by Avhich means the two images
Avould be formed into one before they, came to the
principal focus, and therefore o on the fcale could
be determined. But to avoid the error arifing from
the multiplication of mediums, he, inftead of adding
another pair of prifms, divided the objt R-giafs through
its centre, and Aiding the fegments a little it feparated
the images, and then by the prifms he could form one
image very diftinRly, and confequently could determine
o on the fcale ; for by feparating the tAvo fegments you
form tAvo images, and you Avill feparate the two pencils
fo that you may move up the two prifms, and the two
pencils Avill fall on each refpeRively, and the tAvo
images may be formed into one. In the inftrument
Avhich Dr Mafkelyne had made, o on the fcale Avas
chofen to be about y of the focal length of the objeR-
glafs, and each prifm refraRed 27'. By this means all
angles are meafured down to o.
20. In the Philofophical TranfaRions for 1779, Mr
Ramfden has deferibed two nerv micrometers, AA'liich
lie contrived Avith a view of remedying the defeRs of
the objeR-glafs micrometer.
21. I. One of thefc is a catoptric micrometer, Avhich, Karnfclen’s
befide the advantage it derives from the principle 0frefle^ir'£
refieRion, of not being difturbed by the heterogeneity
of light, avoids every defeR of other micrometers,
and can have no aberration, nor any defeR arifing
from the imperfeRion of materials or of execution j
as the extreme fimplicity of its conftruRion requires
no additional mirrors or glaffes to thofe required for
the telefcope j and the feparation of. the images being
effeRed by the inclination of the tAvo fpecula, and not
depending on the focus of any lens or mirror, any al¬
teration in the eye of an obferver cannot affeR the,
angle meafured. It has peculiar to itfelf the advan¬
tages of an adjuftment, to make the images coincide,
in a direRion perpendicular to that of their motion j
and alfo of meafuring the diameter of a planet on both
fides of the zero, which Avill appear no inconliderable
advantage to obfervers avIio knoAV hoiv much eafier it
is to afeertain the contaR of the external edges of two
images than their perfeR coincidence.
22. A reprefents the fmall fpeculum divided into two-Fig.
equal parts ; one of Avhich is fixed on the end of the
arm B j the other end of the arm is fixed on a fteel
axis
I C ^798
ZroKtiS-the e‘?d .of the ,telercoPe C* The trary direftiens,
M T C
Fig.
A correc¬
tion to be
applied to
the angle.
otaer hair of the mirror A is fixed on the arm D,
at Inch arm at the other end terminates in a focket ?/,
tnat turns on the axis X ; both arms are prevented
from bending by the braces a a. G reprefents a double
icrew, having one part e cut into double the number
of threads m an inch to that of the part g : the part
having 100 threads in one inch, and the part g
only. [ he ferew e works in a nut F in the fide ‘of
the telefcope, while the part g turns in a nut H,
Tvhich is attached to the arm B ; the ends of the arms
„ <iri "’Inch the mirrors are fixed, are feparated
from each other by the point of the double ferew preff-
ing agamit the ftud /i, fixed to the arm D, and turning
m the nut H on the arm B. The two arms B and D
are preffed againft the direftion of the double ferew e g
by a fiural fpring within the part n, bv which means all
fhake or play m the nut H, on which the meafure de¬
pends, is entirely prevented.
From the difference of the threads on the ferew at
e and g, it is evident, that the progreffive motion of the
Icrew through the nut will be half the diftance of the
leparation of the two halves of the mirror ; and confe-
quently the half mirrors will be moved equally in
contrary direftions from the axis of the telefcope C.
1 ^ n? w^eel V fixed on the end of the double ferew
had ns circumference divided into 100 equal parts,
and numbered at every fifth divifion with 5," 10, &c.
to. I00> and t5ie index I (hows the motion of the ferew
with the wheel round its axis, while the number of
revolutions of the ferew is fhown by the divifions on
the tame index. 1 he fleel ferew at R may be turned
by the key S, and ferves to incline the fmall mirror at
right angles to the dire&ion of its motion. Bv
turning the finger head T, the eye-tube P is brought
nearer or farther from the fmall mirror, to adiuft the
telefcope to diftina vifion ; and the telefcope itfelf
hath a motion round its axis for the conveniency of
meafunng the diameter of a planet in any direftion.
1 he inclination of the diameter meafured with the
horizon is fhown in degrees and minutes by a level and
vernier on a graduated circle, at the breech of the tele¬
fcope.
24. Befides the table for reducing the revolutions and
parts of the ferew to minutes, feconds, &c. it will
require a table for corre&ing a fmall error which arifes
fiom the excentric motion of the half-mirrors. By this
motion their centres of curvature will approach a little
towards the large mirror : the equation for this pur-
pofe m fmall angles is infenfible ; but when angles to
be meafured exceed ten minutes, it fhould not be ne-
glefted. Or, the angle meafured may be corre&ed
by diminifhing it in the proportion the verfed fine of
the angle meafured, fuppofing the eccentricity radius,
bears to the focal length of the fmall mirror.
25. Mr Ramfden preferred Caffegrain’s conftruclion
of the reflecting telefcope to either the Gregorian or
Newtonian ; becaufe in the former, the errors of one
ipeculum are correfted by thofe of the other. From a
property of the reflecting telefcope, not generally
known, that the apertures of the two fpecula are to each
other very nearly in the proportion of their focal lengths,
it follows, that their aberrations will be in the fame pro¬
portion ^ and thefe aberrations will be in the fame di¬
rection, if the two Ipecula are concave j or in con-
Microme.
ter.
. if one fpeculum is concave and the
other convex. In the Gregorian telefcope, both
ipecula being concave, the aberration at the fecond ' v—J
image will be the fum of the aberrations of the two
mirrors ; but in the Caffegrainian ttlefcopc one mir-
ror^ oemg concave and the other convex, the aber¬
ration at the fecond image will be the difference be¬
tween the two aberrations. By affuming fuch propor¬
tions for the./ow of the fpecula as are generally ufed
in the reflecting telefcope, which is about as 1 to 4
the aberration in the Caflegrainian conffruCtion will be
to that in the Gregorian as 3 to 5.
26. j he other is a dioptric micrometer, or one fuited Mr F'mi-
to the principle of refraClion This micrometer is ap-^en s e)'e'
plied to the erect eye-tube of a refracting telefcope gl‘fsmicro*
and is placed in the conjugate focus of the firit eye-U Cter'
glafsin which pofition, the image being confiderably
magnified before it comes to the micrometer, any im¬
perfection in its glafs will be magnified only by the re¬
maining eye-glaffes, which in any telefcope feldom ex¬
ceeds five or fix times. By this pofition alfo the fize
of the micrometer glafs will not be the part of
the area which would be required if it was placed in
the objeCt-glals ; and, not with ftanding this great dif-
proportion of fize, which is of great moment to the
practical optician, the fame extent of fcale is preferred,
and the images are uniformly bright in every part of
the field of the telefcope.
27. Fig. 12. reprefents the glaffes of a refraCting tele- Plate
Icope ; xy, the principal pencil of rays from the objed-cccxxxi*r.
glafs O •, 11 and u tt, the axis of two oblique pencils j
a, the firft eye-glafs j m, its conjugate focus, or the
place of the micrometer ; b the fecond eye-glafs ; c the
third j and d the fourth, or that which is neareft the
eye. Let p be the diameter of the objed glafs, e the
diameter of a pencil at w, and / the diameter of the
pencil at the eye; it is evident, that the axes of the
pencils from every part of the image will crofs each
other at the point m ; and e, the width of the micro-
meter-glafs, is to p the diameter of the objeCt-glals, as
nia h to go, which is the proportion of the mag¬
nifying^ power at the point m; and the error caufed
by an imperfection in the micrometer-glafs placed at
m will be to the error, had the micrometer been at O,
as m is to p.
28. Fig. 13. reprefents the micrometer; A, a convex Fig. 13.
or concave lens bifeCled by a plane aerofs its centre; one
of thefe femi lenfes is fixed in a frame B, and the other
in the frame E ; which two frames Aide on a plate H,
and are preffed againfl it by thin plates a a : the frames
B and E are moved in contrary diredions by turning
the button D : L is a fcale of equal parts on the frame
B ; it rs numbered from each end towards the middle
with 10, 20, &c. 1 here are two verniers on the frame
E, one at M and the other at N, for the convenience
of meafuring the diameter of a planet, &c. on both fides
Jie zero. { he firfl divifion on both thefe verniers co¬
incides at the fame time with the two zeros on the fcale,
L ; and, if the frame is moved towards the right, the
relative motion of the two frames is fhown on the fcale
L by the vernier M; but if the frame B be moved to¬
wards the left, the relative motion is fhown by the ver¬
nier N.—-1 his micrometer has a motion round the
axis of vifion, for the convenience of meafuring the
diameter of a planet, Stc. in any diredion, by turn-
ing
5 i fad van-
tar{e? of the
co.nmon
micrume-
ter.
* Phil.
Tranf.
178?.
M I
Ing an endlefs fcrew F j
diameter meafured with the horizon is ftiown on the
circle by a vernier on the plate V. The telefcope
may be adjusted to diflincl vifion by a fcrew, which
moves the whole eye-tube with the micrometer nearer
to or farther from the obje£t-glafs, as telefcopcs are ge¬
nerally made •, or the fame effeft may be produced
without moving the micrometer, by Hiding the part of the
eye tube m on the part 7/, by help of a fcrew or pinion.
29. Notwithilanding thefe improvements on microme¬
ters, they are Hill liable to many fources of error. The
imperfediions of the wire micrometer, (which rvas Hill
the molt correft inftrunrent for meafuring fmall angles)
■when employed to determine the diitance of clofe
double liars, have been ably pointed out by Dr Herfchel.
30. When two liars are taken between the parallel
wires- the diameters mud be included. Dr Herfchel * has
in vain attempted to find lines fufficiently thin to extend
them acrofs the centres of the liars fo that their thick-
nefs might be negledled. The threads of the filk-worm,
with fuch lenfes as he ufes, are fo much magnified that
their diameter is more than that of many of the liars.
Befides, if they were much fmaller, the defleclion of
light would make the attempt to meafure the dillance
of the centres this way fruitless j for he has always found
the light of the liars to play upon thofe lines and fepa-
rate their apparent diameters into two parts. Now
fince the fpurious diameters of the liars thus included,
are continually changing with the date of the air,
and the length of time we look at them, we are, in
fome refpedl, left at an uncertainty ; and our meafures
taken at different times, and with different degrees of
attention, will vary on that account. Nor can we come
at the true didance of the centres of any two liars, un-
lefs wm know the femidiameters of the dars themfelvesj
for different dars have different apparent diameters,
which, with a power of 227, may differ from each
other as far as two feconds (d).
31. Lhe next imperfection arifes from a defleClion of
light upon the wires when they approach very near to
each other ; for if this be owing to a power of repullion
lodged at the furface, it is ealy to fee that fuch powers
mud interfere with each other, and give the meafures
larger in proportion than they would have been if the
repulfive power of one wire had not been oppofed by a
contrary power of the other wire.
32. Another difadvantage of thefe micrometers is an
uncertainty of the real zero. The lead alteration in the
fituation and quantity of light will affect the zero ; and
a change in the pofition of the wires will fometimes
produce a difference. To remove this difficultv Dr Her-
ichel always found his zero while the apparatus prefer-
ved the fituation which it had when his obfervations were
made ; but this introduces an additional obfervation.
33. The next imperfeCtion, is that every micrometer
hitherto ufed requires either a fcrew, or a divided bar
and pinion, to meafure the diitance of the wires or the
two images. Thofe acquainted with works of this kind
are ffnfible how difficult it is to have ferews perfectly
equal in every thread or revolution of each thread ;
or pinions and bars that dial] be fo evenly divided
as to be depended upon in every leaf and tooth to the
C [ 709 ] MIC
and the inclination of the two or three thoufandth part of an inch : and yet, on Microme-
account of the fmall Dale of thofe micrometers, thefe
quantities are of the greateli confequence ; an error of
a Angle tnoufandth par! inducing m moil inllruments
a millake of fevei al feconds.
34. The greateft imperfection of all is, that the wires
require to be illuminated ; and when Dr Herfchel had
double liars to meafure, one of which was very obfeure,
he was obliged to be content with lei's light than is
neceffary to make the wires diftindl 5 and ftveral liars
on this account could not be meafured at all, though
not too clofe for the micrometer.
Dr Herfchel, therefore, was led to direct his attention
to the improvement of thefe inllruments; and the refult
of ins endeavours has been avery mgemou^/amp-microme¬
ter, which is not only free from the imperfections above
fpecified, but alfo poffeffes the advantages of a large feale.
35. It is reprefented in fig. 14. where ABGCFE is a Dr Her-
ftand nine feet high, upon which a femicircular board fciiel’s laraP
qho g p is moveable upwards or downwards, and is held nicrome*
in its fituation by a peg p put into any one of the holes ^ ’
of the upright piece AB. This board is a fegment of tlg' I4*
a circle of fourteen inches radius, and is about three
inches broader than a femicircle, to give room for the
handles r D, e P, to work. The ufe of this board is
to carry an arm L, thirty inches long, which is made
to move upon a pivot at the centre of the circle, by
means of a firing, which paffes in a groove upon the
edge of the femicirclepgohq; the firing is fafiened to
a hook at 0 (not expreffed in the figure, being at the
back of the arm L), and palling along the groove from
0 h to q is turned over a pulley at q, and goes down to
a fmall barrel e, within the plane of the circular board,
where a double-jointed handle e P commands its mo¬
tion. By this contrivance, we fee, the arm L may be
lifted up to any altitude from tlie horizontal pofition
to the perpendicular, or be fullered to defeend by its
own weight below the horizontal to the reverfi perpen¬
dicular fituation. The weight of the handle P is luffi-
cient to keep the arm in any given pofition ; but if the
motion Ihould be too eafy, a fridion fpring applied to.
the barrel will moderate it at pleafure.
36. In front of the arm L a fmall Aider, about three
inches long, is moveable in a rabbet from the end L
towards the centre backwards and forwards. A firing
is fafiened to the left fide of the little Aider, and goes
towards L, where it pafies round a pulley at m, and
returns under the arm from 777,7?, towards the centre,
where it is led in a groove on the edge of the arm,
which is of a circular form, upwards to a barrel
(raifed above the plane of the circular board) at r,
to which the handle ?-D is faftened. A fecond firing
is faftened to the Aider, at the right fide, and goes to-
wards the centre, where it pafies over a pulley n • and
the weight w, which is fufpended by the end of this
firing, returns the Aider towards the centre, when a
contrary turn of the handle permits it to aft.
37. By a and b are reprefented two fmall lamps, two
inches high, li in breadth by 1^ in depth. The fides,
back, and top, are made fo as to permit no light to be
feen, and the front confifts of a thin brafs Aiding door.
The flame in the lamp a is placed three-tenths of an inch
from
(d) Thefe imperfeftions are remedied in the inffrment deferibed in p. 801.
M I C
Microme- from the left fide, three-tenths from the front, and half
. ter‘ an inch from the bottom. In the lamp b it is placed at
the fame height and diftance, meafuring from the right
fide. The ivick of the flame confifts only of a Angle
very thin lamp cotton-thread ; for the fmalleft flame
being fufficient, it is eafier to keep it burning in fo
confined a place. In the top of each lamp mull be a
little flit lengthways, and a fmall opening in one fide
near the upper part, to permit the air to circulate to
feed the flame. To prevent every refleftion of light,
the fide opening of the lamp a fliould be to the right,
and that of the lamp b to the left. In the Aiding door
of each lamp is made a fmall hole with the point of a
very fine needle juft oppofite the place where the wicks
are burning, fo that when the Aiders are flmt down,
and every thing dark, nothing (hall be fcen but two
fine lucid points of the fize of two ftars of the third or
fourth magnitude. The lamp a is placed fo that its
lucid point may be in the centre of the circular board
where it is fixed. The lamp b is hung to the little
Aider which moves in the rabbet of the arm, fo that its
lucid point, in an horizontal pofition of the arm, may
be on a level with the lucid point in the centre. The
moveable lamp is fufpended upon a piece of brafs faften-
ed to the Aider by a pin exaftly behind the flame, upon
which it moves as a pivot. The lamp is balanced at
the bottom by a leaden weight, fo as to remain up-
rig ht, when the arm is either lifted above or deprefled
below the horizontal pofition. The double-jointed
handles rD, <? P, confift of deal rods, 10 feet long,
and the loweft of them may have diviiions, marked
upon it near the end P, exprefting exactly the diftance
from the central lucid point in feet, inches, and tenths.
38. Plence we fee, that a perfon at a diftance of 10 feet
may govern the two lucid points, fo as to bring them
into any required pofition fouth or north preceding or
following, from o to 90° by ufing the handle P, and
alfo to any diftance from fix-tenths of an inch to five or
fix and twenty inches by means of the handle D. If
any reflection or appearance of light ftiould be left from
the top or fides of the lamps, a temporary fereen, con-
lifting of a long piece of pafteboard, or a wire frame co¬
vered with black cloth, of the length of the wfliole arm,
and of any- required breadth, wflth a flit of half an inch
broad in the middle, may be affixed to the arm by four
bent wires projeCling an inch or two before the lamps,
fituated fo that the moveable lucid point may pafs along
,v the opening left for that purpofe.
•' ‘S- '5- j pig, 13, reprefents part of the arm L, half the real
fize ; S the Aider ; m the pulley, over which the cord
x tij% is returned towards the centre ; v the other cord
going to the pulley n of fig. 14. R the brafs piece
moveable upon the pin c, to keep the lamp upright.
At R is a wire rivetted to the brafs piece, upon which
fig. Il?- !7- is held the lamp by a nut and ferew. Fig, 16. 17. re-
prefent the lamps «, /, with the Aiding doors open,
to ftiow the fituation of the wicks. W is the leaden
weight with a hole d in it, through which the Avire R
of fig. 15. is to be paffed Avhen the lamp is to be fafl>
18. ened to the Aider S. Fig. 18 reprefents the lamp a
with the Aiding door Amt; / the lucid point; and ik
the openings at the top, and r at the fides, for the ad-
mifiion of air.
39. The motions of this micrometer are capable of great
improvement by the application of Avheels and pinions,
M I C
and other mechanical refources ; but as the principal Microme*
objedl is only to be able to adjuft the two lucid points ter-
to the required pofition and diftance, and to keep them 1
there for a fevy minutes, while the obferver meafures^pj^^
their diftance, it will be unneceflary to fay more upon the lamp
the fubjedl. microme-
40. It is Avell known that we can with one eye look in-ten
to a telefcope, and fee an objedft much magnified, Avhile
the other eye may fee a fcale upon which the magnified
picture is thrown. In this manner Dr Herfchel gene¬
rally determined the potver of his telefcopes j and any
one who has been accuftomed to make fuch obfervations
will feldom miftake fo much as one in fifty in determin¬
ing the poAver of an inftrument, and that degree of ex-
aftnefs is fully fufficient for the purpofe.
41. When Dr Herfchel ufes this inftrument he puts It
at ten feet diftance from the left eye, in a line perpendi¬
cular to the tube of his NeAVtonian telefcope, and raifes
the moveable board to fuch a height that the lucid
point of the central lamp may be upon a level with the
eye. The handles, lifted up, are paffed through tAvo
loops faftened to the tube, juft by the obferver, fo as to
be ready for his ufe. The end of the tube is cut aAvay,
fo as to leave the left eye entirely free to fee the Avhole
micrometer.
42. The telefcope being diredted to a double ftar, it is
vieAved with the right eye, and at the fame time Avith
the left it is feen projedled upon the micrometer : then,
by the handle P, the arm is raifed or depreffed fo as to
bring the two lucid points to a fimilar fituation Avith the
two ftars j and, by the handle D, the moveable lucid
point is brought to the fame diftance of the two ftars, fo
that the tAvo lucid points may be exadlly covered by the
ftars.
43. With a rule, divided into inches and fortieth parts,
the diftance of the lucid points is thus determined with
the greateft accuracy ; and the meafure thus obtained
is the tangent of the magnified angle under Avhich the
ftars are feen to a radius of ten feet 5 therefore, the
angle being found and divided by the poAver of the te¬
lefcope, the real angular diftance of the centres of a
double ftar is afeertained. On September 25. 1781,
Dr Herfchel meafured a Herculis with this inftrument.
Having caufed the tAvo lucid points to coincide Avith
the liars, he found the radius or diftance of the central
lamp from the eye 10 feet 4.15 inches 5 the tangent or
diftance of the tAvo lucid points 50.6 fortieth parts of an
inch this gives the magnified angle 35', and dividing
by the poAver 460, avc obtain 4'' 34,/' for the diftance
of the centres of the twro ftars. The fcale of the mi¬
crometer at this convenient diftance, with the poAver of
460, is abo\re a quarter of an inch to a fecond ; and by
putting on a poAver of 932, we obtain a fcale of more
than half an inch to a fecond, without increafing the
diftance of the micrometer 5 Avhereas the molt per fed!
micrometers, with the fame inftrument, had a fcale
of lefs than the tAro ihoufandth part of an inch to a
fecond.
44. Mr Brewfter has lately dxredled his attention to Mr Brea¬
the improvement of micrometers, and has invented one infter’3 II!''
particular Avhich appears to be highly deferving-of no-cromeer’
tice in this place. In this inftrument a pair of fixed
Avires is made to fubtend different angles by varying the
magnifying poAver of the telefcope, by Aiding one tube
within another j Avhereas in all other micrometers xvith
Avir«?s
[ 800 ]
/
M I C
[ Soi ]
M I C
Microme- wires tins effeft is produced by mecnanical contrivances.
, ter' . Mr Brewfter’s method of (hutting and opening the
" v wires optically is therefore free, from all thofe fources of
error to which other micrometers are fubjeft, and ren¬
ders it particularly ufeful to the practical aftronomer *,
while the mode of changing the manifying power by
the motion of a fecond obje<3>glafs affords a length of
fcale equal to the local diftance of the principal objeft-
glafs. The fame principle is peculiarly applicable to the
Gregorian telefcope ; for the' magnifying power of this
inftrument can be changed by merely increafing or di-
minilhing the diftance of the eye-piece from the large
ipeculum.
45. In the common micrometer, which can manifeftly,
as well as Mr Cavallo’s and Mr Brewfter’s, be ufedinthe
menfuration of diftances, the focal length of the tele¬
fcope to which it is attached remains always the fame $
fo that a correction computed from an optical theorem
muft be applied to every angle ‘that is meafured : but
in Mr Brewfter’s telefcope and micrometer, the focal
length varies in the fame proportion as the diftance of
the objedt j and confequently no correction of the
angles can be neceffary. To obviate the neceflity of
having a Hand for the inftrument, which would prevent
its ufefulnefs at fea, Mr Brewfter divides the fecond or
moveable objeCt-glafs into two, a* in the divided objeCt-
glafs micrometer. By this contrivance two images are
formed, and thefe images are feparated or made to form
different angles at the eye, by bringing the moveable
objeCt-glafs nearer to the fixed one. In determining
the angle, therefore, we have only to bring the two
images of the objeCl into contaCl; and fuch contaCl the
eye is capable of afcertaining even during the agitation
of a carriage, a* the two images retain the fame relative
pofition whatever be their abfolute motion.
This ingenious inftrument, being formed with Hiding
lubes, is very portable and convenient; and svill be
found extremely ufeful to military gentlemen, and others
who may wifti to afcertain diftances without a more cum-
berfome apparatus. Hailes Nat. Phil, by Gregory, v. ii.
p. 427.
46. Mr Brewfter, we underftand, ftill continues to di-
reft his attention to the fubjeft of micrometers, keeping
in view the improvement of thefe inftruments,not only in
greater accuracy of conftruCHon, but alfo in their more
extenfive application to various praCHcal purpofes. An
account of thofe ufes and improvements is to form the
fubjeCt of an appropriate publication 5 and, if we are
rightly informed, the author deems them of fufficient
importance to fecure to himfelf, by patent, the exclu-
five right to the advantages which he thinks will arife
from ufing them.
Savallo’s 47. A very fimple micrometer for meafuring fmall an-
peaft micro the telefcope has been invented by Mr Cavallo *.
meter. Itconfiftsofa thin and narrow Hip of mother-of-pearl finely
*Ph. Tranf. divided, and fituated in the focus of the eye-glafs of a te-
1771.P.263. lefcope, juft where the image of the objeCl is formed.
It is immaterial whether the telefcope be a refra&or or
a refleilor, provided the eye-glafs be a convex lens.
The fimpleft wray of fixing it is to flick it upon the
diaphragm, which generally Hands within the tube, in
the focus of the eyc-glafs. When thus fixed, the divi-
fions of the micrometrical fcale will appear very di-
ftinfl, unlefs the diaphragm is not exatftly in the focus;
in which cafe, the fcale muft be placed accurately in
Vol. XIII. Part II.
the focus of the eye-glafs, either by moving the dia¬
phragm, or by interpofing any thin fab fiance, fuch as
paper or card between it and the fcale. This conftruc-
tion is fully fufficient, when the telefcope is always to
be ufed by the fame perfon ; but when different perfons
are to ule it, then the diaphragm which fupports the
micrometer muft be conftructed fo as to be eaiily moved
backwards or forwards, though that motion need not
be greater than about or A, of an inch.
The fcale of the micrometer is reprefented in fig. 19. Fig. 19,
which is about four times greater than one w hich Mr
O
Cavallo has adapted to a three-feet achromatic telefcope
that magnifies about 84 times. It is fomething lefs
than the 24th part of an inch broad ; its thicknefs is
equal to that of common writing paper ; and the length
of it is determined by the breadiii of the field of view.
The divifions are 200ths of an inch, and the lines which
form them reach from one edge of the Icale to about the
middle of it, excepting every fifth and tenth divifion,
which are longer. Two divifions of the fcale in the te¬
lefcope already mentioned are very nearly equal to one
minute ; and as a quarter of one of thofe divifions may
be eafily diftinguifhed by the eye, an angle of one-eighth
part of a minute, or of 7'A, may be meafured with it.
In looking through a telefcope furniffied with fuch a
micrometer, the field of view appears divided by the
micrometer fcale, the breadth of which occupies about
^-th of the aperture ; and as the Icale is femitranfparent,
that part of the object which is behind it may be dif-
cerned fufficiently w'ell to alcertain the divifion, with
wdiich its borders coincide. Fig. 20. ftiowrs the appear-F*g- 20.
ance of the field of the telefcope w’ith the micrometer,
when directed to the title page of the Philofophical
Tranfaftions, in which it appears that the thicknefs of
the letter C is equal to three-fourths of a divifion, the
diameter of the O is equal to three divifions, and fo on.
48. After having adapted this micrometer to -the
telefcope, rve muft then afcertain the value of the
divifions. It is hardly neceffary to mention in this
place, that though thofe divifions meafure the chords
of the angles, and not the angles or arches themfelves,
and the chords are not as the arches, yet in fmall angles
the chords, arches, fines, and tangents, follow- the fame
proportion fo very nearly, that the difference may be
fafely neglected : fo that if one divifion of this micro¬
meter is equal to one minute, we may conclude, that
two divifions are equal to two minutes, three divifions
to three minutes, and fo on. In order to afcertain the
value of the divifions of this micrometer, the following
fimple and accurate method may be adopted.
Mark upon a wall the length of fix inches, bv mak¬
ing two dots or lines fix inches afunder, or by fixing a
fix-inch ruler upon a Hand ; then place the telefcope be¬
fore it fo that the ruler or fix-fnch length may be at
right angles with the direction of the telefcope, and
juft 57 feet 34- inches diftant from the objeft-glafs of
the telefcope : this done, look througli the telefcope at
the ruler or other extenfion of fix inches, and obferve
how many divifions of the micrometer are equal to it,
and that fame number of divifions is equal to half a de¬
gree, or 30', as may be fhewm by plane trigonometry.
49. When this value has been once afeertained, any
other angle meafured by any other number of divifions is
determined by fimple proportion. Thus, if the diameter
of the fun feen through the fame telefcope, be equal to
5 i 12
M I G
[ 802 ]
M I 0
12 diviiions, fay as u^- divifions are to 30 minutes,
fo are 12 divifions to ^ —2 ^ 31'.3, which is the
required diameter of the fun.
Notwithftanding the facility of. this calculation, a
fcale may be made anfwering to the divifions of a mi¬
crometer, which will fhow the angle correfponding to
any number of divifions by mere infpedlion. Thus, for
the above-mentioned fmall telefcope, the fcale is r;epre-
Fig. ai. fented in fig. 21. AB is a line drawn at pleafure it
is then divided into 23 equal parts, and thofe divifions
which reprefent the divifions of the micrometer that are
equal to one degree, are marked on one fide of it. The
line then is divided again into 60 equal parts, Avhich are
marked on the other fide of it 5 and thele divifions re¬
prefent the minutes which correfpond to the divifions of
the micrometer : thus the figure ihows, that fix divi¬
fions of the micrometer are equal to IJ^- minutes,
divifions are nearly equal to 29 minutes, &c. What has
been laid of minutes may be faid of feconds alfo, when
the fcale is to be applied to a large telefcope.
50. We fiiall therefore add fome practical rules to
render this micrometer ufeful to perfons unacquainted
with trigonometry and the ufe of logarithms.
Problem I. J he angle, not exceeding one degree,
which is fubtended by an extenfion of one foot perpen¬
dicular to the axis of the telefcope being given, to find
its dirtance from the objedt-glafs of the telefcope.
Rule 1. If the angle be exprefled in minutes, fay, as
the given angle is to 60, fo is 687.55 to a fourth pro¬
portional, which gives the anfwer in inches.—2. If the
angle be exprelfed in feconds, fay, as the given angle
is to 3600, fo is 687.55 to a fourth proportional, which
expreffes the anfwer in inches.
Example. At Avhat diilance is a globe of one foot
diameter Avhen it fubtends an angle of tAvo feconds ?
,/ zr // so 3600x687.5;
2" : 3600" :: 687.55 :     =1237590
inches, or 103132! feet, which is the anfwer required.
Problem II. The angle, not exceeding one degree,
which is fubtended by any knoAvn extenfion, being gi¬
ven, to find its diftance from the objedl-glafs of the tele¬
fcope.
Rule. Proceed as if the extenfion Avere of one foot by
Problem I. and call the anfwer B •, then, if the extenfion
in queftion be exprefled in inches, fay, as 12 inches are
to that extenfion, fo is B to a fourth proportional, Avhich
Is the anfwer in inches ; but if the extenfion in queftion
be exprefled in feet, then you need only multiply it by
B, and the product is the anfwer in inches.
Example. At what diftance is a man fix feet high,
when he appears to fubtend an angle of 30".
By Problem I. if the man were one foot high, the
diftance Avould be 82506 inches j but as he is fix feet
high, therefore multiply 82506 by 6, and the product
gives the required diftance, which is 495036 inches, or
41253 feet.
For greater conveniency, efpecially in travelling, or
in fueh circumftanees in Avhich one has not the op¬
portunity of making even the eafy calculations required
in thofe problems, the following Iavo tables have been com¬
puted j the firft of which (hows the diftance anfwering
to any angle from one minute to one degree, which is
fubtended by a man, the height of whieh has been call¬
ed an extenfion of fix feet j becaufe, at a mean, fuch is
3
man Avhen drefied Avith hat and Microraw
ter.
the height of a
ftioes on.
Thus, if it is required to meafure the extenfion of a
ftreet, let a foot ruler be placed at the end of the ftreet;
meafure the angle it fubtends, which fuppofe to be 36',
and in the table you Avill have the required diftance op¬
posite 36', which is 95! feet. Thus alfo a man who
appears to be 49' high, is at the dittance of 421 feet.
Angles fubtended by an extenfon of one Foot at different
Dijlances.
Angles.
Min. 1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
J3
14
15
16
*7
18
J9
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
Diftances in
Feet.
Angles.
Diltances in
Feet.
3437-7
1718.9
II45-9
8594
687.5
572-9
491-1
429.7
382.0
343-7
3I2-5
286.5
264.4
245-5
229.2
214.8
202.2
191.0
180.9
171.8
162.7
156.2
I49-4
143.2
I37-5
132.2
127.3
122.7
H8.5
114.6
Min. 31
S2
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
5^
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
110.9
107.4
104.2
ioi.i
98.2
95-5
92.9
9°-4
88.1
85-9
83.8
81.8
79-9
78.1
76.4
74-7
73-1
71.6
70.1
68.7
67.4
66.1
64.8
63.6
62.5
61.4
60.3
59-2
58.2
58.3
Angles fubtended by an Extenfon offix Feet at different
Difiances.
Angles.
Diftances in
Feet.
Min. I 20626.8
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
10313.
6875.4
5156-5
4125.2
3437-7
2946.6
2578.2
2291.8
2062.6
1875.2
1718.8
1586.7
Angles.
Min. 14
J5
16
W
18
w
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
Diftances in
Feet.
1473-3
I375-
1298.1
1213.3
1M5-9
1085.6
1031.4
982.2
937-6
896.8
859-4
825.
793-3
Angle*,
M I C
Angles.
Min. 27
28
29
3°
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
3«
39
40
41
42
43
Diftanres in
Feet.
763*9
736.6
7II*3
687.5
665.4
644*5
6?q.
606.6
589*3
572-9
557*5
542.8
528.9
5i5*6
5°3*r
491.1
479-7
Angles.
Diftances in
Feet.
Min. 44
45
46
47-
48
49
5°
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
4688
4584
448.4
438.9
429.7
421.
412.5
404*4
396.7
389.2
381.9
37 5*
368.3
361.9
355*6
349.6
343*7
803 1 MIC
angles in the heavens and fuch as are fubtended by ter-
reiil'ial objedls, is reprefented in fig. 27. which exhibits
its appearances in the focus of the fourth eye-glafs.
The black ring, which forms part of the figure, is the
diaphragm, and the remaining part is a ring of mother-
of-pearl, having its interior circumference divided into
360 equal parts. The mother-of-pearl ring, which ap¬
pears connected with the diaphragm, is completely fe-
parate from it, and is fixed at the end of a brafs tube
which is made to move between the third eye-glafs and
the diaphragm, fo that the divided circumference may
be placed exactly in the focus of the glafs next the eye.
When the micrometer is thus fitted into the telefcope,
the angle fubtended by the whole field of view, or by
the diameter of the innermoft circle oi the miciometer,
mull be determined either by meafui ing a bafe or by
the paflage of an equatoreal ftar, and the angles fub¬
tended by any number of divifions or degrees will be
found by a table eonUrudted in the following man-
Mr Brcw-
fter’s drew
hr mother
of-pearl mi
trometer.
* Phil.
jW'ltr.
vol. xxix.
p. 48.
Fig. 27.
51. The following is the account of a/micrometer in-
. vented by Mr Brewfter, of the cireumftances which led
to the invention, and of its advantages. We fliall give
it in his own words *.
“ In the winter of 1805 (he obferves), when I was
employed in delineating the furfaee ot the moon, I
wifhed to meafure the diameter of the lunar fpois by
applying Mr Cavallo’s micrometer to a thirty-inch
achromatic telefcope made by Berge.. But as the eye¬
piece was moved by a rack and pinion, and come-
quently could not turn round its axis,, the micrometer
mu ft have remained ftationary, and could only meafure
angles in one diredlion. This difficulty, indeed, might
have been furmounted by a mechanical contrivance for
turning the diaphragm about its centre, or more limply
by o-iving a motion of rotation to the tube which con¬
tains the third and fourth eye-glafies.. Such a. change
in the eye-piece, however, was both inconvenient and
difficult to be made. Mr Cavallo’s micrometer, there¬
fore, has this great difadvantage, that it cannot be ufed
in refieifting telefcopes, or in any achromatic telefcope
where the adjuftraent of the eve-piece is effefted by
rackwork, unh-fs the ftruTure of thefe inftruments is
altered for the purpofe. Another difadvantage of this
micrometer arifes from the ftip of mother-of-pearl paf-
fing through the centre of the field. 1 he picture in
the focus of the eye glafi is broken into two parts, and
ibe view is rendered ilill more unpleafant by the in¬
equality of the fegments into which the field is divided.
In addition to thefe difadvantages, the different divi¬
fions of the micrometer are at unequal diftances from
the eye-glafs which views 'hem, and therefore can nei¬
ther appear equally diftmft nor fuhtend equal angles at
the eve.
“ Finding that Mr Cavallo’s inftrument laboured un¬
der thefe imperfe6Hons, I thought of a circular mother-
of-pearl micrometer which is free from them all, and
ha1- likewife the advantage of a kind of diagonal fcale,
iticreafing in accuracy with the angle to be meafured.
This micrometer, which I got executed by Miller and
Adie, optical inftrument-makers in Edinburgh, and
which I have often ufed, both in determining fmall
52. “ Let A mfin B, fig. 28. be the interior circumfer- Fig*
ence of the micrometer fcale, and let m ft be the object to
be meafured. BifeCt the arch m « in ;i, and draw C w,
C /), C n. The line C p will be at right angles to m
and therefore m n will be twice the fine of half the
arch m n. Confequentlv, AB : m n rad. fine of
4 m p n ; therefore mn X ft — fin. \ m /'77 X AB, and
fin. \mpn x AB fin. 4 m p n
m p n—  ~ n -— X AB ; a for*
n n
mula by which the angle fubttnded by the chord of any
number of degrees may be eafily found. The firft part
of the formula, viz.
fin. 4 mpn
"R
is conflant, while AB
varies with the fize of the micrometer and with the
magnifying power which is applied. M e have here*
fore computed the following table, containing the value
of the con ft ant part of the formula for every degree or
divifion of the fcale.
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
J7
18
*9
20
' nftant
Part of
the
orniula.
.0-87
•0174
.0262
.0349
.0436
•0523
.0610
.0698
.0785
.3872
.09 s8
’045
•11 3 2
i 219
.1304
• 1392
1478
.1564
•1650
.1736
-•(‘£
Con'fant I
Fart. I
2 :
22
23
24
2 5
26
27
28
29
3°
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
^eg.
Conftar.t
Fart.
.1822
.1908
• < 994
.2079
. 1 f>4
.2250
•2334
.2419
.2?C>4
.2588
.2672
.27 ;6
.2840
.2922
•3° ■ 7
3 90
•317.3
•3256
•3338
.3420
4'
4 '
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
5°
51
52
53
54
5 5
56
58
59
60
Conti ant
Part-
•3 50 2
•3.584
.3665
•37 i6
.3827
•39°7
•3987
.4067
.4147
.4 2 26
•4305
.4384
.4462
.4540
.4617
•4695
•4771
.4848
.4924
. rooo
61
62
63
64
65
66
6?
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
•5°75
•5I5°
•5225
•5299
•5373
•5446
•55I9
. c - 92
•5664
•5735.
•5807
.5878
■5948
.6018
.6088
.6157
.6225
.6293
.6361
.6428
i 2
Deg,
.MIC
r 804 ]
MIC
Conftant
Part.
.7986
.8039
.8090
.8x41
.8192
.8241
.8290
•8339
.8387
•S434
.8480
.8526
•857 2
.8616
.8660
.8704
.8746
.8788
.8829
.8870
.8910
.8949
.8988
.9026
.9063
}eg.
Conftant
Part.
J31
132
J33
J34
Mi
13O
I37
MS
139
140
141
142
M3
M4
145
146
'47
148
X49
15°
M1
Ii2
M3
ji4
Mi
Des
(’on ft ant
Part.
.9100
•9M5
•9I71
•92°5
.9239
.9272
•93°4
•9336
■9367
•9397
.9426
•9455
•9483
•95IT
•9537
•9563
.9,-88
.9613
.9636
.9659
.9681
•97°3
.9724
•9744
•9763
M^
M7
M8
M9
160
161
162
163
164
165
166
167
168
169
170
171
172
M3
174
M5
176
*77
178
179
180
.9781
•9799
.98x6
•9835
.9848
.0863
.9877
.9890
•99°3
•9914
•9925
•9936
•9945
•9954
.9962
.9969
.9976
•998i
.9986
.9990
•9994
.9996
.9998
1.0000
1.0000
53. “ In order to find the angle fubtended by any num¬
ber ot’ degrees, we have only to multiply the conftant
part of the formula correfponding to that number in the
table by AB, or the angle fubtended by the whole
field. Thus if AB is 30 minutes, as it happens to be
in the micrometer which I have conftruffed, the angle
fubtended by 1 degree of the fcale will be 30'X .009“
l6y fcconds, and the angle fubtended by 40 degrees
will be 30'X 342=IO, 15.6" ; and by making the cal¬
culation it will be found that as the angle to be mea-
fured increafes, the accuracy of the fcale alfo increafes ;
for when the arch is only 1 or 2 degrees, a variation of
i degree produces a variation of about 16 feconds in
the angle •, whereas when the arch is between 170 and
180, the variation of a degree does not produce a
change much more than one fecond in the angle. This
is a moft important advantage in the circular fcale, as
in Cavallo’s micrometer a limit is neceftarily put to the
lize of the divifions.
“ It is obvious, from an infpe£Hon of fig. 27. that there
is no occafion for turning the circular micrometer round
its axis, becaufe the divided circumference lies in every
poflible direftion. In fig. 2. for example, if the objeft
has the dire61 ion a b \t will be meafured by the arch
a o b, and if it lies in the line c d it will be meafured
by the arch cr d.
“ In the circular micrometer which I have been in
the habit of ufing, AB, or the diameter of the field of
view, is exadlly half an inch, the diameter of the brafs
tube in which it is fixed is one inch, the length of the
tube half an inch, and the degrees of the divided cir¬
cumference -5~fo'h of an inch.”
^4. II. The micrometer has not only been applied to
telefcopes, and employed for aftronomical purpofes; but Micronic
there have alfo been various contrivances for adapting^ ^er-
it to microscopical obfervations. Mr Leemvenhoeck’s
method of eftimating the fize of fmall objedls was by0fthemi-
comparing them with grains of fand, of which 100 inemmeter to
a line took up an inch. Thefe grains he laid upon themi'roicoPe?'
fame plate with his objects, and viewed them at the
fame time. Dr Turin’s method was fimilar to this; for
he found the diameter of a piece of fine lilver wire, by
wrapping it as clofe as he could about a pin, and ob-
ferving how many rings made an inch ; and he ufed
this wire in the fame manner as Leeuwrenhoeck employ¬
ed his fand. Dr Hooke looked upon the magnified ob-
je6l with one eye, while at the fame time he viewed
other objedls placed at the fame diftance with the other
eye. In this manner he was able, by the help of a
ruler, divided into inches and fmall parts, and laid on
the pedeftal of the microfcope, to caft as it were the
magnified appearance of the obje6t upon the ruler, and
thus exa6tly to meafure the diameter which it appeared
to have through the glafs $ which being compared with
the diameter as it appeared to the naked eye, ftiowed
the degree in which it was magnified.
55. Mr Martin * recommended fuch a micrometer for * Martini
a microfcope as had been applied to telefcopes : for he Optics,
advifes to draw a number of parallel lines on a piece P1 s77»
of glafs, with the fine point of a diamond, at the di-
ftanee of one-fortieth of an inch from one another, and
to place it in the focus of the eye-glafs. By this me¬
thod, Dr Smith contrived to take the exa6t draught of
objefts viewed by a double microfcope ; for he advifes
to get a lattice, made with fmall filver wires or fquares,
drawn upon a plain glafs by the ftrokes of a diamond,
and to put it into the place of the image, formed by
the obje61-glafs : then by transferring the parts of the
object, feen in the fquares of the glafs or lattice upon
fimilar correfponding fquares drawn on paper, the pic¬
ture may be exadlly taken. Mr Martin alfo introduced
into compound microfcopes another micrometer, con¬
fiding of a ferew.
65. The mode of adhial admeafurement (Mr Adams
obferves f) is without doubt the moft Ample that can be f Microfcc-
ufed ; as by it we comprehend, in a manner, at one/
glance, the different effedts of combined glaffes; and asP‘ 53*
it faves the trouble, and avoids the obfeurity, of the
ufual modes of calculation : but many perfons find it
exceedingly difficult to adopt tins method, becaufe they
have not been aceuftomed to obferve with both eyes at
once. To obviate this inconvenience, the late Mr
Adams contrived an inftrument called the Needle-Mi¬
crometer, which was firft deferibed in his Micrographiu
Illuftrata ; and of which, as now conftrudled, we Lave
the following defeription by his fon Mr George Adams
in the ingenious Effays above quoted.
This micrometer confifts of a ferew, which has 50
threads to an inch \ this ffirew carries an index, which
points to the divifions on a circular plate, which is
fixed at right angles to the axis of the ferew. The
revolutions of tire ferew are counted on a fcale, which
is an inch divided into to parts ; the index to thefe di¬
vifions is a flower-de-luce marked upon the flider,
which carries the needle point acrofs the field of the mi¬
crofcope. Every revolution cf the micrometer ferew
meafures ^th part of an inch, which is again fubdi-
vided by means of the divifions on the circular plate.
MIC [ 805 ] M r c
Microme- as this is divided into 20 equal parts, over which the
ter. index pafles at every revolution of the fcrew ; by which
means we obtain with cafe the meafure of 1 oooth part
of an inch : for 50, the number of threads on the
fcrew in one inch, being multiplied by 20, the divi-
fions on the circular plate are equal to 10005 fo that
each divifion on the circular plate fhows that the
needle has either advanced or receded 1 oooth part of
an inch.
57. To place this micrometer on the body of the mi-
Fig. *5- crofcope, open the circular part FKH, fig. 25. by taking
out the fcrew G, throw back the femicircle FK, which
moves upon a joint at K 5 then turn the Hiding tube of
the body of the microfcope, fo that the fmall holes
which are in both tubes may exadlly coincide, and let
the needle g of the micrometer have a free paffage
through them 5 after this, fcrew it fall upon the body
by the fcrew G. The needle will now traverfe the
field of the microfcope, and maafure the length and
breadth of the image of any object that is applied to it.
Eut further adiftance muft be had, in order to meafure
the objedt itfelf, which is a fubjedt of real importance 5
for though we have ascertained the power of the mi¬
crofcope, and know that it is fo many thoufand times,
yet this will be of little afliftance towards afeertaining
an accurate idea of its real fize 5 for our ideas of bulk
being formed by the comparifon of one objedt with
another, we can only judge of that of any particular
body, by comparing it with another whofe fize is
known : the fame thing is neceflary, in order to form
an eftimate by the microfcope 5 therefore, to afeertain
the real meafure of the objedf, wTe muft make the point
of the needle pafs over the image of a known part of
an inch placed on the ftage, and write down the revo¬
lutions made by the fcrew, w'hile the needle palled
over the image of this known meafure; by which
means we afeertain the number ©f revolutions on the
fcrew, which are adequate to a real and known mea¬
fure on the ftage. As it requires an attentive eye to
watch the motion of the needle point as it paffes over
the image of a known part of an inch on the ftage, we
ought not to truft to one fingle meafurement of the
image, but ought to repeat it at leaft fix times 5 then
add the fix meafures thus obtained together, and di¬
vide their fum by fix, or the number of trials 5 the
quotient will be the mean of all the trials. This refult
is to be placed in a column of a table next to that
which contains the number of the magnifiers.
58. By tiie aftiftance of the fedforal fcale, we obtain
with eafe a fmall part of an inch. This fcale is fhown
Fig. 22, 23, at %• 2 25 23i in which the two lines c a, c b, with
24. the fide a b, form an ifofeeles triangle 5 each of the
fides is two inches long, and the bafe ft ill only of
one-tenth of an inch. The longer fides may be of any
given length, and the bafe ftill only one-tenth of an
inch. The longer lines may be confidered as the line
of lines upon a fedlor opened to one-tenth of an inch.
Hence whatever number of equal parts c a, c b are di¬
vided into, their tranfverfe meafure will be fuch a part
of one-tenth as is exprefled by their divifions. Thus
if it be divided into ten equal parts, this will divide
the inch into 100 equal parts 5 the firft divifion next
c will be equal to 100th part of an inch, becaufe it is
the tenth part of one-tenth of an inch. If thefe lines
are divided into twenty equal parts, the inch will be
a.
by that means divided into 200 equal parts. Laftly, Microme-
if ab, ca, are made three inches long, and divided into ^er
100 equal parts, we obtain with eafe the 1 oooth part. v ""
The fcale is reprefented as folid at fig. 23. but as per¬
forated at fig. 22. and 24. fo that the light pafl'es
through the aperture, when the fedtoral part is placed
on the ftage.
59. To ufe this fcale, firft fix the micrometer, fig. 25.
to the body of the microfcope ; then fit the federal
fcale, fig. 24. in the ftage, and adjuft the microfcope
to its proper focus or diltance from the fcale, which is
to be moved till the bafe appears in the middle of the
field of view 5 then bring the needle point g, fig. 25.
(by turning the fcrew L) to touch one of the lines c a,
exadly at the point anfwering to 20 on the federal
fcale. The index a of the micrometer is to be fet to
the firft divifion, and that on the dial plate to 20, which
is both the beginning and end of its divifions 5 we are
then prepared to find the magnifying power of every
magnifier in the compound microfcope which we are
ufing.
60. Examp/e. Every thing being prepared agreeable to
the foregoing diredions, fuppofe you are defirous of
alcertaining the magnifying power of the lens marked
N° 4. turn the micrometer fcrew until the point of
the needle has pafled over the magnified image of th@
tenth part of one inch 5 then the divifion, where the
twm indices remain, will fliow how many revolutions,
and parts of a revolution, the fcrew has made, while
the needle point traverfed the magnified image of the
one-tenth of an inch ; fuppofe the refult to be 26 re¬
volutions of the fcrew, and 14 parts of another revolu¬
tion, this is equal to 26 multiplied by 20, added to 14 5
that is, 534,000 parts of an inch.—The 26 divifions
found on the ftraight fcale of the micrometer, while
the point of the needle palled over the magnified
image of one-tenth part of an inch, were multiplied
by 20, becaufe the circular plate CD, fig. 25. isdi-p-g>2.
vided into 20 equal parts 5 this produced 520 5 then,
adding the 14 parts of the next revolution, we obtain
the 534,000 parts of an inch, or five-tenths and 3400
parts of another tenth, which is the meafure of the-
magnified image of one-tenth of an inch, at the aper¬
ture of the eye-glalfes or at their foci. Now if we
fuppofe the focus of the two eye-glaffes to be one
inch, the double thereof is two inches 5 or if we reck¬
on in the 1 oooth part of an inch, we have 2000 parts
for the diftance of the eye from the needle point of
the micrometer. Again, if we take the diftance of
the image from the objedt at the ftage at 6 inches, or
6000, and add thereto 2000, double the diftance of
the focus of the eye-glafs, we lhall have 8000 parts of
an inch for the diftance of the eye from the objedt 5 and
as the glalfes double the image, we muft double the num¬
ber 534 found upon the micrometer, which then makes
1068 : then, by the following analogy, we ftiall ob¬
tain the number of times the microfcope magnifies the
diameter of the objedt 5 fay, as 240, the diftance of
the eye from the image of the. objedt, is to 800, the
diftanee of the eye from the objedt 5 fo is 1068, double
the meafure found on the micrometer, to 3563, or the
number of times the microfcope magnifies the diame¬
ter of the objedt. By working in this manner, the
magnifying power of each lens ufed with the compound
microfeope may be eafily found, though the refult will
be 0
jDefrription
of Mr l o-
ventry’s mi¬
crometers
for micro-
feopes.
MIC [806
be different in different compound microfcopes, varying
according to the combination of the lenles, their diltance
from the object and one another, &c.
61. Having dilcovered the magnifying power of the
microfcope, with the different objett-lenies that are uled
therewith, our next fub e£t is to find out the real iize
of the objects themfelves, and their different parts :
this is eafily effedted, by finding how many revolutions
of the micrometer ferew anfwer to a known meafure
on the lecloral Icale or other object placed on the
ftage *, from the number thus found, a table fhould be
conltrudled, expreffing the value of the different revo¬
lutions of the micrometer with that ob odt lens, by
which the primary number was obtained. Similar
tables muff be conffrudted for each objedi lens. By a
fet of tables of this kind, the obferyer may readily find
the meafure of any objedt he is examining •, for he has
only to make the needle point traverfe over this objedt,
and obferve the number of revolutions the ferew has
made in its paffage, and then look into his table for the
real meafure which correfponds to this number of revo¬
lutions, which is the meature required.
62. Mr Coventry of Southwark has favoured us with
the defeription of a micrometer of his own invention j
the feale of which, for minutenefs, finpaffes every initru-
raent of the kind of which we have any knowledge, and
of which, indeed, we could fcarcely have formed a con¬
ception, had he not indulged us with fevcral of thefe
inftruments, graduated as underneath.
The micrometer is compofed of glafs, ivory, filver,
&c. on which are drawn parallel lines from the 10th
to the 1 o.oooth part of an inch. But an inftrument
thus divided, he obferve^, is more for curiofity than
ufe: but one of thofe which Mr Coventry has lent us
is divided into fquares, fo fmall that fixteen millions of
them are contained on the furface of one fquare inch,
each fquare appearing under the microfcope true and
diftinft j and though fo fmall, it is a fail, that animal-
cula are found which may be contained in one of thefe
fquares.
The ufe of micrometers, when applied to micro¬
fcopes, is to meafure the natural fize of the objedt,
and how much that objedl is magnified. To afeertain
the real fize of an objedl in the fingle microfcope, no¬
thing more is required than to lav it on the microme¬
ter, and adjuft it to the focus of the magnifier, no¬
ticing how many divifions of the micrometer it covers.
Suppofe the parallel lines of the micrometer to be the
1000th of an inch, and the objedl covers two divifions j
its real fize is 500ths of an inch j if five, 20Cths, and
fo on.
But to find how much the objedl is magnified,
is not mathematically determined fo eafily by the fingle
as by the compound microfcope : but the follow¬
ing fimple method (fays Mr Coventry) I have ge¬
nerally adopted, and think it tolerably accurate.
Adjuft a micrometer under the microfcope 0, fay the
t ooth of an inch of divifions, with a fmall objedl on
it •, if fquare, the better : notice how many divifions one
fide of the objedt covers, fuppofe ro : then cut a piece
] MIG
of white paper fomething larger than the magnified ap- Microtae.
pearance oi the objedt : then fix one eye on the objedt ter>
through the microlcope, and the other at the fame time v~—
on the paper, lowering it down til! the objedi and the
paper appear level and diiiindt : then cut the paper till
it appear exadtly the fize of the magnified objedi ; the
paper being then meafured, fuppofe an inch fquare :
Now, as the objedi under the magnifier, which appear¬
ed to be one inch fquare, was in reality only ten hun¬
dredths, or the tenth of an inch, the experiment proves
that it is magnified ten times in length, one hundred
times in fuperfices, and one thoufand times in cube,
which is the magnifying power of the glafs ; and, in
the fame manner, a taole may be made oi the power of
all the other glafl’es.
In ufing the compound microfcope, the real fize of
the objedi is found by the fame method as in the fingle :
but to demonflrate the magnifying power of each glafs
to greater certainty, adopt the following method.—
Lay a two-feet rule on the ilage, and a micrometer
level with its furface (an inch fuppofe, divided into
IOO parts) i with one eye fee how many of thofe parts
are contained in the field of the microfcope, (fuppofe
50) ; and with the other, at the fame time, look 'for
the circle of light in the field of the microfcope, which
with a little pradlice will foon appear dillindl ; mark
how much of the rule is interfedfed by the circle of
light, which will be half the diameter of the field*
Suppofe eight inches ; confequently the whole diame¬
ter will be fixteen. Now, as the real fize of the field,
by the micrometers, appeared to be only 50 hundredths,
or half an inch, and as half an inch is only one 3 2d
part of 16 inches, it fhows the magnifying perver of the
glafs to be 32 times in length, 1024 fuperfices, and
32,768 cube (e).
63. Another way of finding the magnifying power
of compound microfcopes, is by ufing two micrometers
of the fame divifions ) one adjuffed under the magni¬
fier, the other fixed in the body of the microfcope in
the focus of the eye-glafs. Notice how many divi¬
fions of the micrometer in the body are feen in one
divifion of the micrometer under the magnifier, w hich
again muff be multiplied by the power of the eye-glafs.
Example : Ten divifions of the micrometer in the bo¬
dy are contained in one divifion under the magnifier ;
fo far the power is inertafed ten times : now, if the
eye-glafs be one. inch focus, fuel) glafs will of it-
felf magnify about feven times in length, which, with
the ten times magnified before, will be feven times ten,
or 70 times in length, 49CO fuperfices, and 343,000
cube.
“ If (fays Mr Coventry) thefe micrometers are em¬
ployed in the folar microfcope, they divide the objedi
into fquares on the fereen in fuch a manner as to render
it extremely eafy to make a draw ing of it. And (fays
he) I apprehend they may be employed to great advan¬
tage w ith fuch a microfcope as Mr A.dams’s lueernal ;
becaufe this inftrument mgy be ufed either by day or
night, or in any place, and gives the adlual magnifying
power without calculation.”
The
(e) It will be neceffary, for great accuracy, as well as for comparative obfervations, that the two-fect rule
fhould always be placed at a certain diftance from the eye : eight inches would, in general, be a proper d iff a nee.
Micrometer
-Fi</ ,J8
OF THE
/CA/,/,■/,,//
M I G [ 807
The cafe with which we have been favoured by Mr
Coventry contains fix micrometers, two on ivory and
four on glafs. One of thofe on ivory is an inch divided
into one hundred parts, every fifth line longer than the
intermediate ones, and every tenth longer ftiil, for the
greater eafe in counting the divifions under the micro-
fcope, and is generally ufed in meafuring the magnifying
power of microfcopes. The other ivory one is divided
into fquares of the 50th and 100th of an inch, and is
commonly employed in meafuring opaque objedts.
] MIC
Thofe made of glafs are for tranfparent objects, Microme-
which, when laid on them, fhow their natural fize.— ivr^’
1 hat marked on the brafs 100, are fquares divided to . lcroPul,>
the 1 ooth of an inch : that marked 5000 are parallel
lines forming nine divifions, each divifion the 1 oooth
of an inch 5 the middle divifion is again divided into
5, making divifions to the 5000th of an inch. That
marked 10,000 is divided in the fame manner, with
the middle divifion divided into 10, making the
1 o,oooth of an inch. Example :
The glafs micrometer without any mark is alfo di¬
vided, the outfide lines into 100th, the next into
I oooth, and the infide lines into the 4000th of an
inch : thefe are again croffed with an equal number of
lines in the fame manner, making fquares of the
Iooth, 1 oooth, and 4000th of an inch, thus demonftra-
ting each other’s fize. The middle fquare of the 1 oooth
of an inch (fee fig. 26.) is divided into fixteen fquares j
now as 1000 fquares in the length of an inch, mul¬
tiplied by 1000, gives one million in an inch furface j
by the fame rule, one of thofe fquares divided into 16
mull be the fixteen millionth part of an inch furface.
See fig. 26. which is a diminilhed view of the apparent
furface exhibited under the magnifier N® 1. of Wil-
fon’s microfcope. In viewing the fmalleft lines, Mr
Coventry ufes N° 2. or 3. j and they are all better feen,
he fays, by candle than by day-light.
MICROPUS, Bastard Cudweed ; a genus of
plants belonging to the fyngenefia clafs, and in the na¬
tural method ranking under the 49th order, Compofitcc*.
See Botaky Index.
END OF THE THIRTEENTH VOLUME,
DIRECTIONS roil flacing the PLATES of Vol. XIII.
Part I.
Plate CCCXVI—CCCXXX. to face
CCCXXXI. CCCXXXII.
page 136
184
Part II.
CCCXXXIII. CCCXXXIV. , . r2S
CCCXXXV. CCCXXXVI. - - 806
»